1.
Seven Years' War
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The Seven Years War was a war fought between 1754 and 1763, the main conflict occurring in the seven-year period from 1756 to 1763. It involved every European great power of the time except the Ottoman Empire and spanned five continents, affecting Europe, the Americas, West Africa, India, and the Philippines. The conflict split Europe into two coalitions, led by the Kingdom of Great Britain on one side and the Kingdom of France on the other. Meanwhile, in India, the Mughal Empire, with the support of the French, faced with this sudden turn of events, Britain aligned herself with Prussia, in a series of political manoeuvres known as the Diplomatic Revolution. Conflict between Great Britain and France broke out in 1754–1756 when the British attacked disputed French positions in North America, meanwhile, rising power Prussia was struggling with Austria for dominance within and outside the Holy Roman Empire in central Europe. In 1756, the major powers switched partners, realizing that war was imminent, Prussia preemptively struck Saxony and quickly overran it. The result caused uproar across Europe, because of Austrias alliance with France to recapture Silesia, which had been lost in a previous war, Prussia formed an alliance with Britain. Reluctantly, by following the diet, most of the states of the empire joined Austrias cause. The Anglo-Prussian alliance was joined by smaller German states, Sweden, seeking to re-gain Pomerania joined the coalition, seeing its chance when virtually all of Europe opposed Prussia. Spain, bound by the Pacte de Famille, intervened on behalf of France, the Russian Empire was originally aligned with Austria, fearing Prussias ambition on the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, but switched sides upon the succession of Tsar Peter III in 1762. Naples, Sicily, and Savoy, although sided with the Franco-Spanish alliance, like Sweden, Russia concluded a separate peace with Prussia. The war ended with the Treaty of Paris between France, Spain and Great Britain and the Treaty of Hubertusburg between Saxony, Austria and Prussia, in 1763. The Native American tribes were excluded from the settlement, a subsequent conflict, Prussia emerged as a new European great power. Although Austria failed to retrieve the territory of Silesia from Prussia its military prowess was noted by the other powers. The involvement of Portugal, Spain and Sweden did not return them to their status as great powers. France was deprived of many of its colonies and had saddled itself with heavy war debts that its inefficient financial system could barely handle. Spain lost Florida but gained French Louisiana and regained control of its colonies, e. g. Cuba and the Philippines, France and Spain avenged their defeat in 1778 when the American Revolutionary War broke out, with hopes of destroying Britains dominance once and for all. The Seven Years War was perhaps the first true world war, having taken place almost 160 years before World War I and it was characterized in Europe by sieges and the arson of towns as well as open battles with heavy losses
2.
Battle of Leuthen
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The battle was fought at the Silesian town of Leuthen,10 kilometers northwest of Breslau. Within seven hours, the Prussians destroyed the Austrian force, erasing any advantage the Austrians had gained throughout the summer, within 48 hours, Frederick had laid siege to Breslau, which resulted in that citys surrender on 19–20 December. Leuthen was the last battle at which Prince Charles commanded the Austrian Army, subsequently, his sister-in-law, Empress Maria Theresa, the battle also established beyond doubt Fredericks military reputation in European circles. After Rossbach, the French refused to further in Austrias war with Prussia, after Leuthen. Although the Seven Years War was a conflict, it took a specific intensity in the European theater based on the recently concluded War of the Austrian Succession. The 1748 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle concluded the war with Austria. Frederick II of Prussia, known as Frederick the Great, acquired the prosperous province of Silesia, Empress Maria Theresa of Austria had signed the treaty to gain time to rebuild her military forces and forge new alliances, she was intent upon regaining ascendancy in the Holy Roman Empire. In 1754, escalating tensions between Britain and France in North America offered the Empress the opportunity to regain her lost territories, similarly, France sought to break the British dominance of Atlantic trade. France and Austria put aside their old rivalry to form a coalition of their own and this series of political maneuvers became known as the Diplomatic Revolution. After over-running Saxony, Frederick campaigned in Bohemia and defeated the Austrians on 6 May 1757 at the Battle of Prague, learning that French forces had invaded his allys territory of Duchy of Hanover, Frederick moved west. On 5 November 1757, he defeated the combined French and Austrian force at the Battle of Rossbach, in his absence, the Austrians had managed to slowly retake Silesia, Prince Charles had taken the city of Schweidnitz and moved on Breslau in lower Silesia. While heading back to Silesia, Frederick learned of the fall of Breslau and he and his 22,000 men covered 274 km in 12 days and, at Liegnitz, joined up with the Prussian troops who had survived the fighting at Breslau. The augmented army of about 33,000 troops arrived near Leuthen,27 km west of Breslau, Frederick had one of the finest armies in Europe, his troops—any company—could fire at least four volleys a minute, and some of them could fire five. Most of Lower Silesia is a plain of fertile land. It includes black and alluvial soils near Breslau and in river valleys and its mild climate, dense, water-rich river network, and fertile soils distributed between the Oder river and the foot of the Sudeten Mountains made it a coveted agricultural resource. In military terms, the area northwest of Breslau was predominantly flat, while the absence of steep hills made observation of an approaching enemy easy, the flatness precluded hiding maneuvers from ones enemies. The presence of alluvial soils guaranteed relatively soft ground, not as soft as Frederick faced outside Kunersdorf in 1758, a roadway connected the villages of Borna, Leuthen, Lissa with, across the Oder river and its tributaries, Breslau. Frederick had learned the countryside by heart on previous maneuvers, on 4 December 1757, astride his horse on the Schoen-Berg, a knoll about 1.5 km west of Borna, he surveyed the familiar landscape with his generals
3.
Central Europe
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Central Europe lies between Eastern Europe and Western Europe. The concept of Central Europe is based on a historical, social and cultural identity. Central Europe is going through a phase of strategic awakening, with such as the CEI, Centrope. While the regions economy shows high disparities with regard to income, elements of unity for Western and Central Europe were Roman Catholicism and Latin. According to Hungarian historian Jenő Szűcs, foundations of Central European history at the first millennium were in connection with Western European development. The keyword of Western social development after millennium was the spread of liberties and autonomies in Western Europe and these phenomena appeared in the middle of the 13th century in Central European countries. There were self-governments of towns, counties and parliaments, in 1335 under the rule of the King Charles I of Hungary, the castle of Visegrád, the seat of the Hungarian monarchs was the scene of the royal summit of the Kings of Poland, Bohemia and Hungary. They agreed to cooperate closely in the field of politics and commerce, in the Middle Ages, countries in Central Europe adopted Magdeburg rights. Before 1870, the industrialization that had developed in Western and Central Europe, even in Eastern Europe, industrialization lagged far behind. Russia, for example, remained rural and agricultural. The concept of Central Europe was already known at the beginning of the 19th century, an example of that-time vision of Central Europe may be seen in J. Partsch’s book of 1903. On 21 January 1904, Mitteleuropäischer Wirtschaftsverein was established in Berlin with economic integration of Germany, another time, the term Central Europe became connected to the German plans of political, economic and cultural domination. The bible of the concept was Friedrich Naumann’s book Mitteleuropa in which he called for a federation to be established after the war. The concept failed after the German defeat in World War I, the revival of the idea may be observed during the Hitler era. According to Emmanuel de Martonne, in 1927 the Central European countries included, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, italy and Yugoslavia are not considered by the author to be Central European because they are located mostly outside Central Europe. The author use both Human and Physical Geographical features to define Central Europe, the interwar period brought new geopolitical system and economic and political problems, and the concept of Central Europe took a different character. The centre of interest was moved to its eastern part – the countries that have appeared on the map of Europe, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, however, the conflict of interests was too big and neither Little Entente nor Intermarium ideas succeeded. The interwar period brought new elements to the concept of Central Europe, after the war, the Eastern part of Central Europe was placed at the centre of the concept
4.
Kingdom of Prussia
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It was the driving force behind the unification of Germany in 1871 and was the leading state of the German Empire until its dissolution in 1918. Although it took its name from the region called Prussia, it was based in the Margraviate of Brandenburg, the kings of Prussia were from the House of Hohenzollern. Prussia was a power from the time it became a kingdom, through its predecessor, Brandenburg-Prussia. Prussia continued its rise to power under the guidance of Frederick II, more known as Frederick the Great. After the might of Prussia was revealed it was considered as a power among the German states. Throughout the next hundred years Prussia went on to win many battles and it was because of its power that Prussia continuously tried to unify all the German states under its rule. Attempts at creation of a federation remained unsuccessful and the German Confederation collapsed in 1866 when war ensued between its two most powerful states, Prussia and Austria. The North German Confederation which lasted from 1867–1871, created a union between the Prussian-aligned states while Austria and most of Southern Germany remained independent. The North German Confederation was seen as more of an alliance of military strength in the aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War, the German Empire lasted from 1871–1918 with the successful unification of all the German states under Prussian hegemony. This was due to the defeat of Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, in 1871, Germany unified into a single country, minus Austria and Switzerland, with Prussia the dominant power. Prussia is considered the predecessor of the unified German Reich. The Kingdom left a significant cultural legacy, today notably promoted by the Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation, in 1415 a Hohenzollern Burgrave came from the south to the March of Brandenburg and took control of the area as elector. In 1417 the Hohenzollern was made an elector of the Holy Roman Empire, after the Polish wars, the newly established Baltic towns of the German states including Prussia, suffered many economic setbacks. Many of the Prussian towns could not even afford to attend political meetings outside of Prussia, the towns were poverty stricken, with even the largest town, Danzig, having to borrow money from elsewhere to pay for trade. Poverty in these towns was partly caused by Prussias neighbors, who had established and developed such a monopoly on trading that these new towns simply could not compete and these issues led to feuds, wars, trade competition and invasions. However, the fall of these gave rise to the nobility, separated the east and the west. It was clear in 1440 how different Brandenburg was from the other German territories, not only did it face partition from within but also the threat of its neighbors. It prevented the issue of partition by enacting the Dispositio Achillea which instilled the principle of primogeniture to both the Brandenburg and Franconian territories, the second issue was solved through expansion
5.
Habsburg Monarchy
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The Monarchy was a composite state composed of territories within and outside the Holy Roman Empire, united only in the person of the monarch. The dynastic capital was Vienna, except from 1583 to 1611, from 1804 to 1867 the Habsburg Monarchy was formally unified as the Austrian Empire, and from 1867 to 1918 as the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The two entities were never coterminous, as the Habsburg Monarchy covered many lands beyond the Holy Roman Empire, the monarchy had no official name. The entity had no official name, Austrian Empire, This was the official name. Note that the German version is Kaisertum Österreich, i. e. the English translation empire refers to a territory ruled by an emperor, Austria-Hungary, This was the official name. An unofficial popular name was the Danubian Monarchy also often used was the term Doppel-Monarchie meaning two states under one crowned ruler, Crownlands or crown lands, This is the name of all the individual parts of the Austrian Empire, and then of Austria-Hungary from 1867 on. The Hungarian parts of the Empire were called Lands of the Holy Hungarian Crown of Saint Stephen or Lands of Holy Stephens Crown, the Bohemian Lands were called Lands of the St. Wenceslaus Crown. Burgenland came to Austria in 1921 from Hungary, Salzburg finally became Austrian in 1816 after the Napoleonic wars. Vienna, Austrias capital became a state January 1,1922, after being residence, Upper and Lower Austria, historically, were split into Austria above the Enns and Austria below the Enns. Upper Austria was enlarged after the Treaty of Teschen following the War of the Bavarian Succession by the so-called Innviertel, formerly part of Bavaria. Hereditary Lands or German Hereditary Lands or Austrian Hereditary Lands, In a narrower sense these were the original Habsburg Austrian territories, i. e. basically the Austrian lands, in a wider sense the Lands of the Bohemian Crown were also included in the Hereditary lands. The term was replaced by the term Crownlands in the 1849 March Constitution, within the Habsburg Monarchy, each province was governed according to its own particular customs. Until the mid 17th century, not all of the provinces were even necessarily ruled by the same members of the family often ruled portions of the Hereditary Lands as private apanages. An even greater attempt at centralization began in 1849 following the suppression of the revolutions of 1848. For the first time, ministers tried to transform the monarchy into a bureaucratic state ruled from Vienna. The Kingdom of Hungary, in particular, ceased to exist as a separate entity, in this system, the Kingdom of Hungary was given sovereignty and a parliament, with only a personal union and a joint foreign and military policy connecting it to the other Habsburg lands. When Bosnia and Herzegovina was annexed, it was not incorporated into either half of the monarchy, instead, it was governed by the joint Ministry of Finance. Austria-Hungary collapsed under the weight of the various unsolved ethnic problems that came to a head with its defeat in World War I, to these were added in 1779 the Inn Quarter of Bavaria, and in 1803 the Bishoprics of Trent and Brixen
6.
Electorate of Saxony
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Upon the extinction of the House of Ascania, it was enfeoffed to the Margraves of Meissen from the Wettin dynasty in 1423, who moved the residence up the Elbe river to Dresden. After the Empires dissolution in 1806, the Wettin electors raised Saxony to a kingdom, when Emperor Frederick Barbarossa deposed the Saxon duke Henry the Lion in 1180, the Wittenberg lands belonged to Alberts youngest son Count Bernhard of Anhalt, who assumed the Saxon ducal title. Bernards eldest son, Albert I, ceded Anhalt to his younger brother Henry, retained the ducal title and his sons divided the possessions into the duchies of Saxe-Wittenberg and Saxe-Lauenburg. Louis was succeeded by the Luxembourg king Charles of Bohemia, after being crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1355, Charles issued the Golden Bull of 1356, the fundamental law of the Empire settling the method of electing the German King by seven Prince-electors. In this way, the country, though small in area, the electoral dignity was connected with it the obligation of male primogeniture, that is, only the eldest son could succeed as ruler. This forbade the division of the territory among several heirs, preventing the disintegration of the country, the importance of this stipulation is shown by the history of most of the fragmented German principalities which were not electorates. Late Alberts Ascanian relative Duke Eric V of Saxe-Lauenburg protested in vain, thus, in 1423, Saxe-Wittenberg, the Margraviate of Meissen and Thuringia were united under one ruler, and the unified territory gradually received the name of Saxony. The partition decisively enfeebled the Wettin dynasty in the rivalry with the rising House of Hohenzollern, the Protestant movement of the 16th century was largely effected under the protection of the Saxon rulers. The Elector did not become at once an adherent of the new opinions, owing to his intervention, Pope Leo X decided against summoning Luther to Rome in 1518, and the Elector secured for Luther Imperial safe-conduct to the 1521 Diet of Worms. When Luther was declared to be under the ban of the empire by Emperor Charles V. Lutheran doctrines spread first in Ernestine Saxony, in 1525, Frederick died and was succeeded by his brother, John the Constant. John was followed in 1532 by his son, John Frederick the Magnanimous, in 1542, he seized the Diocese of Naumburg-Zeitz, and confiscated the secular possessions of the Dioceses of Meissen and Hildesheim. The Catholic faith was forcibly suppressed, after the outbreak of the Schmalkaldic War, Elector John Frederick was placed under the Imperial ban and finally defeated and captured by Emperor Charles V at the Battle of Mühlberg on 24 April 1547. In the Capitulation of Wittenberg of May 19, he was obliged to yield former Saxe-Wittenberg with the dignity to his Albertine cousin Duke Maurice. The Saxon Electorate after the Wittenberg Capitulation consisted of former Saxe-Wittenberg and Meissen together, Maurice secretly shared in all the princely conspiracies against the Emperor, who only escaped capture by flight. During the same year, Charles V was obliged by the Peace of Passau to grant freedom of religion to the Protestant Estates, Maurice died in 1553 at the age of 32. His brother and successor Elector Augustus seized the Catholic dioceses of Merseburg, the last Bishop of Merseburg, Michael Helding called Sidonius, died at Vienna in 1561. In the same manner after the death of Julius von Pflug, the last Catholic Bishop of Naumburg, in 1564 and those cathedral canons who were still Catholic were only permitted to exercise their religion for ten years more
7.
Russian Empire
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The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until it was overthrown by the short-lived February Revolution in 1917. One of the largest empires in history, stretching over three continents, the Russian Empire was surpassed in landmass only by the British and Mongol empires. The rise of the Russian Empire happened in association with the decline of neighboring powers, the Swedish Empire, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Persia. It played a role in 1812–14 in defeating Napoleons ambitions to control Europe. The House of Romanov ruled the Russian Empire from 1721 until 1762, and its German-descended cadet branch, with 125.6 million subjects registered by the 1897 census, it had the third-largest population in the world at the time, after Qing China and India. Like all empires, it included a large disparity in terms of economics, ethnicity, there were numerous dissident elements, who launched numerous rebellions and assassination attempts, they were closely watched by the secret police, with thousands exiled to Siberia. Economically, the empire had an agricultural base, with low productivity on large estates worked by serfs. The economy slowly industrialized with the help of foreign investments in railways, the land was ruled by a nobility from the 10th through the 17th centuries, and subsequently by an emperor. Tsar Ivan III laid the groundwork for the empire that later emerged and he tripled the territory of his state, ended the dominance of the Golden Horde, renovated the Moscow Kremlin, and laid the foundations of the Russian state. Tsar Peter the Great fought numerous wars and expanded an already huge empire into a major European power, Catherine the Great presided over a golden age. She expanded the state by conquest, colonization and diplomacy, continuing Peter the Greats policy of modernisation along West European lines, Tsar Alexander II promoted numerous reforms, most dramatically the emancipation of all 23 million serfs in 1861. His policy in Eastern Europe involved protecting the Orthodox Christians under the rule of the Ottoman Empire and that connection by 1914 led to Russias entry into the First World War on the side of France, Britain, and Serbia, against the German, Austrian and Ottoman empires. The Russian Empire functioned as a monarchy until the Revolution of 1905. The empire collapsed during the February Revolution of 1917, largely as a result of failures in its participation in the First World War. Perhaps the latter was done to make Europe recognize Russia as more of a European country, Poland was divided in the 1790-1815 era, with much of the land and population going to Russia. Most of the 19th century growth came from adding territory in Asia, Peter I the Great introduced autocracy in Russia and played a major role in introducing his country to the European state system. However, this vast land had a population of 14 million, grain yields trailed behind those of agriculture in the West, compelling nearly the entire population to farm. Only a small percentage lived in towns, the class of kholops, close to the one of slavery, remained a major institution in Russia until 1723, when Peter I converted household kholops into house serfs, thus including them in poll taxation
8.
Kingdom of France
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The Kingdom of France was a medieval and early modern monarchy in Western Europe. It was one of the most powerful states in Europe and a great power since the Late Middle Ages and it was also an early colonial power, with possessions around the world. France originated as West Francia, the half of the Carolingian Empire. A branch of the Carolingian dynasty continued to rule until 987, the territory remained known as Francia and its ruler as rex Francorum well into the High Middle Ages. The first king calling himself Roi de France was Philip II, France continued to be ruled by the Capetians and their cadet lines—the Valois and Bourbon—until the monarchy was overthrown in 1792 during the French Revolution. France in the Middle Ages was a de-centralised, feudal monarchy, in Brittany and Catalonia the authority of the French king was barely felt. Lorraine and Provence were states of the Holy Roman Empire and not yet a part of France, during the Late Middle Ages, the Kings of England laid claim to the French throne, resulting in a series of conflicts known as the Hundred Years War. Subsequently, France sought to extend its influence into Italy, but was defeated by Spain in the ensuing Italian Wars, religiously France became divided between the Catholic majority and a Protestant minority, the Huguenots, which led to a series of civil wars, the Wars of Religion. France laid claim to large stretches of North America, known collectively as New France, Wars with Great Britain led to the loss of much of this territory by 1763. French intervention in the American Revolutionary War helped secure the independence of the new United States of America, the Kingdom of France adopted a written constitution in 1791, but the Kingdom was abolished a year later and replaced with the First French Republic. The monarchy was restored by the great powers in 1814. During the later years of the elderly Charlemagnes rule, the Vikings made advances along the northern and western perimeters of the Kingdom of the Franks, after Charlemagnes death in 814 his heirs were incapable of maintaining political unity and the empire began to crumble. The Treaty of Verdun of 843 divided the Carolingian Empire into three parts, with Charles the Bald ruling over West Francia, the nucleus of what would develop into the kingdom of France. Viking advances were allowed to increase, and their dreaded longboats were sailing up the Loire and Seine rivers and other waterways, wreaking havoc. During the reign of Charles the Simple, Normans under Rollo from Norway, were settled in an area on either side of the River Seine, downstream from Paris, that was to become Normandy. With its offshoots, the houses of Valois and Bourbon, it was to rule France for more than 800 years. Henry II inherited the Duchy of Normandy and the County of Anjou, and married Frances newly divorced ex-queen, Eleanor of Aquitaine, after the French victory at the Battle of Bouvines in 1214, the English monarchs maintained power only in southwestern Duchy of Guyenne. The death of Charles IV of France in 1328 without male heirs ended the main Capetian line, under Salic law the crown could not pass through a woman, so the throne passed to Philip VI, son of Charles of Valois
9.
Frederick the Great
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Frederick II was King of Prussia from 1740 until 1786, the longest reign of any Hohenzollern king. Frederick was the last titled King in Prussia and declared himself King of Prussia after achieving full sovereignty for all historical Prussian lands, Prussia had greatly increased its territories and became a leading military power in Europe under his rule. He became known as Frederick the Great and was affectionately nicknamed Der Alte Fritz by the Prussian, in his youth, Frederick was more interested in music and philosophy than the art of war. Upon ascending to the Prussian throne, he attacked Austria and claimed Silesia during the Silesian Wars, winning acclaim for himself. Near the end of his life, Frederick physically connected most of his realm by conquering Polish territories in the First Partition of Poland and he was an influential military theorist whose analysis emerged from his extensive personal battlefield experience and covered issues of strategy, tactics, mobility and logistics. Considering himself the first servant of the state, Frederick was a proponent of enlightened absolutism and he modernized the Prussian bureaucracy and civil service and pursued religious policies throughout his realm that ranged from tolerance to segregation. He reformed the system and made it possible for men not of noble stock to become judges. Frederick also encouraged immigrants of various nationalities and faiths to come to Prussia, some critics, however, point out his oppressive measures against conquered Polish subjects during the First Partition. Frederick supported arts and philosophers he favored, as well as allowing complete freedom of the press, Frederick is buried at his favorite residence, Sanssouci in Potsdam. Because he died childless, Frederick was succeeded by his nephew, Frederick William II, son of his brother, historian Leopold von Ranke was unstinting in his praise of Fredericks Heroic life, inspired by great ideas, filled with feats of arms. Immortalized by the raising of the Prussian state to the rank of a power, Johann Gustav Droysen was even more extolling. However, by the 21st century, a re-evaluation of his legacy as a great warrior, Frederick, the son of Frederick William I and his wife, Sophia Dorothea of Hanover, was born in Berlin on 24 January 1712. The birth of Frederick was welcomed by his grandfather, Frederick I, with more than usual pleasure, with the death of his father in 1713, Frederick William became King of Prussia, thus making young Frederick the crown prince. The new king wished for his sons and daughters to be educated not as royalty and he had been educated by a Frenchwoman, Madame de Montbail, who later became Madame de Rocoulle, and he wished that she educate his children. However, he possessed a violent temper and ruled Brandenburg-Prussia with absolute authority. As Frederick grew, his preference for music, literature and French culture clashed with his fathers militarism, in contrast, Fredericks mother Sophia was polite, charismatic and learned. Her father, George Louis of Brunswick-Lüneburg, succeeded to the British throne as King George I in 1714, Frederick was brought up by Huguenot governesses and tutors and learned French and German simultaneously. Although Frederick William I was raised a Calvinist, he feared he was not of the elect, to avoid the possibility of Frederick being motivated by the same concerns, the king ordered that his heir not be taught about predestination
10.
Maria Theresa
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Maria Theresa Walburga Amalia Christina was the only female ruler of the Habsburg dominions and the last of the House of Habsburg. She was the sovereign of Austria, Hungary, Croatia, Bohemia, Transylvania, Mantua, Milan, Lodomeria and Galicia, by marriage, she was Duchess of Lorraine, Grand Duchess of Tuscany and Holy Roman Empress. She started her 40-year reign when her father, Emperor Charles VI, Charles VI paved the way for her accession with the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 and spent his entire reign securing it. Upon the death of her father, Saxony, Prussia, Bavaria, Prussia proceeded to invade the affluent Habsburg province of Silesia, sparking a nine-year conflict known as the War of the Austrian Succession, and subsequently conquered it. Maria Theresa would later try to reconquer Silesia during the Seven Years War. Of the sixteen, ten survived to adulthood and she had eleven daughters and five sons. She criticised and disapproved of many of Josephs actions, Maria Theresa understood the importance of her public persona and was able to simultaneously evoke both esteem and affection from her subjects. However, she refused to allow religious toleration and contemporary travelers thought her regime was bigoted and superstitious. As a young monarch who fought two wars, she believed that her cause should be the cause of her subjects. The dowager empresses, her aunt Wilhelmine Amalia of Brunswick-Lüneburg and grandmother Eleonor Magdalene of the Palatinate-Neuburg, were her godmothers and her father was the only surviving male member of the House of Habsburg and hoped for a son who would prevent the extinction of his dynasty and succeed him. Thus, the birth of Maria Theresa was a disappointment to him. Charles sought the other European powers approval for disinheriting his nieces and they exacted harsh terms, in the Treaty of Vienna, Great Britain demanded that Austria abolish the Ostend Company in return for its recognition of the Pragmatic Sanction. France, Spain, Saxony-Poland, Bavaria and Prussia later reneged, little more than a year after her birth, Maria Theresa was joined by a sister, Maria Anna, and another one, named Maria Amalia, was born in 1724. The portraits of the family show that Maria Theresa resembled Elisabeth Christine. The Prussian ambassador noted that she had blue eyes, fair hair with a slight tinge of red, a wide mouth. Unlike many other members of the House of Habsburg, neither Maria Theresas parents nor her grandparents were closely related to each other, Maria Theresa was a serious and reserved child who enjoyed singing and archery. She was barred from riding by her father, but she would later learn the basics for the sake of her Hungarian coronation ceremony. The imperial family staged opera productions, often conducted by Charles VI and her education was overseen by Jesuits
11.
Prince Charles Alexander of Lorraine
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Charles was the son of Leopold Joseph, Duke of Lorraine and Élisabeth Charlotte dOrléans. When his elder brother Franz/Francis, Duke of Lorraine, married the Archduchess Maria Theresa, daughter of Emperor Charles VI, during the War of the Austrian Succession, he was one of the principal Austrian military commanders. He was most notable for his defeats by better trained and superior forces under Frederick the Great, at the Battle of Chotusitz in 1742, his forces lost the battle but were able to inflict greater loss of life and retreat in good order. However, he lost more decisively to Frederick at the Battle of Hohenfriedberg and he was also defeated by Maurice de Saxe at the Battle of Rocoux in 1746. On 7 January 1744 he married Maria Theresas only sister, Archduchess Maria Anna of Austria, the couple were jointly made Governors of the Austrian Netherlands. Although Maria Anna died later the year after marriage, Charles popularity and lack of clear replacement allowed him to continue as governor. Charles also became Grand Master of the Teutonic Order in 1761, with the loss of his co-sovereign Maria Anna, his sister Anne Charlotte, whom he was very close to, acted as a de facto co-sovereign. Despite his record of defeats, he was able to retain his position and he was able to attain command ahead of the more popular Marshal Browne because of the support of his brother who had significant influence over military appointments. During the battle, he was commander of the Imperial Army as appointed by Maria Theresa, after this last defeat, Charles was replaced by Count Leopold Joseph von Daun and retired from military service. He was them sent to the Netherlands as a governor, though an unsuccessful military leader, Charles proved to be a competent administrator, well-liked by the population. Under him, the Austrian Netherlands flourished, and he was involved in the cultural life of his province
12.
Leopold Joseph von Daun
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Count Leopold Joseph von Daun, later Prince of Thiano, was an Austrian field marshal of the Imperial Army in the War of the Austrian Succession and Seven Years War. Leopold Joseph Maria was born at Vienna, the son of Count Wirich Philipp von Daun, the Daun noble family originated from the Rhineland and derived its name from the ancestral seat at Daun south of the High Eifel range. He was intended for the church, but his inclination for the army, in which his father and grandfather had been distinguished generals. In 1718 he served in the War of the Quadruple Alliance in Sicily and he had already risen to the rank of Oberst when he saw further active service in Italy and on the Rhine in the War of the Polish Succession. He continued to add to his distinctions in the Turkish War of 1737–39, in the War of the Austrian Succession from 1740, Daun distinguished himself by the careful leadership which was afterwards his greatest military quality. In the First Silesian War, he was present at Chotusitz and Prague and he held important commands in the battles of Hohenfriedberg and Soor, and in the same year was promoted to the rank of Feldzeugmeister. After this he served in the Low Countries, and was present at the Battle of Val and he was highly valued by Maria Theresa, who made him commandant of Vienna and a Knight of the Golden Fleece, and in 1754 he was elevated to the rank of Feldmarschall. He was not actively employed in the first campaigns of the war, on 18 June 1757 Daun decisively defeated Frederick for the first time in his career in the desperately fought Battle of Kolin. In commemoration of this brilliant exploit, the queen immediately instituted a military order bearing her name, Frederick now reappeared and won the most brilliant victory of the age at Leuthen. Daun was present on field, but was not held accountable for the disaster. Despite the tactical success Daun achieved at Hochkirch, his failure to pursue Frederick allowed the Prussians to block his path into Silesia, meaning that his victory counted for little. In the following year the war of manoeuvre continued, and on 20 and 21 November he surrounded the entire corps of General Finck at Maxen, in this engagement, Daun was so severely wounded that he had to return to Vienna to recuperate. However, Daun and his forces inflicted heavy casualties on the Prussians and were able to retreat in good order, Daun continued to command until the end of the war, and afterwards worked with the greatest energy at the reorganization of the imperial forces. In 1762 he had been appointed president of the Hofkriegsrat, by order of Maria Theresa, a monument to his memory was erected by Balthasar Ferdinand Moll in the church of the Augustinians, with an inscription describing him as the saviour of her states. In 1888, the 56th Regiment of Austrian Infantry was named after him and his inability to exploit a victory, on the other hand, might not be so easily excused. The relationship with his daring general Ernst Gideon von Laudon remained tense and his cousin married the Marquis of Pombal, the noted Portuguese statesman. Regarding personal names, Until 1919, Graf was a title, translated as Count, in Germany since 1919, it forms part of family names. Regarding personal names, Fürst is a title, translated as Prince, the feminine form is Fürstin. and works dealing with the wars of the period
13.
Ernst Gideon von Laudon
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He served the position of military governorship of Habsburg Serbia from his capture of Belgrade in 1789 until his death, cooperating with the resistance fighters of Koča Anđelković. The Laudohn family, of mixed German and Latgalian origin, had settled in the estate of Tootzen. Laudon himself claimed a kinship with the Scottish Earls of Loudoun and his father Otto Gerhard von Laudohn was a lieutenant-colonel, retired on a meagre pension from the Swedish service. As upon the Great Northern War Livonia had been ceded to Russia according to the 1721 Treaty of Nystad, after the 1739 Treaty of Belgrade he returned to the Russian court at Saint Petersburg. Dissatisfied with his prospects and the conditions in the Russian Army, he resigned in 1741. He applied first to King Frederick the Great, who declined his services. At Vienna he had better fortune, being made a captain in the Freikorps of Franz von der Trenck, during the War of the Austrian Succession, he took part in its forays and marches, though not in its atrocities, until wounded and taken prisoner in Alsace. He was shortly released by the advance of the main Austrian army and his next active service, still under Trenck, was in the Silesian mountains in 1745, in which campaign he greatly distinguished himself as a leader of light troops. He was present also at the Battle of Soor, at Bunić, where he was stationed, he built a church and planted an oak forest now called by his name. He had reached the rank of lieutenant-colonel when the outbreak of the Seven Years War called him again into the field, from this point began his fame as a soldier. At first rejected by General Wilhelm Reinhard von Neipperg, he soon was promoted colonel at the behest of Chancellor Wenzel Anton Kaunitz, Maria Theresa gave him, further, the grand cross of the order she had founded and an estate near Kutná Hora in Bohemia. As a result, Laudon was promoted Feldzeugmeister and made commander-in-chief in Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia, in 1760 he destroyed a whole corps of Fredericks army under Fouqué at Landshut and stormed the important fortress of Glatz. In 1761 he operated, as usual, in Silesia, but he found his Russian allies as timid as they had been after Kunersdorf and he brilliantly seized his one fleeting opportunity, however, and stormed Schweidnitz on the night of September 30/October 1,1761. His tireless activity continued to the end of the war, in conspicuous contrast with the strategy of Daun. The student of the campaigns of the Seven Years War will probably admit that there was need of more aggressiveness than Daun displayed. But neither recognized this, and the last three years of the war are marked by a friction between the Fabius and the Marcellus, as they were called, of the Austrian army. After the peace, therefore, when Daun became the virtual commander-in-chief of the army, offers were made, by Frederick the Great amongst others, to induce Laudon to transfer his services elsewhere. Laudon did not entertain these proposals, although negotiations went on for some years, dissensions, however, continued between Laudon and Lacy, and on the accession of Joseph II, who was intimate with his rival, Laudon retired to his estate near Kutná Hora
14.
Elizabeth of Russia
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Elizabeth Petrovna, also known as Yelisaveta or Elizaveta, was the Empress of Russia from 1741 until her death. She led the country into the two major European conflicts of her time, the War of Austrian Succession and the Seven Years War, on the eve of her death Russia spanned almost 16,200,000 square kilometres. Her domestic policies allowed the nobles to gain dominance in government while shortening their terms of service to the state. She encouraged Mikhail Lomonosovs establishment of the University of Moscow and Ivan Shuvalovs foundation of the Imperial Academy of Arts in Saint Petersburg and she also spent exorbitant sums of money on the grandiose baroque projects of her favourite architect, Bartolomeo Rastrelli, particularly in Peterhof and Tsarskoye Selo. The Winter Palace and the Smolny Cathedral in Saint Petersburg are among the monuments of her reign. She remains one of the most popular Russian monarchs due to her opposition to Prussian policies. Elizabeth was born at Kolomenskoye, near Moscow, on 18 December 1709, Peter valued Catherine and married her again at Saint Isaacs Cathedral in St. Petersburg on 9 February 1712. On this day his two surviving children by Catherine were legitimized by their father and this circumstance would later be used by Elizabeths political opponents to challenge her right to the throne on grounds of illegitimacy. Of the twelve children born to Peter and Catherine only two daughters, Anna and Elizabeth survived to adulthood, both of them were given the title of Tsarevna on 6 March 1711, and of Tsesarevna on 23 December 1721. They had one surviving sibling, crown prince Alexei Petrovich, who was their fathers son by his first wife Eudoxia Lopukhina. As a child Elizabeth was the favorite of her father. She resembled him both physically and temperamentally and she was a bright girl, if not brilliant, but received only an imperfect and desultory formal education. Even though he adored his daughter Peter did not devote time or attention to her education and he had a son from his first marriage to a noblewoman and did not anticipate that a daughter born to his second wife might one day inherit the throne. Indeed, no woman had ever sat upon the throne of Russia yet and it was therefore left to Catherine to raise the girls, but she was herself too uneducated to be able to superintend the formal education of her daughters. Elizabeth had a French governess and grew fluent in Italian, German and she was also an excellent dancer and rider. Like her father Elizabeth was physically active and loved riding, hunting, sledging, skating, from her earliest years she delighted everyone with her extraordinary beauty and vivacity, and was regarded as the leading beauty of the Russian Empire. The wife of the British minister described Elizabeth as fair, with brown hair, large sprightly blue eyes, fine teeth. She is inclinable to be fat, but is very genteel and she speaks German, French and Italian, is extremely gay and talks to everyone
15.
Louis XV of France
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Louis XV, known as Louis the Beloved, was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1 September 1715 until his death. He succeeded his great-grandfather Louis XIV at the age of five, Cardinal Fleury was his chief minister from 1726 until the Cardinals death in 1743, at which time the young king took sole control of the kingdom. During his reign, Louis returned the Austrian Netherlands, territory won at the Battle of Fontenoy of 1745, Louis also ceded New France in North America to Spain and Great Britain at the conclusion of the Seven Years War in 1763. He incorporated the territories of Lorraine and Corsica into the kingdom of France and he was succeeded by his grandson Louis XVI in 1774. French culture and influence were at their height in the first half of the eighteenth century, however, many scholars believe that Louis XVs decisions damaged the power of France, weakened the treasury, discredited the absolute monarchy, and made it more vulnerable to distrust and destruction. Evidence for this view is provided by the French Revolution, which broke out 15 years after his death, norman Davies characterized Louis XVs reign as one of debilitating stagnation, characterized by lost wars, endless clashes between the Court and Parliament, and religious feuds. A few scholars defend Louis, arguing that his negative reputation was based on propaganda meant to justify the French Revolution. Jerome Blum described him as a perpetual adolescent called to do a mans job, Louis XV was born in the Palace of Versailles on 15 February 1710 during the reign of Louis XIV. His grandfather, Louis Le Grand Dauphin, had three sons with his wife Marie Anne Victoire of Bavaria, Louis, Duke of Burgundy, Philippe, Duke of Anjou, and Charles, Duke of Berry. Louis XV was the son of the Duke of Burgundy and his wife Marie Adélaïde of Savoy, the eldest daughter of Victor Amadeus II, Duke of Savoy. At birth, Louis XV received a title for younger sons of the French royal family. In April 1711, Louis Le Grand Dauphin suddenly died, making Louis XVs father, the Duke of Burgundy, at that time, Burgundy had two living sons, Louis, Duke of Brittany and his youngest son, the future Louis XV. A year later, Marie Adélaïde, Duchess of Burgundy, contracted smallpox and her husband, said to be heartbroken by her death, died the same week, also having contracted smallpox. Within a week of his death, it was clear that the two children had also been infected. The elder son was treated by bloodletting in an unsuccessful effort to save him. Fearing that the Dauphin would die, the Court had both the Dauphin and the Duke of Anjou baptised, the Dauphin died the same day,8 March 1712. His younger brother, the Duke of Anjou, was treated by his governess, Madame de Ventadour. The two year old Dauphin survived the smallpox, on 1 September 1715, Louis XIV died of gangrene, having reigned for 72 years
16.
Charles, Prince of Soubise
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Charles de Rohan, duke of Rohan-Rohan, seigneur of Roberval, and marshal of France from 1758, was a military man, and a minister to the kings Louis XV and Louis XVI. The last male of his branch of the House of Rohan, he was also the great-grandfather to the duc dEnghien, styled prince dEpinoy at birth, he became the Prince of Soubise after 1749. The prince was born at Versailles on 16 January 1715, the son of Jules, Prince of Soubise, lieutenant captain of the gendarmes of the Royal Guard, the eldest of five children, he was styled the Prince of Epinoy till his fathers death in 1724. His parents died in Paris of smallpox in 1724, remaining his siblings, including Marie Louise and his sister lost her husband to smallpox in 1743. He was entrusted to his grandfather Hercule Mériadec, Duke of Rohan-Rohan, who raised Soubise to the court, where he became the companion of Louis XV, who was the same age as he. One of his grandmothers was Madame de Ventadour, via his paternal grandmother Anne Geneviève de Lévis, Madame de Ventadour. He accompanied Louis XV in the campaign of 1744-1748 and attained high military rank, along with the failure to hold Hanover following the Invasion of Hanover this marked a dramatic turnaround for French fortunes as just months before they have seemed on the brink of victory. Soubise also refers to a dish with a sauce made with a rice and onion purée, named to compliment Charles de Rohan, prince of Soubise. Their daughter was, Charlotte Élisabeth Godefride de Rohan 1737–1760 known as Charlotte and she married Louis Joseph de Bourbon, a Prince du sang and descendant of Louis XIV of France and Madame de Montespan. Charlotte was the grandmother of the murdered Louis Antoine, Duke of Enghien. Anna Teresa gave birth to another daughter Victoire Armande Josèphe de Rohan 1743–1807 and she married Henri Louis Marie de Rohan, Prince of Guéménée who was a cousin. Victoire was later the governess to the daughter of Marie Antoinette, the same year Charles married again to a German Princess and Landgravine, Anne Victoire of Hesse-Rotenburg 1728–1792. Anna Viktoria was a niece of an old Princess of Condé,16 July 1715 –6 May 1724 His Highness the Prince of Epinoy 6 May 1724 –4 July 1787 His Highness the Prince of Soubise
17.
Pomeranian War
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The Pomeranian War was a theatre of the Seven Years War. The term is used to describe the fighting between Sweden and Prussia between 1757 and 1762 in Swedish Pomerania, Prussian Pomerania, northern Brandenburg and eastern Mecklenburg-Schwerin. The war was characterized by a movement of the Swedish and Prussian armies. It started when Swedish forces advanced into Prussian territory in 1757, another Swedish campaign into Prussia started in the summer of 1761, but was soon aborted due to shortage of supplies and equipment. The war was ended on 22 May 1762 by the Peace of Hamburg between Prussia, Mecklenburg and Sweden. The hopes of the Swedish Hats party to recover territories lost to Prussia in 1720 were thwarted, the Hats faction was also encouraged to declare war by France, whose wishes were central to the Hats actions. Fredericks invasion of Saxony in 1756 was used as a pretext for war, on March 21,1757 the governments of France and Austria agreed a convention in which Sweden and France explained that they had to maintain Germanys freedom in line with the treaty. France promised financial backing for such a war and in June the same year the decision was made to send 20,000 Swedish troops to Germany to emphasise their commitment, on September 13 that force invaded Prussian Pomerania. To avoid this invasion appearing as a war of aggression, the Swedes issued no declaration of war, but the hats had seriosly overestimated the strength of the Swedish army. The soldiers where badly trained and poorly equipped and in every way unprepared for war. Von Ungern-Sternberg relinquished command on 21 December 1757 to Gustaf von Rosen and this blockade was lifted by an invading Russian army on 18 June 1758, but von Rosen had grown tired of his thankless task and handed command over to Gustav David Hamilton. Augustin Ehrensvard captured Peenemünde hill on July 27, and Hamilton sent 16,000 men to support the Russians, however, after their defeat at Zorndorf he decided instead to march to Saxony to join up with the Austrians. However, he got no further than Neuruppin in Brandenburg, after the failure of the Austrian invasion of Saxony, Hamilton left Neuruppin on 10 October and headed for the River Oder, in the hopes of joining up with the Russians. He failed in this and the Swedish force had to go into winter quarters, the government blamed him for the forces failure and pressured him into resigning his command, which Hamilton did on 23 November 1758. Hamilton was replaced as commander on 19 December the same year with Jacob Albrecht von Lantingshausen, early in 1759, a superior Prussian force forced him to retreat to Stralsund, losing the garrisons at Demmin, Anklam and Peenemünde after hard fighting. The Russian advance in May liberated Swedish Pomerania, but lack of money, however, due to a lack of cooperation from his allies, he was unable to besiege Stettin and in late autumn withdrew into Swedish Pomerania. He pushed forward to Prenzlow in Brandenburg with his force of 6,000 troops. There he was attacked by the enemy and fought back bravely, although his commands exceeded any expectations, Lantingshausen tired of the immense difficulties and in June 1761 resigned. Only in July was his successor Augustin Ehrensvard able to raise 7,000 men to invade the enemys country
18.
Spanish invasion of Portugal (1762)
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It initially involved the forces of Spain and Portugal, before the French and British intervened in the conflict on the side of their respective allies. During the first invasion,22,000 Spaniards commanded by Nicolás de Carvajal, Marquis of Sarria, after occupying some fortresses, they were confronted with a national uprising. Near starvation, the Spaniards tried to conquer Oporto quickly, but were defeated in the battle of the Douro, after this failure, the Spanish commander was replaced by Pedro Pablo Abarca de Bolea, Count of Aranda. Meanwhile,7,104 British troops landed in Lisbon, leading a massive reorganization of the Portuguese army under the Count of Lippe, the Anglo-Portuguese also prevented the invaders from crossing the river Tagus and defeated them at Vila Velha. The Portuguese government also encouraged desertion among the invaders offering large sums to all deserters and defectors, the invaders had to choose between stay and starve or withdraw. During the third invasion of Portugal, the Spaniards attacked Marvão, the allied army left their winter quarters and chased the retreating Spaniards, taking some prisoners, and a Portuguese corps entered Spain taking more prisoners at Codicera. On 24 November, Aranda asked for a truce which was accepted and signed by Lippe on 1 December 1762, during the Seven Years War, a British fleet under Admiral Boscawen attacked a French fleet in Portuguese waters in front of Lagos, Algarve, in 1758. Three French ships were captured and two burned, Portugal, though an old ally of Britain, had stated her neutrality in this war and accordingly, the Portuguese prime minister Pombal demanded satisfaction from Great Britain. The British government apologized to the Portuguese king, José I, by sending a delegation to Lisbon, yet the captured vessels were not returned. The Portuguese government materially assisted the French garrisons that had taken refuge in Lagos after the battle, the French king, Louis XV, thanked José I for all the assistance given to the French sailors, although claiming for the navies. The case seemed settled, but Spain and France would use it as a pretext to invade Portugal four years later, however, the king and government of Portugal were strongly committed to keep the country out of the war. On their part, the French were increasingly pressing a reluctant Spain to enter the war on their side, both countries eventually signed the famous III Compact Family, a continental system mainly designed to isolate Britain in Europe. However, British ships intercepted official correspondence from Spain to France, the British anticipated Spain, declaring war first on 2 January 1762. Both Bourbon powers decided to force Portugal to join their Family Compact, Spain and France sent an ultimatum to Lisbon stating that Portugal had to, Terminate the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance replacing it with a new alliance with France and Spain. Close her ports to English ships and to all commerce with Great Britain both in Europe and within the Portuguese empire. Declare war on Great Britain Accept the occupation of Portuguese ports by a Spanish army, thus Portugal would be both protected and liberated from its British oppressors. Portugal was given four days to answer, after which the country would face an invasion by the forces of France, both Bourbon powers hoped to benefit by diverting British troops from Germany to Portugal, while Spain hoped to seize Portugal and its empire. The great Lisbon earthquake, tsunami and fire of 1755 had completely destroyed the Portuguese capital, killing tens of thousands and damaging most of the Portuguese fortresses
19.
French and Indian War
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The French and Indian War comprised the North American theater of the worldwide Seven Years War of 1754–1763. At the start of the war, the French North American colonies had a population of roughly 60,000 European settlers, the outnumbered French particularly depended on the Indians. Following months of localised conflict, the nations declared war on each other in 1756. The name French and Indian War, used mainly in the United States, British and European historians use the term the Seven Years War, as do English speaking Canadians. French Canadians call it La guerre de la Conquête or the Fourth Intercolonial War, fighting took place primarily along the frontiers between New France and the British colonies, from Virginia in the south to Newfoundland in the north. It began with a dispute over control of the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers, called the Forks of the Ohio, and the site of the French Fort Duquesne. The dispute erupted into violence in the Battle of Jumonville Glen in May 1754, in 1755, six colonial governors in North America met with General Edward Braddock, the newly arrived British Army commander, and planned a four-way attack on the French. None succeeded, and the effort by Braddock proved a disaster, he lost the Battle of the Monongahela on July 9,1755. In 1755, the British captured Fort Beauséjour on the border separating Nova Scotia from Acadia, orders for the deportation were given by William Shirley, Commander-in-Chief, North America, without direction from Great Britain. The Acadians, both captured in arms and those who had sworn the loyalty oath to His Britannic Majesty, were expelled. Native Americans were likewise driven off their land to make way for settlers from New England, after the disastrous 1757 British campaigns, the British government fell. France concentrated its forces against Prussia and its allies in the European theatre of the war, between 1758 and 1760, the British military launched a campaign to capture the Colony of Canada. They succeeded in capturing territory in surrounding colonies and ultimately the city of Quebec, though the British later lost the Battle of Sainte-Foy west of Quebec, the French ceded Canada in accordance with the Treaty of Paris. The outcome was one of the most significant developments in a century of Anglo-French conflict, France ceded its territory east of the Mississippi to Great Britain. It ceded French Louisiana west of the Mississippi River to its ally Spain, in compensation for Spains loss to Britain of Florida. Frances colonial presence north of the Caribbean was reduced to the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, the conflict is known by multiple names. In British America, wars were often named after the sitting British monarch, such as King Williams War or Queen Annes War. As there had already been a King Georges War in the 1740s, British colonists named the war in King Georges reign after their opponents
20.
Carnatic Wars
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The Carnatic Wars were a series of military conflicts in the middle of the 18th century in India. They were mainly fought on the territories in India which were dominated by the Nizam of Hyderabad up to the Godavari delta, as a result of these military contests, the British East India Company established its dominance among the European trading companies within India. The French company was pushed to a corner and was confined primarily to Pondichéry, the East India companys dominance eventually led to control by the British Company over most of India and eventually to the establishment of the British Raj. In the 18th century, the coastal Carnatic region was a dependency of Hyderabad, three Carnatic Wars were fought between 1746 and 1763. The Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb died in 1707 and he was succeeded by Bahadur Shah I, but there was a general decline in central control over the empire during the tenure of Jahandar Shah and later emperors. Nizam-ul-Mulk established Hyderabad as an independent kingdom, a power struggle ensued after his death between his son, Nasir Jung, and his grandson, Muzaffar Jung, which was the opportunity France and England needed to interfere in Indian politics. France aided Muzaffar Jung while England aided Nasir Jung, several erstwhile Mughal territories were autonomous such as the Carnatic, ruled by Nawab Dost Ali Khan, despite being under the legal purview of the Nizam of Hyderabad. French and English interference included those of the affairs of the Nawab, Dost Alis death sparked a power struggle between his son-in-law Chanda Sahib, supported by the French, and Muhammad Ali, supported by the English. One major instigator of the Carnatic Wars was the Frenchman Joseph François Dupleix, Dupleix sought to expand French influence in India, which was limited to a few trading outposts, the chief one being Pondicherry on the Coromandel Coast. Immediately upon his arrival in India, he organized Indian recruits under French officers for the first time, however, he was met by the equally challenging and determined young officer from the British Army, Robert Clive. The Austrian War of Succession in 1740 and later the war in 1756 automatically led to a conflict in India. in 1740 the War of the Austrian Succession broke out in Europe. Great Britain was only drawn into the war in 1744, when it entered the war opposed to France, the trading companies of both countries maintained cordial relations among themselves in India while their parent countries were bitter enemies on the European continent. Dodwell writes, Such were the relations between the English and the French that the French sent their goods and merchandise from Pondicherry to Madras for safe custody. Although French company officials were ordered to avoid conflict, British officials were not, after the British initially captured a few French merchant ships, the French called for backup from as far afield as Isle de France, beginning an escalation in naval forces in the area. In July 1746 French commander La Bourdonnais and British Admiral Edward Peyton fought an action off Negapatam. On 21 September 1746, the French captured the British outpost at Madras, La Bourdonnais had promised to return Madras to the English, but Dupleix withdrew that promise, and one to give Madras to Anwar-ud-din after the capture. The Nawab then sent a 10, 000-man army to take Madras from the French, the French then made several attempts to capture the British Fort St. David at Cuddalore, but the timely arrivals of reinforcements halted these, and eventually turned the tables on the French. British Admiral Edward Boscawen besieged Pondicherry in the months of 1748
21.
First Cevallos expedition
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The Portuguese territories of Colonia do Sacramento and Rio Grande do Sul were conquered by the Spaniards. The Anglo-Portuguese forces were defeated and forced to surrender and retreat, the Colonia do Sacramento and the near territories were under Spanish control until the Treaty of Paris, while Rio Grande do Sul would be reconquered by Portugal a few years later. This expedition was the only Spanish victory in a chain of heavy Spanish defeats at the hands of the British. In January 1762, Spain joined France against Great Britain in the Seven Years War, the plan was to attack Portugal, which had been neutral up to then, but which was an important economical ally of Great Britain. He started preparations and in September 1762 he had assembled enough men, the fleet sailed across the Rio de la Plata, and disembarked on September 14. It was an army of almost 4,000 men. The siege of the city started on October 5, the relations between Cevallos, who commanded the army, and Sarria, who commanded the fleet, were very bad. After disembarking the army and without approval of Cevallos, Sarria sailed his fleet of 16 ships back to Buenos Aires, luckily for the Spanish, the Portuguese were ill prepared, and on October 31,1762, Vicente da Silva, the governor of the city, capitulated. The biggest ship was HMS Kingston which was renamed Lord Clive, the small squadron, under the command of Robert MacDouall left Lisbon on August 30 and was joined in Rio de Janeiro by two Portuguese warships transporting 500 foot soldiers, and five storeships. On January 6,1763, MacDouall decided to attack and retake Colonia do Sacramento also in Spanish hands, the HMS Lord Clive, the HMS Ambuscade and the Portuguese Gloria anchored near the city and started bombardment, but they received unexpected strong resistance from the city gun battery. After three hours of fire exchange, a fire erupted on the Lord Clive, it extended and ships santabarbara blew up. There were 272 fatalities on board, including the expeditions commander Captain Robert MacDouall, HMS Ambuscade and Gloria were badly damaged too, and retired from combat. However, while the Portuguese did not lose any ship, the Spaniards lost their main ship, as soon as the Anglo-Portuguese fleet arrived, the Spanish fleet fled without firing a shot, into the near island of São Gabriel. Here the Spaniards sank the Victoria, with all its artillery and gunpowder, the naval officers were immediately arrested and later tried under the accusation of cowardice in a war council, by Spanish authorities. On April he also conquered most of the vast and rich territory of the so-called S. Peter´s Continent, São José do Norte and the capital – S. Pedro do Sul- were abandoned and occupied without a fight. Here Cevallos learned that peace had been signed and that the war was over, however the attempt to conquer the small territory still held by the Portuguese in Rio Grande, ended with a Spanish defeat at the Battle of St. The victorious Cevallos expedition contrasted with a framework of Spanish defeat in all other theaters of the Seven Year War. As Spanish historian Manuel Fernández Álvares put it, In January 1762, however, the effects were very different from those expected
22.
Bohemia
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Bohemia is the westernmost and largest historical region of the Czech lands in the present-day Czech Republic. Bohemia was a duchy of Great Moravia, later an independent principality, a kingdom in the Holy Roman Empire, and subsequently a part of the Habsburg Monarchy, after World War I and the establishment of an independent Czechoslovak state, Bohemia became a part of Czechoslovakia. Between 1938 and 1945, border regions with sizeable German-speaking minorities of all three Czech lands were joined to Nazi Germany as the Sudetenland, in 1990, the name was changed to the Czech Republic, which become a separate state in 1993 with the dissolution of Czechoslovakia. Until 1948, Bohemia was a unit of Czechoslovakia as one of its lands. Bohemia was bordered in the south by Upper and Lower Austria, in the west by Bavaria and in the north by Saxony and Lusatia, in the northeast by Silesia, and in the east by Moravia. In the 2nd century BC, the Romans were competing for dominance in northern Italy, the Romans defeated the Boii at the Battle of Placentia and the Battle of Mutina. After this, many of the Boii retreated north across the Alps, much later Roman authors refer to the area they had once occupied as Boiohaemum. The earliest mention was by Tacitus Germania 28, and later mentions of the name are in Strabo. The name appears to include the tribal name Boi- plus the Germanic element *haimaz home and this Boiohaemum was apparently isolated to the area where King Marobods kingdom was centred, within the Hercynian forest. The Czech name Čechy is derived from the name of the Slavic ethnic group, the Czechs, Bohemia, like neighbouring Bavaria, is named after the Boii, who were a large Celtic nation known to the Romans for their migrations and settlement in northern Italy and other places. Another part of the nation moved west with the Helvetii into southern France, to the south, over the Danube, the Romans extended their empire, and to the southeast in Hungaria, were Sarmatian peoples. In the area of modern Bohemia the Marcomanni and other Suebic groups were led by their king Marobodus and he took advantage of the natural defenses provided by its mountains and forests. In late classical times and the early Middle Ages, two new Suebic groupings appeared to the west of Bohemia in southern Germany, the Alemanni, many Suebic tribes from the Bohemian region took part in such movements westwards, even settling as far away as Spain and Portugal. With them were also tribes who had pushed from the east, such as the Vandals, other groups pushed southwards towards Pannonia. These are precursors of todays Czechs, though the amount of Slavic immigration is a subject of debate. The Slavic influx was divided into two or three waves, the first wave came from the southeast and east, when the Germanic Lombards left Bohemia. Soon after, from the 630s to 660s, the territory was taken by Samos tribal confederation and his death marked the end of the old Slavonic confederation, the second attempt to establish such a Slavonic union after Carantania in Carinthia. Other sources divide the population of Bohemia at this time into the Merehani, Marharaii, Beheimare, Christianity first appeared in the early 9th century, but only became dominant much later, in the 10th or 11th century
23.
Moravia
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Moravia is a historical country in the Czech Republic and one of the historical Czech lands, together with Bohemia and Czech Silesia. Moravia has an area of over 22,348.87 km2 and about 3 million inhabitants, the statistics from 1921 states, that the whole area of Moravia including the enclaves in Silesia covers 22,623.41 km2. The people are historically named Moravians, a subgroup of Czechs, the land takes its name from the Morava river, which rises in the northern tip of the region and flows southward to the opposite end, being its major stream. Moravias largest city and historical capital is Brno, however before being sacked by the Swedish army during the Thirty Years War, though officially abolished by an administrative reform in 1949, Moravia is still commonly acknowledged as a specific land in the Czech Republic. Moravian people are aware of their Moravian identity and there is some rivalry between them and the Czechs from Bohemia. Moravia occupies most of the part of the Czech Republic. Moravian territory is naturally strongly determined, in fact, as the Morava river basin, with effect of mountains in the west and partly in the east. Moravia occupies a position in Central Europe. All the highlands in the west and east of part of Europe run west-east. Moravia borders Bohemia in the west, Lower Austria in the south, Slovakia in the southeast, Poland very shortly in the north and its natural boundary is formed by the Sudetes mountains in the north, the Carpathians in the east and the Bohemian-Moravian Highlands in the west. The Thaya river meanders along the border with Austria and the tripoint of Moravia, Austria and Slovakia is at the confluence of the Thaya, the northeast border with Silesia runs partly along the Moravice, Oder and Ostravice rivers. Between 1782–1850, Moravia also included a portion of the former province of Silesia – the Austrian Silesia. Geologically, Moravia covers an area between the Bohemian Massif and the Carpathians, and between the Danube basin and the North European Plain. Its core geomorphological features are three wide vales, namely the Dyje-Svratka Vale, the Upper Morava Vale and the Lower Morava Vale, the former two form the westernmost part of the Subcarpathia, the latter one is the northernmost part of the Vienna Basin. The vales surround the low range of Central Moravian Carpathians, the highest mountains of Moravia are situated on its northern border in Hrubý Jeseník, the highest peak is Praděd. Second highest are the Moravian-Silesian Beskids at the very east, with Smrk, the White Carpathians along the southeastern border rise up to 970 m at Velká Javořina. The spacious, but moderate Bohemian-Moravian Highlands on the west reach 837 m at Devět skal. The fluvial system of Moravia is very cohesive, as the border is similar to the watershed of the Morava river
24.
Battle of Lobositz
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The Battle of Lobositz or Lovosice also Lowositz on 1 October 1756 was the opening land battle of the Seven Years War. Being a believer in the strike, on 29 August 1756 Frederick invaded Saxony with the bulk of the Prussian army. Neither the Saxon nor the Austrian army was ready for war, the Saxon army took up a strong defensive position near Pirna, and Frederick had no option but to isolate and try to starve them into surrendering. An Austrian army under Field Marshal von Browne had prepared a base at Budin to block any Prussian moves out of the Mittel-Gebirge. On the 28th, Browne received an agreement from Bruhl on his proposal. Meanwhile, Frederick and his 28,000 men were making their way through the Mittel-Gebirge toward the Bohemian plain. Brownes intelligence told him that the Prussians would exit from the mountains at Lobositz, modern day Lovosice in the Czech Republic a few miles northwest of his fortified base at Budin. He recalled his small force up the Elbe and raced with 33,000 men up to Lobositz on the 28th to lay an ambush for Frederick as he debouched from the narrow passes of the mountains. The Austrian army took up positions on an extinct volcano above Lobositz. These, in turn, were supported by 7,800 regular infantry under Franz Moritz von Lacy, in front of the town Browne set up a relatively small force of cavalry and grenadier battalions as bait. Behind these, and hidden by a road, he positioned more Croats and grenadiers in ambush. On the south Browne hid the bulk of his army on the side of a marsh defined by the Morellenbach. He had his battalions lie down in the grass and hid his heavy cavalry squadrons behind the woods of a game preserve next to the village of Sullowitz. In this village he also placed some battalions of infantry and artillery, most of his army was hidden from Prussian view by morning mist and terrain. On the morning of 1 October, in fog, Fredericks Prussians approached Lobositz in column of route. They were completely unaware that they were walking into a trap, the Austrians Croatian irregulars on the Lobosch began to fire at them and Frederick dispatched Duke of Brunswick-Bevern with seven battalions of infantry to brush them off. The center of the Prussian position between the two mountains, the Lobosch to the north and the Ovcin to the south, was dominated by a low spur called the Homolka. The few Croats defending this were chased away and the Prussians unlimbered a battery of artillery on it
25.
Battle of Prague (1757)
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The battle is mentioned in the famous German ballad Lenore written in 1773 by Gottfried August Burger. After Frederick had forced the surrender of Saxony in the 1756 campaign and it was not in his nature, nor in his military strategy, simply to sit back and defend. He began drawing up plans for another bold stroke against Austria, in early spring the Prussian army marched in four columns over the mountain passes separating Saxony and Silesia from Bohemia. The four corps would unite at the Bohemian capital of Prague, though risky, because it exposed the Prussian army to a defeat in detail, the plan succeeded. After Fredericks corps united with a corps under Prince Moritz, and General Bevern joined up with Schwerin, meanwhile, the Austrians had not been idle. Here he established a position to the east of the town. The Austrian army under von Browne had taken up a near invincible position on the Ziska-, the town was on their left flank, with a steep gorge to the north, and to the west by a marshy slope with a brook at the bottom. The Austrians drew up for battle facing north and east, Frederick ordered an immediate assault, but Schwerin convinced him to make a reconnaissance around the Austrian right flank. He returned with the information that gradually sloping green meadows offered a chance for attack at the Austrian rear. The Prussian army started marching around 7 am, and succeeded in staying out of sight till the Austrian generals noticed the movements around 10 am. Field Marshal von Browne shifted six infantry regiments to take up position to the south east, Schwerin, accompanied by General Winterfeldt, was finally prepared to attack. The attack was led by the infantry of Winterfeldt, the Prussian infantry soon found themselves not in meadows, but in the remains of fish ponds. While they struggled through, Winterfeldt was hit by a musketball, the Prussian infantry wavered and Schwerin rallied them, leading them from the front. He was hit several times by Austrian canister, Frederick, when he heard the news, ordered the assault to continue. At this time von Browne was mortally wounded by Prussian infantry fire, the final phase of the battle started around 3 pm, with Prussians engaging the still-forming Austrian line and outflanking them from the south. Charles withdrew into the town, the retreat being covered by his cavalry, the Austrians had lost 12,000 men and 4,500 prisoners. Having suffered over 14,000 casualties in his own army, losses hard to replace for the small Prussia and he calculated that 40,000 soldiers in addition to 75,000 inhabitants would soon consume the city stores. His calculation, however, did not take account the relief army Austria managed to field against him at the Battle of Kolin
26.
Battle of Domstadtl
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Austrians under the command of Major General Ernst Gideon von Laudon and Major General Joseph von Siskovits attacked and destroyed a supply convoy bound for the Prussian army besieging Olomouc. The Austrian victory saved the city and the Prussian King Frederick the Great was forced to leave Moravia, Frederick the Great invaded Moravia in the beginning of May 1758 and besieged the fortified city of Olomouc. He hoped that the Austrian army would come to help the fortress, if the Austrian army did not come, he could conquer the fortress in a short time and use it as a base for defending Silesia and increasing pressure on Vienna. Austrian Field Marshal Leopold Joseph von Daun knew the strength of the Prussian army, instead the Austrians concentrated on attacking the Prussian supply lines and causing them damage in minor skirmishes. The defenders of the Olomouc fortress also struggled bravely and held much longer than Frederick had expected. Although by June it was on the edge of being taken, the supplies for the convoy were collected in Silesia and at the end of June it arrived in the territory of Moravia. The convoy was so big that there was no chance it could be kept in secret and it contained about 4,000 wagons loaded with military materiel and accompanied by about 2,500 head of cattle. As it set out on its way, it stretched 45 km long, the convoy was protected by 10,870 soldiers, commanded by Colonel Wilhelm von Mosel. The strongest part was probably cavalry consisting of 1,341 men, as soon as Field Marshal Daun learned about the convoy, he decided it had to be stopped and destroyed. The task was given to Ernst Gideon von Laudon and Joseph von Siskovits, Laudon awaited the enemy at Guntramovice, a small village in northern Moravia. Siskovits, who had lost his way in woods, was supposed to arrive in two days. This was quite a problem for Laudon, because his four battalions, a regiment of dragoons, a regiment of hussars, an artillery battery. Despite that he decided to attack the Prussians because Olomouc was near and he also knew that five battalions of 20,000 Prussian soldiers commanded by Lieutenant-General Hans Joachim von Zieten were rushing towards the convoy to help Mosel. The convoy arrived on 28 June early in the morning, the Austrians started shooting at the front wagons. One Prussian battalion forged ahead in order to out the strength of the enemy. The Prussians also formed artillery batteries on their side of the road and they tried to attack the Austrian positions in the hilly terrain several times, but they were always forced back. Although Laudon retreated and did not manage to destroy the convoy, however, the most precious thing that he gained was time. Nowadays some historians point out that the Prussians had a chance to succeed if they had sacrificed some of the dispersed wagons and they continued on 30 June early in the morning
27.
Westphalia
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Westphalia is a region in northwestern Germany and one of the three historic parts of the state of North Rhine-Westphalia. It has an area of 7,802 sq mi and 7.9 million inhabitants, the region is almost identical with the Province of Westphalia which was a part of the Kingdom of Prussia from 1815 to 1918 and the Free State of Prussia from 1918 to 1946. In 1946, Westphalia merged with the Northern Rhineland, another part of Prussia. In 1947, the state with its two parts was joined by a third one, Lippe, a former principality and free state. All of the 17 districts and 9 independent cities of Westphalia, the Westphalian language, a variant of the German language, spreads north of Westphalias borders into southwest Lower Saxony. Being a part of the North German Plain, most of Westphalias north is flat, in the south the German Central Uplands emerge. Westphalia is divided into the following landscapes, other important rivers are the Ems and the Lippe. The Langenberg and the Kahler Asten in the Sauerlands part of the Rothaar Mountains are Westphalias, Westphalia is divided into three governmental districts. These are subdivided into districts and independent cities. All districts and independent cities of the districts of Arnsberg. The District of Lippe as successor of the Free State of Lippe in the Governmental District of Detmold is rather considered to be a historic region. The traditional symbol of Westphalia is the Westphalian Steed, a horse on a red field. It is derived from the Saxon Steed in the coat of arms of the medieval Duchy of Saxony which most of todays Westphalia was part of. In official contexts the coat of arms of Westphalia is being used by the Westphalia-Lippe Regional Association which represents these two historic parts of North Rhine-Westphalia. The coat of arms of Lower Saxony uses a different version of the Saxon Steed since the state also covers parts of the Old Saxons duchy. The colors of Westphalia are white and red, the flag of the Westphalia-Lippe Regional Association uses these colors with the Westphalian coat of arms in its center. The flag of North Rhine-Westphalia is a combination of the Northern Rhinelands colors green/white, the flag of the Prussian Province of Westphalia already displayed the colors white and red. The flag of Lower Saxony shows the colors of Germany and the Saxon Steed, composed in Iserlohn in 1886 by Emil Rittershaus, the Westfalenlied is an unofficial anthem of Westphalia
28.
Hesse
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Hesse or Hessia is a federal state of the Federal Republic of Germany, with just over six million inhabitants. The state capital is Wiesbaden, the largest city is Frankfurt am Main, the English name Hesse originates in the Hessian dialects. The variant Hessia comes from the medieval Latin Hassia, the German term Hessen is used by the European Commission because their policy is to leave regional names untranslated. The term Hesse ultimately derives from a Germanic tribe called the Chatti, an inhabitant of Hesse is called a Hessian. The synthetic element hassium, number 108 on the table, is named after the state of Hesse. As early as the Paleolithic period, the Central Hessian region was inhabited, due to the favorable climate of the location, people lived there about 50,000 years ago during the last glacial period, as burial sites show from this era. Finds of paleolitical tools in southern Hesse in Rüsselsheim suggest Pleistocene hunters about 13,000 years ago, the Züschen tomb is a prehistoric burial monument, located between Lohne and Züschen, near Fritzlar, Hesse, Germany. Classified as a grave or a Hessian-Westphalian stone cist, it is one of the most important megalithic monuments in Central Europe. Dating to the fourth millennium BC, it belongs to the Late Neolithic Wartberg culture. An early Celtic presence in what is now Hesse is indicated by a mid-fifth-century BC La Tène style burial uncovered at Glauberg, the region was later settled by the Germanic Chatti tribe around the first century BC, and the name Hesse is a continuation of that tribal name. The ancient Romans had a camp in Dorlar, and in Waldgirmes directly on the eastern outskirts of Wetzlar was a civil settlement under construction. Presumably, the government for the occupied territories of the right bank of Germania was planned at this location. The governor of Germania, at least temporarily, likely had resided here, the settlement appears to have been abandoned by the Romans after the devastating Battle of the Teutoburg Forest failed in the year 9 AD. The Chatti were also involved in the Revolt of the Batavi in 69 AD, Hessia occupies the northwestern part of the modern German state of Hesse, its borders were not clearly delineated. Its geographic center is Fritzlar, it extends in the southeast to Hersfeld on the Fulda river, in the north to past Kassel and up to the rivers Diemel, to the west, it occupies the valleys of the rivers Eder and Lahn. It measured roughly 90 kilometers north-south, and 80 north-west, the area around Fritzlar shows evidence of significant pagan belief from the first century on. Excavations have produced a horse burial and bronze artifacts, a possible religious cult may have centered on a natural spring in Geismar, called Heilgenbron, the name Geismar itself may be derived from that spring. By 650, the Franks were establishing themselves as overlords, which is suggested by evidence of burials
29.
Lower Saxony
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Lower Saxony is a German state situated in northwestern Germany and is second in area, with 47,624 square kilometres, and fourth in population among the sixteen Länder of Germany. In rural areas Northern Low Saxon, a dialect of Low German, and Saterland Frisian, a variety of Frisian, are still spoken, but the number of speakers is declining. Lower Saxony borders on the North Sea, the states of Schleswig-Holstein, Hamburg, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Brandenburg, Saxony-Anhalt, Thuringia, Hesse and North Rhine-Westphalia, and the Netherlands. Furthermore, the state of Bremen forms two enclaves within Lower Saxony, one being the city of Bremen, the other, its city of Bremerhaven. In fact, Lower Saxony borders more neighbours than any other single Bundesland, the states principal cities include the state capital Hanover, Braunschweig, Lüneburg, Osnabrück, Oldenburg, Hildesheim, Wolfenbüttel, Wolfsburg and Göttingen. The northwestern area of Lower Saxony, which lies on the coast of the North Sea, is called East Frisia, in the extreme west of Lower Saxony is the Emsland, a traditionally poor and sparsely populated area, once dominated by inaccessible swamps. The northern half of Lower Saxony, also known as the North German Plains, is almost invariably flat except for the hills around the Bremen geestland. Towards the south and southwest lie the northern parts of the German Central Uplands, the Weser Uplands, between these two lie the Lower Saxon Hills, a range of low ridges. Thus, Lower Saxony is the only Bundesland that encompasses both maritime and mountainous areas, Lower Saxonys major cities and economic centres are mainly situated in its central and southern parts, namely Hanover, Braunschweig, Osnabrück, Wolfsburg, Salzgitter, Hildesheim and Göttingen. Oldenburg, near the coastline, is another economic centre. To the north, the Elbe river separates Lower Saxony from Hamburg, Schleswig-Holstein, Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, the banks just south of the Elbe are known as Altes Land. Due to its local climate and fertile soil, it is the states largest area of fruit farming. Most of the territory was part of the historic Kingdom of Hanover. It was created by the merger of the State of Hanover with several states in 1946. Lower Saxony has a boundary in the north in the North Sea. The state and city of Bremen is an enclave surrounded by Lower Saxony. The Bremen/Oldenburg Metropolitan Region is a body for the enclave area. To the southeast the state border runs through the Harz, low mountains that are part of the German Central Uplands, in northeast Lower Saxony is Lüneburg Heath
30.
Battle of Hastenbeck
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The Battle of Hastenbeck was fought as part of the Invasion of Hanover during the Seven Years War between the allied forces of Hanover, Hesse-Kassel and Brunswick, and the French. The allies were defeated by the French army near Hamelin in the Electorate of Hanover, the French, who were allied with Austria, Russia, Sweden and Saxony during the Seven Years War, invaded Germany in April 1757 with two armies, altogether about 100,000 soldiers. The French hoped to draw the attention of the Kingdom of Prussia, one of the two French armies under command of Prince de Soubise marched through central Germany. They joined the Imperial Army, or Reichsarmee, commanded by Prinz von Hildburghausen and this coalition army later met a Prussian army at the Battle of Rossbach on 5 November 1757 with disaster. The other French army commanded by Marshal Louis Charles dEstrées consisted of about 50,000 infantry,10,000 cavalry and 68 cannons, the army advanced towards the Electorate of Hanover. Prussia was heavily involved with its enemies Austria, Russia and Sweden and this task was given to the Hanoverian Army of Observation which had little support from Prussia, namely six Prussian battalions. The main part of the Hanoverian Army of Observation came from Hanover and Hesse, smaller additional forces from Brunswick, the total strength of the Hanoverian Army of Observation consisted of about 30,000 infantry,5,000 cavalry and 28 guns. The army was commanded by William Augustus the Duke of Cumberland who was a son of King George II of Great Britain, Hanover refused to defend the Rhine which is west of the Weser. This left the Prussians no choice but to abandon their fortress in Wesel, cumberlands main objective was preventing the occupation of Hanover. He first concentrated his army at Bielefeld, and then after a stand in Brackwede. The main idea was to use the Weser as a defense line. The Duke of Cumberland deployed his forces at Hamelin which is a couple of kilometers to the northwest of Hastenbeck. He also deployed small patrols all along the Weser, meanwhile, the French sent a detachment to the north to capture Emden, which was an important access point for Britain to Europe, on 3 July. Later they sent another detachment to the south, which took Kassel on 15 July, during the night of 7 July, a strong French advance guard crossed the river Weser close to the town Beverungen. While the river Weser normally cannot easily be forded, during the summer the water drops down to a low of 80 cm between Münden and Hameln, making it possible for infantry and cavalry to cross. The French advance troops then marched to the north and established a bridgehead at Höxter, the main army crossed the Weser on 16 July, leaving the Duke of Cumberland no choice but to deploy his troops south of Hamelin and to engage dEstrées. The Prussian battalions were then recalled by Frederick the Great, after losing the Battle of Kolin against Austria, the armies finally met on the morning of 25 July at the village of Hastenbeck. The commander of the French right flank, general François de Chevert, was ordered to engage Hanoverian troops at the village of Voremberg, but failed to drive them out
31.
Battle of Krefeld
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The Battle of Krefeld was a battle fought on 23 June 1758 between a Prussian-Hanoverian army and a French army during the Seven Years War. The Hanoverian army led by Ferdinand, brother of the duke of Brunswick, had driven the French led by the Comte de Clermont back across the Rhine. Ferdinands own army had crossed to the bank of the Rhine and was now in a position to threaten the frontier of France itself. The Battle of Rheinberg fought on 12 June proved indecisive, Clermont, who had recently replaced the Duc de Richelieu in command of the French army, was attempting to stem Ferdinands advance. He chose a line on the south side of a walled canal running roughly east and west. Thus the walled canal constituted a sort of fortification that Clermont thought would be easy to defend. The allied Prussian and Hanoverian troops led by the Duke of Brunswick seized the initiative attacking the entrenched defensive French forces, Clermont, who had just sat down for a midday meal, was late in sending reinforcements and, as a result, his left flank was crushed. The Comte de Gisors, the popular, charismatic, only child of the French minister of war, the Comte de St. Clermont asked to be relieved of his command after this defeat, and his wish was granted. He was succeeded in command by Marshal de Contades, ripley, George, Dana, Charles A. eds. The Vinkhuijzen collection of uniforms, France, 1750-1757. Archived from the original on 8 March 2013
32.
Battle of Lutterberg (1758)
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The two armies clashed near the town of Lutterberg, Lower Saxony. The 14,000 mostly Prussian Allied troops, were overwhelmed by several charges of French cavalry and were forced to withdraw. Despite having won a victory, Soubise was slow to pursue the retreating enemy - causing his superiors in Paris to replace him with the Marquis de Contades. Soubise earned a Marshal’s baton for this victory, françois de Chevert was decorated with the Grand Croix for his contributions in the battle. The Military Experience in the Age of Reason, the Dictionary of Battles and Sieges, F-O. Greenwood Press,2007
33.
Battle of Bergen (1759)
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As the campaigning season of 1759 opened, Prince Ferdinand stole a march on the French by moving out of winter quarters in late March. His destination was Frankfurt, where the French had a base on the Main River, the intent was to drive the French out of Westphalia and seize the initiative for the allies. By the end of the month, his army comprised some 27,000 men grouped into three divisions, one was commanded by Ferdinand himself, one by Prince Isenburg, and the third by the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp. Operations commenced with the seizing of Fulda and Meiningen from troops of the Imperial army under Field Marshal von Zweibrücken, as the Imperial army retreated into Bohemia, Ferdinand moved into Hesse hoping to fall upon Broglies corps before it could be reinforced. Broglie, however, was able to reinforce his corps with a contingent of Saxons under the General von Dyhrn along with other French regiments that he was able to assemble and he placed his small army at the fortified town of Bergen and awaited developments. The battlefield lent itself to a defensive stance, the walled town of Bergen was on the right atop a bluff overlooking the floodplain of the Main River and thus could not be flanked on that side. Northwest of the town was the Berger-Warte, a low hill that dominated the center, left of that was the town of Vilbel, located on the Nidda River, whose floodplain was covered by an expanse of woods. Broglie placed a large quantity of infantry in and behind the town of Bergen, on his left, he placed his light infantry in the woods supported by the Saxon contingent as well as some of his cavalry. He placed most of his artillery in the center in eight batteries, behind the guns he positioned the bulk of his cavalry as well as his reserves. His reserves were formed in columns of waiting, a type of formation that anticipated Napoleonic tactics, Ferdinands army arrived on the field of battle piecemeal. Ferdinand himself accompanied the vanguard, commanded by the Erbprinz, as Ferdinand mistakenly believed that the French had not yet fully deployed, he ordered an immediate attack, choosing not to wait for the other two divisions. Despite the long odds, by eight oclock the town of Vilbel had been seized by Freytags light infantry, perceiving that Bergen was the key to the position, by 8,30 Ferdinand had ordered an assault on this position. The initial allied attack was successful, driving the French infantry from the hedges and orchards that they occupied, then Broglie began to feed in reinforcements which turned the tide against the allies, driving them back. At ten oclock Prince Isenburgs division arrived, Isenburg pitched into the fray, once again driving the French troops back into Bergen. Broglie immediately counterattacked with more fresh regiments that he had fed in from his reserve, disordering the allies, Isenburg himself was killed while trying to rally his men. It was with difficulty that Ferdinand himself was able to order to his troops. At this point, the battle began to cool off, as Broglie brought his reserve and his cavalry forward, Ferdinand was able to gauge the size of his opponents army. Furthermore, the French artillery was finding its range and forcing the army back up the Am Hohen Stein
34.
Battle of Minden
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The Battle of Minden—or Thonhausen—was a decisive engagement during the Seven Years War, fought on 1 August 1759. An Anglo-German army under the command of Field Marshal Ferdinand of Brunswick defeated a French army commanded by Marshal of France. Two years prior, the French had launched an invasion of Hanover and attempted to impose an unpopular treaty of peace upon the allied nations of Britain, Hanover. After a Prussian victory at Rossbach, and under pressure from Frederick the Great and William Pitt, in 1758, the Allies launched a counter-offensive against the French forces and drove them back across the Rhine. After failing to defeat the French before reinforcements swelled their retreating army, believing Ferdinands forces to be over-extended, Contades abandoned his strong positions around the Weser and advanced to meet the Allied forces in battle. The Allied line advanced in the wake of the cavalry attack, sending the French army reeling from the field. In Britain, the victory was considered to constitute the Annus Mirabilis of 1759, the western German-speaking states of Europe had been a major theatre of the Seven Years War since 1757, when the French had launched an invasion of Hanover. This culminated in a victory for the French at the Battle of Hastenbeck. The Prussian port of Emden was also recaptured, securing supply from Britain, in an attempt to defeat the French before their reinforcements arrived, Ferdinand decided to launch a fresh counter-offensive, and quit his winter quarters early. In April, however, Victor-François, Duke de Broglie and the French withstood Ferdinands attack at the Battle of Bergen, Ferdinand was forced to retreat northwards in the face of the now reinforced French army. Contades, senior of the two French marshals, resumed the advance, occupying a number of towns and cities including the fortress at Minden. Ferdinand was criticised for his failure to check the French offensive and his celebrated brother-in-law, Frederick the Great, is reported as having suggested that, since his loss at Bergen, Ferdinand had come to believe the French to be invincible. Irrespective of any presumed crisis of confidence, however, Ferdinand did ultimately decide to confront the French, Contades had taken up a strong defensive position along the Weser around Minden, where he had paused to regroup before he continued his advance. He initially resisted the opportunity to abandon this position to attack Ferdinand. Ferdinand instead formulated a plan that involved splitting his force into several groups to threaten Contades lines of supply, perceiving Ferdinands forces to be over-extended, Contades thought he saw a chance for the desired decisive victory. He ordered his men to abandon their defensive encampments and advance into positions on the plain west of Minden during the night of 31 July and early morning of 1 August. In 1759, the city of Minden, now the Innenstadt of modern Minden, was situated at the confluence of the Weser, which flows from south to north, and the Bastau. The French under the marshal, de Broglie, were stationed astride the Weser
35.
Battle of Corbach
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The Battle of Corbach, or Korbach, a Hanseatic town of Waldeck-Frankenberg in northern Hesse, Germany, was fought on 10 July 1760 during the Seven Years War. Corbach was the first battle of the campaign of 1760 and was a victory for the French over the Hanoverians, numerous large forces from both sides were concentrating in this area. De Broglie had been ordered to advance on Hanover north through Hesse, leaving Lord Granby in command at Sachsenhausen, Ferdinand marched with a large force to Wildungen. The Erbprinz marched from Sachsenhausen and arrived before the heights of Corbach by 9 in the morning, the balance of the allied force was some nineteen battalions of Hanoverian, Hessian and Brunswick foot and fourteen squadrons of cavalry. Additionally, Luckner was still in the vicinity, st. Germain deployed four infantry battalions in the town of Corbach. The rest of his corps, infantry artillery and cavalry, were drawn up on Corbach heights extending east, the battle began with the allies arrival at 9 A. M. opening with some Hussar light cavalry skirmishing from both sides. A heated cannonade lasted throughout the day along with infantry fire with the French standing firm. According to a report from Granby to Ligonier, the arrival of French troops from Frankenberg on the allied rear decided the Prince on a withdrawal. During the withdrawal confusion broke out in the allied German infantry and cavalry ranks the French redoubled their artillery fire, the allied retreat began around 3 in the afternoon in some disorder. The battle of Corbach was the first battle of the campaign of 1760, with the French marginal victory at the Kloster Kampen later in October any hope the British had of ending the war on favorable terms in 1760 evaporated despite their successes in America. Ripley, George, Dana, Charles A. eds, the Vinkhuijzen collection of military uniforms, France, 1750-1757. Archived from the original on 8 March 2013, by an Officer, who served in the British Forces. Les guerres sous Louis XV, Tome 5, by Charles Pierre Victor Pajol, Paris 2006, ISBN 0-543-94431-X
36.
Battle of Kloster Kampen
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The Battle of Kloster Kampen was a tactical French victory over a British and allied army in the Seven Years War. The Allied forces were driven from the field, during the autumn of 1760 Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick, the commander of the allied army saw the French were threatening Hanover. To create a diversion he dispatched 20,000 men command by the Erbprinz of Brunswick to draw the French army away, the Prince of Brunswick set up a formal siege of Wesel building two pontoon bridges over the river. He resolved to meet de Castries army round the Kloster Kampen area west of the river, major General George Augustus Eliott commanded the approach vanguard,2 squadrons of Prussian Hussars, the Royal Dragoons, the Inniskilling Dragoons along with the 87th and 88th Highlanders. The main attacking force comprised 2 battalions of grenadiers, the 20th Foot, the 23rd Royal Welch Fusiliers, behind the main body of the army was a force of cavalry, the 10th Dragoons and 10 squadrons of Hanoverian and Hessian cavalry. A reserve force of the 11th, 33rd and 51st Foot with 5 Hessian battalions lay some miles behind the body of the army. The battle began in the middle of the night when the armys vanguard drove the French out of Kloster Kampen convent, the sounds of the guns as the French resisted the attack alerted the main body of the French army of the attack. Dawn broke as the British and German Foot regiments moved into the attack, the Marquis de Castries brought up his reserves and rallied the retreating regiments then launched a counter-offensive against the allied foot. The French attack broke up the formation of the British and German regiments, the French drove back the British and German regiments back across the canal. The allied reserves were brought up but due to the distance this took time. At the western end of the canal, Eliott led the three British cavalry regiments in a charge which disrupted the French advance and enabled the allied foot to regain the North bank. The reserves formed a cordon which allowed the allied foot to re-form. It was at this point which the Prince of Brunswick ordered the allies to retreat over the Rhine, however, upon reaching the river he discovered that the pontoon bridge needed for his crossing had been swept away and two days were needed to effect the crossing. Fortunately the French did not follow up on their success, permitting the allies to complete their retreat over the Rhine, the Allied defeat caused disappointment in Britain where many had expected better news, following the large expansion of Fredericks army. Online at google books S. 416ff Battle of Kloster Kamp at www. britishbattles. com Batailles de France
Media related to Third Silesian War at Wikimedia Commons
