1.
Nantong
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Nantong is a prefecture-level city in Jiangsu province, China. Located on the bank of the Yangtze River, near the river mouth. Nantong is a river port bordering Yancheng to the north, Taizhou to the west, Suzhou and Shanghai to the south across the river. Its current population is 7,282,835 at the 2010 census,1,994,708 of whom live in the area made up of three urban districts. In September 26,2004, the first World Metropolitan Development Forum was held in Nantong. In 2005, Nantong had a GDP growth of 15. 4%, the highest growth rate in Jiangsu province, and in 2016 Nantongs GDP had a total of about 675 billion yuan, ranking the 21st in the whole country. Although the city took a blow from the depression of the 1930s, as well as the Japanese occupation of the 1930s and 40s. Because of its harbor and connections to inland navigational canals. Nantong has a subtropical climate, with four distinct seasons. Winters are chilly and damp, and cold northwesterly winds caused by the Siberian high can force temperatures to fall below freezing at night although snowfall is relatively uncommon, summers are hot and humid, and downpours or freak thunderstorms often occur. Monthly daily average temperatures range from 3.1 °C in January to 27.2 °C in July, with the plum rains in June and early July comes the rainiest part of the year. The prefecture-level city of Nantong administers eight county-level divisions, including three districts, three cities, and two counties. These are further divided into 146 township-level divisions, the area that is now Nantong was originally part of the State of Wu during the Spring and Autumn period, which was later conquered by the State of Yue in 473 BC. From the Han dynasty up until the Tang dynasty, what is now called Nantong was a city county subordinate to Yangzhou. By AD958, that city county had gained sufficient importance for it to be upgraded to an independent prefecture called Tongzhou to be created. The increasing wealth of Yangzhou caused Tongzhou to be once again eclipsed as a center in 1368. Nantong was the first place in China to be developed into a city after the collapse of the Qing Dynasty. The prosperity of Nantong has traditionally depended on production on the nearby seacoast, rice and cotton agriculture
2.
China
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China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing
3.
Mohave Power Station
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Mohave Power Station was a 1, 580-megawatt coal-fired power plant located in Laughlin, Nevada. Southern California Edison is the majority owner of the plant and was its operator, the plant is currently shut down and in the process of being dismantled. The plant was composed of two units capable of generating 790 MW electrical each, combustion Engineering supplied the boilers and GE supplied the turbines and generators. Bechtel performed engineering, procurement and construction, the Mohave Generating Station was built on a 2, 500-acre site in the Mojave Desert adjacent to the Colorado River in Laughlin, Clark County. It had supercritical boilers and cross-compound steam turbines, the plant was owned by a utility consortium of operator Southern California Edison Co, LADWP, Nevada Power, and Salt River Project. Mohave was the power plant in the United States that used coal delivered by coal-slurry pipeline. The 18 inches diameter Black Mesa Pipeline ran 275 miles to the plant from the Peabody Energy Black Mesa Mine in Kayenta, AZ, the land where the mine is located is owned by the Navajo and Hopi tribes. Four 8-million-gallon storage tanks each held the equivalent of 20,000 short tons of dry coal, the slurry transport water was recycled for cooling tower water makeup, this and all other waste water was reused, making Mohave a zero-discharge facility. A natural-gas line run to the facility from a gas main near Topock, Arizona supplied the required heat to start the plant, the power was transmitted via two 500kV lines to substations in southern Nevada and southern California. The plants two identical units went into operation in 1971. On June 9,1985, a 30-inch hot reheat line, under 600 pounds per inch of pressure. The reheat line cycles steam back through the stack after it has expanded through the high pressure turbine. The station was out of service for six months all the steam piping was replaced. A report on the accident was completed in May,1991, even so, the pipe, part of a steam reheat system, was not routinely maintained or inspected, though the pipe shifted and distorted because of exposure to abnormal stresses, the report said. Edisons management made high production a priority over safety, in 1979, Edison disciplined a supervisor for ordering an unauthorized inspection of unrelated pipe welds. The report found no evidence that the accident was caused by an action on the day of the pipe failure. The report recommended sweeping changes to Edisons policies, including annual reports to the PUC on the safety training, inspection. In addition, the report argues that, because the accident was avoidable, the plant was shut down on December 31,2005, with the possibility it might not reopen
4.
Laughlin, Nevada
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Laughlin /ˈlɔːf. lɪn/ is an unincorporated town and census-designated place in Clark County, Nevada, United States, and a port located on the Colorado River. Laughlin is 90 miles south of Las Vegas, located in the far tip of Nevada. It is best known for its gaming, entertainment, and water recreation, as of the 2010 census, the population was 7,323. The nearby communities of Bullhead City, Arizona, Needles, California, Fort Mohave, Arizona and its name comes from Don Laughlin, an Owatonna, Minnesota, native who purchased the southern tip of Nevada in 1964. At the time, Don Laughlin operated the 101 Club in Las Vegas and he opened what would become the Riverside Resort, and later wanted to call the community Riverside or Casino, but the post office opted for Laughlin instead. Laughlin is the third most visited casino and resort destination in the state after Las Vegas and Reno, the 2.1 million visitors recorded last year by the Las Vegas Convention and Visitors Authority is less than half the 1997 peak. Through July, the count has dropped another 2.2 percent compared to 2012, Laughlin is advertised as a family-friendly destination. Being located on the river, outdoor and family activities are emphasized, many of the casinos that line the Colorado River are linked by an unofficial pedestrian thoroughfare known as the Laughlin Riverwalk. The southernmost tip of Nevada, along the Colorado River, where Nevada, California, the townsite of Laughlin was established in the 1940s as South Pointe because of the proximity to the southern tip of the state of Nevada. The early town consisted of a motel and bar that catered to gold and silver miners, construction workers building Davis Dam, in the 1950s, construction workers left, and the town all but disappeared. In 1964, a man by the name of Don Laughlin, owner of the 101 Club in Las Vegas, flew over the site and saw its tourism potential. He offered to buy the land, and within a few years, in 1966, the Riverside Resort built the first 14-floor high-rise, in 1972,48 rooms were added, followed by several additions. A second casino, the Bobcat Club, opened in 1967, in 1968, a third casino, the Monte Carlo, opened its doors. Across the river, Bullhead City, Arizona, flourished in the glow of the casino light, shuttle boats transported customers from the Arizona side of the river to Laughlins resorts and back. The 1980s saw the construction of more hotels and casinos. The Colorado Hotel, The Regency, Sams Town Gold River, other investors saw the growth as an opportunity to get in on the action. A second boom resulted in the construction of The Colorado Belle, Harrahs Del Rio, in 1987, Don Laughlin funded and built the Laughlin Bridge at a cost of $3.5 million. He donated the bridge to the states of Nevada and Arizona, the bridge carries 30,000 vehicles daily
5.
Grafenrheinfeld nuclear power plant
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The Grafenrheinfeld nuclear power plant is a now-offline electricity-generating facility near Grafenrheinfeld, south of Schweinfurt at the river Main. The plant operated from 1981 to June 28,2015, when it was taken offline as part of the phase out policy for nuclear power in Germany, construction took place between 1974 and 1981 with construction costs of around 2.5 billion DM. The reactor, a German third-generation pressurized water reactor with a net power output of 1345 megawatts. E. ON in Hanover is the operator of the plant, the two 143m tall cooling towers are visible from far away. As with almost all nuclear plants, temporary storage facilities for spent nuclear fuel are present on site. There is a center at the power station. Under the phase out policy for nuclear power in Germany, the plant was scheduled to shut down on 31 December 2015, citing economical reasons, E. ON declared intent to shut down the plant earlier, originally at end of May 2015. The Grafenrheinfeld plant was taken offline on June 28,2015 as part of Germanys ongoing policy to all nuclear power plants down in the country by 2022. In the anti-nuclear teen novel Die Wolke, the plant undergoes a meltdown
6.
Bavaria
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Bavaria is a free state and one of 16 federal states of Germany. Located in the German southeast with an area of 70,548 square kilometres and its territory comprises roughly a fifth of the total land area of Germany, and, with 12.9 million inhabitants, it is Germanys second most populous state. Munich, Bavarias capital and largest city, is the third largest city in Germany, the Duchy of Bavaria dates back to the year 555. In the 17th century CE, the Duke of Bavaria became a Prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire, the Kingdom of Bavaria existed from 1806 to 1918, when Bavaria became a republic. In 1946, the Free State of Bavaria re-organised itself on democratic lines after the Second World War, Bavaria has a unique culture, largely because of the states Catholic majority and conservative traditions. Bavarians have traditionally been proud of their culture, which includes such as Oktoberfest. The state also has the second largest economy among the German states by GDP figures, modern Bavaria also includes parts of the historical regions of Franconia, Upper Palatinate and Swabia. The Bavarians emerged in a north of the Alps, previously inhabited by Celts. The Bavarians spoke Old High German but, unlike other Germanic groups, rather, they seem to have coalesced out of other groups left behind by Roman withdrawal late in the 5th century. These peoples may have included the Celtic Boii, some remaining Romans, Marcomanni, Allemanni, Quadi, Thuringians, Goths, Scirians, Rugians, the name Bavarian means Men of Baia which may indicate Bohemia, the homeland of the Celtic Boii and later of the Marcomanni. They first appear in written sources circa 520, a 17th century Jewish chronicler David Solomon Ganz, citing Cyriacus Spangenberg, claimed that the diocese was named after an ancient Bohemian king, Boiia, in the 14th century BCE. From about 554 to 788, the house of Agilolfing ruled the Duchy of Bavaria and their daughter, Theodelinde, became Queen of the Lombards in northern Italy and Garibald was forced to flee to her when he fell out with his Frankish overlords. Garibalds successor, Tassilo I, tried unsuccessfully to hold the frontier against the expansion of Slavs. Tassilos son Garibald II seems to have achieved a balance of power between 610 and 616, after Garibald II little is known of the Bavarians until Duke Theodo I, whose reign may have begun as early as 680. From 696 onwards he invited churchmen from the west to organize churches and his son, Theudebert, led a decisive Bavarian campaign to intervene in a succession dispute in the Lombard Kingdom in 714, and married his sister Guntrud to the Lombard King Liutprand. At Theodos death the duchy was divided among his sons, at Hugberts death the duchy passed to a distant relative named Odilo, from neighbouring Alemannia. He was defeated near Augsburg in 743 but continued to rule until his death in 748, saint Boniface completed the peoples conversion to Christianity in the early 8th century. Bavaria was in ways affected by the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century
7.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
8.
Geothermal power
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Geothermal power is power generated by geothermal energy. Technologies in use include dry steam power stations, flash steam power stations, Geothermal electricity generation is currently used in 24 countries, while geothermal heating is in use in 70 countries. As of 2015, worldwide geothermal power capacity amounts to 12.8 gigawatts, International markets grew at an average annual rate of 5 percent over the last three years and global geothermal power capacity is expected to reach 14. 5–17.6 GW by 2020. Countries generating more than 15 percent of their electricity from geothermal sources include El Salvador, Kenya, Geothermal power is considered to be a sustainable, renewable source of energy because the heat extraction is small compared with the Earths heat content. In the 20th century, demand for electricity led to the consideration of geothermal power as a generating source, prince Piero Ginori Conti tested the first geothermal power generator on 4 July 1904 in Larderello, Italy. It successfully lit four light bulbs, later, in 1911, the worlds first commercial geothermal power station was built there. Experimental generators were built in Beppu, Japan and the Geysers, California, in the 1920s, in 1958, New Zealand became the second major industrial producer of geothermal electricity when its Wairakei station was commissioned. Wairakei was the first station to use flash steam technology, in 1960, Pacific Gas and Electric began operation of the first successful geothermal electric power station in the United States at The Geysers in California. The original turbine lasted for more than 30 years and produced 11 MW net power, the binary cycle power station was first demonstrated in 1967 in Russia and later introduced to the USA in 1981, following the 1970s energy crisis and significant changes in regulatory policies. This technology allows the use of lower temperature resources than were previously recoverable. In 2006, a binary cycle station in Chena Hot Springs, Alaska, came on-line, Geothermal electric stations have until recently been built exclusively where high temperature geothermal resources are available near the surface. The development of binary cycle power plants and improvements in drilling, demonstration projects are operational in Landau-Pfalz, Germany, and Soultz-sous-Forêts, France, while an earlier effort in Basel, Switzerland was shut down after it triggered earthquakes. Other demonstration projects are under construction in Australia, the United Kingdom, the thermal efficiency of geothermal electric stations is low, around 7–10%, because geothermal fluids are at a low temperature compared with steam from boilers. By the laws of thermodynamics this low temperature limits the efficiency of engines in extracting useful energy during the generation of electricity. Exhaust heat is wasted, unless it can be used directly and locally, for example in greenhouses, timber mills, and district heating. The efficiency of the system does not affect operational costs as it would for a coal or other fossil fuel plant, in order to produce more energy than the pumps consume, electricity generation requires high temperature geothermal fields and specialized heat cycles. Because geothermal power does not rely on sources of energy, unlike, for example, wind or solar. However the global average capacity factor was 74. 5% in 2008, the earth’s heat content is about 1031 joules
9.
Taichung Power Plant
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The Taichung Power Plant is a coal-fired power plant in Longjing, Taichung, Taiwan. Together with its gas-fired and wind generation units, the installed capacity of the plant is 5,824 MW. The power plant consists of ten coal-fired units with capacity of 550 MW each. Four original units were commissioned in 1991 and 1992, in 1996–1997, four additional units were added. The eight older units have an estimated coal requirement of around 12 million tonnes of bituminous and 2.5 million tonnes of sub-bituminous coal a year. In August 2005 and June 2006,550 MW sub-critical pressure units 9 and 10 were installed on the adjacent land reclaimed by depositing ash. In addition to ten coal-fired steam turbines, Taichung Power Plant has another four gas turbines, the plant has a complex conveyor system. There are three belts from the Harbour which bring the coal into the plant via six ship unloaders,2 bucket type, the coal is either directed straight to a unit or stacked in the coal yard by 5 Stacker/ Reclaimers. The coal can be reclaimed from here and sent to any of the 10 units, there is built in redundancy in the critical conveyor paths. All of the belts are equipped with detection system to monitor the temperature along the belt. The coal receiving facilities were completed in 1992, the boiler for each unit is drum type, water-cooled, naturally circulated with dry bottom furnace, balance draft and coal and oil-fired capability. The steam turbine for each unit is a tandem-compound with four flow exhaust, the generators are supercritical steam high power density. The electrostatic precipitator removes 99. 8% of the particulates and classifies them for industrial cement, the power plant is connected to the grid via a 345 kV switchyard. The power plant is designed for base load service and is able for daily startup, the plants electricity is being sold to Taipower under a 25-year power purchase agreement. The power plant uses 12 million tons of bituminous and 2.5 million tons of coal a year. Taipower buys 70% of the plant coal supply through long-term contracts from Australia, United States, South Africa, Indonesia, Indonesia is the prime source for the sub-bituminous coal. The remaining 30% of its supply is purchased on the spot market. There is a plan to build two new 800 MW units by 2016
10.
Taichung
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Taichung, officially known as Taichung City, is a special municipality located in center-western Taiwan. Taichung has a population of over 2.7 million people, making it the third largest city on the island after New Taipei City, on 25 December 2010, Taichung County merged with the original provincial Taichung City to form the special municipality. The citys motto is economic, cultural and international city, the Atayal Taiwanese aborigines as well as several Taiwanese Plains Aboriginal tribes populated the plains that make up modern Taichung. They were originally hunter gatherers who lived by cultivating millet. In the 17th century, the Papora, Babuza, Pazeh, in 1682, the Qing dynasty wrested control of western Taiwan from the Cheng family. In 1684, Zhuluo County was established, encompassing the underdeveloped northern two-thirds of Taiwan, modern-day Taichung traces its beginnings to Toatun in 1705. To strengthen Qing control, a garrison was established in 1721 near the site of present-day Taichung Park by Lan Ting-chen, north of the city, on the Dajia River, an aboriginal revolt broke out in 1731 after Chinese officials had moved in and compelled them to provide labor. The revolt spread as far south as the seat of Changhua County in May 1732 before the rebels were chased into the mountains by Qing forces, in 1786, another rebellion against the Qing authorities had its roots in the district of Dali. The Lin Shuangwen rebellion began as an attempt to overthrow the Manchu government, unfortunately, as the rebels moved northward, they turned to slaughter and looting. They were eventually defeated by a coalition of Qing forces, Hakka, Quanzhou Fujianese descendants, thus the city took the name of Taiwan-fu, meaning capital city of Taiwan, from modern-day Tainan, which had held the title for more than 200 years. Qing official Liu Ming-chuan received permission to oversee development of the area, however, the provincial capital was ultimately moved to Taipei. After China lost the Sino-Japanese War in 1895, Taiwan was ceded to Japan by the Treaty of Shimonoseki, the Japanese sought to develop the city to make it the first “modern” area of Taiwan. The Japanese administration invested in roads, dams and levees, in 1901, Taichū Chō was one of twenty local administrative districts established around the island. In 1904, the town of Taichū had a population of 6,423, Taichū Park was completed in 1903. A tower marking the old gate was moved to the new park where it stands today. The first market in Taichū was built in 1908, along the JiGuang Road between the ZhongZheng and ChengGong Roads and it is still in use today, the Japanese undertook a north-south island railway project. Taichū Station was completed and began operation in 1917, and still operates today, Taichū City was officially declared by Japanese Imperial authorities in 1920, and Taichū City Hall was completed in 1924 after eleven years of construction. Kōkan Airport, now known as Taichung Airport, was constructed during Japanese rule, Taichū Middle School was founded in 1915 by elite members of local gentry, including Lin Hsien-tang and his brother Lin Lieh-tang, two wealthy Taiwanese intellectuals of the era
11.
Taiwan
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Taiwan, officially the Republic of China, is a state in East Asia. Neighbours include China to the west, Japan to the northeast, Taiwan is the most populous state that is not a member of the United Nations, and the one with the largest economy. The island of Taiwan, also known as Formosa, was inhabited by Taiwanese aborigines before the 17th century. After a brief rule by the Kingdom of Tungning, the island was annexed by the Qing dynasty, the Qing ceded Taiwan to Japan in 1895 after the Sino-Japanese War. While Taiwan was under Japanese rule, the Republic of China was established on the mainland in 1912 after the fall of the Qing dynasty, following the Japanese surrender to the Allies in 1945, the ROC took control of Taiwan. However, the resumption of the Chinese Civil War led to the ROCs loss of the mainland to the Communists, and the flight of the ROC government to Taiwan in 1949. As a founding member of the United Nations, the ROC continued to represent China at the United Nations until 1971, in the early 1960s, Taiwan entered a period of rapid economic growth and industrialization, creating a stable industrial economy. In the 1980s and early 1990s, it changed from a one-party military dictatorship dominated by the Kuomintang to a multi-party democracy with universal suffrage, Taiwan is the 22nd-largest economy in the world, and its high-tech industry plays a key role in the global economy. It is ranked highly in terms of freedom of the press, health care, public education, economic freedom, the PRC has consistently claimed sovereignty over Taiwan and asserted the ROC is no longer in legitimate existence. Under its One-China Policy the PRC refused diplomatic relations with any country that recognizes the ROC, the PRC has threatened the use of military force in response to any formal declaration of independence by Taiwan or if PRC leaders decide that peaceful unification is no longer possible. There are various names for the island of Taiwan in use today, the former name Formosa dates from 1542, when Portuguese sailors sighted the main island of Taiwan and named it Ilha Formosa, which means beautiful island. The name Formosa eventually replaced all others in European literature and was in use in English in the early 20th century. This name was adopted into the Chinese vernacular as the name of the sandbar. The modern word Taiwan is derived from this usage, which is seen in forms in Chinese historical records. Use of the current Chinese name was formalized as early as 1684 with the establishment of Taiwan Prefecture, through its rapid development, the entire Formosan mainland eventually became known as Taiwan. The official name of the state is the Republic of China and it was a member of the United Nations representing China until 1971, when it lost its seat to the Peoples Republic of China. Over subsequent decades, the Republic of China has become known as Taiwan. In some contexts, especially ones from the ROC government
12.
Power station
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A power station, also referred to as a power plant or powerhouse and sometimes generating station or generating plant, is an industrial facility for the generation of electric power. Most power stations contain one or more generators, a machine that converts mechanical power into electrical power. The relative motion between a field and a conductor creates an electrical current. The energy source harnessed to turn the generator varies widely, most power stations in the world burn fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas to generate electricity. Others use nuclear power, but there is an use of cleaner renewable sources such as solar, wind, wave. There is some debate within utility and engineering circles over whether a solar array, or wind farm, should be referred to as a power station, in 1868 a hydro electric power station was designed and built by Lord Armstrong at Cragside, England. It used water from lakes on his estate to power Siemens dynamos, the electricity supplied power to lights, heating, produced hot water, ran an elevator as well as labor-saving devices and farm buildings. In the early 1870s Belgian inventor Zénobe Gramme invented a powerful enough to produce power on a commercial scale for industry. In the autumn of 1882, a central station providing public power was built in Godalming and it was proposed after the town failed to reach an agreement on the rate charged by the gas company, so the town council decided to use electricity. It used hydroelectric power that was used to street and household lighting, the system was not a commercial success and the town reverted to gas. In 1882 a the worlds first coal-fired public power station, the Edison Electric Light Station, was built in London, a Babcock & Wilcox boiler powered a 125-horsepower steam engine that drove a 27-ton generator. This supplied electricity to premises in the area that could be reached through the culverts of the viaduct without digging up the road, the customers included the City Temple and the Old Bailey. Another important customer was the Telegraph Office of the General Post Office, Johnson arranged for the supply cable to be run overhead, via Holborn Tavern and Newgate. In September 1882 in New York, the Pearl Street Station was established by Edison to provide lighting in the lower Manhattan Island area. The station ran until destroyed by fire in 1890, the station used reciprocating steam engines to turn direct-current generators. Because of the DC distribution, the area was small. The War of Currents eventually resolved in favor of AC distribution and utilization, DC systems with a service radius of a mile or so were necessarily smaller, less efficient of fuel consumption, and more labor-intensive to operate than much larger central AC generating stations. AC systems used a range of frequencies depending on the type of load, lighting load using higher frequencies
13.
Heat
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In physics, heat is the amount of energy flowing from one body to another spontaneously due to their temperature difference, or by any means other than through work or the transfer of matter. Thus, energy exchanged as heat during a process changes the energy of each body by equal. The sign of the quantity of heat can indicate the direction of the transfer, for example from system A to system B, negation indicates energy flowing in the opposite direction. While heat flows spontaneously from hot to cold, it is possible to construct a heat pump or refrigeration system that does work to increase the difference in temperature between two systems, conversely, a heat engine reduces an existing temperature difference to do work on another system. Heat is a consequence of the motion of particles. When heat is transferred between two objects or systems, the energy of the object or systems particles increases, as this occurs, the arrangement between particles becomes more and more disordered. In other words, heat is related to the concept of entropy, historically, many energy units for measurement of heat have been used. The standards-based unit in the International System of Units is the joule, Heat is measured by its effect on the states of interacting bodies, for example, by the amount of ice melted or a change in temperature. The quantification of heat via the change of a body is called calorimetry. In calorimetry, sensible heat is defined with respect to a specific chosen state variable of the system, sensible heat causes a change of the temperature of the system while leaving the chosen state variable unchanged. Heat transfer that occurs at a constant system temperature but changes the state variable is called latent heat with respect to the variable, for infinitesimal changes, the total incremental heat transfer is then the sum of the latent and sensible heat. Physicist James Clerk Maxwell, in his 1871 classic Theory of Heat, was one of many who began to build on the established idea that heat has something to do with matter in motion. This was the idea put forth by Benjamin Thompson in 1798. One of Maxwells recommended books was Heat as a Mode of Motion, Maxwell outlined four stipulations for the definition of heat, It is something which may be transferred from one body to another, according to the second law of thermodynamics. It is a quantity, and so can be treated mathematically. It cannot be treated as a substance, because it may be transformed into something that is not a material substance. Heat is one of the forms of energy and this was the way of the historical pioneers of thermodynamics. Maxwell writes that convection as such is not a purely thermal phenomenon, in thermodynamics, convection in general is regarded as transport of internal energy
14.
Electric power
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Electric power is the rate, per unit time, at which electrical energy is transferred by an electric circuit. The SI unit of power is the watt, one joule per second, Electric power is usually produced by electric generators, but can also be supplied by sources such as electric batteries. It is usually supplied to businesses and homes by the power industry through an electric power grid. Electric power is sold by the kilowatt hour which is the product of power in kilowatts multiplied by running time in hours. Electric utilities measure power using an electricity meter, which keeps a total of the electric energy delivered to a customer. Electrical power provides a low form of energy and can be carried long distances and converted into other forms of energy such as motion. Electric power, like power, is the rate of doing work, measured in watts. The term wattage is used colloquially to mean electric power in watts, the potential energy of the charges due to the voltage between the terminals is converted to kinetic energy in the device. These devices are called passive components or loads, they consume electric power from the circuit, converting it to other forms of such as mechanical work, heat, light. Examples are electrical appliances, such as bulbs, electric motors. In alternating current circuits the direction of the voltage periodically reverses, devices in which this occurs are called active devices or power sources, such as electric generators and batteries. Some devices can be either a source or a load, depending on the voltage, for example, a rechargeable battery acts as a source when it provides power to a circuit, but as a load when it is connected to a battery charger and is being recharged. Since electric power can flow either into or out of a component, Electric power flowing out of a circuit into a component is arbitrarily defined to have a positive sign, while power flowing into a circuit from a component is defined to have a negative sign. Thus passive components have positive power consumption, while power sources have negative power consumption and this is called the passive sign convention. In alternating current circuits, energy storage such as inductance and capacitance may result in periodic reversals of the direction of energy flow. The portion of power flow that, averaged over a cycle of the AC waveform. That portion of power due to stored energy, that returns to the source in each cycle, is known as reactive power. Real power is represented as a vector and reactive power is represented as a vertical vector
15.
Turbine
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A turbine is a rotary mechanical device that extracts energy from a fluid flow and converts it into useful work. The work produced by a turbine can be used for generating power when combined with a generator or producing thrust. A turbine is a turbomachine with at least one moving part called a rotor assembly, moving fluid acts on the blades so that they move and impart rotational energy to the rotor. Early turbine examples are windmills and waterwheels, gas, steam, and water turbines have a casing around the blades that contains and controls the working fluid. Modern steam turbines frequently employ both reaction and impulse in the unit, typically varying the degree of reaction and impulse from the blade root to its periphery. Benoit Fourneyron, a student of Claude Burdin, built the first practical water turbine. A working fluid contains potential energy and kinetic energy, the fluid may be compressible or incompressible. Several physical principles are employed by turbines to collect this energy, the resulting impulse spins the turbine and leaves the fluid flow with diminished kinetic energy. There is no change of the fluid or gas in the turbine blades, as in the case of a steam or gas turbine. Before reaching the turbine, the pressure head is changed to velocity head by accelerating the fluid with a nozzle. Pelton wheels and de Laval turbines use this process exclusively, Impulse turbines do not require a pressure casement around the rotor since the fluid jet is created by the nozzle prior to reaching the blades on the rotor. Newtons second law describes the transfer of energy for impulse turbines, Impulse turbines are most efficient for use in cases where the flow is low and the inlet pressure is high. Reaction turbines develop torque by reacting to the gas or fluids pressure or mass, the pressure of the gas or fluid changes as it passes through the turbine rotor blades. A pressure casement is needed to contain the working fluid as it acts on the stage or the turbine must be fully immersed in the fluid flow. The casing contains and directs the working fluid and, for water turbines, Francis turbines and most steam turbines use this concept. For compressible working fluids, multiple stages are usually used to harness the expanding gas efficiently. Newtons third law describes the transfer of energy for reaction turbines, reaction turbines are better suited to higher flow velocities or applications where the fluid head is low. In practice, modern designs use both reaction and impulse concepts to varying degrees whenever possible
16.
Steam
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Steam is water in the gas phase, which is formed when water boils. Steam is invisible, however, steam often refers to wet steam, at lower pressures, such as in the upper atmosphere or at the top of high mountains, water boils at a lower temperature than the nominal 100 °C at standard pressure. If heated further it becomes superheated steam, piston type steam engines played a central role to the Industrial Revolution and modern steam turbines are used to generate more than 80% of the worlds electricity. If liquid water comes in contact with a hot surface or depressurizes quickly below its vapor pressure. Steam explosions have been responsible for many accidents, and may also have been responsible for much of the damage to the plant in the Chernobyl disaster. Steam is traditionally created by heating a boiler via burning coal and other fuels, water vapor that includes water droplets is described as wet steam. As wet steam is heated further, the droplets evaporate, and at a high temperature all of the water evaporates. Superheated steam is steam at a higher than its boiling point for the pressure. Steam tables contain thermodynamic data for water/steam and are used by engineers and scientists in design. Additionally, thermodynamic phase diagrams for water/steam, such as a diagram or a Mollier diagram shown in this article. Steam charts are used for analysing thermodynamic cycles. In agriculture, steam is used for sterilization to avoid the use of harmful chemical agents. Steams capacity to transfer heat is used in the home, for cooking vegetables, steam cleaning of fabric, carpets and flooring. In each case, water is heated in a boiler, steam is also used in ironing clothes to add enough humidity with the heat to take wrinkles out and put intentional creases into the clothing. About 90% of all electricity is generated using steam as the working fluid, in electric generation, steam is typically condensed at the end of its expansion cycle, and returned to the boiler for re-use. However, in cogeneration, steam is piped into buildings through a heating system to provide heat energy after its use in the electric generation cycle. The worlds biggest steam generation system is the New York City steam system, in other industrial applications steam is used for energy storage, which is introduced and extracted by heat transfer, usually through pipes. Steam is a reservoir for thermal energy because of waters high heat of vaporization
17.
Steam turbine
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A steam turbine is a device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam and uses it to do mechanical work on a rotating output shaft. Its modern manifestation was invented by Sir Charles Parsons in 1884, in 1551, Taqi al-Din in Ottoman Egypt described a steam turbine with the practical application of rotating a spit. Steam turbines were described by the Italian Giovanni Branca and John Wilkins in England. The devices described by Taqi al-Din and Wilkins are today known as steam jacks, in 1672 an impulse steam turbine driven car was designed by Ferdinand Verbiest. A more modern version of car was produced some time in the late 18th century by an unknown German mechanic. The modern steam turbine was invented in 1884 by Sir Charles Parsons, the invention of Parsons steam turbine made cheap and plentiful electricity possible and revolutionized marine transport and naval warfare. Parsons design was a reaction type and his patent was licensed and the turbine scaled-up shortly after by an American, George Westinghouse. The Parsons turbine also turned out to be easy to scale up. Parsons had the satisfaction of seeing his invention adopted for all major world power stations, a number of other variations of turbines have been developed that work effectively with steam. The de Laval turbine accelerated the steam to full speed before running it against a turbine blade, De Lavals impulse turbine is simpler, less expensive and does not need to be pressure-proof. It can operate with any pressure of steam, but is less efficient. He taught at the École des mines de Saint-Étienne for a decade until 1897, one of the founders of the modern theory of steam and gas turbines was Aurel Stodola, a Slovak physicist and engineer and professor at the Swiss Polytechnical Institute in Zurich. His work Die Dampfturbinen und ihre Aussichten als Wärmekraftmaschinen was published in Berlin in 1903, a further book Dampf und Gas-Turbinen was published in 1922. It was used in John Brown-engined merchant ships and warships, including liners, the present-day manufacturing industry for steam turbines is dominated by Chinese power equipment makers. Other manufacturers with minor market share include Bhel, Siemens, Alstom, GE, Doosan Škoda Power, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, the consulting firm Frost & Sullivan projects that manufacturing of steam turbines will become more consolidated by 2020 as Chinese power manufacturers win increasing business outside of China. There are several classifications for modern steam turbines, Turbine blades are of two basic types, blades and nozzles. Blades move entirely due to the impact of steam on them and this results in a steam velocity drop and essentially no pressure drop as steam moves through the blades. A turbine composed of alternating with fixed nozzles is called an impulse turbine, Curtis turbine, Rateau turbine
18.
Electric generator
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In electricity generation, a generator is a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy for use in an external circuit. Sources of mechanical energy include steam turbines, gas turbines, water turbines, internal combustion engines, the first electromagnetic generator, the Faraday disk, was built in 1831 by British scientist Michael Faraday. Generators provide nearly all of the power for electric power grids, the reverse conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy is done by an electric motor, and motors and generators have many similarities. Many motors can be driven to generate electricity and frequently make acceptable manual generators. Electromagnetic generators fall into one of two categories, dynamos and alternators. The magnetic field of the dynamo or alternator can be provided by either wire windings called field coils or permanent magnets, a generator using permanent magnets is sometimes called a magneto. Armature, The power-producing component of an electrical machine, in a generator, alternator, or dynamo the armature windings generate the electric current, which provides power to an external circuit. The armature can be on either the rotor or the stator, depending on the design, before the connection between magnetism and electricity was discovered, electrostatic generators were invented. They operated on electrostatic principles, by using moving electrically charged belts, plates, the charge was generated using either of two mechanisms, electrostatic induction or the triboelectric effect. Such generators generated very high voltage and low current and their only practical applications were to power early X-ray tubes, and later in some atomic particle accelerators. The operating principle of electromagnetic generators was discovered in the years of 1831–1832 by Michael Faraday, the principle later called Faradays law, is that an electromotive force is generated in an electrical conductor which encircles a varying magnetic flux. He also built the first electromagnetic generator, called the Faraday disk and it produced a small DC voltage. This design was inefficient, due to self-cancelling counterflows of current in regions of the disk that were not under the influence of the magnetic field. While current was induced directly underneath the magnet, the current would circulate backwards in regions that were outside the influence of the magnetic field and this counterflow limited the power output to the pickup wires, and induced waste heating of the copper disc. Later homopolar generators would solve this problem by using an array of magnets arranged around the perimeter to maintain a steady field effect in one current-flow direction. Another disadvantage was that the voltage was very low, due to the single current path through the magnetic flux. Experimenters found that using multiple turns of wire in a coil could produce higher, since the output voltage is proportional to the number of turns, generators could be easily designed to produce any desired voltage by varying the number of turns. Wire windings became a feature of all subsequent generator designs
19.
Condensation
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Condensation is the change of the physical state of matter from gas phase into liquid phase, and is the reverse of evaporation. The word most often refers to the water cycle and it can also be defined as the change in the state of water vapour to liquid water when in contact with a liquid or solid surface or cloud condensation nuclei within the atmosphere. When the transition happens from the phase into the solid phase directly. A few distinct reversibility scenarios emerge here with respect to the nature of the surface, absorption into the surface of a liquid —is reversible as evaporation. Adsorption onto solid surface at pressures and temperatures higher than the species triple point—also reversible as evaporation, adsorption onto solid surface at pressures and temperatures lower than the species triple point—is reversible as sublimation. Condensation commonly occurs when a vapor is cooled and/or compressed to its limit when the molecular density in the gas phase reaches its maximal threshold. Vapor cooling and compressing equipment that collects condensed liquids is called a condenser, psychrometry measures the rates of condensation through evaporation into the air moisture at various atmospheric pressures and temperatures. Water is the product of its vapor condensation—condensation is the process of such phase conversion, condensation is a crucial component of distillation, an important laboratory and industrial chemistry application. Because condensation is a naturally occurring phenomenon, it can often be used to water in large quantities for human use. Many structures are made solely for the purpose of collecting water from condensation, such as air wells and it is also a crucial process in forming particle tracks in a cloud chamber. In this case, ions produced by an incident particle act as centers for the condensation of the vapor producing the visible cloud trails. Furthermore, condensation is a step in many industrial processes, such as power generation, water desalination, thermal management, refrigeration. Numerous living beings use water made accessible by condensation, a few examples of these are the Australian Thorny Devil, the darkling beetles of the Namibian coast, and the Coast Redwoods of the West Coast of the United States. To alleviate these issues, the air humidity needs to be lowered. This can be done in a number of ways, for example opening windows, turning on extractor fans, using dehumidifiers, drying clothes outside and covering pots and pans whilst cooking. Air conditioning or ventilation systems can be installed that help remove moisture from the air, the amount of water vapour that can be stored in the air can be increased simply by increasing the temperature. However, this can be a double edged sword as most condensation in the home occurs when warm, as the air is cooled, it can no longer hold as much water vapour. This leads to deposition of water on the cool surface and this is very apparent when central heating is used in combination with single glazed windows in winter
20.
Surface condenser
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A surface condenser is a commonly used term for a water-cooled shell and tube heat exchanger installed on the exhaust steam from a steam turbine in thermal power stations. These condensers are heat exchangers which convert steam from its gaseous to its state at a pressure below atmospheric pressure. Where cooling water is in supply, an air-cooled condenser is often used. An air-cooled condenser is however, significantly more expensive and cannot achieve as low a steam turbine exhaust pressure as a surface condenser. Surface condensers are used in applications and industries other than the condensing of steam turbine exhaust in power plants. The steam turbine itself is a device to convert the heat in steam to mechanical power, therefore, the more the conversion of heat per pound or kilogram of steam to mechanical power in the turbine, the better is its efficiency. Most of the heat liberated due to condensation of the exhaust steam is carried away by the medium used by the surface condenser. There are many design variations depending on the manufacturer, the size of the steam turbine. The shell is the condensers outermost body and contains the heat exchanger tubes, the shell is fabricated from carbon steel plates and is stiffened as needed to provide rigidity for the shell. When required by the design, intermediate plates are installed to serve as baffle plates that provide the desired flow path of the condensing steam. The plates also provide support that help prevent sagging of long tube lengths, at the bottom of the shell, where the condensate collects, an outlet is installed. In some designs, a sump is provided, condensate is pumped from the outlet or the hotwell for reuse as boiler feedwater. For most water-cooled surface condensers, the shell is under vacuum during normal operating conditions, for water-cooled surface condensers, the shells internal vacuum is most commonly supplied by and maintained by an external steam jet ejector system. Such an ejector system uses steam as the fluid to remove any non-condensible gases that may be present in the surface condenser. The Venturi effect, which is a case of Bernoullis principle. Motor driven mechanical vacuum pumps, such as the ring type, are also popular for this service. At each end of the shell, a sheet of sufficient thickness usually made of steel is provided. The inlet end of tube is also bellmouthed for streamlined entry of water
21.
Rankine cycle
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The Rankine cycle is a model that is used to predict the performance of steam turbine systems, though the theoretical principle also applies to reciprocating engines such as steam locomotives. The Rankine cycle is a thermodynamic cycle of a heat engine that converts heat into mechanical work. The heat is supplied externally to a loop, which usually uses water as the working fluid. It is named after William John Macquorn Rankine, a Scottish polymath, the Rankine cycle closely describes the process by which steam-operated heat engines commonly found in thermal power generation plants generate power. The heat sources used in power plants are usually nuclear fission or the combustion of fossil fuels such as coal, natural gas. The efficiency of the Rankine cycle is limited by the heat of vaporization of the working fluid. This gives a theoretical maximum Carnot efficiency for the turbine alone of about 63. 8% compared with an actual overall thermal efficiency of up to 42% for a modern coal-fired power station. This low steam turbine entry temperature is why the Rankine cycle is used as a bottoming cycle to recover otherwise rejected heat in combined-cycle gas turbine power stations. The working fluid in a Rankine cycle follows a loop and is reused constantly. This exhaust heat is represented by the Qout flowing out of the side of the cycle shown in the T/s diagram below. Cooling towers operate as heat exchangers by absorbing the latent heat of vaporization of the working fluid. The benefit of this is offset by the low temperatures of steam admitted to the turbine, gas turbines, for instance, have turbine entry temperatures approaching 1500°C. However, the efficiency of actual large steam power stations. There are four processes in the Rankine cycle and these states are identified by numbers in the above T-s diagram. Process 1-2, The working fluid is pumped from low to high pressure, as the fluid is a liquid at this stage, the pump requires little input energy. Process 2-3, The high pressure liquid enters a boiler where it is heated at constant pressure by a heat source to become a dry saturated vapour. The input energy required can be easily calculated graphically, using a chart, or numerically. Process 3-4, The dry saturated vapour expands through a turbine and this decreases the temperature and pressure of the vapour, and some condensation may occur
22.
Fossil fuel
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Fossil fuels are fuels formed by natural processes such as anaerobic decomposition of buried dead organisms, containing energy originating in ancient photosynthesis. The age of the organisms and their resulting fossil fuels is typically millions of years, Fossil fuels contain high percentages of carbon and include petroleum, coal, and natural gas. Other commonly used derivatives include kerosene and propane, Fossil fuels range from volatile materials with low carbon, hydrogen ratios like methane, to liquids like petroleum, to nonvolatile materials composed of almost pure carbon, like anthracite coal. Methane can be found in hydrocarbon fields either alone, associated with oil, non-fossil sources in 2006 included nuclear 8. 5%, hydroelectric 6. 3%, and others amounting to 0. 9%. World energy consumption was growing about 2. 3% per year, the use of fossil fuels raises serious environmental concerns. The burning of fossil fuels produces around 21.3 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide per year and it is estimated that natural processes can only absorb about half of that amount, so there is a net increase of 10.65 billion tonnes of atmospheric carbon dioxide per year. Carbon dioxide is a gas that increases radiative forcing and contributes to global warming. A global movement towards the generation of energy is underway to help reduce global greenhouse gas emissions. Over geological time, this matter, mixed with mud. Despite these heat driven transformations, the energy is still photosynthetic in origin. There is a range of organic, or hydrocarbon, compounds in any given fuel mixture. The specific mixture of hydrocarbons gives a fuel its characteristic properties, such as boiling point, melting point, density, viscosity, some fuels like natural gas, for instance, contain only very low boiling, gaseous components. Others such as gasoline or diesel contain much higher boiling components, terrestrial plants, on the other hand, tend to form coal and methane. Many of the coal fields date to the Carboniferous period of Earths history, terrestrial plants also form type III kerogen, a source of natural gas. Fossil fuels are of importance because they can be burned. The use of coal as a fuel predates recorded history, coal was used to run furnaces for the melting of metal ore. Semi-solid hydrocarbons from seeps were also burned in ancient times, commercial exploitation of petroleum, largely as a replacement for oils from animal sources, for use in oil lamps began in the 19th century. Natural gas, once flared-off as an byproduct of petroleum production, is now considered a very valuable resource
23.
Energy
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In physics, energy is the property that must be transferred to an object in order to perform work on – or to heat – the object, and can be converted in form, but not created or destroyed. The SI unit of energy is the joule, which is the transferred to an object by the mechanical work of moving it a distance of 1 metre against a force of 1 newton. Mass and energy are closely related, for example, with a sensitive enough scale, one could measure an increase in mass after heating an object. Living organisms require available energy to stay alive, such as the humans get from food. Civilisation gets the energy it needs from energy resources such as fuels, nuclear fuel. The processes of Earths climate and ecosystem are driven by the radiant energy Earth receives from the sun, the total energy of a system can be subdivided and classified in various ways. It may also be convenient to distinguish gravitational energy, thermal energy, several types of energy, electric energy. Many of these overlap, for instance, thermal energy usually consists partly of kinetic. Some types of energy are a mix of both potential and kinetic energy. An example is energy which is the sum of kinetic. Whenever physical scientists discover that a phenomenon appears to violate the law of energy conservation. Heat and work are special cases in that they are not properties of systems, in general we cannot measure how much heat or work are present in an object, but rather only how much energy is transferred among objects in certain ways during the occurrence of a given process. Heat and work are measured as positive or negative depending on which side of the transfer we view them from, the distinctions between different kinds of energy is not always clear-cut. In contrast to the definition, energeia was a qualitative philosophical concept, broad enough to include ideas such as happiness. The modern analog of this property, kinetic energy, differs from vis viva only by a factor of two, in 1807, Thomas Young was possibly the first to use the term energy instead of vis viva, in its modern sense. Gustave-Gaspard Coriolis described kinetic energy in 1829 in its modern sense, the law of conservation of energy was also first postulated in the early 19th century, and applies to any isolated system. It was argued for years whether heat was a physical substance, dubbed the caloric, or merely a physical quantity. In 1845 James Prescott Joule discovered the link between mechanical work and the generation of heat and these developments led to the theory of conservation of energy, formalized largely by William Thomson as the field of thermodynamics
24.
District heating
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District heating is a system for distributing heat generated in a centralized location for residential and commercial heating requirements such as space heating and water heating. District heating plants can provide higher efficiencies and better control than localized boilers. A combination of CHP and centralized heat pumps are used in the Stockholm multi energy system, the core element of many district heating systems is a heat-only boiler station. Additionally a cogeneration plant is added in parallel with the boilers. Both have in common that they are based on combustion of primary energy carriers. In the case of a fossil fueled cogeneration plant, the output is typically sized to meet half of the peak heat load. The boiler capacity will be able to meet the entire heat demand unaided and it is not economic to size the cogeneration plant alone to be able to meet the full heat load. In the New York City steam system, that is around 2.5 GW, Germany has the largest amount of CHP in Europe. The combination of cogeneration and district heating is very energy efficient, a simple thermal power station can be 20–35% efficient, whereas a more advanced facility with the ability to recover waste heat can reach total energy efficiency of nearly 80%. Some may exceed 100% based on the heating value by condensing the flue gas as well. Waste heat from nuclear plants is sometimes used for district heating. The principles for a combination of cogeneration and district heating applies the same for nuclear as it does for a thermal power station. Russia has several cogeneration nuclear plants which together provided 11.4 PJ of district heat in 2005, Russian nuclear district heating is planned to nearly triple within a decade as new plants are built. Other nuclear-powered heating from cogeneration plants are in Ukraine, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria, one use of nuclear heat generation was with the Ågesta Nuclear Power Plant in Sweden closed in 1974. In Switzerland, the Beznau Nuclear Power Plant provides heat to about 20,000 people, history Geothermal district heating was used in Pompeii, and in Chaudes-Aigues since the 14th Century. In 1890, the first wells were drilled to access a hot water resource outside of Boise, in 1892, after routing the water to homes and businesses in the area via a wooden pipeline, the first geothermal district heating system was created. As of a 2007 study, there were 22 geothermal district heating systems in the United States, as of 2010, two of those systems have shut down. The table below describes the 20 GDHS currently operational in America, use of solar heat for district heating has been increasing in Denmark and Germany in recent years
25.
Desalination
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Desalination is a process that extracts minerals from saline water. More generally, desalination refers to the removal of salts and minerals from a substance, as in soil desalination. Saltwater is desalinated to produce water suitable for consumption or irrigation. One by-product of desalination is salt, Desalination is used on many seagoing ships and submarines. Most of the modern interest in desalination is focused on cost-effective provision of water for human use. Along with recycled wastewater, it is one of the few rainfall-independent water sources, due to its energy consumption, desalinating sea water is generally more costly than fresh water from rivers or groundwater, water recycling and water conservation. However, these alternatives are not always available and depletion of reserves is a problem worldwide. Currently, approximately 1% of the population is dependent on desalinated water to meet daily needs. Desalination is particularly relevant in dry countries such as Australia, which traditionally have relied on collecting rainfall behind dams for water and this number increased from 78.4 million cubic meters in 2013, a 10. 71% increase in 2 years. Kuwait produces a higher proportion of its water than any other country, the traditional process used in these operations is vacuum distillation—essentially boiling it to leave impurities behind. In desalination, atmospheric pressure is reduced, thus lowering the temperature needed. Liquids boil when the pressure equals the ambient pressure and vapor pressure increases with temperature. Thus, because of the temperature, low-temperature waste heat from electrical power generation or industrial processes can be employed. Water is evaporated and separated from sea water through multi-stage flash distillation, each subsequent flash process utilizes energy released from the condensation of the water vapor from the previous step. Multiple effect distillation works through a series of steps called “effects”, incoming water is sprayed onto vertically or, more commonly, horizontally oriented pipes which are then heated to generate steam. The steam is used to heat the next batch of incoming sea water. To increase efficiency, the used to heat the sea water can be taken from nearby power plants. Although this method is the most thermodynamically efficient, a few limitations exist such as a max temperature, vapor compression distillation involves using either a mechanical compressor or a jet stream to compress the vapor present above the liquid
26.
Coal
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Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams. The harder forms, such as coal, can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later exposure to elevated temperature and pressure. Coal is composed primarily of carbon, along with quantities of other elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen. A fossil fuel, coal forms when plant matter is converted into peat, which in turn is converted into lignite, then sub-bituminous coal, after that bituminous coal. This involves biological and geological processes that take place over time, throughout history, coal has been used as an energy resource, primarily burned for the production of electricity and heat, and is also used for industrial purposes, such as refining metals. Coal is the largest source of energy for the generation of electricity worldwide, the extraction of coal, its use in energy production and its byproducts are all associated with environmental and health effects including climate change. Coal is extracted from the ground by coal mining, since 1983, the worlds top coal producer has been China. In 2015 China produced 3,747 million tonnes of coal –47. 7% of 7,861 million tonnes world coal production, in 2015 other large producers were United States, India, European Union and Australia. The word originally took the col in Old English, from Proto-Germanic *kula. In Old Turkic languages, kül is ash, cinders, öčür is quench, the compound charcoal in Turkic is öčür kül, literally quenched ashes, cinders, coals with elided anlaut ö- and inflection affixes -ülmüş. At various times in the geologic past, the Earth had dense forests in low-lying wetland areas, due to natural processes such as flooding, these forests were buried underneath soil. As more and more soil deposited over them, they were compressed, the temperature also rose as they sank deeper and deeper. As the process continued the plant matter was protected from biodegradation and oxidation and this trapped the carbon in immense peat bogs that were eventually covered and deeply buried by sediments. Under high pressure and high temperature, dead vegetation was slowly converted to coal, as coal contains mainly carbon, the conversion of dead vegetation into coal is called carbonization. The wide, shallow seas of the Carboniferous Period provided ideal conditions for coal formation, the exception is the coal gap in the Permian–Triassic extinction event, where coal is rare. Coal is known from Precambrian strata, which predate land plants — this coal is presumed to have originated from residues of algae, in its dehydrated form, peat is a highly effective absorbent for fuel and oil spills on land and water. It is also used as a conditioner for soil to make it able to retain. Lignite, or brown coal, is the lowest rank of coal, jet, a compact form of lignite, is sometimes polished and has been used as an ornamental stone since the Upper Palaeolithic
27.
Nuclear power plant
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A nuclear power plant or nuclear power station is a thermal power station in which the heat source is a nuclear reactor. As is typical in all conventional thermal power stations the heat is used to steam which drives a steam turbine connected to an electric generator which produces electricity. As of 23 April 2014, the IAEA report there are 449 nuclear power reactors in operation operating in 31 countries, Nuclear power stations are usually considered to be base load stations, since fuel is a small part of the cost of production. Their operations and maintenance and fuel costs are, along with stations, at the low end of the spectrum. The cost of spent fuel management, however, is somewhat uncertain, for more history, see nuclear reactor, nuclear power and nuclear fission. The second, larger experiment occurred on December 20,1951 at the EBR-I experimental station near Arco, on June 27,1954, the worlds first nuclear power station to generate electricity for a power grid started operations at the Soviet city of Obninsk. The worlds first full power station, Calder Hall in England. The worlds first full power station solely devoted to electricity production, Shippingport power plant in the United States. The conversion to electrical energy takes place indirectly, as in conventional power stations. The fission in a nuclear reactor heats the reactor coolant, the coolant may be water or gas or even liquid metal depending on the type of reactor. The reactor coolant then goes to a generator and heats water to produce steam. The pressurized steam is then fed to a multi-stage steam turbine. After the steam turbine has expanded and partially condensed the steam, the condenser is a heat exchanger which is connected to a secondary side such as a river or a cooling tower. The water is pumped back into the steam generator and the cycle begins again. The water-steam cycle corresponds to the Rankine cycle, the nuclear reactor is the heart of the station. In its central part, the cores heat is generated by controlled nuclear fission. With this heat, a coolant is heated as it is pumped through the reactor, heat from nuclear fission is used to raise steam, which runs through turbines, which in turn powers the electrical generators. Nuclear reactors usually rely on uranium to fuel the chain reaction, Uranium is a very heavy metal that is abundant on Earth and is found in sea water as well as most rocks
28.
Solar thermal electric
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Solar thermal collectors are classified by the United States Energy Information Administration as low-, medium-, or high-temperature collectors. Low-temperature collectors are flat plates generally used to swimming pools. Medium-temperature collectors are usually flat plates but are used for heating water or air for residential and commercial use. Two categories include Concentrated Solar Thermal for fulfilling heat requirements in industries, CST and CSP are not replaceable in terms of application. The largest facilities are located in the American Mojave Desert of California and these plants employ a variety of different technologies. The largest examples include, Ivanpah Solar Power Facility, Solar Energy Generating Systems installation, Spain is the other major developer of solar thermal power plant. The largest examples include, Solnova Solar Power Station, the Andasol solar power station, augustin Mouchot demonstrated a solar collector with a cooling engine making ice cream at the 1878 Universal Exhibition in Paris. The first installation of thermal energy equipment occurred in the Sahara approximately in 1910 by Frank Shuman when a steam engine was run on steam produced by sunlight. Because liquid fuel engines were developed and found more convenient, the Sahara project was abandoned, in some cases more than one of these functions is inherent to a single feature of the system. Some systems are passive, others are active, Heating is the most obvious application, but solar cooling can be achieved for a building or district cooling network by using a heat-driven absorption or adsorption chiller. There is a coincidence that the greater the driving heat from insulation. In 1878, Auguste Mouchout pioneered solar cooling by making ice using a steam engine attached to a refrigeration device. In the United States, heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems account for over 25% of the used in commercial buildings. Solar heating, cooling, and ventilation technologies can be used to offset a portion of this energy, in Europe, since the mid-1990s about 125 large solar-thermal district heating plants have been constructed, each with over 500 m2 of solar collectors. The largest are about 10,000 m2, with capacities of 7 MW-thermal,40 of them have nominal capacities of 1 MW-thermal or more. The Solar District Heating program has participation from 14 European Nations and the European Commission, and is working toward technical and market development, glazed solar collectors are designed primarily for space heating. They recirculate building air through a solar air panel where the air is heated and these solar space heating systems require at least two penetrations into the building and only perform when the air in the solar collector is warmer than the building room temperature. Most glazed collectors are used in the residential sector, unglazed solar collectors are primarily used to pre-heat make-up ventilation air in commercial, industrial and institutional buildings with a high ventilation load
29.
Incineration
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Incineration is a waste treatment process that involves the combustion of organic substances contained in waste materials. Incineration and other waste treatment systems are described as thermal treatment. Incineration of waste materials converts the waste ash, flue gas. The ash is formed by the inorganic constituents of the waste. The flue gases must be cleaned of gaseous and particulate pollutants before they are dispersed into the atmosphere, in some cases, the heat generated by incineration can be used to generate electric power. Incineration with energy recovery is one of several technologies such as gasification, pyrolysis. Incineration and gasification may also be implemented without energy and materials recovery, in several countries, there are still concerns from experts and local communities about the environmental effect of incinerators. In some countries, incinerators built just a few decades ago often did not include a materials separation to remove hazardous and these facilities tended to risk the health of the plant workers and the local environment due to inadequate levels of gas cleaning and combustion process control. Most of these facilities did not generate electricity, Incinerators reduce the solid mass of the original waste by 80–85% and the volume by 95–96%, depending on composition and degree of recovery of materials such as metals from the ash for recycling. This means that while incineration does not completely replace landfilling, it reduces the necessary volume for disposal. Garbage trucks often reduce the volume of waste in a built-in compressor before delivery to the incinerator, alternatively, at landfills, the volume of the uncompressed garbage can be reduced by approximately 70% by using a stationary steel compressor, albeit with a significant energy cost. In many countries, simpler waste compaction is a practice for compaction at landfills. Examples include chemical multi-product plants with diverse toxic or very toxic wastewater streams, Waste combustion is particularly popular in countries such as Japan where land is a scarce resource. Denmark and Sweden have been leaders in using the energy generated from incineration for more than a century, in localised combined heat, in 2005, waste incineration produced 4. 8% of the electricity consumption and 13. 7% of the total domestic heat consumption in Denmark. A number of other European countries rely heavily on incineration for handling municipal waste, in particular Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Germany, and France. The first UK incinerators for waste disposal were built in Nottingham by Manlove and they were originally known as destructors. The first US incinerator was built in 1885 on Governors Island in New York, the first facility in the Czech Republic was built in 1905 in Brno. An incinerator is a furnace for burning waste, Modern incinerators include pollution mitigation equipment such as flue gas cleaning
30.
Natural gas
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It is formed when layers of decomposing plant and animal matter are exposed to intense heat and pressure under the surface of the Earth over millions of years. The energy that the plants originally obtained from the sun is stored in the form of bonds in the gas. Natural gas is a fuel used as a source of energy for heating, cooking. It is also used as fuel for vehicles and as a feedstock in the manufacture of plastics. Natural gas is found in underground rock formations or associated with other hydrocarbon reservoirs in coal beds. Petroleum is another resource and fossil fuel found in proximity to. Most natural gas was created over time by two mechanisms, biogenic and thermogenic, biogenic gas is created by methanogenic organisms in marshes, bogs, landfills, and shallow sediments. Deeper in the earth, at temperature and pressure, thermogenic gas is created from buried organic material. In petroleum production gas is burnt as flare gas. The World Bank estimates that over 150 cubic kilometers of gas are flared or vented annually. Before natural gas can be used as a fuel, most, Natural gas is often informally referred to simply as gas, especially when compared to other energy sources such as oil or coal. However, it is not to be confused with gasoline, especially in North America, Natural gas was used by the Chinese in about 500 BCE. They discovered a way to transport gas seeping from the ground in crude pipelines of bamboo to where it was used to salt water to extract the salt. The worlds first industrial extraction of gas started at Fredonia, New York. By 2009,66000 km³ had been used out of the total 850000 km³ of estimated remaining reserves of natural gas. An annual increase in usage of 2–3% could result in currently recoverable reserves lasting significantly less, unwanted natural gas was a disposal problem in the active oil fields. If there was not a market for natural gas near the wellhead it was expensive to pipe to the end user. In the 19th century and early 20th century, unwanted gas was burned off at oil fields
31.
Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion
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Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion refers to the combustion-product gas resulting from the burning of fossil fuels. Most fossil fuels are combusted with ambient air, since ambient air contains about 79 volume percent gaseous nitrogen, which is essentially non-combustible, the largest part of the flue gas from most fossil-fuel combustion is uncombusted nitrogen. Carbon dioxide, the next largest part of flue gas, can be as much as 10−25 volume percent or more of the flue gas and this is closely followed in volume by water vapor created by the combustion of the hydrogen in the fuel with atmospheric oxygen. Much of the smoke seen pouring from flue gas stacks is this water vapor forming a cloud as it contacts cool air, a typical flue gas from the combustion of fossil fuels contains very small amounts of nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide and particulate matter. The nitrogen oxides are derived from the nitrogen in the ambient air as well as from any nitrogen-containing compounds in the fossil fuel, the sulfur dioxide is derived from any sulfur-containing compounds in the fuels. The particulate matter is composed of small particles of solid materials. The table below presents the total amounts of flue gas generated by the burning of fossil fuels such as natural gas, fuel oil. The data were obtained by stoichiometric calculations and it is of interest to note that the total amount of flue gas generated by coal combustion is only 10 percent higher than the flue gas generated by natural-gas combustion. Note, m³ are standard cubic meters at 0 °C and 101.325 kPa, and scf is standard cubic feet at 60 °F and 14.696 psia
32.
Gas turbine
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A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a type of internal combustion engine. It has an upstream rotating compressor coupled to a turbine. The basic operation of the gas turbine is similar to that of the power plant except that the working fluid is air instead of water. Fresh atmospheric air flows through a compressor that brings it to higher pressure, energy is then added by spraying fuel into the air and igniting it so the combustion generates a high-temperature flow. This high-temperature high-pressure gas enters a turbine, where it expands down to the exhaust pressure, the turbine shaft work is used to drive the compressor and other devices such as an electric generator that may be coupled to the shaft. The energy that is not used for shaft work comes out in the exhaust gases, the purpose of the gas turbine determines the design so that the most desirable energy form is maximized. Gas turbines are used to power aircraft, trains, ships, electrical generators,50, Heros Engine — Apparently, Heros steam engine was taken to be no more than a toy, and thus its full potential not realized for centuries. 1000, The Trotting Horse Lamp was used by the Chinese at lantern fairs as early as the Northern Song dynasty. When the lamp is lit, the heated airflow rises and drives an impeller with horse-riding figures attached on it,1629, Jets of steam rotated an impulse turbine that then drove a working stamping mill by means of a bevel gear, developed by Giovanni Branca. 1678, Ferdinand Verbiest built a model carriage relying on a jet for power. 1791, A patent was given to John Barber, an Englishman and his invention had most of the elements present in the modern day gas turbines. The turbine was designed to power a horseless carriage,1861, British patent no.1633 was granted to Marc Antoine Francois Mennons for a Caloric engine. The patent shows that it was a gas turbine and the show it applied to a locomotive. Also named in the patent was Nicolas de Telescheff, a Russian aviation pioneer,1872, A gas turbine engine was designed by Franz Stolze, but the engine never ran under its own power. 1894, Sir Charles Parsons patented the idea of propelling a ship with a turbine, and built a demonstration vessel. This principle of propulsion is still of some use,1895, Three 4-ton 100 kW Parsons radial flow generators were installed in Cambridge Power Station, and used to power the first electric street lighting scheme in the city. 1899, Charles Gordon Curtis patented the first gas engine in the USA. 1900, Sanford Alexander Moss submitted a thesis on gas turbines, in 1903, Moss became an engineer for General Electrics Steam Turbine Department in Lynn, Massachusetts
33.
Boiler
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A boiler is a closed vessel in which water or other fluid is heated. The fluid does not necessarily boil, the heated or vaporized fluid exits the boiler for use in various processes or heating applications, including water heating, central heating, boiler-based power generation, cooking, and sanitation. The pressure vessel of a boiler is usually made of steel, stainless steel, especially of the austenitic types, is not used in wetted parts of boilers due to corrosion and stress corrosion cracking. In live steam models, copper or brass is used because it is more easily fabricated in smaller size boilers. For much of the Victorian age of steam, the material used for boilermaking was the highest grade of wrought iron. In the 20th century, design practice instead moved towards the use of steel, which is stronger and cheaper, with welded construction, which is quicker and requires less labour. It should be noted, however, that wrought iron boilers corrode far slower than their steel counterparts. This makes the longevity of older wrought-iron boilers far superior to those of welded steel boilers, cast iron may be used for the heating vessel of domestic water heaters. Although such heaters are usually termed boilers in some countries, their purpose is usually to produce hot water, not steam, the brittleness of cast iron makes it impractical for high-pressure steam boilers. The source of heat for a boiler is combustion of any of several fuels, such as wood, coal, oil, electric steam boilers use resistance- or immersion-type heating elements. Nuclear fission is used as a heat source for generating steam, either directly or, in most cases. Heat recovery steam generators use the heat rejected from other such as gas turbine. 18th century Haycock boilers generally produced and stored large volumes of very low-pressure steam and these could burn wood or most often, coal. Flued boiler with one or two large flues—an early type or forerunner of fire-tube boiler, fire-tube boiler, Here, water partially fills a boiler barrel with a small volume left above to accommodate the steam. This is the type of boiler used in nearly all steam locomotives, the heat source is inside a furnace or firebox that has to be kept permanently surrounded by the water in order to maintain the temperature of the heating surface below the boiling point. Fire-tube boilers usually have a low rate of steam production. Fire-tube boilers mostly burn solid fuels, but are adaptable to those of the liquid or gas variety. Water-tube boiler, In this type, tubes filled with water are arranged inside a furnace in a number of possible configurations and this type generally gives high steam production rates, but less storage capacity than the above
34.
Waste heat
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The need for many systems to reject heat as a by-product of their operation is fundamental to the laws of thermodynamics. Waste heat has lower utility than the energy source. Sources of waste heat include all manner of activities, natural systems. Rejection of unneeded cold is also a form of waste heat, thermal energy storage, which includes technologies both for short- and long-term retention of heat or cold, can create or improve the utility of waste heat. One example is waste heat from air conditioning machinery stored in a tank to aid in night time heating. Another is seasonal thermal energy storage at a foundry in Sweden, the heat is stored in the bedrock surrounding a cluster of heat exchanger equipped boreholes, and is used for space heating in an adjacent factory as needed, even months later. Another STES application is storing winter cold underground, for air conditioning. On a biological scale, all organisms reject waste heat as part of their metabolic processes, anthropogenic waste heat is thought by some to contribute to the urban heat island effect. The biggest point sources of waste heat originate from machines and heat loss through building envelopes, the burning of transport fuels is a major contribution to waste heat. Machines converting energy contained in fuels to work or electric energy produce heat as a by-product. In the majority of applications, energy is required in multiple forms. These energy forms typically include some combination of, heating, ventilation, often, these additional forms of energy are produced by a heat engine, running on a source of high-temperature heat. A heat engine can never have perfect efficiency, according to the law of thermodynamics. This is commonly referred to as heat or secondary heat. This heat is useful for the majority of heating applications, however, it is not practical to transport heat energy over long distances. The largest proportions of total waste heat are from power stations, the largest single sources are power stations and industrial plants such as oil refineries and steelmaking plants. The electrical efficiency of power plants is defined as the ratio between the input and output energy. The images show cooling towers which allow power stations to maintain the low side of the temperature difference essential for conversion of heat differences to other forms of energy, discarded or Waste heat that is lost to the environment may instead be used to advantage
35.
Heat recovery steam generator
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A heat recovery steam generator is an energy recovery heat exchanger that recovers heat from a hot gas stream. It produces steam that can be used in a process or used to drive a steam turbine, HRSGs consist of four major components, the economizer, evaporator, superheater and water preheater. The different components are put together to meet the requirements of the unit. See the attached illustration of a Modular HRSG General Arrangement, Modular HRSGs can be categorized by a number of ways such as direction of exhaust gases flow or number of pressure levels. Based on the flow of exhaust gases, HRSGs are categorized into vertical and horizontal types, in horizontal type HRSGs, exhaust gas flows horizontally over vertical tubes whereas in vertical type HRSGs, exhaust gas flow vertically over horizontal tubes. Based on pressure levels, HRSGs can be categorized into single pressure, single pressure HRSGs have only one steam drum and steam is generated at single pressure level whereas multi pressure HRSGs employ two or three steam drums. As such triple pressure HRSGs consist of three sections, an LP section, a section, and an HP section. Each section has a drum and an evaporator section where water is converted to steam. This steam then passes through superheaters to raise the temperature beyond the saturation point, packaged HRSGs are designed to be shipped as a fully assembled unit from the factory. They can be used in heat or turbine applications. The packaged HRSG can have a furnace, which allows for higher supplemental firing. Some HRSGs include supplemental, or duct firing and these additional burners provide additional energy to the HRSG, which produces more steam and hence increases the output of the steam turbine. Generally, duct firing provides electrical output at lower capital cost and it is therefore often utilized for peaking operations. HRSGs can also have diverter valves to regulate the flow into the HRSG. This allows the gas turbine to continue to operate when there is no demand or if the HRSG needs to be taken offline. Emissions controls may also be located in the HRSG, some may contain a Selective Catalytic Reduction system to reduce nitrogen oxides and/or a catalyst to remove carbon monoxide. The inclusion of an SCR dramatically affects the layout of the HRSG, NOx catalyst performs best in temperatures between 650 °F and 750 °F. This usually means that the section of the HRSG will have to be split
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Combined cycle
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By combining these multiple streams of work upon a single mechanical shaft turning an electric generator, the overall net efficiency of the system may be increased by 50–60%. That is, from an efficiency of say 34% to possibly an overall efficiency of 51% in net Carnot thermodynamic efficiency. This can be done because heat engines are able to use a portion of the energy their fuel generates. In an ordinary heat engine the heat from combustion is generally wasted. Combining two or more thermodynamic cycles results in improved efficiency, reducing fuel costs. In stationary power plants, a widely used combination is a gas turbine burning natural gas or synthesis gas from coal, many new gas power plants in North America and Europe are of the Combined Cycle Gas Turbine type. Such an arrangement is used for marine propulsion, and is called a combined gas. Multiple stage turbine or steam cycles are also common, however, it is common in cold climates to drive community heating systems from a power plants condenser heat. Such cogeneration systems can yield theoretical efficiencies above 95%, in automotive and aeronautical engines, turbines have been driven from the exhausts of Otto and Diesel cycles. The thermodynamic cycle of the combined cycle consists of two power plant cycles. One is the Joule or Brayton cycle which is a gas turbine cycle, the cycle 1-2-3-4-1 which is the gas turbine power plant cycle is the topping cycle. It depicts the heat and work transfer process taking place in high temperature region, the cycle a-b-c-d-e-f-a which is the Rankine steam cycle takes place at a low temperature and is known as the bottoming cycle. Transfer of heat energy from high temperature exhaust gas to water, during the constant pressure process 4-1 the exhaust gases in the gas turbine reject heat. The feed water, wet and super heated steam absorb some of this heat in the process a-b, b-c, the steam power plant gets its input heat from the high temperature exhaust gases from gas turbine power plant. The steam generated thus can be used to drive steam turbine, the Waste Heat Recovery Boiler has 3 sections, Economiser, evaporator and superheater. In a thermal station, water is the working medium. High pressure steam requires strong, bulky components, high temperatures require expensive alloys made from nickel or cobalt, rather than inexpensive steel. These alloys limit practical steam temperatures to 655 °C while the temperature of a steam plant is fixed by the temperature of the cooling water
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Fuel oil
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Fuel oil, is a fraction obtained from petroleum distillation, either as a distillate or a residue. In this sense, diesel is a type of fuel oil, Fuel oil is made of long hydrocarbon chains, particularly alkanes, cycloalkanes and aromatics. The term fuel oil is used in a stricter sense to refer only to the heaviest commercial fuel that can be obtained from crude oil, i. e. heavier than gasoline. In some countries, the fuel oil usually refers specifically to diesel fuel while in Australia. Although the following trends generally hold true, different organizations may have different numerical specifications for the six fuel grades, the boiling point and carbon chain length of the fuel increases with fuel oil number. Viscosity also increases with number, and the heaviest oil must be heated for it to flow, price usually decreases as the fuel number increases. Number 1 fuel oil is a distillate oil intended for vaporizing pot-type burners. It is the kerosene refinery cut that boils off immediately after the heavy naphtha cut used for gasoline, former names include, coal oil, stove oil and range oil. Number 2 fuel oil is a home heating oil. This fuel is known as Bunker A. Trucks and some cars use similar diesel fuel with a cetane number limit describing the quality of the fuel. Both are typically obtained from the gas oil cut. Gas oil refers to the use of this fraction in the late 19th. Number 3 fuel oil was an oil for burners requiring low-viscosity fuel. ASTM merged this grade into the number 2 specification, and the term has been used since the mid-20th century. Number 4 fuel oil is a heating oil for burner installations not equipped with preheaters. It may be obtained from the gas oil cut. Number 5 fuel oil is an industrial heating oil requiring preheating to 77–104 °C for proper atomization at the burners
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Fossil fuel power station
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A fossil fuel power station is a power station which burns fossil fuel such as coal, natural gas, or petroleum to produce electricity. Central station fossil fuel power plants are designed on a scale for continuous operation. In many countries, such plants provide most of the energy used. Fossil fuel power stations have machinery to convert the energy of combustion into mechanical energy. The prime mover may be a steam turbine, a gas turbine or, in small plants, all plants use the energy extracted from expanding gas, either steam or combustion gases. Very few MHD generators have been built which directly convert the energy of moving hot gas into electricity, by products of thermal power plant operation must be considered in their design and operation. The flue gas from combustion of the fuels is discharged to the air. This gas contains carbon dioxide and water vapor, as well as other such as nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, mercury, traces of other metals. Solid waste ash from coal-fired boilers must also be removed, some coal ash can be recycled for building materials. Fossil fueled power stations are major emitters of carbon dioxide, a gas which according to a consensus opinion of scientific organisations is a contributor to global warming. S. From a single coal-fired power plant, however, as of 2015, no such cases have awarded damages in the U. S. Per unit of energy, brown coal emits nearly two times as much CO2 as natural gas, and black coal emits somewhat less than brown. Carbon capture and storage of emissions is not currently available, each fossil fuel power plant is a complex, custom-designed system. Construction costs, as of 2004, run to US$1,300 per kilowatt, multiple generating units may be built at a single site for more efficient use of land, natural resources and labor. Most thermal power stations in the world use fossil fuel, outnumbering nuclear, geothermal, biomass, the second law of thermodynamics states that any closed-loop cycle can only convert a fraction of the heat produced during combustion into mechanical work. The rest of the heat, called heat, must be released into a cooler environment during the return portion of the cycle. The fraction of heat released into a cooler medium must be equal or larger than the ratio of temperatures of the cooling system. Raising the furnace temperature improves the efficiency but complicates the design, primarily by the selection of used for construction
39.
Biomass
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Biomass is an industry term for getting energy by burning wood, and other organic matter. It has become popular among power stations, which switch from coal to biomass to comply with the law. Biomass most often refers to plants or plant-based materials that are not used for food or feed, as an energy source, biomass can either be used directly via combustion to produce heat, or indirectly after converting it to various forms of biofuel. Conversion of biomass to biofuel can be achieved by different methods which are classified into, thermal, chemical. Historically, humans have harnessed biomass-derived energy since the time people began burning wood to make fire. Even today, biomass is the source of fuel for domestic use in many developing countries. Biomass is all biologically-produced matter based in carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, the estimated biomass production in the world is 104.9 petagrams of carbon per year, about half in the ocean and half on land. Wood remains the largest biomass energy source today, examples include forest residues, yard clippings, wood chips, wood energy is derived by using lignocellulosic biomass as fuel. Harvested wood may be used directly as a fuel or collected from waste streams to be processed into pellet fuel or other forms of fuels. The largest source of energy from wood is pulping liquor or black liquor, in the second sense, biomass includes plant or animal matter that can be converted into fibers or other industrial chemicals, including biofuels. Based on the source of biomass, biofuels are classified broadly into two major categories, first-generation biofuels are derived from sources such as sugarcane and corn starch. Sugars present in this biomass are fermented to produce bioethanol, a fuel which can be used directly in a fuel cell to produce electricity or serve as an additive to gasoline. However, utilizing food-based resources for production only aggravates the food shortage problem. Second-generation biofuels, on the hand, utilize non-food-based biomass sources such as agriculture. These biofuels mostly consist of lignocellulosic biomass, which is not edible and is a waste for many industries. Despite being the alternative, economical production of second-generation biofuel is not yet achieved due to technological issues. These issues arise due to chemical inertness and structural rigidity of lignocellulosic biomass. Plant energy is produced by crops grown for use as fuel that offer high biomass output per hectare with low input energy
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Cogeneration
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Cogeneration or combined heat and power is the use of a heat engine or power station to generate electricity and useful heat at the same time. Trigeneration or combined cooling, heat and power refers to the generation of electricity. Cogeneration is a more efficient use of fuel. All thermal power plants emit heat during electricity generation, which is discarded as waste heat into the environment through cooling towers, flue gas. This is also called combined heat and power district heating, small CHP plants are an example of decentralized energy. By-product heat at moderate temperatures can also be used in absorption refrigerators for cooling, at smaller scales a gas engine or diesel engine may be used. Trigeneration differs from cogeneration in that the heat is used for both heating and cooling, typically in an absorption refrigerator. CCHP systems can attain higher overall efficiencies than cogeneration or traditional power plants, in the United States, the application of trigeneration in buildings is called building cooling, heating and power. Heating and cooling output may operate concurrently or alternately depending on need, Cogeneration was practiced in some of the earliest installations of electrical generation. Before central stations distributed power, industries generating their own power used exhaust steam for process heating, large office and apartment buildings, hotels and stores commonly generated their own power and used waste steam for building heat. Due to the high cost of early purchased power, these CHP operations continued for years after utility electricity became available. Thermal power plants, and heat engines in general, do not convert all of their energy into electricity. In most heat engines, more than half is lost as excess heat, by capturing the excess heat, CHP uses heat that would be wasted in a conventional power plant, potentially reaching an efficiency of up to 80%. This means that less fuel needs to be consumed to produce the amount of useful energy. A typical power generation turbine in a mill may have extraction pressures of 160 psig and 60 psig. A typical back pressure may be 60 psig, in practice these pressures are custom designed for each facility. The extracted or exhaust steam is used for heating, such as drying paper, evaporation. Steam at ordinary process heating conditions still has an amount of enthalpy that could be used for power generation
41.
Three-phase
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In electrical engineering, three-phase electric power systems have at least three conductors carrying alternating current voltages that are offset in time by one-third of the period. A three-phase system may be arranged in delta or star, harmonic current in the neutral may become very large if non-linear loads are connected. Generally, in power systems, the loads are distributed as evenly as is practical between the phases. It is usual practice to discuss a balanced system first and then describe the effects of unbalanced systems as deviations from the elementary case. An important property of three-phase power is that the power available to a resistive load and this is essential for keeping large generators and motors running smoothly. The neutral current is the vector sum of the line currents. In practice, systems rarely have perfectly balanced loads, currents, the analysis of unbalanced cases is greatly simplified by the use of the techniques of symmetrical components. An unbalanced system is analysed as the superposition of three balanced systems, each with the positive, negative or zero sequence of balanced voltages, when specifying wiring sizes in a three-phase system, we only need to know the magnitude of the phase and neutral currents. The neutral current can be determined by adding the three phase currents together as complex numbers and then converting from rectangular to polar co-ordinates, devices that utilize rectifier-capacitor front ends introduce third order harmonics. Third harmonic currents are in-phase on each of the supply phases, any polyphase system, by virtue of the time displacement of the currents in the phases, makes it possible to easily generate a magnetic field that revolves at the line frequency. Such a revolving magnetic field makes polyphase induction motors possible, the field produced by a single-phase winding can provide energy to a motor already rotating, but without auxiliary mechanisms the motor will not accelerate from a stop when energized. A rotating magnetic field of steady amplitude requires that all three phase currents be equal in magnitude, and accurately displaced one-third of a cycle in phase, unbalanced operation results in undesirable effects on motors and generators. Such arrays will evenly balance the load between the phases of the source system. For example, balanced two-phase power can be obtained from a network by using two specially constructed transformers, with taps at 50% and 86. 6% of the primary voltage. This Scott T connection produces a true two-phase system with 90° time difference between the phases, another example is the generation of higher-phase-order systems for large rectifier systems, to produce a smoother DC output and to reduce the harmonic currents in the supply. When three-phase is needed but only single-phase is readily available from the electricity supplier and it is possible to measure the power in a three-phase system using two transducers when there is no neutral, or three transducers when there is neutral. Blondels theorem states that the number of measurement elements required is one less than the number of current-carrying conductors, mcGraw-Hill Electrical and Electronic Engineering Series
42.
Utility frequency
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The utility frequency, line frequency or mains frequency is the nominal frequency of the oscillations of alternating current in an electric power grid transmitted from a power station to the end-user. In large parts of the world this is 50 Hz, although in the Americas, current usage by country or region is given in the list of mains power around the world. During the development of electric power systems in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Large investment in equipment at one frequency made standardization a slow process, however, as of the turn of the 21st century, places that now use the 50 Hz frequency tend to use 220–240 V, and those that now use 60 Hz tend to use 100–127 V. Both frequencies coexist today with no technical reason to prefer one over the other. Unless specified by the manufacturer to operate on both 50 and 60 Hz, appliances may not operate efficiently or even if used on anything other than the intended frequency. In practice, the frequency of the grid varies around the nominal frequency, reducing when the grid is heavily loaded. However, most utilities will adjust the frequency of the grid over the course of the day to ensure a constant number of cycles occur and this is used by some clocks to accurately maintain their time. Several factors influence the choice of frequency in an AC system, lighting, motors, transformers, generators and transmission lines all have characteristics which depend on the power frequency. All of these factors interact and make selection of a power frequency a matter of considerable importance, the best frequency is a compromise between contradictory requirements. When large central generating stations became practical, the choice of frequency was made based on the nature of the intended load, eventually improvements in machine design allowed a single frequency to be used both for lighting and motor loads. A unified system improved the economics of electricity production, since system load was more uniform during the course of a day, the first applications of commercial electric power were incandescent lighting and commutator-type electric motors. Both devices operate well on DC, but DC could not be changed in voltage. Commutator-type motors do not operate well on high-frequency AC, because the changes of current are opposed by the inductance of the motor field. Though commutator-type universal motors are common in AC household appliances and power tools, they are small motors, less than 1 kW. The induction motor was found to work well on frequencies around 50 to 60 Hz, once AC electric motors became common, it was important to standardize frequency for compatibility with the customers equipment. Generators operated by slow-speed reciprocating engines will produce lower frequencies, for a number of poles, than those operated by, for example. For very slow prime mover speeds, it would be costly to build a generator with enough poles to provide a high AC frequency, as well, synchronizing two generators to the same speed was found to be easier at lower speeds
43.
Hertz
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The hertz is the unit of frequency in the International System of Units and is defined as one cycle per second. It is named for Heinrich Rudolf Hertz, the first person to provide proof of the existence of electromagnetic waves. Hertz are commonly expressed in SI multiples kilohertz, megahertz, gigahertz, kilo means thousand, mega meaning million, giga meaning billion and tera for trillion. Some of the units most common uses are in the description of waves and musical tones, particularly those used in radio-. It is also used to describe the speeds at which computers, the hertz is equivalent to cycles per second, i. e. 1/second or s −1. In English, hertz is also used as the plural form, as an SI unit, Hz can be prefixed, commonly used multiples are kHz, MHz, GHz and THz. One hertz simply means one cycle per second,100 Hz means one hundred cycles per second, and so on. The unit may be applied to any periodic event—for example, a clock might be said to tick at 1 Hz, the rate of aperiodic or stochastic events occur is expressed in reciprocal second or inverse second in general or, the specific case of radioactive decay, becquerels. Whereas 1 Hz is 1 cycle per second,1 Bq is 1 aperiodic radionuclide event per second, the conversion between a frequency f measured in hertz and an angular velocity ω measured in radians per second is ω =2 π f and f = ω2 π. This SI unit is named after Heinrich Hertz, as with every International System of Units unit named for a person, the first letter of its symbol is upper case. Note that degree Celsius conforms to this rule because the d is lowercase. — Based on The International System of Units, the hertz is named after the German physicist Heinrich Hertz, who made important scientific contributions to the study of electromagnetism. The name was established by the International Electrotechnical Commission in 1930, the term cycles per second was largely replaced by hertz by the 1970s. One hobby magazine, Electronics Illustrated, declared their intention to stick with the traditional kc. Mc. etc. units, sound is a traveling longitudinal wave which is an oscillation of pressure. Humans perceive frequency of waves as pitch. Each musical note corresponds to a frequency which can be measured in hertz. An infants ear is able to perceive frequencies ranging from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz, the range of ultrasound, infrasound and other physical vibrations such as molecular and atomic vibrations extends from a few femtoHz into the terahertz range and beyond. Electromagnetic radiation is described by its frequency—the number of oscillations of the perpendicular electric and magnetic fields per second—expressed in hertz. Radio frequency radiation is measured in kilohertz, megahertz, or gigahertz
44.
HVAC
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Heating, ventilation and air conditioning is the technology of indoor and vehicular environmental comfort. Its goal is to provide comfort and acceptable indoor air quality. HVAC system design is a subdiscipline of mechanical engineering, based on the principles of thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, Refrigeration is sometimes added to the fields abbreviation as HVAC&R or HVACR, or ventilating is dropped as in HACR. Ventilation removes unpleasant smells and excessive moisture, introduces outside air, keeps interior building air circulating, ventilation includes both the exchange of air to the outside as well as circulation of air within the building. It is one of the most important factors for maintaining acceptable indoor air quality in buildings, methods for ventilating a building may be divided into mechanical/forced and natural types. HVAC systems can be used in domestic and commercial environments. HVAC systems can provide ventilation, reduce air infiltration, and maintain pressure relationships between spaces, the means of air delivery and removal from spaces is known as room air distribution. In modern buildings the design, installation, and control systems of functions are integrated into one or more HVAC systems. For very small buildings, contractors normally estimate the capacity, engineer, for larger buildings, building service designers, mechanical engineers, or building services engineers analyze, design, and specify the HVAC systems. Specialty mechanical contractors then fabricate and commission the systems, Building permits and code-compliance inspections of the installations are normally required for all sizes of building. HVAC is based on inventions and discoveries made by Nikolay Lvov, Michael Faraday, Willis Carrier, Edwin Ruud, Reuben Trane, James Joule, William Rankine, Sadi Carnot, heaters are appliances whose purpose is to generate heat for the building. This can be done via central heating, such a system contains a boiler, furnace, or heat pump to heat water, steam, or air in a central location such as a furnace room in a home, or a mechanical room in a large building. The heat can be transferred by convection, conduction, or radiation, heaters exist for various types of fuel, including solid fuels, liquids, and gases. Another type of source is electricity, normally heating ribbons composed of high resistance wire. This principle is used for baseboard heaters and portable heaters. Electrical heaters are used as backup or supplemental heat for heat pump systems. The heat pump gained popularity in the 1950s in Japan and the United States, heat pumps can extract heat from various sources, such as environmental air, exhaust air from a building, or from the ground. In the case of heated water or steam, piping is used to transport the heat to the rooms, most modern hot water boiler heating systems have a circulator, which is a pump, to move hot water through the distribution system
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Navy
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A navy or maritime force is a fleet of waterborne military vessels and its associated naval aviation, both sea-based and land-based. It is the branch of an armed forces principally designated for naval and amphibious warfare, namely, lake-borne, riverine, littoral, or ocean-borne combat operations. The strategic offensive role of a navy is projection of force into areas beyond a countrys shores, the strategic defensive purpose of a navy is to frustrate seaborne projection-of-force by enemies. The strategic task of the navy also may incorporate nuclear deterrence by use of submarine-launched ballistic missiles. In most nations, the naval, as opposed to navy, is interpreted as encompassing all maritime military forces, e. g. navy, marine / marine corps. First attested in English in the early 14th century, the navy came via Old French navie, fleet of ships, from the Latin navigium, a vessel. The word naval came from Latin navalis, pertaining to ship, cf. Greek ναῦς, ship, ναύτης, seaman, the earliest attested form of the word is in the Mycenaean Greek compound word
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Nuclear marine propulsion
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Nuclear marine propulsion is propulsion of a ship or submarine with heat provided by a nuclear power plant. The power plant heats water to steam and it is this steam that powers the steam turbines. The power is transferred to a gearbox that reduces the ratio by around 50 to 1. Naval nuclear propulsion is used specifically within naval warships, very few experimental civil nuclear ships have been built. The ship or submarine will be fitted with one power plant. The plant is divided two sides, port and starboard. This division of the plant provides a safety net should one side fail to function, water is used to transfer heat generated by the power plant to steam generators. Since water vaporizes at 100 °C at normal pressure the system is pressurized, to transfer the heated water there are two sets of pumps on each side. The steam is provided by water commonly referred to as feed water and this feed water is sea water pumped into the boat and desalinated. The desalinated water is fed to the steam generators. The primary circuit then heats the water turning it to steam. The steam passes through several driers and onto the steam stop valve as super heated dry steam. The Russian, US and British navies rely on steam propulsion, while the French. Most nuclear submarines have a reactor, but Russian submarines. Most American aircraft carriers are powered by two reactors, but USS Enterprise had eight, the majority of marine reactors are of the pressurized water type, although the US and Soviet navies have designed warships powered with liquid metal cooled reactors. Marine-type reactors differ from land-based commercial electric power reactors in several respects, while land-based reactors in nuclear power plants produce up to around 1600 megawatts of power, a typical marine propulsion reactor produces no more than a few hundred megawatts. Space considerations dictate that a marine reactor must be physically small and this means its components are subject to greater stresses than those of a land-based reactor. Its mechanical systems must operate flawlessly under the conditions encountered at sea, including vibration
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Turbo-electric transmission
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Turbo-electric drives are used in some rail locomotives and ships. An advantage of turbo-electric transmission is that it allows the adaptation of high-speed turning turbines to the slowly turning propellers or wheels without the need of a heavy and complex gearbox. It also has the advantage of being able to provide electricity for the ship or trains other electrical systems, such as lighting, computers, radar, the Paddle Wheel to Electric Drive. — detailed article with drawing and charts on turbo-electric drive for ships and the advantages
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Electric motor
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An electric motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. The reverse of this is the conversion of energy into electrical energy and is done by an electric generator. In normal motoring mode, most electric motors operate through the interaction between an electric motors magnetic field and winding currents to generate force within the motor, small motors may be found in electric watches. General-purpose motors with highly standardized dimensions and characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for industrial use, the largest of electric motors are used for ship propulsion, pipeline compression and pumped-storage applications with ratings reaching 100 megawatts. Electric motors may be classified by electric power source type, internal construction, application, type of motion output, perhaps the first electric motors were simple electrostatic devices created by the Scottish monk Andrew Gordon in the 1740s. The theoretical principle behind production of force by the interactions of an electric current. The conversion of energy into mechanical energy by electromagnetic means was demonstrated by the British scientist Michael Faraday in 1821. A free-hanging wire was dipped into a pool of mercury, on which a permanent magnet was placed, when a current was passed through the wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the current gave rise to a close circular magnetic field around the wire. This motor is often demonstrated in experiments, brine substituting for toxic mercury. Though Barlows wheel was a refinement to this Faraday demonstration. In 1827, Hungarian physicist Ányos Jedlik started experimenting with electromagnetic coils, after Jedlik solved the technical problems of the continuous rotation with the invention of the commutator, he called his early devices electromagnetic self-rotors. Although they were used only for instructional purposes, in 1828 Jedlik demonstrated the first device to contain the three components of practical DC motors, the stator, rotor and commutator. The device employed no permanent magnets, as the fields of both the stationary and revolving components were produced solely by the currents flowing through their windings. His motor set a record which was improved only four years later in September 1838 by Jacobi himself. His second motor was powerful enough to drive a boat with 14 people across a wide river and it was not until 1839/40 that other developers worldwide managed to build motors of similar and later also of higher performance. The first commutator DC electric motor capable of turning machinery was invented by the British scientist William Sturgeon in 1832, following Sturgeons work, a commutator-type direct-current electric motor made with the intention of commercial use was built by the American inventor Thomas Davenport, which he patented in 1837. The motors ran at up to 600 revolutions per minute, and powered machine tools, due to the high cost of primary battery power, the motors were commercially unsuccessful and Davenport went bankrupt. Several inventors followed Sturgeon in the development of DC motors but all encountered the same battery power cost issues, no electricity distribution had been developed at the time
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Marine propulsion
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Marine propulsion is the mechanism or system used to generate thrust to move a ship or boat across water. Marine engineering is the discipline concerned with the design process of marine propulsion systems. Nuclear reactors producing steam are used to propel warships and icebreakers, nuclear reactors to power commercial vessels has not been adopted by the marine industry. Electric motors using electric battery storage have been used for propulsion on submarines, development in liquefied natural gas fueled engines are gaining recognition for their low emissions and cost advantages. Stirling engines, which are efficient, quieter, smoother running producing less harmful emissions than diesel engines. The Stirling engine has yet to be upscaled for larger surface ships, until the application of the coal-fired steam engine to ships in the early 19th century, oars or the wind were used to assist watercraft propulsion. Merchant ships predominantly used sail, but during periods when naval warfare depended on ships closing to ram or to fight hand-to-hand, galley were preferred for their manoeuvrability, the Greek navies that fought in the Peloponnesian War used triremes, as did the Romans at the Battle of Actium. In modern times, human propulsion is found mainly on boats or as auxiliary propulsion on sailboats. Human propulsion includes the push pole, rowing, and pedals, propulsion by sail generally consists of a sail hoisted on an erect mast, supported by stays, and controlled by lines made of rope. The development of piston-engined steamships was a complex process, early steamships were fueled by wood, later ones by coal or fuel oil. Early ships used stern or side paddle wheels, while ones used screw propellers. The first commercial success accrued to Robert Fultons North River Steamboat in US in 1807, steam propulsion progressed considerably over the rest of the 19th century. Notable developments include the surface condenser, which eliminated the use of sea water in the ships boilers. This, along with improvements in technology, permitted higher steam pressures. As the means of transmitting the power, paddle wheels gave way to more efficient screw propellers. Steam turbines were fueled by coal or, later, fuel oil or nuclear power, the marine steam turbine developed by Sir Charles Algernon Parsons raised the power-to-weight ratio. He achieved publicity by demonstrating it unofficially in the 100-foot Turbinia at the Spithead Naval Review in 1897. This facilitated a generation of high-speed liners in the first half of the 20th century, and rendered the reciprocating steam engine obsolete, first in warships, and later in merchant vessels
