1.
Konbaung dynasty
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The Konbaung Dynasty, formerly known as the Alompra Dynasty, was the last dynasty that ruled Burma/Myanmar from 1752 to 1885. It created the second-largest empire in Burmese history and continued the reforms begun by the Toungoo dynasty. An expansionist dynasty, the Konbaung kings waged campaigns against Manipur, Arakan, Assam, the Mon kingdom of Pegu, subject to later wars and treaties with the British, the modern state of Burma can trace its current borders to these events. Throughout the Konbaung Dynasty, the capital was relocated several times for religious, political, the dynasty was founded by a village chief, who later became known as Alaungpaya, in 1752 to challenge the Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom which had just toppled the Toungoo dynasty. By 1759, Alaungpayas forces had reunited all of Burma, and driven out the French, Alaungpayas second son, Hsinbyushin, came to the throne after a short reign by his elder brother, Naungdawgyi. He continued his fathers expansionist policy and finally took Ayutthaya in 1767, realising the need to modernise, the Konbaung rulers tried to enact various reforms with limited success. Mindon also tried to reduce the tax burden by lowering the income tax and created a property tax. In addition, the duties on foreign exports stifled the burgeoning trade, Konbaung kings extended administrative reforms begun in the Restored Toungoo Dynasty period, and achieved unprecedented levels of internal control and external expansion. They tightened control in the lowlands and reduced the privileges of Shan chiefs. They also instituted reforms that increased government income and rendered it more predictable. Money economy continued to gain ground, in 1857, the crown inaugurated a full-fledged system of cash taxes and salaries, assisted by the countrys first standardised silver coinage. Nonetheless, the extent and pace of reforms were uneven and ultimately proved insufficient to stem the advance of British colonialism, in 1760, Burma began a series of wars with Siam that would last well into the middle of the 19th century. By 1770, Alaungpayas heirs had temporarily defeated Siam, subdued much of Laos, with the Burmese preoccupied for another two decades by another impending invasion by the Chinese, the Siamese recovered their territories by 1770, and went on to capture Lan Na by 1776. Burma and Siam went to war until 1855 but after decades of war, in the defence of its realm, the dynasty fought four wars successfully against the Qing Dynasty of China which saw the threat of the expansion of Burmese power in the East. The Qing Dynasty then opened up its markets and restored trading with Burma in 1788 after reconciliation, thenceforth peaceful and friendly relations prevailed between China and Burma for a long time. Faced with a powerful China and a resurgent Siam in the east, Bodawpaya acquired western kingdoms of Arakan, Manipur and Assam, europeans began to set up trading posts in the Irrawaddy delta region during this period. Konbaung tried to maintain its independence by balancing between the French and the British, in the end it failed, the British severed diplomatic relations in 1811, and the dynasty fought and lost three wars against the British Empire, culminating in total annexation of Burma by the British. The British decisively defeated the Burmese in the First Anglo-Burmese War, Burma was forced to cede Arakan, Manipur, Assam and Tenasserim, and pay a large indemnity of one million pounds
2.
Upper Burma
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Upper Burma refers to a geographic region of Burma, traditionally encompassing Mandalay and its periphery, or more broadly speaking, Kachin and Shan States. In the Burmese language, people originating from Upper Burma are typically called a-nya tha, the term was first used by the British to refer to the central and northern area of what is now the country of Myanmar. After the Second Anglo-Burmese War of 1852, Lower Burma was annexed by the British Empire, Upper Burma was also known as Burma proper and the Kingdom of Ava. This distinction between Upper and Lower Burma is also found in government departments, while some newspapers make a distinction between the two bodies. The Burmese language edition of the The Myanmar Times is an example, in terms of linguistic differences, there are minute differences between the variants of Burmese spoken by Upper Burmese, especially in vocabulary choice. However, there is uniformity in the Burmese spoken throughout the Irrawaddy River valley
3.
British Raj
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The British Raj was the rule by the British Crown in the Indian subcontinent between 1858 and 1947. The rule is also called Crown rule in India, or direct rule in India, the resulting political union was also called the Indian Empire and after 1876 issued passports under that name. It lasted until 1947, when the British Indian Empire was partitioned into two sovereign states, the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan. The British Raj extended over almost all present-day India, Pakistan and this area is very diverse, containing the Himalayan mountains, fertile floodplains, the Indo-Gangetic Plain, a long coastline, tropical dry forests, arid uplands, and the Thar desert. In addition, at times, it included Aden, Lower Burma, Upper Burma, British Somaliland. Burma was separated from India and directly administered by the British Crown from 1937 until its independence in 1948, among other countries in the region, Ceylon was ceded to Britain in 1802 under the Treaty of Amiens. Ceylon was part of Madras Presidency between 1793 and 1798, the kingdoms of Nepal and Bhutan, having fought wars with the British, subsequently signed treaties with them and were recognised by the British as independent states. The Kingdom of Sikkim was established as a state after the Anglo-Sikkimese Treaty of 1861, however. The Maldive Islands were a British protectorate from 1887 to 1965, India during the British Raj was made up of two types of territory, British India and the Native States. In general, the term British India had been used to also to the regions under the rule of the British East India Company in India from 1600 to 1858. The term has also used to refer to the British in India. The terms Indian Empire and Empire of India were not used in legislation, the monarch was known as Empress or Emperor of India and the term was often used in Queen Victorias Queens Speeches and Prorogation Speeches. The passports issued by the British Indian government had the words Indian Empire on the cover, in addition, an order of knighthood, the Most Eminent Order of the Indian Empire, was set up in 1878. At the turn of the 20th century, British India consisted of eight provinces that were administered either by a Governor or a Lieutenant-Governor, during the partition of Bengal the new provinces of Assam and East Bengal were created as a Lieutenant-Governorship. In 1911, East Bengal was reunited with Bengal, and the new provinces in the east became, Assam, Bengal, Bihar, there were 565 princely states when India and Pakistan became independent from Britain in August 1947. The princely states did not form a part of British India, the larger ones had treaties with Britain that specified which rights the princes had, in the smaller ones the princes had few rights. Within the princely states external affairs, defence and most communications were under British control, the British also exercised a general influence over the states internal politics, in part through the granting or withholding of recognition of individual rulers. Although there were nearly 600 princely states, the majority were very small
4.
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was established as a sovereign state on 1 January 1801 by the Acts of Union 1800, which merged the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland. The growing desire for an Irish Republic led to the Irish War of Independence, Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom, and the state was consequently renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Britain financed the European coalition that defeated France in 1815 in the Napoleonic Wars, the British Empire thereby became the foremost world power for the next century. The Crimean War with Russia and the Boer wars were relatively small operations in a largely peaceful century, rapid industrialisation that began in the decades prior to the states formation continued up until the mid-19th century. A devastating famine, exacerbated by government inaction in the century, led to demographic collapse in much of Ireland. It was an era of economic modernization and growth of industry, trade and finance. Outward migration was heavy to the colonies and to the United States. Britain also built up a large British Empire in Africa and Asia, India, by far the most important possession, saw a short-lived revolt in 1857. In foreign policy Britain favoured free trade, which enabled its financiers and merchants to operate successfully in many otherwise independent countries, as in South America. Britain formed no permanent military alliances until the early 20th century, when it began to cooperate with Japan, France and Russia, and moved closer to the United States. A brief period of limited independence for Ireland came to an end following the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the British governments fear of an independent Ireland siding against them with the French resulted in the decision to unite the two countries. This was brought about by legislation in the parliaments of both kingdoms and came into effect on 1 January 1801, however, King George III was bitterly opposed to any such Emancipation and succeeded in defeating his governments attempts to introduce it. When the Treaty of Amiens ended the war, Britain agreed to return most of the territories it had seized, in May 1803, war was declared again. In 1806, Napoleon issued the series of Berlin Decrees, which brought into effect the Continental System and this policy aimed to eliminate the threat from the British by closing French-controlled territory to foreign trade. Frances population and agricultural capacity far outstripped that of the British Isles, Napoleon expected that cutting Britain off from the European mainland would end its economic hegemony. The Spanish uprising in 1808 at last permitted Britain to gain a foothold on the Continent, after Napoleons surrender and exile to the island of Elba, peace appeared to have returned. The Allies united and the armies of Wellington and Blucher defeated Napoleon once, simultaneous with the Napoleonic Wars, trade disputes, arming hostile Indians and British impressment of American sailors led to the War of 1812 with the United States. The war was little noticed in Britain, which could devote few resources to the conflict until the fall of Napoleon in 1814, American frigates inflicted a series of defeats on the Royal Navy, which was short on manpower due to the conflict in Europe
5.
British Empire
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The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It originated with the possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23% of the population at the time. As a result, its political, legal, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread, during the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France, the independence of the Thirteen Colonies in North America in 1783 after the American War of Independence caused Britain to lose some of its oldest and most populous colonies. British attention soon turned towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific, after the defeat of France in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century. In the early 19th century, the Industrial Revolution began to transform Britain, the British Empire expanded to include India, large parts of Africa and many other territories throughout the world. In Britain, political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez-faire policies, during the 19th Century, Britains population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanisation, which caused significant social and economic stresses. To seek new markets and sources of raw materials, the Conservative Party under Benjamin Disraeli launched a period of imperialist expansion in Egypt, South Africa, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand became self-governing dominions. By the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britains economic lead, subsequent military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily upon its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on the military, financial and manpower resources of Britain, although the British Empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after World War I, Britain was no longer the worlds pre-eminent industrial or military power. In the Second World War, Britains colonies in Southeast Asia were occupied by Imperial Japan, despite the final victory of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige helped to accelerate the decline of the empire. India, Britains most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence as part of a larger movement in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire. The transfer of Hong Kong to China in 1997 marked for many the end of the British Empire, fourteen overseas territories remain under British sovereignty. After independence, many former British colonies joined the Commonwealth of Nations, the United Kingdom is now one of 16 Commonwealth nations, a grouping known informally as the Commonwealth realms, that share a monarch, Queen Elizabeth II. The foundations of the British Empire were laid when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms. In 1496, King Henry VII of England, following the successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration, Cabot led another voyage to the Americas the following year but nothing was ever heard of his ships again
6.
Harry Prendergast
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Prendergast was the son of Thomas and Caroline Lucy, He was educated at Cheam School and then Brighton College, and, in later years, he was President of their old boys association. He was also educated at Addiscombe Military Seminary, dew, 14th Light Dragoons, at the risk of his own, by attempting to cut down a valaitee, who covered him with his piece, from only a few paces to the rear. Lieutenant Prendergast was wounded in this affair by the discharge of the piece and he also distinguished himself by his gallantry in the actions at Ratgurh and Betwa, when he was severely wounded. His horse was killed on that occasion and he was severely. wounded on that occasion. He received his VC from Queen Victoria at the Quadrangle of Windsor Castle on 4 January 1860 along with other recipients of the decoration. Prendergast served in the Persian War, Central India Defence Force, in the Abyssinian War, in the Mediterranean and his last field command was to lead the Burma Field Force in 1885–86 at the start the Third Anglo-Burmese War. In 1908 he was appointed Colonel-Commandant of the Royal Engineers and his recreations were listed as boxing, fencing, sword-play, running, cricket, football, hunting and polo. He died at Heron Court, Richmond, Surrey, now in London, on 24 July 1913 and is buried in Richmond Cemetery, there is a bronze memorial tablet to him in Brighton College Chapel, but his sword that used to hang above it was stolen. His Victoria Cross is displayed at the Royal Engineers Museum in Chatham, colonel H M Vibart, The Life of General Sir Harry N D Prendergast, RE, VC, GCB. Martin D W Jones, The War of Lost Footsteps, a Re-assessment of the Third Burmese War 1885–1896. The Bulletin of the Military Historical Society, xxxx no,157, pp. 36–40 The Register of the Victoria Cross The Sapper VCs Monuments to Courage Royal Engineers Museum Sappers VCs Location of grave and VC medal
7.
Thibaw Min
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Thibaw Min, also Thebaw or Theebaw was the last king of the Konbaung Dynasty of Burma and also the last Burmese sovereign in the countrys history. His reign ended when Burma was defeated by the forces of the British Empire in the Third Anglo-Burmese War, on 29 November 1885, prince Thibaw was born Maung Pu, the son of King Mindon and one of his consorts, Prabha Devi, princess of Laungshe. Thibaws mother had been banished from the court by Mindon and spent her final years as a thilashin. During the early years of his life, Thibaw studied Buddhist texts at a kyaung to win his fathers favor and he passed the Pahtamabyan religious examinations and gained respect and recognition from his father and the chief queen. One of Mindons chief consorts, the Queen of the Middle Palace, Hsinbyumashin, in 1878, Thibaw succeeded his father in a bloody succession massacre. Hsinbyumashin, one of Mindons queens, had grown dominant at the Mandalay court during Mindons final days, relations had soured during the early 1880s when the King was perceived as having made moves to align his country with the French more closely. At the time, the kingdoms treasury reserves had diminished, forcing the government to increase taxation on kingdoms peasants, in 1878, the national lottery was also introduced on a trial basis, which became popular but soon went awry, with many families losing their livelihoods. The lottery experiment was ended in 1880, altogether, the kingdom was divided into 10 districts and administrated by district ministers, who had authority over smaller administrative units, the villages and towns. The invasion force consisted of 11,000 men, a fleet of flat-bottomed boats. British troops quickly reached the capital of Mandalay with little opposition. Within twenty four hours, the troops had marched to the Mandalay Palace, to demand the surrender of Thibaw. At the time, the king and queen had retired to a house in the palace gardens. The following morning, King Thibaw was forced on a cart, along with his family. According to some accounts, Thibaw begged for his life to be saved before being exiled, Here a guard of British soldiers was drawn up, as their bayonets flashed in the sunlight, the king fell on his knees in abject terror. They will kill me, he cried wildly and she strode on erect—her little child clinging to her dress—fierce and dauntless to the last. So the king and queen of Burma were exiled, after abdicating the throne, Thibaw, his wife Supayalat and two infant daughters were exiled to Ratnagiri, India, a port city off the Arabian Sea. During their first five years in India, Thibaws family lived at Sir James Outrams bungalow in Dharangaon, inland from Ratanagiri, the family then moved into a two storey brick building, colloquially Thibaws Palace, built of laterite and lava rock, on a 20 acres property. For his first five years at Ratanagiri, Thibaw received a government pension of 100,000 rupees
8.
Anglo-Burmese Wars
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There have been three Burmese Wars or Anglo-Burmese Wars, First Anglo-Burmese War Second Anglo-Burmese War Third Anglo-Burmese War The expansion of Burma had consequences along its frontiers. As those frontiers moved ever closer to British East India Company and later British India, the First Anglo-Burmese War ended in a British East India Company victory, and by the Treaty of Yandabo, Burma lost territory previously conquered in Assam, Manipur, and Arakan. The British also took possession of Tenasserim with the intention to use it as a chip in future negotiations with either Burma or Siam. As the century wore on, the British East India Company began to covet the resources, in 1852, Commodore Lambert was dispatched to Burma by Lord Dalhousie over a number of minor issues related to the previous treaty. The Burmese immediately made concessions including the removal of a governor whom the British had made their casus belli, the war resulted in a palace revolution in Burma, with King Pagan Min being replaced by his half brother, Mindon Min. King Mindon tried to modernise the Burmese state and economy to resist British encroachments, and he established a new capital at Mandalay, the British declared war once again in 1885, conquering the remainder of the country in the Third Anglo-Burmese War resulting in total annexation of Burma. The Stricken Peacock, Anglo-Burmese Relations 1752–1948, readers Guide to Military History pp 73-74. Empires in Collision, Anglo-Burmese Relations in the Mid-Nineteenth Century Stewart, pagoda War, Lord Dufferin and the Fall of the Kingdom of Ava, 1885-186O Tarling, Nicholas, ed. The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol.2, Part 1, From c.1800 to the 1930s excerpt
9.
Presidencies and provinces of British India
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Provinces of India, earlier Presidencies of British India and still earlier, Presidency towns, were the administrative divisions of British governance in the subcontinent. Collectively, they were called British India, in one form or other they existed between 1612 and 1947, conventionally divided into three historical periods. During 1612–1757, the East India Company set up factories in several locations, mostly in coastal India and its rivals were the merchant trading companies of Holland and France. By the mid-18th century, three Presidency towns, Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta had grown in size, during the period of Company rule in India, 1757–1858, the Company gradually acquired sovereignty over large parts of India, now called Presidencies. However, it increasingly came under British government oversight, in effect sharing sovereignty with the Crown. At the same time it gradually lost its mercantile privileges, following the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the Companys remaining powers were transferred to the Crown. In the new British Raj, sovereignty extended to a few new regions, increasingly, however, unwieldy presidencies were broken up into Provinces. In 1608, the English East India Company established a settlement at Surat, and it was followed in 1611 by a permanent factory at Machilipatnam on the Coromandel Coast, and in 1612 the company joined other already established European trading companies in Bengal. Company rule in Bengal, however, ended with the Government of India Act 1858 following the events of the Bengal Rebellion of 1857 and these rulers were allowed a measure of internal autonomy in exchange for British suzerainty. British India constituted a significant portion of India both in area and population, in 1910, for example, it covered approximately 54% of the area, in addition, there were Portuguese and French exclaves in India. Independence from British rule was achieved in 1947 with the formation of two nations, the Dominions of India and Pakistan, the latter also including East Bengal, present-day Bangladesh. The term British India also applied to Burma for a time period, starting in 1824, a small part of Burma. This arrangement lasted until 1937, when Burma commenced being administered as a separate British colony, British India did not apply to other countries in the region, such as Sri Lanka, which was a British Crown colony, or the Maldive Islands, which were a British protectorate. It also included the Colony of Aden in the Arabian Peninsula, the original seat of government was at Allahabad, then at Agra from 1834 to 1868. Bombay Presidency, East India Companys headquarters moved from Surat to Bombay in 1687, the East India Company, which was incorporated on 31 December 1600, established trade relations with Indian rulers in Masulipatam on the east coast in 1611 and Surat on the west coast in 1612. The company rented a trading outpost in Madras in 1639, meanwhile, in eastern India, after obtaining permission from the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan to trade with Bengal, the Company established its first factory at Hoogly in 1640. Almost a half-century later, after Emperor Aurengzeb forced the Company out of Hooghly, by the mid-18th century the three principal trading settlements, now called the Madras Presidency, the Bombay Presidency, and the Bengal Presidency were each administered by a Governor. After Robert Clives victory in the Battle of Plassey in 1757, in 1772, the Company also obtained the Nizāmat of Bengal and thereby full sovereignty of the expanded Bengal Presidency
10.
British rule in Burma
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The annexed territories were designated the minor province, British Burma, of British India in 1862. After the Third Anglo-Burmese War in 1885, Upper Burma was annexed, and the following year and this arrangement lasted until 1937, when Burma began to be administered separately by the Burma Office under the Secretary of State for India and Burma. British rule was disrupted during the Japanese occupation of much of the country during the Second World War, Burma achieved independence from British rule on 4 January 1948. They were administered separately by the British with a Burma Frontier Service, the Frontier Areas were inhabited by ethnic minorities such as the Chin, the Shan, the Kachin and the Karenni. By 1931 Burma had 8 divisions, split into a number of districts, in Danuphyu, south of Ava, the Burmese general Maha Bandula was killed and his armies routed. The 1826 Treaty of Yandabo formally ended the First Anglo-Burmese War, the longest, fifteen thousand European and Indian soldiers died, together with an unknown number of Burmese army and civilian casualties. The campaign cost the British five million sterling to 13 million pounds sterling that led to a severe economic crisis in British India in 1833. After 25 years of peace, the British and Burmese fighting started afresh, King Mindon tried to readjust to the thrust of imperialism. He enacted administrative reforms and made Burma more receptive to foreign interests, but the British effected the Third Anglo-Burmese War, which lasted less than two weeks during November 1885. British troops entered Mandalay on 28 November 1885 and Burma was attached to the British Empire on 1 January 1886, Burmese armed resistance continued sporadically for several years, and the British commander had to coerce the High Court of Justice to continue to function. The British decided to all of Upper Burma as a colony. The new colony of Upper Burma was attached to the Burma Province on 26 February 1886, Rangoon, having been the capital of British Lower Burma, became the capital of the province. It was also one of the first Southeast Asian countries to receive Buddhism, before the British conquest and colonisation, the ruling Konbaung Dynasty practised a tightly centralised form of government. The king was the executive, with the final say on all matters. The country had two codes of law, the Rajathat and Dammathat, and the Hluttaw, the centre of government, was divided into three branches—fiscal, executive, and judicial. In theory the king was in charge of all of the Hluttaw but none of his orders got put into place until the Hluttaw approved them, thus checking his power. Further dividing the country, provinces were ruled by governors who were all appointed by the Hluttaw, conflict began between Myanmar and the British when the Konbaung Dynasty decided to expand into Arakan in the state of Assam, close to the British possessions in India. This close contact led to the first Anglo-Burmese War, which the British won with the aid of the Siamese, Myanmar was forced to cede Assam and other northern provinces
11.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
12.
Indochina
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Indochina, originally Indo-China, is a geographical term originating in the early nineteenth century and referring to the continental portion of the region now known as Southeast Asia. The name refers to the lands historically within the influence of India and China. It corresponds to the areas of Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam. The term was adopted as the name of the colony of French Indochina. However, Indo-China had already gained traction and soon supplanted alternative terms such as Further India, in biogeography, the Indochinese Region is a major biogeographical region in the Indomalaya ecozone, and also a phytogeographical floristic region in the Paleotropical Kingdom. It includes the flora and fauna of all the countries above. The adjacent Malesian Region covers the Maritime Southeast Asian countries, and straddles the Indomalaya, suvarnabhumi Golden Chersonese Indochina Time List of butterflies of Indochina Media related to Indochina at Wikimedia Commons Media related to Flora of Indo-China at Wikimedia Commons
13.
Jules Ferry
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Jules François Camille Ferry was a French statesman and republican. He was a promoter of laicism and colonial expansion and he attacked the Second French Empire with great violence, directing his opposition especially against Baron Haussmann, prefect of the Seine department. A series of his articles in Le Temps was later republished as The Fantastic Tales of Haussmannlaxupa, in this position he had the difficult task of administering Paris during the siege, and after the Paris Commune was obliged to resign. From 1872 to 1873 he was sent by Adolphe Thiers as minister to Athens, but returned to the chamber as deputy for the Vosges, when the first republican ministry was formed under W. H. A leader of the Opportunist Republicans faction, he was twice premier and he was an active Freemason initiated on July 8,1875, in La Clémante amitiée lodge in Paris the same day as Émile Littré. He became a member of the Alsace-Lorraine Lodge founded in Paris in 1782, two important works are associated with his administration, the non-clerical organization of public education, and the major colonial expansion of France. Following the republican programme he proposed to destroy the influence of the clergy in the university and he finally succeeded in passing his eponymous laws of 16 June 1881 and 28 March 1882, which made primary education in France free, non-clerical and mandatory. In higher education, the number of professors, called the Republics black hussars because of their Republican support, after the military defeat of France by Prussia in 1870, Ferry formed the idea of acquiring a great colonial empire, principally for the sake of economic exploitation. In a speech before the Chamber of Deputies on 28 July 1885, he declared that it is a right for the superior races and they have the duty to civilize the inferior races. The last endeavor led to a war with Qing dynasty China, although the treaty of peace with the Manchu Empire, in which the Qing dynasty ceded suzerainty of Annam and Tonkin to France, was the work of his ministry, he would never again serve as premier. The desire for a monarchy was strong in France in the years of the Third Republic – Henri. A committed republican, Ferry proceeded to a purge by dismissing many known monarchists from top positions in the magistrature, army and civil. He also played with political dynamite that eventually destroyed his success, Ferry believed in not confronting Wilhelmine Germany by threats of a future war of revenge. Most French politicians in the middle and right saw it as a duty to one day lead France again against Germany to reclaim Alsace-Lorraine. But Ferry realized that Germany was too powerful, and it made sense to cooperate with Otto von Bismarck. A sensible policy – but hardly popular, Bismarck was constantly nervous about the situation with France. Although he had despised the ineptness of the French under Napoleon III, Bismarck, for all his abilities regarding manipulating events, could not afford to anger the Prussian military. He got the two provinces, but he realized it would eventually have severe future repercussions
14.
Mandalay
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Mandalay is the second-largest city and the last royal capital of Myanmar. Located 716 km north of Yangon on the east bank of the Irrawaddy River, Mandalay is the economic centre of Upper Burma and considered the centre of Burmese culture. A continuing influx of Chinese immigrants, mostly from Yunnan, in the past twenty years, has reshaped the citys ethnic makeup, despite Naypyidaws recent rise, Mandalay remains Upper Burmas main commercial, educational and health center. The city gets its name from the nearby Mandalay Hill, the name is probably a derivative of a Pali word, although the exact word of origin remains unclear. The root word has been speculated to be mandala, referring to circular plains or Mandara, when it was founded in 1857, the royal city was officially named Yadanabon, a loan of the Pali name Ratanapūra City of Gems. It was also called Lay Kyun Aung Myei and Mandalay Palace, like most former capitals of Burma, Mandalay was founded on the wishes of the ruler of the day. The new capital city site was 66 km2 in area, surrounded by four rivers, the plan called for a 144-square block grid patterned citadel, anchored by a 16 square block royal palace compound at the center by Mandalay Hill. The 1020-acre citadel was surrounded by four 2,032 m long walls, at intervals of 169 m along the wall, were turrets with gold-tipped spires for watchmen. The walls had three gates on each side, and five bridges to cross the moat, for the next 26 years, Mandalay was to be the last royal capital of the Konbaung Dynasty, the last independent Burmese kingdom before its final annexation by the British Empire. Mandalay ceased to be the capital on 28 November 1885 when the conquering British sent Thibaw Min and his queen Supayalat into exile, ending the Third Anglo-Burmese War. While Mandalay would continue to be the city of Upper Burma during the British colonial rule. The British view on the development of Mandalay was mainly with commercial intentions, while rail transport reached Mandalay in 1889, less than four years after the annexation, the first college in Mandalay, Mandalay College, was not established until 40 years later, in 1925. The British looted the palace, with some of the treasures still on display in the Victoria and Albert Museum, also renaming the palace compound Fort Dufferin and used it to billet troops. Between the two World Wars, the city was Upper Burmas focal point in a series of protests against the British rule. The British rule brought in immigrants from India to the city. In 1904–05, a plague caused about one-third of the population to flee the city, during World War II, Mandalay suffered the most devastating air raids of the war. On April 3,1942, during the Japanese conquest of Burma, many again fled the city when the city was under Japanese occupation from May 1942 to March 1945. The palace citadel, turned into a depot by the Japanese, was burnt to the ground by Allied bombing, only the royal mint
15.
Teak
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Teak is a tropical hardwood tree species placed in the flowering plant family Lamiaceae. Tectona grandis is a large, deciduous tree that occurs in mixed hardwood forests and it has small, fragrant white flowers and large papery leaves that are often hairy on the lower surface. It is sometimes known as the Burmese teak, Teak wood has a leather-like smell when it is freshly milled. It is particularly valued for its durability and water resistance, and is used for building, exterior construction, veneer, furniture, carving, turnings. Myanmars teak forests account for half of the worlds naturally occurring teak. Molecular studies show there are two centres of genetic origin of teak, one in India and the other in Myanmar. CP teak is a description of teak from the states of India. Nagpur teak is another regional Indian teak and it produces small, white flowers arranged in dense clusters at the end of the branches. Flowers contain both types of reproductive organs The word teak comes from, Tamil tekku, Malayalam word thekku, the plant is known as Thekka in Sinhala by Sri Lankan people. Teak is a large, deciduous tree up to 40 m tall with gray to grayish brown branches, leaves are ovate-elliptic to ovate, 15–45 cm long by 8–23 cm wide, and are held on robust petioles that are 2–4 cm long. Fragrant white flowers are borne on 25–40 cm long by 30 cm wide panicles from June to August, the corolla tube is 2. 5–3 mm long with 2 mm wide obtuse lobes. Tectona grandis sets fruit from September to December, fruits are globose and 1. 2-1.8 cm in diameter, flowers are weakly protandrous in that the anthers precede the stigma in maturity and pollen is shed within a few hours of the flower opening. The flowers are entomophilous, but can occasionally be anemophilous. A1996 study found that in its range in Thailand. Heartwood is brownish red in colour, sometimes there are dark patches on it. There is a scent in newly cut wood. Sapwood is whitish to yellowish brown in colour. It can easily separate from heartwood, wood texture is hard and ring porous
16.
Toungoo
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Taungoo is a District level city in the Bago Region of Myanmar,220 km from Yangon, towards the north-eastern end of the division, with mountain ranges to the east and west. The main industry is in products, with teak and other hardwoods extracted from the mountains. The city is known for its areca palms, to the extent that a Burmese proverb for unexpected good fortune is equated to a betel lover winning a trip to Taungoo. The city is famous in Burmese history for the Taungoo Dynasty which ruled the country for over 200 years between the 16th and 18th centuries, Taungoo was the capital of Burma in 1510–1539 and 1551–1552. Kaytumadi new city is the command of the southern command division region of Armed Forces Hanthawaddy United Football Club is based in Taungoo. Taungoo was founded in 1279 in the days of Pagan as part of frontier expansion southwards. After the fall of Pagan Empire in 1287, Taungoo came under the rule of Myinsaing Kingdom, in 1358, Toungoo successfully revolted and became independent until 1367 when it became a nominal part of the Ava Kingdom. Its rulers retained a degree of autonomy, playing larger Ava. In 1470, Ava put down another rebellion and made Sithu Kyawhtin, Sithu Kyawhtins grandson Mingyi Nyo became governor of Toungoo in 1485. Under Mingyi Nyos leadership, the principality grew powerful, in October 1510, Mingyi Nyo formally broke away from Ava and founded the Taungoo Kingdom. Mingyi Nyos successors Tabinshwehti and Bayinnaung went on to found the largest empire in the history of south-east Asia, Taungoos stint as capital was short-lived, however. Tabinshwehti moved the capital to Pegu in 1539. The city briefly became capital of a rebellion in 1599 when viceroy Minye Thihathu II of Taungoo declared himself king. In December 1599, Taungoos forces in collaboration with the Arakanese armies aided by Portuguese mercenaries, the rebellious city state remained independent for another 10 years when Natshinnaung ascended the Taungoo throne in 1609. In the following year, King Anaukpetlun captured Taungoo and ended the long line of rulers. Although few visible remains survive, all four sides of the brick city wall remain from the dynastic period. The 9.6 m wide moat has largely dried up, except for a section on the eastern side, by the mid-19th century, Taungoo was governed by a local governor appointed by the Konbaung kings. The Taungoo District consisted of 52 wards, including todays Pyinmana regions, the district was cut in half after the Second Anglo-Burmese War
17.
Princely state
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A princely state, also called native state or Indian state, was a nominally sovereign monarchy under a local or regional ruler in a subsidiary alliance with a greater power. At the time of the British withdrawal,565 princely states were recognised in the Indian subcontinent, apart from thousands of zamindaris. Rulers of salute states entitled to a gun salute of eleven guns and above received from the British the style of Highness, while the Nizam of Hyderabad had the unique style of Exalted Highness. At the other end of the scale, the principality of Lawa covered an area of 49 km2, or smaller than Bermuda. Some two hundred of the states had an area of less than 25 km2. The era of the princely states effectively ended with Indian independence in 1947, by 1950, almost all of the principalities had acceded to either India or Pakistan – thirteen to Pakistan and the rest to India. During this time, the princely states were merged into unions, each of which was headed by a former ruling prince with the title of Rajpramukh. In 1956, the position of Rajpramukh was abolished and the federations dissolved, the Indian Government formally derecognised the princely families in 1971, followed by the Government of Pakistan in 1972. The widespread expansion of Islam during this time brought many principalities into tributary relations with Islamic sultanates, notably the Delhi Sultanate, in the south, however, the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire remained dominant until the mid-17th century, among its tributaries was the future Mysore Kingdom. The Turco-Mongol Mughal Empire brought a majority of the existing Indian kingdoms and principalities under its suzerainty by the 17th century, beginning with its foundation in the early 16th century. The advent of Sikhism resulted in the creation of the Sikh Empire in the north by the early 18th century, at the same time, the Marathas carved out their own states to form the Maratha Empire. Through the 18th century, former Mughal governors formed their own independent states, India under the British Raj consisted of two types of territory, British India and the Native states or Princely states. In general the term British India had been used also to refer to the regions under the rule of the East India Company in India from 1774 to 1858, the term has also been used to refer to the British in India. More prestigious Hindu rulers often used the title Raja, Raje or a variant such as Rana, Rao, also in this class were several Thakurs or Thakores and a few particular titles, such as Sardar, Mankari, Deshmukh, Sar Desai, Raja Inamdar, Saranjamdar. The most prestigious Hindu rulers usually had the prefix maha in their titles, as in Maharaja, Maharana, Maharao, etc. The states of Travancore and Cochin had queens regnant styled Maharani, generally the female forms applied only to sisters, spouses and widows, there were also compound titles, such as rajadhiraj, Raj-i-rajgan, often relics from an elaborate system of hierarchical titles under the Mughal emperors. For example, the addition of the adjective Bahadur raised the status of the one level. Furthermore, most dynasties used a variety of titles, such as Varma in South India
18.
Yangon
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Yangon is a former capital of Myanmar and the capital of Yangon Region. Although Yangons infrastructure is undeveloped compared to that of major cities in southeast Asia. Yangon is a combination of the two words yan and koun, which enemies and run out of, respectively. It is also translated as End of Strife, Rangoon most likely comes from the British imitation of the pronunciation of Yangon in the Arakanese language, which is. Yangon was founded as Dagon in the early 11th century by the Mon, Dagon was a small fishing village centred about the Shwedagon Pagoda. In 1755, King Alaungpaya conquered Dagon, renamed it Yangon, the British captured Yangon during the First Anglo-Burmese War, but returned it to Burmese administration after the war. The city was destroyed by a fire in 1841, the British seized Yangon and all of Lower Burma in the Second Anglo-Burmese War of 1852, and subsequently transformed Yangon into the commercial and political hub of British Burma. Yangon is also the place where the British sent Bahadur Shah II, Yangon became the capital of all British Burma after the British had captured Upper Burma in the Third Anglo-Burmese War of 1885. By the 1890s Yangons increasing population and commerce gave birth to prosperous residential suburbs to the north of Royal Lake, the British also established hospitals including Rangoon General Hospital and colleges including Rangoon University. Colonial Yangon, with its spacious parks and lakes and mix of modern buildings, by the early 20th century, Yangon had public services and infrastructure on par with London. Before World War II, about 55% of Yangons population of 500,000 was Indian or South Asian, karens, the Chinese, the Anglo-Burmese and others made up the rest. After World War I, Yangon became the epicentre of Burmese independence movement, three nationwide strikes against the British Empire in 1920,1936 and 1938 all began in Yangon. Yangon was under Japanese occupation, and incurred heavy damage during World War II, the city was retaken by the Allies in May 1945. Yangon became the capital of Union of Burma on 4 January 1948 when the country regained independence from the British Empire, soon after Burmas independence in 1948, many colonial names of streets and parks were changed to more nationalistic Burmese names. In 1989, the current military junta changed the citys English name to Yangon, since independence, Yangon has expanded outwards. Successive governments have built satellite towns such as Thaketa, North Okkalapa and South Okkalapa in the 1950s to Hlaingthaya, Shwepyitha, today, Greater Yangon encompasses an area covering nearly 600 square kilometres. During Ne Wins isolationist rule, Yangons infrastructure deteriorated through poor maintenance, in the 1990s, the current military governments more open market policies attracted domestic and foreign investment, bringing a modicum of modernity to the citys infrastructure. Some inner city residents were relocated to new satellite towns
19.
Irrawaddy River
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The Irrawaddy River or Ayeyarwady River is a river that flows from north to south through Myanmar. It is the countrys largest river and most important commercial waterway, originating from the confluence of the Nmai and Mali rivers, it flows relatively straight North-South before emptying through the Irrawaddy Delta into the Andaman Sea. Its drainage basin of about 404,200 square kilometres covers a part of Burma. After Rudyard Kiplings poem, it is referred to as The Road to Mandalay. As early as the century the river was used for trade. Having developed a network of irrigation canals, the river became important to the British Empire after it had colonized Burma. The river is still as vital today, as an amount of goods. Rice is produced in the Irrawaddy Delta, irrigated by water from the river, environmental organisations have raised concerns about the ecological impacts on the rivers biodiverse ecosystems. Animals potentially impacted include the threatened Irrawaddy dolphin and the Irrawaddy river shark, the native Kachin people named the river Mali-Nmai-Hka. The Burmese name of Irrawaddy is derived from a Pali name for the Ravi River of India, airavati was the Pali version of the name of the elephant mount of Sakka, an important deva in Buddhism. Elephants were often a symbol for water and was used as the name for several others rivers, the Irrawaddy gives its name to the Irrawaddy dolphin, which is found in the lower reaches of the river and known to help fishermen who practice cast-net fishing. Though called Irrawaddy dolphin, it has also found in the Bay of Bengal. The Irrawaddy River bisects Myanmar from north to south and empties through the nine-armed Irrawaddy Delta into the Indian Ocean, the Irrawaddy River arises by the confluence of the Nmai and Mali Rivers in Kachin State. Both the Nmai and Mali Rivers find their sources in the Himalayan glaciers of Upper Burma near 28° N, the eastern branch of the two, Nmai, is the larger and rises in the Languela Glacier north of Putao. It is unnavigable because of the strong current whereas the western branch. Herefore, the Mali river is called by the same name as the main river by locals. The controversial Myitsone Dam is currently under construction at the convergence of these rivers, the city of Myitkyina lies 50 kilometres south of the confluence and can be reached during the dry season. Between Myitkyina and Mandalay, the Irrawaddy flows through three well-marked defiles, About 65 kilometres downstream from Myitkyinā is the first defile, below Bhamo the river makes a sharp westward swing, leaving the Bhamo alluvial basin to cut through the limestone rocks of the second defile
20.
Irrawaddy Flotilla Company
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The Irrawaddy Flotilla Company was a passenger and cargo ferry company, which operated services on the Irrawaddy River in Burma, now Myanmar. The IFC was Scottish-owned, and was managed by P Henderson & Company from Glasgow, the IFC operated from 1865 until the late 1940s. The IFC was formed in 1865 as the Irrawaddy Flotilla and Burmese Steam Navigation Co Ltd, primarily to ferry troops up and down the Irrawaddy River and delta. Soon, the company was carrying passengers, rice, government stores, and mail from Rangoon to Prome, Thayetmyo and Mandalay, in 1875 the companys name was shortened to the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company. Although registered in Glasgow, the headquarters were in Rangoon. Click here to see a photograph of Beeloo, a steamer of the IFC. The companys services became indispensable to the oil fields up river at Yenangyaung and Chauk for carrying supplies, the ships, most of which were paddle steamers, were generally built in Scotland before being dismantled and transported to Burma for reassembly. When the Japanese invaded Burma in World War II, the Manager of the IFCs Burma fleet, John Morton and this prevented the Japanese from having a usable, local fleet for transport up the Irrawaddy River. In 1948 the company was reconstituted as the Government Inland Water Transport Board, come you back to Mandalay, Where the old Flotilla lay, Cant you ear their paddles chunkin from Rangoon to Mandalay. On the road to Mandalay, Where the flyin-fishes play, An the dawn comes up like thunder outer China crost the Bay
21.
Naval brigade
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A naval brigade is a body of sailors serving in a ground combat role to augment land forces. Seamen were specifically trained in land-based warfare at the school at HMS Excellent in Portsmouth. A Royal Naval Division—later designated the 63rd Division—was formed in the First World War to make use of reserves of the Royal Navy who were not required at sea. It included two brigades and a brigade of Royal Marines, and fought in the defence of Antwerp in 1914, the Battle of Gallipoli in 1915. Few naval personnel remained in the Division by July 1916, the division was demobilised in April 1919. Marines marched from Philadelphia to serve with George Washingtons Continental Army in the 1777 Battle of Princeton, during the Siege of Veracruz 1847 in the Mexican-American War a naval contingent of 1200 men joined the landing force. During the American Civil War, both sides employed naval brigades at the Siege of Petersburg, the Confederate naval brigade was commanded by Captain John R. Tucker. It was attached to George Washington Custis Lees Division, under Lieutenant General Richard Ewells Richmond Defense Forces, during the retreat to Appomattox, the brigade was captured at the Battle of Saylers Creek on 6 April 1865. It was one of several units in the Army of Northern Virginia containing black servicemembers, the Union naval brigade was under the Army of the James under Major General Benjamin Butler. It was commanded by Brigadier General Charles K, graham and was not assigned to either of the two corps of the army. During the war on terror in Iraq and Afghanistan, individual augmentees from the United States Navy served in the Army to make up for a shortfall of army personnel and these units took part in the Boxer Rebellion in China. During the October Revolution and Russian Civil War, Bolshevik sailors were involved in storming the Winter Palace, when the Nazis invaded Russia, sailors were diverted from the battleships to aid in the defence of Leningrad and Sevastopol. Throughout the war, Russian naval infantry distinguished themselves in land combat, 63rd Division Marine Pearls Naval Brigade Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force, a combined army and naval infantry force established in the early days of World War I
22.
Myingyan
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Myingyan is a city and district in the Mandalay Division of central Myanmar, previously, it was a district in the Meiktila Division of Upper Burma. It is currently the capital of Myingyan Township and lies along the National Highway 2, as of 2014, the city had a population of 276,096 and the district had 1,055,957. It lies in the valley of the Ayeyarwady River, to the south of Mandalay, the area around the town is flat, especially to the north and along the banks of the Ayeyarwady. Inland the country rises in undulating slopes. The most noticeable feature is Popa Hill, an extinct volcano, the highest peak is 4,962 ft. above sea-level. The climate is dry, with south winds from March until September. The annual rainfall averages about 35 in, the temperature varies between 106 and 70 Fahrenheit. The ordinary crops are millet, sesame, cotton, maize, rice, there are no forests, but a great deal of low scrubland. Myingyan is the head of the railway to Thazi and the main line between Yangon and Mandalay. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
23.
Kinwun Mingyi U Kaung
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Kinwun Mingyi U Kaung C. S. I. was a chief minister during the reigns of King Mindon and Thibaw, as well as a colonial civil servant. He attempted to westernise the Burmese kingdoms existing bureaucracy into a democratic system. Because of such attempts to do so, he was accused by many to have allowed Britain to win the Third Anglo-Burmese War, Kinwon Mingyi was born Maung Chin on 3 February 1822 in Madaingbin village. His father U Hmo was a soldier in the Natshinywe Infantry Regiment. As was customary tradition, he was destined to follow the footsteps of his father, however, he escaped conscription by ordaining as a Buddhist monk and was given the Dharma name Āloka. He moved to Amarapura and lived at Bagaya Monastery, the monastery of the Bagaya Sayadaw and he was also schooled at a college led by U Yanwe, who eventually became the chief minister of King Mindon with the title Pakan Mingyi. He disrobed and returned to the laity at the age of 25, after the Second Anglo-Burmese War in 1853, he joined the court service of King Mindon, who renamed him U Kaung and appointed him the Clerk of the Royal Treasury. In 1871, he was appointed minister of third rank at the Hluttaw, the governing body and was responsible for the countrys police and customs stations. In 1871, he led the first Burmese diplomatic group to Europe, in preparation for the trip, he rose to the rank of Wungyi, the chief minister. There, he was received by Queen Victoria and invested Prince of Wales and he and his embassy, consisting of Shwe O and Shwe Bin and Maung Mye. By 1872, he had risen to the rank of governor of Minhla District. Before King Mindons death in 1878, U Kaung was made Commander-in-Chief, after King Mindons death, Kinwun Mingyi lost much of his influence. He ordered the Burmese troops during the Third Anglo-Burmese War to not attack invading British, under British colonial rule, Kinwon Mingyi served as a civil servant in the British administration. In 1888, he was awarded the Companions of the Order of the Star of India and in 1897, during his civil service, he penned many famous books and poems in Burmese literature. Among them were the Attathamkhepa Wunnana Dhammathat and the Digest of Buddhist Law and his personal library was acquired by the Bernard Free Library in Rangoon. His first marriage was to the Princess of Singyan, one of the queens of Pagan Min. His second was to Shwe May, the daughter of the myothugyi of Ahlone and he did not have any biological children, but he adopted two sons of the his brother-in-law. He died of paralysis at his residence in Fort Dufferin in Mandalay on 30 June 1908, Burmese Encyclopedia Vol 2, p-406 printed in 1955
24.
Madras Regiment
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The Madras Regiment is an infantry regiment of the Indian Army, and one of its oldest, tracing its origins to units formed in the 1750s. The Madras Regiment was initially formed as the Madras European Regiment in the 1660s by the East India Company as the company established in India. However, it was formed as a battalion in 1748 under the command of Major Stringer Lawrence, the battalion was involved in all the battles against the French forces in India. Lawrence structured the regiment to include two battalions, one European and one Sepoy, both battalions were similar in structure and included seven companies each, with each company including three officers in command and seventy privates. Also part of the companies were four sergeants and corporals and three drummers, the oldest Battalion in the Madras Regiment was the 9th Battalion, formerly known as the Nair Brigade. This militia was raised in 1704 at Padmanabhapuram as body guards for the Maharajah of Travancore, the army was made up of soldiers from Nair warrior clans, however after the 1940s, non-Nairs were permitted to join. The Nayar Army became incorporated into the Indian Army on April 1951, in 1748 Major Stringer Lawrence, a veteran of action in Spain, Flanders and the Highlands, was hired by the East India Company to take charge of the defence of Cuddalore. He laid the foundations of what was to become the Indian Army, training the levies to become a militia, the Madras Levies were formed into companies and trained to become a disciplined and fine fighting force. In 1758 Lawrence raised the Madras Regiment, forming the several Companies of Madras Levies into two battalions,2 Madras was raised in 1776 as the 15th Carnatic Infantry at Thanjavur. The regiment has been through many campaigns with both the British Indian Army and the Indian Army, many well-known British officers have commanded this regiment, among them Robert Clive. This regiment fought in the Carnatic wars, which were fought in South India, the elephant crest symbolises its gallantry in the Battle of Assaye under Arthur Wellesley, later Duke of Wellington. There after the British annexed the Indian sub-continent, largely with the help of the Madras Regiment sepoys, the coming of the British rule and merging the Presidency armies into a British Indian Army led the erstwhile regiments to be reorganised. After conquest of India, the perceived threat to British was from Russia. So recruitment was re-oriented towards north Indians of Punjab and Nepal and this resulted in the British reducing the strength of the Madras Regiment since the southern borders were relatively peaceful. After many years, this regiment was re-raised with fresh recruits, the newly reborn Madras Regiment performed very creditably during the Burma Campaign. After independence, the battalions of the Travancore Nair Pattalam, Cochin. Two battalions of the Regiment have been awarded citations by the COAS in recognition of their splendid service in combating insurgency in Jammu & Kashmir. Further two battalions served the nation, in the worlds highest battlefield in the temperatures of Siachen Glacier
25.
Bangalore
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Bangalore /bæŋɡəˈlɔːr/, officially known as Bengaluru, is the capital of the Indian state of Karnataka. It has a population of about 8.42 million and a population of about 8.52 million, making it the third most populous city. It is located in southern India on the Deccan Plateau and its elevation is over 900 m above sea level, the highest of Indias major cities. In 1638, the Marāthās conquered and ruled Bangalore for almost 50 years, after which the Mughals captured and it was captured by the British after victory in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War, who returned administrative control of the city to the Maharaja of Mysore. The old city developed in the dominions of the Maharaja of Mysore and was capital of the Princely State of Mysore. In 1809, the British shifted their cantonment to Bangalore, outside the old city, and a grew up around it. Following Indias independence in 1947, Bangalore became the capital of Mysore State, the two urban settlements of Bangalore – city and cantonment – which had developed as independent entities merged into a single urban centre in 1949. The existing Kannada name, Bengalūru, was declared the name of the city in 2006. Bangalore is sometimes referred to as the Silicon Valley of India because of its role as the leading information technology exporter. Indian technological organisations ISRO, Infosys, Wipro and HAL are headquartered in the city, a demographically diverse city, Bangalore is the second fastest-growing major metropolis in India. Numerous state-owned aerospace and defence organisations, such as Bharat Electronics, Hindustan Aeronautics, the city also houses the Kannada film industry. The name Bangalore represents a version of the Kannada language name. It is the name of a village near kodegehalli and was copied by Kempegowda to the city of Bangalore, Bangalore was built on a venue earlier called as Shivanasamudram in the 16th century. The earliest reference to the name Bengalūru was found in a ninth-century Western Ganga Dynasty stone inscription on a vīra gallu, in this inscription found in Begur, Bengalūrū is referred to as a place in which a battle was fought in 890 CE. It states that the place was part of the Ganga Kingdom until 1004 and was known as Bengaval-uru, an apocryphal story recounts that the 12th century Hoysala king Veera Ballala II, while on a hunting expedition, lost his way in the forest. Tired and hungry, he came across an old woman who served him boiled beans. The grateful king named the place benda-kaal-uru, which evolved into Bengalūru. On 11 December 2005, the Government of Karnataka announced that it had accepted a proposal by Jnanpith Award winner U. R. Ananthamurthy to rename Bangalore to Bengalūru, on 27 September 2006, the Bruhat Bangalore Mahanagara Palike passed a resolution to implement the proposed name change
26.
Inwa
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Inwa or Ava, located in Mandalay Region, Burma, is an ancient imperial capital of successive Burmese kingdoms from the 14th to 19th centuries. Throughout history, it was sacked and rebuilt numerous times, the capital city was finally abandoned after it was completely destroyed by a series of major earthquakes in March 1839. Though only a few traces of its former grandeur remain today, the name Inwa literally means mouth of the Lake, reflecting its geographical location at the mouth of lakes in the Kyaukse District. Another theory states that it is derived from Innawa, meaning nine lakes in the area, the citys classical name in Pali is Ratanapura. The modern standard Burmese pronunciation is Inwa, following the modern orthography, but the local Upper Burmese pronunciation is Awa. Indeed, the spelling of the city in the records, all written prior to the modern Burmese spelling standardization drives, is အဝ. The most common Western transcription Ava comes from Awa via Portuguese, Inwa was the capital of Burma for nearly 360 years, on five separate occasions, from 1365 to 1842. So identified as the seat of power in Burma that Inwa was the name by which Burma was known to Europeans down to the 19th century. Inwa was officially founded on 26 February 1365 on an island created by connecting the Irrawaddy on the north and the Myitnge on the east with a canal on the south. The construction of the island also involved filling in the swamplands and lakes, † † Other records also include Kyaukmaw In, Ngagyi In. The brick fortifications of Inwa do not follow the conventions of the earlier rectilinear city plans, instead, the zigzagged outer walls are popularly thought to outline the figure of a seated lion. The inner enclosure or citadel was laid out according to traditional cosmological principles, the kingdom Thado Minbya founded with the capital at Inwa became known as the Ava Kingdom, the main polity of Upper Burma until 1555. The city got a new exquisite golden palace in February 1511 by which King Shwenankyawshin is posthumously remembered, during this period, the capital city was the target of the kingdoms rivals. It came under siege in 1404–1405 during the Forty Years War, over a century later, on 25 March 1527, the city finally fell to the repeated attacks by the Confederation of Shan States and the Prome Kingdom. It then became the capital of the unruly and often disunited coalition until 22 January 1555 when it was captured by King Bayinnaung, the citys 190-year run as the capital of Upper Burma came to an end. The city became the capital of all Burma during Toungoo and Konbaung periods, the city was the base from which kings Nyaungyan and Anaukpetlun restored the kingdom which had temporarily disintegrated in December 1599. In January 1635, King Thalun moved the back to Ava from Pegu. The city was sacked on 21–23 March 1752, and subsequently burned down on 3 January 1753 by the forces of Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom, King Hsinbyushin began the reconstruction of the city in March 1764, and moved the capital back to a newly rebuilt Ava on 23 July 1765
27.
Bhamo
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Bhamo is a city of Kachin State in the northernmost part of Myanmar, located 186 km south from the capital city of the state of Kachin. It is on the Ayeyarwady River and it lies within 65 km of the border with Yunnan Province, China. The population consists of Chinese and Shan, with Kachin peoples in the hills around the town and it is the administrative center of Bhamo District and Bhamo Township. Bhamo was an important trading post with the Chinese Empire up to the nineteenth century, VOC records identified these copper coins as an important source of profit, and also mention the presence of a Customs Office in Bhamo to regulate the border trade. From 1869 to 1879, it was the seat of British colonial Assistant political agent, subordinate to the Resident with the king of and in Ava. As of 1935, the town was situated at the highest navigable point of the river, Bhamo was once called Sampanago, the capital of the now-extinct Shan predecessor kingdom of Wanmaw. The ruins of the old city walls, dating from the fifth Century, are found some 5 km from the modern town, a once weekly Myanma Airways flight is available, as are three times a week river ferries. It is the terminus of river ferries from Mandalay, there is no river ferry between Bhamo and state capital Myitkyina. The land route between Bhamo and Mu Se District, is in poor condition, Bhamo is one of the official border trading towns between China and Myanmar. The town is home to Bhamo Degree College. And other chance been studied Engineering subject from Technological University, computer, Bhamo has a humid subtropical climate. Temperatures are very warm throughout the year, although the months are milder. There is a dry season and a summer wet season. Banmaw Airport This article incorporates text from The Modern World Encyclopædia, Illustrated and this may be out of date or biased to the timeframe of that reference. WorldStatesmen - Burma/Myanmar 17th Century Burma and the Dutch East Indies Company 1634-1680, by Wil O. Dijk, NIAS Press
28.
Frederick Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts
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Field Marshal Frederick Sleigh Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts, VC, KG, KP, GCB, OM, GCSI, GCIE, KStJ, VD, PC was a British soldier who was one of the most successful commanders of the 19th century. He served in the Indian Rebellion, the Expedition to Abyssinia and he also became the last Commander-in-Chief of the Forces before the post was abolished in 1904. Born at Cawnpore, India, on 30 September 1832, Roberts was the son of General Sir Abraham Roberts, at the time Sir Abraham was commanding the 1st Bengal European Regiment. Roberts was named Sleigh in honour of the commander, Major General William Sleigh. His mother was Edinburgh-born Isabella Bunbury, daughter of Major Abraham Bunbury from Kilfeacle in County Tipperary, Roberts was educated at Eton, Sandhurst, and Addiscombe Military Seminary before entering the East India Company Army as a second lieutenant with the Bengal Artillery on 12 December 1851. He became Aide-de-Camp to his father in 1852, transferred to the Bengal Horse Artillery in 1854 and was promoted to lieutenant on 31 May 1857 and he was awarded the Victoria Cross medal for actions on 2 January 1858 at Khudaganj. The citation reads, Lieutenant Roberts gallantry has on occasion been most marked. On following the enemy on 2 January 1858, at Khodagunge. Lieutenant Roberts put spurs to his horse, and overtook them just as they were about to enter a village and he also, on the same day, cut down another Sepoy who was standing at bay, with musket and bayonet, keeping off a Sowar. Lieutenant Roberts rode to the assistance of the horseman, and, rushing at the Sepoy, with one blow of his sword cut him across the face and he was also mentioned in despatches for his service at Lucknow in March 1858. In common with other officers he transferred from the East India Company Army to the Indian Army that year. Having been promoted to lieutenant colonel on 15 August 1868 and to the substantive rank of captain on 18 November 1868. He was promoted to the rank of major on 5 July 1872, appointed Companion of the Order of the Bath on 10 September 1872. That year he became Quartermaster-General of the Bengal Army, in September 1879 he was despatched, along with Maurice Abraham Cohen an expert in the Urdu language, to Kabul to seek retribution for the death of Sir Louis Cavagnari, the British envoy there. He was also given the rank of lieutenant-general on 11 November 1879. He was commander of the Kabul Field Force and brought at least 20 field guns with his army during the conquest and this was followed by his promotion to a supernumerary general on 28 November 1890 and to the substantive rank of general on 31 December 1891. On 23 February 1892 he was created Baron Roberts of Kandahar in Afghanistan and he was promoted field marshal on 25 May 1895 and received the Order of St Patrick during 1897. While in Ireland, Roberts completed a memoir of his years in India and his appointment was a response to a string of defeats in the early weeks of the war and was accompanied by the despatch of huge reinforcements
29.
Bullion
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Bullion is gold bars, silver bars, and other bars or ingots of precious metal. The word bullion comes from the French Minister of Finance under Louis XIII, the value of bullion is typically determined by the value of its precious metals content, which is defined by its purity and mass. It is also weighed extremely accurately, retailers may sometimes market ingots and bars of base metals, such as copper, nickel, and aluminium as bullion, but this is not a widely accepted definition. The specifications of bullion are often regulated by market bodies or legislation, in the European Union, the minimum purity for gold bullion, which is treated as investment gold with regards to taxation, is 99. 5% for gold bullion bars and 90% for bullion coins. The London bullion market is a market for wholesale trading of gold. The London Bullion Market Association coordinates activities of its members and other participants in the London bullion market, the LBMA sets and promotes quality standards for gold and silver bullion bars. The minimum acceptable fineness of the Good Delivery Bars is 99. 5% for gold bars and 99. 9% for silver bars, Bullion coins describe contemporary precious metal coins minted by official agencies for investment purposes. Historically, most currency were in the form of coins, silver. Some bullion coins have been used as currency throughout the 20th century, like the Maria Theresa thaler, however, modern bullion coins generally do not enter common circulation despite having legal tender status and a nominal face value. Some modern bullion coins, such as the gold and silver American eagle, are produced as both business strike and collectible proof and uncirculated versions. Business strikes typically are sold at prices commensurate with their precious metal content, in some cases the grade and mintages of business strike coins can affect their value, so that they are considered numismatic rather than bullion items. A range of market participants is active in the bullion markets, banks, fabricators, refiners. They provide facilities for the refining, melting, assaying, transporting, trading and vaulting of gold, for example, shares of the world’s largest Gold exchange-traded fund, the SPDR Gold Shares represent ownership in vaulted gold bullion. Private individuals use bullion primarily as an investment or potential store of value, Gold bullion and silver bullion are the most important forms of physical precious metals investments. Bullion investments can be considered as insurance against inflation or economic turmoil, compared to numismatic coins, bullion bars or bullion coins can typically be purchased and traded at lower margins and their trading prices are closer to the values of the contained precious metals
30.
Kolkata
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Kolkata /koʊlˈkɑːtɑː/ is the capital of the Indian state of West Bengal. In 2011, the city had a population of 4.5 million, while the population of the city and its suburbs was 14.1 million, making it the third-most populous metropolitan area in India. Recent estimates of Kolkata Metropolitan Areas economy have ranged from $60 to $150 billion making it third most-productive metropolitan area in India, after Mumbai, in the late 17th century, the three villages that predated Calcutta were ruled by the Nawab of Bengal under Mughal suzerainty. After the Nawab granted the East India Company a trading licence in 1690, Nawab Siraj ud-Daulah occupied Calcutta in 1756, and the East India Company retook it the following year. In 1793 the East India company was enough to abolish Nizamat. Calcutta was the centre for the Indian independence movement, it remains a hotbed of contemporary state politics, following Indian independence in 1947, Kolkata, which was once the centre of modern Indian education, science, culture, and politics, suffered several decades of economic stagnation. Many people from Kolkata—among them several Nobel laureates—have contributed to the arts, the sciences, Kolkata culture features idiosyncrasies that include distinctively close-knit neighbourhoods and freestyle intellectual exchanges. Though home to major cricketing venues and franchises, Kolkata differs from other Indian cities by giving importance to association football, there are several explanations about the etymology of this name, The term Kolikata is thought to be a variation of Kalikkhetrô, meaning Field of Kali. Similarly, it can be a variation of Kalikshetra, alternatively, the name may have been derived from the Bengali term kilkila, or flat area. The name may have its origin in the words khal meaning canal, followed by kaṭa, according to another theory, the area specialised in the production of quicklime or koli chun and coir or kata, hence, it was called Kolikata. The discovery and archaeological study of Chandraketugarh,35 kilometres north of Kolkata, Kolkatas recorded history began in 1690 with the arrival of the English East India Company, which was consolidating its trade business in Bengal. The area occupied by the city encompassed three villages, Kalikata, Gobindapur, and Sutanuti. Kalikata was a village, Sutanuti was a riverside weavers village. They were part of an estate belonging to the Mughal emperor and these rights were transferred to the East India Company in 1698. In 1712, the British completed the construction of Fort William, facing frequent skirmishes with French forces, the British began to upgrade their fortifications in 1756. The Nawab of Bengal, Siraj ud-Daulah, condemned the militarisation and his warning went unheeded, and the Nawab attacked, he captured Fort William which led to the killings of several East India company officials in the Black Hole of Calcutta. A force of Company soldiers and British troops led by Robert Clive recaptured the city the following year, declared a presidency city, Calcutta became the headquarters of the East India Company by 1772. In 1793, ruling power of the Nawabs were abolished and East India company took control of the city
31.
Steamship
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A steamship, often referred to as a steamer, is a vessel, typically ocean-faring and seaworthy, that is propelled by one or more steam engines that typically drive propellers or paddlewheels. The first steamships came into usage during the early 1800s, however. Steamships usually use the designations of PS for paddle steamer or SS for screw steamer. As paddle steamers became less common, SS is assumed by many to stand for steam ship, Ships powered by internal combustion engines use a prefix such as MV for motor vessel, so it is not correct to use SS for most modern vessels. The steamship was preceded by smaller vessels designed for insular transportation, once the technology of steam was mastered at this level, steam engines were mounted on larger, and eventually, ocean-going vessels. Becoming reliable, and propelled by screw rather than paddlewheels, the changed the design of ships for faster. Paddlewheels as the main motive source became standard on these early vessels and it was an effective means of propulsion under ideal conditions but otherwise had serious drawbacks. Within a few decades of the development of the river and canal steamboat, the first sea-going steamboat was Richard Wrights first steamboat Experiment, an ex-French lugger, she steamed from Leeds to Yarmouth in July 1813. She carried passengers and freight to Paris in 1822 at an speed of 8 knots. The American ship SS Savannah first crossed the Atlantic Ocean, another claimant is the Canadian ship SS Royal William in 1833. The SS Archimedes, built in Britain in 1839 by Francis Pettit Smith, was the worlds first steamship to be driven by a screw propeller. It had considerable influence on development, encouraging the adoption of screw propulsion by the Royal Navy. The key innovation that made ocean-going steamers viable was the change from the paddle-wheel to the screw-propeller as the mechanism of propulsion and these steamships quickly became more popular, because the propellers efficiency was consistent regardless of the depth at which it operated. Being smaller in size and mass and being submerged, it was also far less prone to damage. The development of screw propulsion relied on the technological innovations. Steam engines had to be designed with the power delivered at the bottom of the machinery, a paddle steamers engines drive a shaft that is positioned above the waterline, with the cylinders positioned below the shaft. SS Great Britain used chain drive to power from a paddlers engine to the propeller shaft - the result of a late design change to propeller propulsion. An effective stern tube and associated bearings were required, the stern tube contains the propeller shaft where it passes through the hull structure
32.
Artillery
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Artillery is a class of large military weapons built to fire munitions far beyond the range and power of infantrys small arms. Early artillery development focused on the ability to breach fortifications, and led to heavy, as technology improved, lighter, more mobile field artillery developed for battlefield use. This development continues today, modern self-propelled artillery vehicles are highly mobile weapons of great versatility providing the largest share of an armys total firepower, in its earliest sense, the word artillery referred to any group of soldiers primarily armed with some form of manufactured weapon or armour. In common speech, the artillery is often used to refer to individual devices, along with their accessories and fittings. However, there is no generally recognised generic term for a gun, howitzer, mortar, and so forth, the United States uses artillery piece, the projectiles fired are typically either shot or shell. Shell is a widely used term for a projectile, which is a component of munitions. By association, artillery may also refer to the arm of service that customarily operates such engines, in the 20th Century technology based target acquisition devices, such as radar, and systems, such as sound ranging and flash spotting, emerged to acquire targets, primarily for artillery. These are usually operated by one or more of the artillery arms, Artillery originated for use against ground targets—against infantry, cavalry and other artillery. An early specialist development was coastal artillery for use against enemy ships, the early 20th Century saw the development of a new class of artillery for use against aircraft, anti-aircraft guns. Artillery is arguably the most lethal form of land-based armament currently employed, the majority of combat deaths in the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, and World War II were caused by artillery. In 1944, Joseph Stalin said in a speech that artillery was the God of War, although not called as such, machines performing the role recognizable as artillery have been employed in warfare since antiquity. The first references in the historical tradition begin at Syracuse in 399 BC. From the Middle Ages through most of the era, artillery pieces on land were moved by horse-drawn gun carriages. In the contemporary era, the artillery and crew rely on wheeled or tracked vehicles as transportation, Artillery used by naval forces has changed significantly also, with missiles replacing guns in surface warfare. The engineering designs of the means of delivery have likewise changed significantly over time, in some armies, the weapon of artillery is the projectile, not the equipment that fires it. The process of delivering fire onto the target is called gunnery, the actions involved in operating the piece are collectively called serving the gun by the detachment or gun crew, constituting either direct or indirect artillery fire. The term gunner is used in armed forces for the soldiers and sailors with the primary function of using artillery. The gunners and their guns are usually grouped in teams called either crews or detachments, several such crews and teams with other functions are combined into a unit of artillery, usually called a battery, although sometimes called a company
33.
History of Myanmar
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The history of Myanmar covers the period from the time of first-known human settlements 13,000 years ago to the present day. The earliest inhabitants of recorded history were a Tibeto-Burman-speaking people who established the Pyu city-states ranged as far south as Pyay, another group, the Bamar people, entered the upper Irrawaddy valley in the early 9th century. They went on to establish the Bagan Kingdom, the unification of the Irrawaddy valley. The Burmese language and Bamar culture slowly came to replace Pyu norms during this period, in the second half of the 16th century, the Taungoo Dynasty reunified the country, and founded the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia for a brief period. Later Taungoo kings instituted several key administrative and economic reforms that gave rise to a smaller, more peaceful and prosperous kingdom in the 17th, the dynasty also went to war with all its neighbours. The Anglo-Burmese wars eventually led to British colonial rule, British rule brought several enduring social, economic, cultural and administrative changes that completely transformed the once-agrarian society. Most importantly, the British rule highlighted out-group differences among the countrys ethnic groups. Since independence in 1948, the country has been in one of the longest running civil wars that remains unresolved, the country was under military rule under various guises from 1962 to 2010, and in the process has become one of the least developed nations in the world. The earliest archaeological evidence suggests that cultures existed in Burma as early as 11,000 BCE, most indications of early settlement have been found in the central dry zone, where scattered sites appear in close proximity to the Irrawaddy River. The Anyathian, Burmas Stone Age, existed at a thought to parallel the lower. About 1500 BCE, people in the region were turning copper into bronze, growing rice, by 500 BCE, iron-working settlements emerged in an area south of present-day Mandalay. Bronze-decorated coffins and burial sites filled with earthenware remains have been excavated, archaeological evidence at Samon Valley south of Mandalay suggests rice growing settlements that traded with China between 500 BC and 200 CE. During the Iron Age, archaeological evidence also out of Samon Valley reveal changes in infant burial practices that were influenced by India. These changes include burying infants in jars in which their size depict their family status, the Pyu entered the Irrawaddy valley from present-day Yunnan, c. 2nd century BCE, and went on to found city states throughout the Irrawaddy valley, the original home of the Pyu is reconstructed to be Qinghai Lake in present-day Qinghai and Gansu. The Pyu were the earliest inhabitants of Burma of whom records are extant, during this period, Burma was part of an overland trade route from China to India. Trade with India brought Buddhism from South India, by the 4th century, many in the Irrawaddy valley had converted to Buddhism. Of the many city-states, the largest and most important was the Sri Ksetra Kingdom southeast of modern Pyay, in March 638, the Pyu of Sri Ksetra launched a new calendar that later became the Burmese calendar
34.
First Anglo-Burmese War
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The First Anglo-Burmese War, also known as the First Burma War, was the first of three wars fought between the British and Burmese empires in the 19th century. The Burmese were also forced to pay an indemnity of one million pounds sterling, fifteen thousand European and Indian soldiers died, together with an unknown number of Burmese military and civilian casualties. The high cost of the campaign to the British, 5–13 million pounds sterling, for the Burmese Empire, it was the beginning of the end of their independence. The Third Burmese Empire, for a time the terror of British India, was crippled. The Burmese would be crushed for years to come by repaying the large indemnity of one million pounds, the British would wage two more wars against a much-weakened Burma, and swallow up the entire country by 1885. By 1822, Burmese expansion into Manipur and Assam had created a border between British India and the Burmese Empire. The British, based in Calcutta, supported rebels from Manipur, Assam, Calcutta unilaterally declared Cachar and Jaintia British protectorates, and sent in troops. Cross border raids into these newly acquired territories from British territories and spheres of influence vexed the Burmese, convinced that war was inevitable, Burmese commander-in-chief, Maha Bandula, became a main proponent of offensive policy against the British. Bandula was part of the war party at Bagyidaws court, which also included Queen Me Nu and her brother, the Lord of Salin. Bandula believed that a decisive victory could allow Ava to consolidate its gains in its new western empire in Arakan, Manipur, Assam, Cachar and Jaintia, as well as take over eastern Bengal. In September 1823, the casus belli was Burma occupying Shalpuri Island near Chittagong, in January 1824, Burma sent one of their top generals, Thado Thiri Maha Uzana, into Cachar and Jaintia to disperse the rebels. The British sent in their own force to meet the Burmese in Cachar, the war formally broke out on 5 March 1824, following border clashes in Arakan. The British reason for the war was, in addition to expanding British Bengals sphere of influence, the British were also anxious to deny the French the use of Burmese harbours and concerned about French influence at the Court of Ava, as the kingdom was still known to them. Anglo–French rivalry had played a role during Alaungpayas endeavours of unifying the kingdom. The commander in chief of the Burmese army, Maha Bandula, was supported by twelve of the countrys best divisions, including one under his personal command, all totaling 10,000 men and 500 horses. His general staff included some of the countrys most decorated soldiers, men like the Lord of Salay, Bandulas plan was to attack the British on two fronts, Chittagong from Arakan in the southeast, and Sylhet from Cachar and Jaintia in the north. Bandula personally commanded the Arakan theatre while Uzana commanded Cachar and Jaintia theater, Uzana had already defeated the British units in Cachar and Jaintia in January 1824. In May, Burmese forces led by U Sa, Lord Myawaddy fought their way into Bengal, sas column then joined Bandulas column on the march to defeat British forces at Gadawpalin, and went on to capture Coxs Bazar
35.
Public domain
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The term public domain has two senses of meaning. Anything published is out in the domain in the sense that it is available to the public. Once published, news and information in books is in the public domain, in the sense of intellectual property, works in the public domain are those whose exclusive intellectual property rights have expired, have been forfeited, or are inapplicable. Examples for works not covered by copyright which are therefore in the domain, are the formulae of Newtonian physics, cooking recipes. Examples for works actively dedicated into public domain by their authors are reference implementations of algorithms, NIHs ImageJ. The term is not normally applied to situations where the creator of a work retains residual rights, as rights are country-based and vary, a work may be subject to rights in one country and be in the public domain in another. Some rights depend on registrations on a basis, and the absence of registration in a particular country, if required. Although the term public domain did not come into use until the mid-18th century, the Romans had a large proprietary rights system where they defined many things that cannot be privately owned as res nullius, res communes, res publicae and res universitatis. The term res nullius was defined as not yet appropriated. The term res communes was defined as things that could be enjoyed by mankind, such as air, sunlight. The term res publicae referred to things that were shared by all citizens, when the first early copyright law was first established in Britain with the Statute of Anne in 1710, public domain did not appear. However, similar concepts were developed by British and French jurists in the eighteenth century, instead of public domain they used terms such as publici juris or propriété publique to describe works that were not covered by copyright law. The phrase fall in the domain can be traced to mid-nineteenth century France to describe the end of copyright term. In this historical context Paul Torremans describes copyright as a coral reef of private right jutting up from the ocean of the public domain. Because copyright law is different from country to country, Pamela Samuelson has described the public domain as being different sizes at different times in different countries. According to James Boyle this definition underlines common usage of the public domain and equates the public domain to public property. However, the usage of the public domain can be more granular. Such a definition regards work in copyright as private property subject to fair use rights, the materials that compose our cultural heritage must be free for all living to use no less than matter necessary for biological survival
36.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
37.
Mandalay Palace
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The Mandalay Palace, located in Mandalay, Myanmar, is the last royal palace of the last Burmese monarchy. The palace was constructed, between 1857 and 1859 as part of King Mindons founding of the new capital city of Mandalay. The plan of Mandalay Palace largely follows the traditional Burmese palace design, the palace itself is at the centre of the citadel and faces east. All buildings of the palace are of one storey in height, the number of spires above a building indicated the importance of the area below. Mandalay Palace was the royal residence of King Mindon and King Thibaw. The British turned the compound into Fort Dufferin, named after the then viceroy of India. Throughout the British colonial era, the palace was seen by the Burmese as the primary symbol sovereignty and identity, much of the palace compound was destroyed during World War II by allied bombing, only the royal mint and the watch tower survived. A replica of the palace was rebuilt in the 1990s with some modern materials, today, Mandalay Palace is a primary symbol of Mandalay and a major tourist destination. The Mandalay Palaces formal name in Burmese is Mya Nan San Kyaw and it is also known as ရွှေနန်းတော်ကြီး, or the Great Golden Royal Palace. The Mandalay Palace was constructed as part of King Mindons founding of Mandalay in February 1857, large parts of the palace were reconstructed from the palace at Amarapura, which was relocated to Mandalay. The master plan called for a 144-square block grid patterned city, the 413-hectare royal palace compound was surrounded by four 2 km long walls and a moat 64 m wide,4.5 m deep. Along the wall were bastions with gold-tipped spires at intervals of 169 m, the walls had three gates on each side, twelve in total, each presenting a zodiac sign. The citadel had five bridges to cross the moat, in June 1857, the construction of the palace began. After the disastrous Second Anglo-Burmese War of 1852, the shrunken Burmese kingdom had few resources to build a new ostentatious palace, the former royal palace of Amarapura was dismantled and moved by elephants to the new location at the foot of Mandalay Hill. The construction of the compound was officially completed on Monday,23 May 1859. The British invaded and ransacked the palace and some of the artifacts which were taken away are still on display in the Victoria and Albert Museum in London, the British renamed the palace compound Fort Dufferin and used it to billet troops. During World War II, the citadel was turned into a supply depot by the Japanese and was carelessly burnt to the ground by Allied bombing. Only the royal mint and the tower survived
Burmese Empire
Harry Prendergast
Thibaw Min
One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Burmese Wars". Encyclopædia Britannica. 4 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 847–848.
One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the 