1.
California Institute of Technology
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The California Institute of Technology is a private doctorate-granting university located in Pasadena, California, United States. The vocational and preparatory schools were disbanded and spun off in 1910, the university is one among a small group of Institutes of Technology in the United States which is primarily devoted to the instruction of technical arts and applied sciences. Caltech has six divisions with strong emphasis on science and engineering, managing $332 million in 2011 in sponsored research. Its 124-acre primary campus is located approximately 11 mi northeast of downtown Los Angeles, first-year students are required to live on campus, and 95% of undergraduates remain in the on-campus House System at Caltech. Although Caltech has a tradition of practical jokes and pranks. The Caltech Beavers compete in 13 intercollegiate sports in the NCAA Division IIIs Southern California Intercollegiate Athletic Conference, Caltech is frequently cited as one of the worlds best universities. There are 112 faculty members who have elected to the United States National Academies. In addition, numerous faculty members are associated with the Howard Hughes Medical Institute as well as NASA, according to a 2015 Pomona College study, Caltech ranked number one in the U. S. for the percentage of its graduates who go on to earn a PhD. Caltech started as a school founded in Pasadena in 1891 by local businessman and politician Amos G. Throop. The school was known successively as Throop University, Throop Polytechnic Institute, the vocational school was disbanded and the preparatory program was split off to form an independent Polytechnic School in 1907. At a time when research in the United States was still in its infancy, George Ellery Hale. He joined Throops board of trustees in 1907, and soon began developing it and he engineered the appointment of James A. B. Scherer, a literary scholar untutored in science but a capable administrator and fund raiser, scherer persuaded retired businessman and trustee Charles W. Gates to donate $25,000 in seed money to build Gates Laboratory, the first science building on campus. In 1910, Throop moved to its current site, arther Fleming donated the land for the permanent campus site. The promise of Throop attracted physical chemist Arthur Amos Noyes from MIT to develop the institution and assist in establishing it as a center for science, with the onset of World War I, Hale organized the National Research Council to coordinate and support scientific work on military problems. This institution, with its able investigators and excellent research laboratories, through the National Research Council, Hale simultaneously lobbied for science to play a larger role in national affairs, and for Throop to play a national role in science. During the course of the war, Hale, Noyes and Millikan worked together in Washington on the NRC, subsequently, they continued their partnership in developing Caltech. Under the leadership of Hale, Noyes and Millikan, Caltech grew to prominence in the 1920s
2.
Jet Propulsion Laboratory
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The Jet Propulsion Laboratory is a federally funded research and development center and NASA field center in La Cañada Flintridge, California and Pasadena, California, United States. The JPL is managed by the nearby California Institute of Technology for NASA, the laboratorys primary function is the construction and operation of planetary robotic spacecraft, though it also conducts Earth-orbit and astronomy missions. It is also responsible for operating NASAs Deep Space Network and they are also responsible for managing the JPL Small-Body Database, and provides physical data and lists of publications for all known small Solar System bodies. The JPLs Space Flight Operations Facility and Twenty-Five-Foot Space Simulator are designated National Historic Landmarks, JPL traces its beginnings to 1936 in the Guggenheim Aeronautical Laboratory at the California Institute of Technology when the first set of rocket experiments were carried out in the Arroyo Seco. Malinas thesis advisor was engineer/aerodynamicist Theodore von Kármán, who arranged for U. S. Army financial support for this GALCIT Rocket Project in 1939. In 1941, Malina, Parsons, Forman, Martin Summerfield, in 1943, von Kármán, Malina, Parsons, and Forman established the Aerojet Corporation to manufacture JATO motors. The project took on the name Jet Propulsion Laboratory in November 1943, during JPLs Army years, the laboratory developed two deployed weapon systems, the MGM-5 Corporal and MGM-29 Sergeant intermediate range ballistic missiles. These missiles were the first US ballistic missiles developed at JPL and it also developed a number of other weapons system prototypes, such as the Loki anti-aircraft missile system, and the forerunner of the Aerobee sounding rocket. At various times, it carried out testing at the White Sands Proving Ground, Edwards Air Force Base. A lunar lander was developed in 1938-39 which influenced design of the Apollo Lunar Module in the 1960s. The team lost that proposal to Project Vanguard, and instead embarked on a project to demonstrate ablative re-entry technology using a Jupiter-C rocket. They carried out three successful flights in 1956 and 1957. Using a spare Juno I, the two organizations then launched the United States first satellite, Explorer 1, on February 1,1958, JPL was transferred to NASA in December 1958, becoming the agencys primary planetary spacecraft center. JPL engineers designed and operated Ranger and Surveyor missions to the Moon that prepared the way for Apollo, JPL also led the way in interplanetary exploration with the Mariner missions to Venus, Mars, and Mercury. In 1998, JPL opened the Near-Earth Object Program Office for NASA, as of 2013, it has found 95% of asteroids that are a kilometer or more in diameter that cross Earths orbit. JPL was early to employ women mathematicians, in the 1940s and 1950s, using mechanical calculators, women in an all-female computations group performed trajectory calculations. In 1961, JPL hired Dana Ulery as their first woman engineer to work alongside male engineers as part of the Ranger and Mariner mission tracking teams, when founded, JPLs site was a rocky flood-plain just outside the city limits of Pasadena. Almost all of the 177 acres of the U. S, the city of La Cañada Flintridge, California was incorporated in 1976, well after JPL attained international recognition with a Pasadena address
3.
Budapest
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Budapest is the capital and most populous city of Hungary, one of the largest cities in the European Union and sometimes described as the primate city of Hungary. It has an area of 525 square kilometres and a population of about 1.8 million within the limits in 2016. Budapest became a single city occupying both banks of the Danube river with the unification of Buda and Óbuda on the west bank, the history of Budapest began with Aquincum, originally a Celtic settlement that became the Roman capital of Lower Pannonia. Hungarians arrived in the territory in the 9th century and their first settlement was pillaged by the Mongols in 1241–1242. The re-established town became one of the centres of Renaissance humanist culture by the 15th century, following the Battle of Mohács and nearly 150 years of Ottoman rule, the region entered a new age of prosperity, and Budapest became a global city after its unification in 1873. It also became the co-capital of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, a power that dissolved in 1918. Budapest was the point of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, the Hungarian Republic of Councils in 1919, the Battle of Budapest in 1945. Budapest is an Alpha- global city, with strengths in arts, commerce, design, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, services, research, and tourism. Its business district hosts the Budapest Stock Exchange and the headquarters of the largest national and international banks and it is the highest ranked Central and Eastern European city on Innovation Cities Top 100 index. Budapest attracts 4.4 million international tourists per year, making it the 25th most popular city in the world, further famous landmarks include Andrássy Avenue, St. It has around 80 geothermal springs, the worlds largest thermal water system, second largest synagogue. Budapest is home to the headquarters of the European Institute of Innovation and Technology, the European Police College, over 40 colleges and universities are located in Budapest, including the Eötvös Loránd University, Central European University and Budapest University of Technology and Economics. Budapest is the combination of the city names Buda and Pest, One of the first documented occurrences of the combined name Buda-Pest was in 1831 in the book Világ, written by Count István Széchenyi. The origins of the names Buda and Pest are obscure, according to chronicles from the Middle Ages, the name Buda comes from the name of its founder, Bleda, brother of the Hunnic ruler Attila. The theory that Buda was named after a person is also supported by modern scholars, an alternative explanation suggests that Buda derives from the Slavic word вода, voda, a translation of the Latin name Aquincum, which was the main Roman settlement in the region. There are also theories about the origin of the name Pest. One of the states that the word Pest comes from the Roman times. According to another theory, Pest originates from the Slavic word for cave, or oven, the first settlement on the territory of Budapest was built by Celts before 1 AD
4.
Austria-Hungary
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The union was a result of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and came into existence on 30 March 1867. Austria-Hungary consisted of two monarchies, and one region, the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia under the Hungarian crown. It was ruled by the House of Habsburg, and constituted the last phase in the evolution of the Habsburg Monarchy. Following the 1867 reforms, the Austrian and the Hungarian states were co-equal, Foreign affairs and the military came under joint oversight, but all other governmental faculties were divided between respective states. Austria-Hungary was a state and one of the worlds great powers at the time. Austria-Hungary was geographically the second-largest country in Europe after the Russian Empire, at 621,538 km2, the Empire built up the fourth-largest machine building industry of the world, after the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom. After 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina was under Austro-Hungarian military and civilian rule until it was annexed in 1908. The annexation of Bosnia also led to Islam being recognized as a state religion due to Bosnias Muslim population. Austria-Hungary was one of the Central Powers in World War I and it was already effectively dissolved by the time the military authorities signed the armistice of Villa Giusti on 3 November 1918. The realms full, official name was The Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council, each enjoyed considerable sovereignty with only a few joint affairs. Certain regions, such as Polish Galicia within Cisleithania and Croatia within Transleithania, enjoyed autonomous status, the division between Austria and Hungary was so marked that there was no common citizenship, one was either an Austrian citizen or a Hungarian citizen, never both. This also meant that there were always separate Austrian and Hungarian passports, however, neither Austrian nor Hungarian passports were used in the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia-Dalmatia. Instead, the Kingdom issued its own passports which were written in Croatian and French and it is not known what kind of passports were used in Bosnia-Herzegovina, which was under the control of both Austria and Hungary. The Kingdom of Hungary had always maintained a separate parliament, the Diet of Hungary, the administration and government of the Kingdom of Hungary remained largely untouched by the government structure of the overarching Austrian Empire. Hungarys central government structures remained well separated from the Austrian imperial government, the country was governed by the Council of Lieutenancy of Hungary – located in Pressburg and later in Pest – and by the Hungarian Royal Court Chancellery in Vienna. The Hungarian government and Hungarian parliament were suspended after the Hungarian revolution of 1848, despite Austria and Hungary sharing a common currency, they were fiscally sovereign and independent entities. Since the beginnings of the union, the government of the Kingdom of Hungary could preserve its separated. After the revolution of 1848–1849, the Hungarian budget was amalgamated with the Austrian, from 1527 to 1851, the Kingdom of Hungary maintained its own customs controls, which separated her from the other parts of the Habsburg-ruled territories
5.
Aachen
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Aachen or Bad Aachen, traditionally known in English and French as Aix-la-Chapelle, is a spa and border city in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. Aachen was the residence of Charlemagne, and, from 936 to 1531. Aachen is the westernmost city in Germany, located near the borders with Belgium, RWTH Aachen University is located in the city. Aachens industries include science, engineering and information technology, in 2009, Aachen was ranked eighth among cities in Germany for innovation. The location has been inhabited by humans since the Neolithic era, about 5,000 years ago, latin Aquae figures in Aachens Roman name Aquae granni, which meant waters of Grannus, referring to the Celtic god of healing who was worshipped at the springs. Aachens name in French and German evolved in parallel, Aachens local dialect is called Öcher Platt and belongs to the Ripuarian language. Bronze Age settlement is evidenced by the remains of barrows found, for example, during the Iron Age, the area was settled by Celtic peoples who were perhaps drawn by the marshy Aachen basins hot sulphur springs where they worshipped Grannus, god of light and healing. Later, the 25-hectare Roman spa resort town of Aquae Granni was, according to legend, founded by Grenus, under Hadrian, a kind of forum, surrounded by colonnades, connected the two spa complexes. There was also a residential area, part of it inhabited by a flourishing Jewish community. The Romans built bathhouses near Burtscheid, a temple precinct called Vernenum was built near the modern Kornelimünster/Walheim. Today, remains have been found of three bathhouses, including two fountains in the Elisenbrunnen and the Burtscheid bathhouse, Roman civil administration in Aachen broke down between the end of the 4th and beginning of the 5th centuries. Rome withdrew its troops from the area, but the town remained populated, by 470, the town came to be ruled by the Ripuarian Franks and subordinated to their capital, Cologne. Einhard mentions that in 765–6 Pepin spent both Christmas and Easter at Aquis villa, which must have been equipped to support the royal household for several months. In the year of his coronation as king of the Franks,768, Charlemagne spent most winters in Aachen between 792 and his death in 814. Aachen became the focus of his court and the centre of his empire. In 936, Otto I was crowned king of East Francia in the church built by Charlemagne. During the reign of Otto II, the nobles revolted and the West Franks, under Lothair, Aachen was attacked again by Odo of Champagne, who attacked the imperial palace while Conrad II was absent. Odo relinquished it quickly and was killed soon afterwards, the palace and town of Aachen had fortifying walls built by order of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa between 1172 and 1176
6.
West Germany
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West Germany is the common English name for the Federal Republic of Germany or FRG in the period between its creation on 23 May 1949 to German reunification on 3 October 1990. During this Cold War era, NATO-aligned West Germany and Warsaw Pact-aligned East Germany were divided by the Inner German border, after 1961 West Berlin was physically separated from East Berlin as well as from East Germany by the Berlin Wall. This situation ended when East Germany was dissolved and its five states joined the ten states of the Federal Republic of Germany along with the reunified city-state of Berlin. With the reunification of West and East Germany, the Federal Republic of Germany, enlarged now to sixteen states and this period is referred to as the Bonn Republic by historians, alluding to the interwar Weimar Republic and the post-reunification Berlin Republic. The Federal Republic of Germany was established from eleven states formed in the three Allied Zones of occupation held by the United States, the United Kingdom and France, US and British forces remained in the country throughout the Cold War. Its population grew from roughly 51 million in 1950 to more than 63 million in 1990, the city of Bonn was its de facto capital city. The fourth Allied occupation zone was held by the Soviet Union, as a result, West Germany had a territory about half the size of the interbellum democratic Weimar Republic. At the onset of the Cold War, Europe was divided among the Western and Eastern blocs, Germany was de facto divided into two countries and two special territories, the Saarland and divided Berlin. The Federal Republic of Germany claimed a mandate for all of Germany. It took the line that the GDR was an illegally constituted puppet state, though the GDR did hold regular elections, these were not free and fair. For all practical purposes the GDR was a Soviet puppet state, from the West German perspective the GDR was therefore illegitimate. Three southwestern states of West Germany merged to form Baden-Württemberg in 1952, in addition to the resulting ten states, West Berlin was considered an unofficial de facto 11th state. It recognised the GDR as a de facto government within a single German nation that in turn was represented de jure by the West German state alone. From 1973 onward, East Germany recognised the existence of two German countries de jure, and the West as both de facto and de jure foreign country, the Federal Republic and the GDR agreed that neither of them could speak in the name of the other. The first chancellor Konrad Adenauer, who remained in office until 1963, had worked for an alignment with NATO rather than neutrality. He not only secured a membership in NATO but was also a proponent of agreements that developed into the present-day European Union, when the G6 was established in 1975, there was no question whether the Federal Republic of Germany would be a member as well. With the collapse of communism in Central and Eastern Europe in 1989, symbolised by the opening of the Berlin Wall, East Germany voted to dissolve itself and accede to the Federal Republic in 1990. Its five post-war states were reconstituted along with the reunited Berlin and they formally joined the Federal Republic on 3 October 1990, raising the number of states from 10 to 16, ending the division of Germany
7.
Budapest University of Technology and Economics
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It was the first institute in Europe to train engineers at university level. More than 110 departments and institutes operate within the structure of eight faculties, approximately 1381 of the universitys 21.171 students are from 50 countries abroad. The Budapest University of Technology and Economics issues about 70% of Hungarys engineering degrees,34 professors/researchers of the university are members of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. Training courses are provided in five languages, Hungarian, English, German, French, the ECTS credit system was introduced in 1995. This helps students to enroll in the student exchange program of the European Union, the Socrates,1735 – The Berg-Schola, the worlds first institute of technology, was founded in Selmecbánya, Kingdom of Hungary in 1735. Many members of the first teaching staff of BME arrived from Selmecbánya,1782 – Emperor Joseph II establishes the Institutum Geometricum as part of the Faculty of Liberal Arts at the University of Buda. 1850 – The Institutum Geometricum merges with the Joseph College of Technology,1856 – The merged institutions become the Royal Joseph Polytechnic. 1860 – Hungarian replaces Latin as the language of instruction,1862 – Royal Joseph Polytechnic becomes the Royal Joseph University. 1872 – Royal Joseph University gains full autonomy and the right to issue engineering diplomas after five years of studies and it is among the first institutions in Europe, to train engineers on university level. 1901 – Royal Joseph University is entitled to confer the doctoral degree,1910 – The university moved to its current site near Gellért square. 1925 – First women students enroll,1939 – The Institute for Continuing Education opens its gates. 1949 – The name Technical University of Budapest becomes official, at this time the university consists of the faculties of, Civil Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Architecture, Chemical Engineering and Electrical Engineering. 1955 – Faculty of Transportation Engineering is established,1956 – The 1956 Hungarian Revolution was partly launched by students at the university, followed by many professors. 1967 – The two technical universities seated in Budapest were merged to form the Technical University of Budapest, with six faculties,1984 – Instruction is offered in English as well as Hungarian. 1994 – The Technical University of Budapest is among the first universities in Hungary to introduce the credit system, the university applies the credit assignment according to the European Credit Transfer System in its accredited academic programs. 1998 – Faculty of Natural Sciences and Faculty of Economic and Social Sciences are established,2000 – The official name changes to Budapest University of Technology and Economics. The Budapest University of Technology and Economics is a higher education institute operating as a central budgetary institution. Its founding regulation has been issued by the Minister of Human Capacities and its Organizational and operational conditions are summarized in its own regulation in accordance with laws
8.
Boundary layer
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In the Earths atmosphere, the atmospheric boundary layer is the air layer near the ground affected by diurnal heat, moisture or momentum transfer to or from the surface. On an aircraft wing the boundary layer is the part of the close to the wing. Laminar boundary layers can be classified according to their structure. When a fluid rotates and viscous forces are balanced by the Coriolis effect, in the theory of heat transfer, a thermal boundary layer occurs. A surface can have multiple types of boundary layer simultaneously, the viscous nature of airflow reduces the local velocities on a surface and is responsible for skin friction. The layer of air over the surface that is slowed down or stopped by viscosity, is the boundary layer. There are two different types of boundary layer flow, laminar and turbulent, laminar Boundary Layer Flow The laminar boundary is a very smooth flow, while the turbulent boundary layer contains swirls or eddies. The laminar flow creates less skin friction drag than the turbulent flow, Boundary layer flow over a wing surface begins as a smooth laminar flow. As the flow continues back from the edge, the laminar boundary layer increases in thickness. Turbulent Boundary Layer Flow At some distance back from the leading edge, the low energy laminar flow, however, tends to break down more suddenly than the turbulent layer. The aerodynamic boundary layer was first defined by Ludwig Prandtl in a paper presented on August 12,1904 at the third International Congress of Mathematicians in Heidelberg and this allows a closed-form solution for the flow in both areas, a significant simplification of the full Navier–Stokes equations. The majority of the transfer to and from a body also takes place within the boundary layer. The pressure distribution throughout the layer in the direction normal to the surface remains constant throughout the boundary layer. The thickness of the velocity boundary layer is defined as the distance from the solid body at which the viscous flow velocity is 99% of the freestream velocity. Displacement Thickness is an alternative definition stating that the boundary layer represents a deficit in mass compared to inviscid flow with slip at the wall. It is the distance by which the wall would have to be displaced in the case to give the same total mass flow as the viscous case. The no-slip condition requires the flow velocity at the surface of an object be zero. The flow velocity will then increase rapidly within the layer, governed by the boundary layer equations
9.
Supersonic speed
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Supersonic travel is a rate of travel of an object that exceeds the speed of sound. For objects traveling in dry air of a temperature of 20 °C at sea level, speeds greater than five times the speed of sound are often referred to as hypersonic. Flights during which some parts of the air surrounding an object, such as the ends of rotor blades. This occurs typically somewhere between Mach 0.8 and Mach 1.23, sounds are traveling vibrations in the form of pressure waves in an elastic medium. In gases, sound travels longitudinally at different speeds, mostly depending on the mass and temperature of the gas. Since air temperature and composition varies significantly with altitude, Mach numbers for aircraft may change despite a constant travel speed, in water at room temperature supersonic speed can be considered as any speed greater than 1,440 m/s. In solids, sound waves can be polarized longitudinally or transversely and have higher velocities. Supersonic fracture is crack motion faster than the speed of sound in a brittle material, at the beginning of the 20th century, the term supersonic was used as an adjective to describe sound whose frequency is above the range of normal human hearing. The modern term for this meaning is ultrasonic, the tip of a bullwhip is thought to be the first man-made object to break the sound barrier, resulting in the telltale crack. The wave motion traveling through the bullwhip is what makes it capable of achieving supersonic speeds, most modern fighter aircraft are supersonic aircraft, but there have been supersonic passenger aircraft, namely Concorde and the Tupolev Tu-144. Both these passenger aircraft and some modern fighters are also capable of supercruise, since Concordes final retirement flight on November 26,2003, there are no supersonic passenger aircraft left in service. Some large bombers, such as the Tupolev Tu-160 and Rockwell B-1 Lancer are also supersonic-capable, most modern firearm bullets are supersonic, with rifle projectiles often travelling at speeds approaching and in some cases well exceeding Mach 3. Most spacecraft, most notably the Space Shuttle are supersonic at least during portions of their reentry, during ascent, launch vehicles generally avoid going supersonic below 30 km to reduce air drag. Note that the speed of sound decreases somewhat with altitude, due to lower temperatures found there, at even higher altitudes the temperature starts increasing, with the corresponding increase in the speed of sound. When an inflated balloon is burst, the pieces of latex contracts at a supersonic speed. Supersonic aerodynamics is simpler than subsonic aerodynamics because the airsheets at different points along the plane often cant affect each other, Supersonic jets and rocket vehicles require several times greater thrust to push through the extra aerodynamic drag experienced within the transonic region. Designers use the Supersonic area rule and the Whitcomb area rule to minimize changes in size. However, in applications, a supersonic aircraft will have to operate stably in both subsonic and supersonic profiles, hence aerodynamic design is more complex
10.
Hypersonic speed
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In aerodynamics, a hypersonic speed is one that is highly supersonic. Since the 1970s, the term has generally assumed to refer to speeds of Mach 5. The hypersonic regime is often defined as speeds where ramjets do not produce net thrust. The peculiarity in hypersonic flows are as follows, Shock layer Aerodynamic heating Entropy layer Real gas effects Low density effects Independence of aerodynamic coefficients with Mach number. As a bodys Mach number increases, the density behind a bow shock generated by the body also increases, consequently, the distance between the bow shock and the body decreases at higher Mach numbers. As Mach numbers increase, the change across the shock also increases. A portion of the kinetic energy associated with flow at high Mach numbers transforms into internal energy in the fluid due to viscous effects. The increase in energy is realized as an increase in temperature. This causes the bottom of the layer to expand, so that the boundary layer over the body grows thicker. Although subsonic and supersonic usually refer to speeds below and above the speed of sound respectively. Generally, NASA defines high hypersonic as any Mach number from 10 to 25, among the aircraft operating in this regime are the Space Shuttle and various developing spaceplanes. In the following table, the regimes or ranges of Mach values are referenced instead of the meanings of subsonic and supersonic. The categorization of airflow relies on a number of similarity parameters, for transonic and compressible flow, the Mach and Reynolds numbers alone allow good categorization of many flow cases. Hypersonic flows, however, require other similarity parameters, first, the analytic equations for the oblique shock angle become nearly independent of Mach number at high Mach numbers. Second, the formation of strong shocks around aerodynamic bodies means that the freestream Reynolds number is useful as an estimate of the behavior of the boundary layer over a body. Finally, the temperature of hypersonic flows mean that real gas effects become important. For this reason, research in hypersonics is often referred to as aerothermodynamics, the introduction of real gas effects means that more variables are required to describe the full state of a gas. This means that for a flow, something between 10 and 100 variables may be required to describe the state of the gas at any given time
11.
National Medal of Science
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The twelve member presidential Committee on the National Medal of Science is responsible for selecting award recipients and is administered by the National Science Foundation. The National Medal of Science was established on August 25,1959, the medal was originally to honor scientists in the fields of the physical, biological, mathematical, or engineering sciences. The Committee on the National Medal of Science was established on August 23,1961, on January 7,1979, the American Association for the Advancement of Science passed a resolution proposing that the medal be expanded to include the social and behavioral sciences. In response, Senator Ted Kennedy introduced the Science and Technology Equal Opportunities Act into the Senate on March 7,1979, President Jimmy Carters signature enacted this change as Public Law 96-516 on December 12,1980. The first National Medal of Science was awarded on February 18,1963, the first woman to receive a National Medal of Science was Barbara McClintock, who was awarded for her work on plant genetics in 1970. Although Public Law 86-209 provides for 20 recipients of the medal per year, it is typical for approximately 8–15 accomplished scientists, there have been a number of years where no National Medals of Science were awarded. Those years include,1985,1984,1980,1978,1977,1972 and 1971, the awards ceremony is organized by the Office of Science and Technology Policy. It takes place at the White House and is presided by the sitting United States president, each year the National Science Foundation sends out a call to the scientific community for the nomination of new candidates for the National Medal of Science. Individuals are nominated by their peers with each nomination requiring three letters of support from individuals in science and technology, the nomination of a candidate is effective for three years, at the end of three years, the candidates peers are allowed to renominate the candidate. The Committee makes their recommendations to the President for the final awarding decision, the National Medal of Science depicts Man, surrounded by earth, sea, and sky, contemplating and struggling to understand Nature. The crystal in his hand represents the order and also suggests the basic unit of living things. The formula being outlined in the sand symbolizes scientific abstraction
12.
Wilhelm Exner Medal
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The Wilhelm Exner Medal has been awarded by the Austrian Industry Association, Österreichischer Gewerbeverein, for excellence in research and science since 1921. In 1921, ÖGV established the Wilhelm Exner Medal, an Austrian award presented each year, the award dedicated to Wilhelm Exner, who was honorary president of ÖGV and professor of engineering with an exceptional influence on the policies in education and industry. The Wilhelm Exner Medal is awarded to scientists and researchers that have had a impact on business and industry through their scientific achievements. The award was created to honor the 60th anniversary of Wilhelm Exners association with ÖGV, since the Wilhelm Exner Medal was established, over 230 inventors, researchers and scientists have been honored, including 21 Nobel Prize awardees. The medal has a diameter of 7.5 cm and is made of bronze, sir Gregory Winter,2015 Thomas J. R. Hughes,2014 Joseph M
13.
Royal Society
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Founded in November 1660, it was granted a royal charter by King Charles II as The Royal Society. The society is governed by its Council, which is chaired by the Societys President, according to a set of statutes and standing orders. The members of Council and the President are elected from and by its Fellows, the members of the society. As of 2016, there are about 1,600 fellows, allowed to use the postnominal title FRS, there are also royal fellows, honorary fellows and foreign members, the last of which are allowed to use the postnominal title ForMemRS. The Royal Society President is Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, who took up the post on 30 November 2015, since 1967, the society has been based at 6–9 Carlton House Terrace, a Grade I listed building in central London which was previously used by the Embassy of Germany, London. The Royal Society started from groups of physicians and natural philosophers, meeting at variety of locations and they were influenced by the new science, as promoted by Francis Bacon in his New Atlantis, from approximately 1645 onwards. A group known as The Philosophical Society of Oxford was run under a set of rules still retained by the Bodleian Library, after the English Restoration, there were regular meetings at Gresham College. It is widely held that these groups were the inspiration for the foundation of the Royal Society, I will not say, that Mr Oldenburg did rather inspire the French to follow the English, or, at least, did help them, and hinder us. But tis well known who were the men that began and promoted that design. This initial royal favour has continued and, since then, every monarch has been the patron of the society, the societys early meetings included experiments performed first by Hooke and then by Denis Papin, who was appointed in 1684. These experiments varied in their area, and were both important in some cases and trivial in others. The Society returned to Gresham in 1673, there had been an attempt in 1667 to establish a permanent college for the society. Michael Hunter argues that this was influenced by Solomons House in Bacons New Atlantis and, to a lesser extent, by J. V. The first proposal was given by John Evelyn to Robert Boyle in a letter dated 3 September 1659, he suggested a scheme, with apartments for members. The societys ideas were simpler and only included residences for a handful of staff and these plans were progressing by November 1667, but never came to anything, given the lack of contributions from members and the unrealised—perhaps unrealistic—aspirations of the society. During the 18th century, the gusto that had characterised the early years of the society faded, with a number of scientific greats compared to other periods. The pointed lightning conductor had been invented by Benjamin Franklin in 1749, during the same time period, it became customary to appoint society fellows to serve on government committees where science was concerned, something that still continues. The 18th century featured remedies to many of the early problems
14.
Aerospace engineering
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Aerospace engineering is the primary field of engineering concerned with the development of aircraft and spacecraft. It has two major and overlapping branches, aeronautical engineering and astronautical engineering, avionics engineering is similar, but deals with the electrical side of aerospace engineering. Aeronautical engineering was the term for the field. As flight technology advanced to include craft operating in outer space, Aerospace engineering, particularly the astronautics branch, is often colloquially referred to as rocket science. Flight vehicles are subjected to demanding conditions such as produced by changes in atmospheric pressure and temperature. The interaction between these technologies is known as aerospace engineering, because of the complexity and number of disciplines involved, aerospace engineering is carried out by teams of engineers, each having their own specialized area of expertise. Early knowledge of engineering was largely empirical with some concepts. Scientists understood some key elements of aerospace engineering, like fluid dynamics, many years later after the successful flights by the Wright brothers, the 1910s saw the development of aeronautical engineering through the design of World War I military aircraft. The first definition of aerospace engineering appeared in February 1958, the definition considered the Earths atmosphere and the outer space as a single realm, thereby encompassing both aircraft and spacecraft under a newly coined word aerospace. In response to the USSR launching the first satellite, Sputnik into space on October 4,1957, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration was founded in 1958 as a response to the Cold War. Some of the elements of aerospace engineering are, Radar cross-section – the study of vehicle signature apparent to Radar remote sensing, fluid mechanics – the study of fluid flow around objects. Specifically aerodynamics concerning the flow of air over bodies such as wings or through objects such as wind tunnels, astrodynamics – the study of orbital mechanics including prediction of orbital elements when given a select few variables. While few schools in the United States teach this at the undergraduate level, statics and Dynamics – the study of movement, forces, moments in mechanical systems. Mathematics – in particular, calculus, differential equations, and linear algebra, electrotechnology – the study of electronics within engineering. Propulsion – the energy to move a vehicle through the air is provided by internal combustion engines, jet engines and turbomachinery, a more recent addition to this module is electric propulsion and ion propulsion. Control engineering – the study of modeling of the dynamic behavior of systems and designing them, usually using feedback signals. This applies to the behavior of aircraft, spacecraft, propulsion systems. Aircraft structures – design of the configuration of the craft to withstand the forces encountered during flight
15.
RWTH Aachen University
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RWTH Aachen University or Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen is a research university located in Aachen, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. With more than 42,000 students enrolled in 144 study programs, the university maintains close links to industry and accounts for the highest amount of third-party funds of all German universities in both absolute and relative terms per faculty member. RWTH Aachen is a member of IDEA League, a strategic alliance of four leading universities of technology in Europe. The university is also a member of TU9, DFG and the Top Industrial Managers for Europe network, in March, the prince chose to use the donation to found the first Prussian institute of technology somewhere in the Rhine province. Aachen finally won with a financing concept backed by the insurance company, groundbreaking for the new Polytechnikum took place on 15 May 1865 and lectures started during the Franco-Prussian War on 10 October 1870 with 223 students and 32 teachers. The unclear position of the new Prussian polytechnika affected the first years, polytechnics lacked prestige in society and the number of students decreased. In the same year, over 800 male students enrolled, World War I, however, proved a serious setback for the university. Many students voluntarily joined up and died in the war, the Third Reichs Gleichschaltung of the TH in 1933 met with relatively low resistance from both students and faculty. Beginning in September 1933, Jewish and Communist professors were systematically persecuted and excluded from the university, vacant Chairs were increasingly given to NSDAP party-members or sympathizers. The freedom of research and teaching became severely limited, and institutes important for the plans were systematically established. Briefly closed in 1939, the TH continued courses in 1940, on 21 October 1944, when Aachen capitulated, more than 70% of all buildings of the university were destroyed or heavily damaged. After World War II ended in 1945 the university recovered and expanded quickly, in the 1950s, many professors who had been removed because of their alleged affiliation with the Nazi party were allowed to return and a multitude of new institutes were founded. By the late 1960s, the TH had 10,000 students, with the foundation of philosophical and medical faculties in 1965 and 1966, respectively, the university became more universal. The newly founded faculties in particular began attracting new students, now, the average number of students is around 42,000, with about one third of all students being women. By relative terms, the most popular study-programs are engineering, natural science, economics and humanities, in December 2006, RWTH Aachen and the Sultanate of Oman signed an agreement to establish a private German University of Technology in Muscat. Professors from Aachen aided in developing the curricula for the currently five study-programs, in 2007, RWTH Aachen was chosen as one of nine German Universities of Excellence for its future concept RWTH2020, Meeting Global Challenges, earning it the connotation of being an elite university. Having won funds in all three lines of funding, the process brought RWTH Aachen University an additional funding of €180 million from 2007-2011. RWTH Aachen Universitys 620-acre campus is located in the part of the city Aachen
16.
Von Karman Institute for Fluid Dynamics
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Founded in 1956, it is located in Sint-Genesius-Rode, Belgium. The VKI provides education in specific areas for students from all over the world. Each year, Lecture Series and events are being organized inside and outside of the organization, the Institute has built an international renown in these domains. Students who study these fields, researchers, industrials and engineers want to follow these Lecture Series, the information presented is accurate and reliable. The building was designed to accommodate a low speed wind tunnel of the Eiffel type with an open return circuit and open-jet test section of 2 m diameter, as well as offices. It still exists and has been refurbished internally after removal of the low speed tunnel to make room for modern turbomachinery, a second building was added in 1935 to house offices and laboratories. It is now the Institutes administrative building, the last addition was made after the war, in 1949, with the construction of a large building specially designed to house a supersonic tunnel and a multi-configuration low speed facility. It has accumulated wide skills in high speed wind tunnel testing and related measurement techniques development and it has a large expertise in the study of aeroacoustics, multiphase flows, vehicle aerodynamics, biological flows and environmental flows. The department is involved in the modeling of turbulence and in the development of advanced measurement techniques for fluid dynamics. Each year, the VKI also organises thematic conferences in collaboration with Belgian & foreign universities and these courses have gained worldwide recognition. Subjects are chosen carefully and the lecturers are well known for their professionalism, Belgian Federal Science Policy Office NATO Research and Technology Organisation European Union European Space Agency von Karman Institute home page
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Thesis
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A thesis or dissertation is a document submitted in support of candidature for an academic degree or professional qualification presenting the authors research and findings. In some contexts, the thesis or a cognate is used for part of a bachelors or masters course, while dissertation is normally applied to a doctorate, while in other contexts. The term graduate thesis is used to refer to both masters theses and doctoral dissertations. The required complexity or quality of research of a thesis or dissertation can vary by country, university, or program, the word dissertation can at times be used to describe a treatise without relation to obtaining an academic degree. The term thesis is used to refer to the general claim of an essay or similar work. The term thesis comes from the Greek θέσις, meaning something put forth, Dissertation comes from the Latin dissertātiō, meaning path. A thesis may be arranged as a thesis by publication or a monograph, with or without appended papers, an ordinary monograph has a title page, an abstract, a table of contents, comprising the various chapters, and a bibliography or a references section. They differ in their structure in accordance with the different areas of study. In a thesis by publication, the chapters constitute an introductory, Dissertations normally report on a research project or study, or an extended analysis of a topic. The structure of the thesis or dissertation explains the purpose, the research literature which impinges on the topic of the study, the methods used. Degree-awarding institutions often define their own style that candidates have to follow when preparing a thesis document. Other applicable international standards include ISO2145 on section numbers, ISO690 on bibliographic references, some older house styles specify that front matter uses a separate page-number sequence from the main text, using Roman numerals. They therefore avoid the traditional separate number sequence for front matter, however, strict standards are not always required. Most Italian universities, for example, have only general requirements on the size and the page formatting. A thesis or dissertation committee is a committee that supervises a students dissertation, the committee members are doctors in their field and have the task of reading the dissertation, making suggestions for changes and improvements, and sitting in on the defense. Sometimes, at least one member of the committee must be a professor in a department that is different from that of the student, all the dissertation referees must already have achieved at least the academic degree that the candidate is trying to reach. At English-speaking Canadian universities, writings presented in fulfillment of undergraduate coursework requirements are normally called papers, a longer paper or essay presented for completion of a 4-year bachelors degree is sometimes called a major paper. High-quality research papers presented as the study of a postgraduate consecutive bachelor with Honours or Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree are called thesis
18.
Ludwig Prandtl
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Ludwig Prandtl was a German engineer. In the 1920s he developed the basis for the fundamental principles of subsonic aerodynamics in particular. His studies identified the boundary layer, thin-airfoils, and lifting-line theories, the Prandtl number was named after him. Prandtl was born in Freising, near Munich, in 1875 and his mother suffered from a lengthy illness and, as a result, Ludwig spent more time with his father, a professor of engineering. His father also encouraged him to nature and think about his observations. He entered the Technische Hochschule Munich in 1894 and graduated with a Ph. D. under guidance of Professor August Foeppl in six years and his work at Munich had been in solid mechanics, and his first job was as an engineer designing factory equipment. There, he entered the field of fluid mechanics where he had to design a suction device, after carrying out some experiments, he came up with a new device that worked well and used less power than the one it replaced. In 1901 Prandtl became a professor of mechanics at the technical school in Hannover. It was here that he developed many of his most important theories, in 1904 he delivered a groundbreaking paper, Fluid Flow in Very Little Friction, in which he described the boundary layer and its importance for drag and streamlining. The paper also described flow separation as a result of the boundary layer, several of his students made attempts at closed-form solutions, but failed, and in the end the approximation contained in his original paper remains in widespread use. The effect of the paper was so great that Prandtl became director of the Institute for Technical Physics at the University of Göttingen later in the year, over the next decades he developed it into a powerhouse of aerodynamics, leading the world until the end of World War II. In 1925 the university spun off his arm to create the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Flow Research. Following earlier leads by Frederick Lanchester from 1902–1907, Prandtl worked with Albert Betz, the results were published in 1918–1919, known as the Lanchester-Prandtl wing theory. He also made additions to study cambered airfoils, like those on World War I aircraft. This work led to the realization that on any wing of finite length, wing-tip effects became very important to the overall performance, considerable work was included on the nature of induced drag and wingtip vortices, which had previously been ignored. These tools enabled aircraft designers to make meaningful theoretical studies of their aircraft before they were built, Prandtl and his student Theodor Meyer developed the first theories of supersonic shock waves and flow in 1908. The Prandtl-Meyer expansion fans allowed for the construction of wind tunnels. He had little time to work on the problem further until the 1920s, today, all supersonic wind tunnels and rocket nozzles are designed using the same method
19.
Frank Malina
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Frank Joseph Malina was an American aeronautical engineer and painter, especially known for becoming both a pioneer in the art world and the realm of scientific engineering. Malina was born in Brenham, Texas, franks formal education began with a degree in mechanical engineering from Texas A&M University in 1934. The formal goal was development of a sounding rocket, Malina and five associates became known at Caltech as the Suicide Squad because of their dangerous experiments when testing rocket motor designs. Malinas group was forced to move their operations away from the main Caltech campus into the more remote Arroyo Seco and this site and the research Malina was conducting would later become the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Malina served as the second Director of JPL, in 1939, the Société astronomique de France awarded Malina the Prix dAstronautique for his contribution to the study of interplanetary travel and astronautics. In 1942, von Kármán, Malina and three other students started the Aerojet Corporation, by late 1945, Malinas rockets had outgrown the facility at Arroyo Seco, and his tests were moved to White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico. Here, the projects Wac Corporal sounding rocket was the first U. S. rocket to break the 50-mile altitude mark, Malinas passing interest in the Communist Party and labor activism while he was a graduate student in the 1930s had also attracted the attention of the FBI. He moved to France and joined the fledgling United Nations as secretariat of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, in 1951, Malina became head of UNESCOs division of scientific research. Two years later, Malina left UNESCO to pursue an interest in kinetic art, in 1952, at the height of the Red Scare, Malina was indicted for having failed to list his Communist Party membership on an old security questionnaire from Caltech. He was declared a fugitive, to be arrested if and when he returned to the United States, the Leonardo Journal is still published as of 2015 as a project of Leonardo/The International Society for the Arts, Sciences and Technology. Frank Malina died in 1981 in Boulogne Billancourt, near Paris and his widow Marjorie Duckworth Malina died in 2006. Their sons Roger and Alan Malina live and work in France, GALCIT Qian Xuesen Malina, Frank Joseph. Frank Malina On Line Archive Biography at the Wayback Machine Frank Malina timeline Leonardo Journal JPL history MG Lord, astro Turf, The Private Life of Rocket Science. Includes a detailed account of Malinas post-JPL life, by a scholar who had access to his FBI file Propulsion –– The documentary, Huffington Post
20.
Qian Xuesen
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Qian Xuesen or Hsue-Shen Tsien was a Chinese engineer who contributed to aerodynamics and rocket science. Recruited from MIT, he joined Theodore von Karmans group at Caltech, later he returned to China as Qian Xuesen and made important contributions to Chinas missile and space program. During the Second Red Scare in the 1950s, the United States government accused Tsien of communist sympathies, in 1950, despite protests by his colleagues, he was stripped of his security clearance. Tsien decided to return to China, but was detained at Terminal Island near Los Angeles, after spending five years under virtual house arrest, in 1955 Tsien was released in exchange for the repatriation of American pilots captured during the Korean War. He left the United States in September 1955 on the American President Lines passenger liner SS President Cleveland, upon his return, Tsien helped lead the Chinese nuclear weapons program. Additionally, Qians work led to the development of the Dongfeng ballistic missile, for his contributions, he became known as the Father of Chinese Rocketry, nicknamed the King of Rocketry. In 1957, in recognition of his achievements, Qian was elected an academician of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tsien was the cousin of mechanical engineer Hsue-Chu Tsien, who was involved in the aerospace industries of China and the United States, his nephew is Roger Y. Tsien, the 2008 winner of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, named after him are Asteroid 3763 Qianxuesen and the ill-fated space ship Tsien in the science fiction novel 2010, Odyssey Two. Qian Xuesen was born in Hangzhou, the capital of Zhejiang province,180 km southwest of Shanghai and he left Hangzhou at the age of three when his father obtained a post in the Ministry of Education in Beijing. Qian graduated from The High School Affiliated to Beijing Normal University and attended Chiao Tung University, later known as Shanghai Jiao Tong University, there, he received a degree in mechanical engineering with an emphasis on railroad administration. He interned at Nanchang Air Force Base, while at MIT he was called Hsue-Shen Tsien. He was influenced by the methods of American engineering education, especially its focus on experimentation and this was in contrast to the contemporary approach practiced by many Chinese scientists, which emphasized theoretical elements rather than hands-on experience. Tsiens experiments included plotting of pitot pressures using mercury-filled manometers, shortly after arriving at Caltech in 1936, Tsien became fascinated with the rocketry ideas of Frank Malina, other students of von Kármán, and their associates, including Jack Parsons. Along with his students, he was involved in rocket-related experiments at the Guggenheim Aeronautical Laboratory at Caltech. Around the university, the dangerous and explosive nature of their work earned them the nickname Suicide Squad and this led to Private A, which flew in 1944, and later the Corporal, the WAC Corporal, and other designs. S. Space program was being quizzed by the father of the future Chinese space program, during this time, he also worked on designing an intercontinental space plane. His work would inspire the X-20 Dyna-Soar, which itself would later influence the development of the American Space Shuttle, Tsien married Jiang Ying, a famed opera singer and the daughter of Jiang Baili and his wife, Japanese nurse Satô Yato. The elder Jiang was a military strategist and adviser to Kuomintang leader Chiang Kai-shek, shortly after his wedding, Tsien returned to America to take up a teaching position at MIT. Jiang Ying would join him in December 1947
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Hu Ning
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Professor Hu Ning was a famous theoretical physicist and educator in China. Hu was born in Suqian, Jiangsu province, China on 11 February 1916, from 1928 to 1934, Hu studied at the Zhenjiang High School in Zhenjiang, and the Suzhou High School in Suzhou. In 1935, Hu studied at the department of Zhejiang University in Hangzhou. From 1935 to 1937, Hu studied in the department of physics at Tsinghua University in Beijing, after his graduation from Tsinghua, Hu became the teaching assistant for his professor Zhou Peiyuan in the department of physics. In 1940, Hu examed and won the Boxer Rebellion Indemnity Scholarship Program, in 1941, Hu went to study in the United States. Hu studied fluid mechanics at the California Institute of Technology and his doctoral advisor was Theodore von Kármán. Hu also studied quantum mechanics under Paul Sophus Epstein during this period, Hu obtained his PhD in 1943 from Caltech. From 1944 to 1945, Hu stayed at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, from 1946 to 1949, Hu visited Europe. He visited the institute of high energy physics in Dublin, Ireland. Hu went back to the United States, and from 1949 to 1950, Hu did research at the physics department of the Cornell University. In 1950, invited by the physicist Ta-You Wu, Hu went to Canada, in 1951, Hu accepted the invitation from Peking University in Beijing, and went back to China. Hu was a professor in the department of physics at Peking University. Since 1953, Hu was a researcher at the Institute of Modern Physics, from 1956 to 1959, Hu was a researcher and group leader at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, USSR. Since 1980, Hu was a researcher at the Institute of Theoretical Physics of the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Beijing, Hu was elected academician of the Chinese Academy of Sciences in 1955. Hu was pointed the first director-general of Peking University Research Institute of Theoretical Physics
22.
Hungarian language
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Hungarian is the official language of Hungary and one of the 24 official languages of the European Union. Outside Hungary it is spoken by communities of Hungarian people in neighbouring countries. Like Finnish and Estonian, it belongs to the Uralic language family, its closest relatives being Mansi and it is one of several European languages not part of the Indo-European languages, and the most widely-spoken European language that does not belong to the Indo-European family. The Hungarian name for the language is magyar or magyar nyelv, the word Magyar is used as an English and Hungarian word to refer to Hungarian people as an ethnic group. Hungarian is a member of the Uralic language family, the name of Hungary could be a result of regular sound changes of Ungrian/Ugrian, and the fact that the Eastern Slavs referred to Hungarians as Ǫgry/Ǫgrove seemed to confirm that. Current literature favors the hypothesis that it comes from the name of the Turkic tribe Onogur, there are numerous regular sound correspondences between Hungarian and the other Ugric languages. For example, Hungarian /aː/ corresponds to Khanty /o/ in certain positions, for example, Hungarian ház house vs. Khanty xot house, and Hungarian száz hundred vs. Khanty sot hundred. The distance between the Ugric and Finnic languages is greater, but the correspondences are also regular, during the later half of the 19th century, a competing hypothesis proposed a Turkic affinity of Hungarian. Following an academic debate known as Az ugor-török háború, the Finno-Ugric hypothesis was concluded the sounder of the two, foremost based on work by the German linguist Josef Budenz. The traditional view argues that the Hungarian language separated from its Ugric relatives in the first half of the 1st millennium b. c. e. in western Siberia, east of the southern Urals. The Hungarians gradually changed their lifestyle from settled hunters to nomadic pastoralists, in Hungarian, Iranian loans date back to the time immediately following the breakup of Ugric and probably span well over a millennium. Among these include tehén ‘cow’, tíz ‘ten’, tej ‘milk’, increasing archaeological evidence from present-day southern Bashkortostan found in the previous decades confirms the existence of Hungarian settlements between the Volga River and Ural Mountains. The Onogurs later had a influence on the language, especially between the 5th-9th centuries. This layer of Turkic loans is large and varied, and includes words borrowed from Oghur Turkic, e. g. borjú ‘calf’, dél ‘noon, many words related to agriculture, to state administration or even to family relations have such backgrounds. Hungarian syntax and grammar were not influenced in a dramatic way during these 300 years. After the arrival of the Hungarians into the Carpathian Basin the language came into contact with different speech communities, Turkic loans from this period come mainly from the Pechenegs and Cumanians who settled in Hungary during the 12th-13th centuries, e. g. koboz ‘cobza’, komondor ‘mop dog’. Hungarian borrowed many words from especially the neighbouring Slavic languages, in exchange, these languages also borrowed words from Hungarian, e. g. Serbo-Croatian ašov from Hung ásó ‘spade’. Approximately 1. 6% of the Romanian lexicon is of Hungarian origin, on the basis of the growing genetic evidence, the accepted origin theory is contested by geneticists too
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Mathematician
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A mathematician is someone who uses an extensive knowledge of mathematics in his or her work, typically to solve mathematical problems. Mathematics is concerned with numbers, data, quantity, structure, space, models, one of the earliest known mathematicians was Thales of Miletus, he has been hailed as the first true mathematician and the first known individual to whom a mathematical discovery has been attributed. He is credited with the first use of deductive reasoning applied to geometry, the number of known mathematicians grew when Pythagoras of Samos established the Pythagorean School, whose doctrine it was that mathematics ruled the universe and whose motto was All is number. It was the Pythagoreans who coined the term mathematics, and with whom the study of mathematics for its own sake begins, the first woman mathematician recorded by history was Hypatia of Alexandria. She succeeded her father as Librarian at the Great Library and wrote works on applied mathematics. Because of a dispute, the Christian community in Alexandria punished her, presuming she was involved, by stripping her naked. Science and mathematics in the Islamic world during the Middle Ages followed various models and it was extensive patronage and strong intellectual policies implemented by specific rulers that allowed scientific knowledge to develop in many areas. As these sciences received wider attention from the elite, more scholars were invited and funded to study particular sciences, an example of a translator and mathematician who benefited from this type of support was al-Khawarizmi. A notable feature of many working under Muslim rule in medieval times is that they were often polymaths. Examples include the work on optics, maths and astronomy of Ibn al-Haytham, the Renaissance brought an increased emphasis on mathematics and science to Europe. As time passed, many gravitated towards universities. Moving into the 19th century, the objective of universities all across Europe evolved from teaching the “regurgitation of knowledge” to “encourag productive thinking. ”Thus, seminars, overall, science became the focus of universities in the 19th and 20th centuries. Students could conduct research in seminars or laboratories and began to produce doctoral theses with more scientific content. According to Humboldt, the mission of the University of Berlin was to pursue scientific knowledge. ”Mathematicians usually cover a breadth of topics within mathematics in their undergraduate education, and then proceed to specialize in topics of their own choice at the graduate level. In some universities, a qualifying exam serves to test both the breadth and depth of an understanding of mathematics, the students, who pass, are permitted to work on a doctoral dissertation. Mathematicians involved with solving problems with applications in life are called applied mathematicians. Applied mathematicians are mathematical scientists who, with their knowledge and professional methodology. With professional focus on a variety of problems, theoretical systems
24.
Physicist
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A physicist is a scientist who has specialized knowledge in the field of physics, the exploration of the interactions of matter and energy across the physical universe. A physicist is a scientist who specializes or works in the field of physics, physicists generally are interested in the root or ultimate causes of phenomena, and usually frame their understanding in mathematical terms. Physicists can also apply their knowledge towards solving real-world problems or developing new technologies, some physicists specialize in sectors outside the science of physics itself, such as engineering. The study and practice of physics is based on a ladder of discoveries. Many mathematical and physical ideas used today found their earliest expression in ancient Greek culture and Asian culture, the bulk of physics education can be said to flow from the scientific revolution in Europe, starting with the work of Galileo and Kepler in the early 1600s. New knowledge in the early 21st century includes an increase in understanding physical cosmology. The term physicist was coined by William Whewell in his 1840 book The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, many physicist positions require an undergraduate degree in applied physics or a related science or a Masters degree like MSc, MPhil, MPhys or MSci. In a research oriented level, students tend to specialize in a particular field, Physics students also need training in mathematics, and also in computer science and programming. For being employed as a physicist a doctoral background may be required for certain positions, undergraduate students like BSc Mechanical Engineering, BSc Electrical and Computer Engineering, BSc Applied Physics. etc. With physics orientation are chosen as research assistants with faculty members, the highest honor awarded to physicists is the Nobel Prize in Physics, awarded since 1901 by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. The three major employers of career physicists are academic institutions, laboratories, and private industries, with the largest employer being the last, physicists in academia or government labs tend to have titles such as Assistants, Professors, Sr. /Jr. As per the American Institute for Physics, some 20% of new physics Ph. D. s holds jobs in engineering development programs, while 14% turn to computer software, a majority of physicists employed apply their skills and training to interdisciplinary sectors. For industry or self-employment. and also in science and programming. Hence a majority of Physics bachelors degree holders are employed in the private sector, other fields are academia, government and military service, nonprofit entities, labs and teaching
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Aeronautics
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Aeronautics is the science or art involved with the study, design, and manufacturing of air flight capable machines, and the techniques of operating aircraft and rockets within the atmosphere. The British Royal Aeronautical Society identifies the aspects of aeronautical Art, Science and Engineering and the profession of Aeronautics. A significant part of science is a branch of dynamics called aerodynamics, which deals with the motion of air. Attempts to fly without any real aeronautical understanding have been made from the earliest times, typically by constructing wings, wiser investigators sought to gain some rational understanding through the study of bird flight. An early example appears in ancient Egyptian texts, later medieval Islamic scientists also made such studies. The founders of modern aeronautics, Leonardo da Vinci in the Renaissance and Cayley in 1799, man-carrying kites are believed to have been used extensively in ancient China. In 1282 the European explorer Marco Polo described the Chinese techniques then current, the Chinese also constructed small hot air balloons, or lanterns, and rotary-wing toys. The lifting medium for his balloon would be an aether whose composition he did not know, although his designs were rational, they were not based on particularly good science. Many of his designs, such as a four-person screw-type helicopter, have severe flaws and he did at least understand that An object offers as much resistance to the air as the air does to the object. His analysis led to the realisation that manpower alone was not sufficient for sustained flight, da Vincis work was lost after his death and did not reappear until it had been overtaken by the work of George Cayley. The modern era of lighter-than-air flight began early in the 17th century with Galileos experiments in which he showed that air has weight and these would be lighter than the displaced air and able to lift an airship. His proposed methods of controlling height are still in use today, by carrying ballast which may be dropped overboard to gain height, in practice de Terzis spheres would have collapsed under air pressure, and further developments had to wait for more practicable lifting gases. From the mid-18th century the Montgolfier brothers in France began experimenting with balloons and their balloons were made of paper, and early experiments using steam as the lifting gas were short-lived due to its effect on the paper as it condensed. Meanwhile, the discovery of hydrogen led Joseph Black in c.1780 to propose its use as a lifting gas, on hearing of the Montgolfier Brothers invitation, the French Academy member Jacques Charles offered a similar demonstration of a hydrogen balloon. Charles and two craftsmen, the Robert brothers, developed a material of rubberised silk for the envelope. The hydrogen gas was to be generated by chemical reaction during the filling process, the Montgolfier designs had several shortcomings, not least the need for dry weather and a tendency for sparks from the fire to set light to the paper balloon. The manned design had a gallery around the base of the rather than the hanging basket of the first, unmanned design. On their free flight, De Rozier and dArlandes took buckets of water, on the other hand, the manned design of Charles was essentially modern
26.
Astronautics
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Astronautics is the theory and practice of navigation beyond Earths atmosphere. The term astronautics was coined in the 1920s by J. H. Rosny, president of the Goncourt academy, because there is a degree of technical overlap between the two fields, the term aerospace is often used to describe both at once. In 1930, Robert Esnault-Pelterie publishes the first book on the new research field, space launch vehicles must withstand titanic forces, while satellites can experience huge variations in temperature in very brief periods. Extreme constraints on mass cause astronautical engineers to face the constant need to save mass in the design in order to maximize the payload that reaches orbit. The early history of astronautics is theoretical, the mathematics of space travel was established by Isaac Newton in his 1687 treatise Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. Other mathematicians, such as Swiss Leonhard Euler and Franco-Italian Joseph Louis Lagrange also made contributions in the 18th and 19th centuries. In spite of this, astronautics did not become a discipline until the mid-20th century. On the other hand, the question of spaceflight puzzled the literary imaginations of such figures as Jules Verne and H. G. Wells. Δ v = v e ln m 0 m 1 In fact this equation was derived earlier by William Moore, for more information on the mathematical basis of space travel, see Orbital mechanics. The Prix dAstronautique awarded by the Société astronomique de France, the French astronomical society, was the first prize on this subject, although many regard astronautics itself as a rather specialized subject, engineers and scientists working in this area must be knowledgeable in many distinct fields. Astrodynamics, the study of orbital motion and those specializing in this field examine topics such as spacecraft trajectories, ballistics and celestial mechanics. Spacecraft propulsion, how spacecraft change orbits, and how they are launched, most spacecraft have some variety of rocket engine, and thus most research efforts focus on some variety of rocket propulsion, such as chemical, nuclear or electric. Spacecraft design, a form of systems engineering that centers on combining all the necessary subsystems for a particular launch vehicle or satellite. Controls, keeping a satellite or rocket in its desired orbit and orientation
27.
Aerodynamics
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Aerodynamics, from Greek ἀήρ aer + δυναμική, the study of the motion of air, particularly its interaction with a solid object, such as an airplane wing. Aerodynamics is a sub-field of fluid dynamics and gas dynamics, the term aerodynamics is often used synonymously with gas dynamics, the difference being that gas dynamics applies to the study of the motion of all gases, and is not limited to air. The formal study of aerodynamics began in the sense in the eighteenth century. Most of the efforts in aerodynamics were directed toward achieving heavier-than-air flight. Recent work in aerodynamics has focused on issues related to flow, turbulence. Fundamental concepts of continuum, drag, and pressure gradients appear in the work of Aristotle, in 1726, Sir Isaac Newton became the first person to develop a theory of air resistance, making him one of the first aerodynamicists. In 1757, Leonhard Euler published the more general Euler equations which could be applied to both compressible and incompressible flows, the Euler equations were extended to incorporate the effects of viscosity in the first half of the 1800s, resulting in the Navier-Stokes equations. The Navier-Stokes equations are the most general governing equations of fluid flow, in 1871, Francis Herbert Wenham constructed the first wind tunnel, allowing precise measurements of aerodynamic forces. Drag theories were developed by Jean le Rond dAlembert, Gustav Kirchhoff, in 1889, Charles Renard, a French aeronautical engineer, became the first person to reasonably predict the power needed for sustained flight. Otto Lilienthal, the first person to become successful with glider flights, was also the first to propose thin, curved airfoils that would produce high lift. Building on these developments as well as carried out in their own wind tunnel. During the time of the first flights, Frederick W. Lanchester, Martin Wilhelm Kutta, Kutta and Zhukovsky went on to develop a two-dimensional wing theory. Expanding upon the work of Lanchester, Ludwig Prandtl is credited with developing the mathematics behind thin-airfoil, as aircraft speed increased, designers began to encounter challenges associated with air compressibility at speeds near or greater than the speed of sound. The differences in air flows under such conditions leds to problems in control, increased drag due to shock waves. The ratio of the speed to the speed of sound was named the Mach number after Ernst Mach who was one of the first to investigate the properties of supersonic flow. Theodore von Kármán and Hugh Latimer Dryden introduced the term transonic to describe flow speeds around Mach 1 where drag increases rapidly, by the time the sound barrier was broken, aerodynamicists understanding of the subsonic and low supersonic flow had matured. The Cold War prompted the design of an line of high performance aircraft. Understanding the motion of air around an object enables the calculation of forces, in many aerodynamics problems, the forces of interest are the fundamental forces of flight, lift, drag, thrust, and weight
28.
Jews
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The Jews, also known as the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group originating from the Israelites, or Hebrews, of the Ancient Near East. Jews originated as a national and religious group in the Middle East during the second millennium BCE, the Merneptah Stele appears to confirm the existence of a people of Israel, associated with the god El, somewhere in Canaan as far back as the 13th century BCE. The Israelites, as an outgrowth of the Canaanite population, consolidated their hold with the emergence of the Kingdom of Israel, some consider that these Canaanite sedentary Israelites melded with incoming nomadic groups known as Hebrews. The worldwide Jewish population reached a peak of 16.7 million prior to World War II, but approximately 6 million Jews were systematically murdered during the Holocaust. Since then the population has risen again, and as of 2015 was estimated at 14.3 million by the Berman Jewish DataBank. According to the report, about 43% of all Jews reside in Israel and these numbers include all those who self-identified as Jews in a socio-demographic study or were identified as such by a respondent in the same household. The exact world Jewish population, however, is difficult to measure, Israel is the only country where Jews form a majority of the population. The modern State of Israel was established as a Jewish state and defines itself as such in its Declaration of Independence and its Law of Return grants the right of citizenship to any Jew who requests it. The English word Jew continues Middle English Gyw, Iewe, according to the Hebrew Bible, the name of both the tribe and kingdom derive from Judah, the fourth son of Jacob. The Hebrew word for Jew, יְהוּדִי ISO 259-3 Yhudi, is pronounced, with the stress on the syllable, in Israeli Hebrew. The Ladino name is ג׳ודיו, Djudio, ג׳ודיוס, Djudios, Yiddish, ייִד Yid, ייִדן, Yidn. The etymological equivalent is in use in languages, e. g. but derivations of the word Hebrew are also in use to describe a Jew, e. g. in Italian. The German word Jude is pronounced, the corresponding adjective jüdisch is the origin of the word Yiddish, in such contexts Jewish is the only acceptable possibility. Some people, however, have become so wary of this construction that they have extended the stigma to any use of Jew as a noun, a factual reconstruction for the origin of the Jews is a difficult and complex endeavor. It requires examining at least 3,000 years of ancient human history using documents in vast quantities, as archaeological discovery relies upon researchers and scholars from diverse disciplines, the goal is to interpret all of the factual data, focusing on the most consistent theory. In this case, it is complicated by long standing politics and religious, Jacob and his family migrated to Ancient Egypt after being invited to live with Jacobs son Joseph by the Pharaoh himself. The patriarchs descendants were later enslaved until the Exodus led by Moses, traditionally dated to the 13th century BCE, Modern archaeology has largely discarded the historicity of the Patriarchs and of the Exodus story, with it being reframed as constituting the Israelites inspiring national myth narrative. The growth of Yahweh-centric belief, along with a number of practices, gradually gave rise to a distinct Israelite ethnic group
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Rabbi
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In Judaism, a rabbi /ˈræbaɪ/ is a teacher of Torah. This title derives from the Hebrew word רַבִּי rabi, meaning My Master, the word master רב rav literally means great one. The basic form of the rabbi developed in the Pharisaic and Talmudic era, the first sage for whom the Mishnah uses the title of rabbi was Yohanan ben Zakkai, active in the early to mid first century CE. Within the various Jewish denominations there are different requirements for rabbinic ordination, for example, Orthodox Judaism does not ordain women as rabbis, but other movements have chosen to do so for halakhic reasons as well as ethical reasons. Although the usage rabbim many the majority, the multitude occurs for the assembly of the community in the Dead Sea scrolls there is no evidence to support an association with the later title Rabbi, the root is cognate to Arabic ربّ rabb, meaning lord. As a sign of respect, some great rabbis are simply called The Rav. The titles Rabban and Rabbi are first mentioned in the Mishnah, the term was first used for Rabban Gamaliel the elder, Rabban Simeon his son, and Rabban Johanan ben Zakkai, all of whom were patriarchs or presidents of the Sanhedrin. The title Rabbi occurs in the books of Matthew, Mark, and John in the New Testament, other variants are rəvī and, in Yiddish, rebbə. The word could be compared to the Syriac word ܪܒܝ rabi, in ancient Hebrew, rabbi was a proper term of address while speaking to a superior, in the second person, similar to a vocative case. While speaking about a superior, in the person one could say ha-rav or rabbo. Later, the term evolved into a title for members of the Patriarchate. Thus, the title gained an irregular form, רַבָּנִים rabbanim. Rabbi as a title does not appear in the Hebrew Bible. All of the above personalities would have expected to be steeped in the wisdom of the Torah and the commandments. And honor is due only for Torah, as it is said, The wise shall inherit honor, and only Torah is truly good, as it is said, I have given you a good teaching, do not forsake My Torah. This was eventually encoded and codified within the Mishnah and Talmud and subsequent rabbinical scholarship, the title Rabbi was borne by the sages of ancient Israel, who were ordained by the Sanhedrin in accordance with the custom handed down by the elders. They were titled Ribbi and received authority to judge penal cases, Rab was the title of the Babylonian sages who taught in the Babylonian academies. After the suppression of the Patriarchate and Sanhedrin by Theodosius II in 425, a recognised scholar could be called Rab or Hacham, like the Babylonian sages
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Judah Loew ben Bezalel
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He is also the subject of a 19th-century legend that he created The Golem of Prague, an animate being fashioned from clay. Rabbi Loew is buried at the Old Jewish Cemetery, Prague in Josefov and his descendants surnames include Braude, Loewy, Loeb, Lowy, Oppenheimer, Pfaelzer, Lowenstein and Keim. His birth year is uncertain, with different sources listing 1512,1520 and 1526 and his uncle Jakob ben Chajim was Reichsrabbiner of the Holy Roman Empire, his brother Chaim of Friedberg a famous rabbinical scholar. There is no documented evidence of his having received formal religious education and his family consisted of his wife, Pearl, six daughters, and a son, Bezalel, who became a Rabbi in Kolín, but died early in 1600. He was independently wealthy, probably as a result of his fathers successful business enterprises and he also revised the community statutes on the election and taxation process. Although he retired from Moravia in 1588 at age 60, the communities still considered him an authority long after that and this phenomenon even affected his own family. He used one of the two yearly grand sermons to denounce the phenomenon and he moved back to Prague in 1588, where he again accepted a rabbinical position, replacing the retired Isaac Hayoth. He immediately reiterated his views on Nadler, on 23 February 1592, he had an audience with Emperor Rudolf II, which he attended together with his brother Sinai and his son-in-law Isaac Cohen, Prince Bertier was present with the emperor. The conversation seems to have related to Kabbalah a subject which held much fascination for the emperor. In 1592, the Maharal moved to Poznań, where he had been elected as Chief Rabbi of Poland, in Poznań he composed Netivoth Olam and part of Derech Chaim. Davidic Line According to Jewish tradition, the Maharals family descended patrilineally from the Babylonian Exilarchs, towards the end of his life he moved back to Prague, where he died in 1609. He was buried in the Old Jewish Cemetery, Prague, in the Book of Genesis, the patriarch Jacob refers to his son Judah as a Gur Aryeh, a Young Lion when blessing him. In Jewish naming tradition the Hebrew name and the name are often combined as a pair. The Maharals classic work on the Rashi commentary of the Torah is called the Gur Aryeh al HaTorah in Hebrew, meaning Young Lion upon the Torah. The Maharals tomb in Prague is decorated with a shield with a lion with two intertwined tails, alluding both to his first name and to Bohemia, the arms of which has a two-tailed lion. It is unknown how many Talmudic rabbinical scholars the Maharal taught in Moravia, the former promoted his teachers program of regular Mishnah study by the masses, and composed his Tosefoth Yom Tov with this goal in mind. In the words of a writer, the Maharal prevented the Balkanization of Jewish thought. A more recent authority who had roots in both traditions was Rabbi Isaac Hutner, Rabbi Hutner succinctly defined the ethos of the Maharals teachings as being Nistar BeLashon Nigleh, meaning, The Hidden in the language of the Revealed
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