1.
States and union territories of India
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India is a federal union comprising twenty-nine states and seven union territories. The states and union territories are further subdivided into districts and further into smaller administrative divisions, the Constitution of India distributes the sovereign executive and legislative powers exercisable with respect to the territory of any State between the Union and that State. The Indian subcontinent has been ruled by different ethnic groups throughout its history. Between 1947 and 1950, the territories of the states were politically integrated into the Indian Union. The new Constitution of India, which came into force on 26 January 1950, the new republic was also declared to be a Union of States. The nine Part A states were Assam, Bihar, Bombay, Madhya Pradesh, Madras, Orissa, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal. The eight Part B states were former princely states or groups of states, governed by a rajpramukh, who was usually the ruler of a constituent state. The rajpramukh was appointed by the President of India, the Part B states were Hyderabad, Jammu and Kashmir, Madhya Bharat, Mysore, Patiala and East Punjab States Union, Rajasthan, Saurashtra, and Travancore-Cochin. The ten Part C states included both the former chief commissioners provinces and some states, and each was governed by a chief commissioner appointed by the President of India. The Part C states were Ajmer, Bhopal, Bilaspur, Coorg, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Cutch, Manipur, Tripura, the only Part D state was the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, which were administered by a lieutenant governor appointed by the central government. The Union Territory of Puducherry was created in 1954 comprising the previous French enclaves of Pondichéry, Karaikal, Yanam, Andhra State was created on 1 October 1953 from the Telugu-speaking northern districts of Madras State. The States Reorganisation Act of 1956 reorganised the states based on linguistic lines resulting in the creation of the new states, as a result of this act, Madras State retained its name with Kanyakumari district added to from Travancore-Cochin. Andhra Pradesh was created with the merger of Andhra State with the Telugu-speaking districts of Hyderabad State in 1956, kerala was created with the merger of Malabar district and the Kasaragod taluk of South Canara districts of Madras State with Travancore-Cochin. The Laccadive Islands which were divided between South Canara and Malabar districts of Madras State were united and organised into the territory of Lakshadweep. Bombay State was enlarged by the addition of Saurashtra State and Kutch State, Rajasthan and Punjab gained territories from Ajmer and Patiala and East Punjab States Union respectively and certain territories of Bihar was transferred to West Bengal. Bombay State was split into the states of Gujarat and Maharashtra on 1 May 1960 by the Bombay Reorganisation Act. Nagaland was formed on 1 December 1963, the Punjab Reorganisation Act of 1966 resulted in the creation of Haryana on 1 November and the transfer of the northern districts of Punjab to Himachal Pradesh. The act also designated Chandigarh as a territory and the shared capital of Punjab
2.
Kerala
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Kerala historically known as Keralam, is an Indian state in South India on the Malabar Coast. It was formed on 1 November 1956 following the States Reorganisation Act by combining Malayalam-speaking regions, spread over 38,863 km2, it is bordered by Karnataka to the north and northeast, Tamil Nadu to the east and south, and the Lakshadweep Sea to the west. With 33,387,677 inhabitants as per the 2011 Census, Malayalam is the most widely spoken language and is also the official language of the state. The region has been a prominent spice exporter since 3000 BCE, the Chera Dynasty was the first prominent kingdom based in Kerala, though it frequently struggled against attacks by the neighbouring Cholas and Pandyas. In the 15th century, the spice trade attracted Portuguese traders to Kerala, after independence, Travancore and Cochin joined the Republic of India and Travancore-Cochin was given the status of a state in 1949. In 1956, Kerala state was formed by merging Malabar district, Travancore-Cochin, Hinduism is practised by more than half of the population, followed by Islam and Christianity. The culture is a synthesis of Aryan and Dravidian cultures, developed over millennia, under influences from other parts of India, the production of pepper and natural rubber contributes significantly to the total national output. In the agricultural sector, coconut, tea, coffee, cashew, the states coastline extends for 595 kilometres, and around 1.1 million people in the state are dependent on the fishery industry which contributes 3% to the states income. The state has the highest media exposure in India with newspapers publishing in nine languages, mainly English, Kerala is one of the prominent tourist destinations of India, with backwaters, beaches, Ayurvedic tourism and tropical greenery as its major attractions. The name Kerala has an uncertain etymology, One popular theory derives Kerala from Kera and alam is land, thus land of coconuts, this also happens to be a nickname for the state due to abundance of coconut trees and its use by the locals. The word Kerala is first recorded in a 3rd-century BCE rock inscription left by the Maurya emperor Ashoka, the inscription refers to the local ruler as Keralaputra, or son of Chera. This contradicts the theory that Kera is from coconut tree, at that time, one of three states in the region was called Cheralam in Classical Tamil, Chera and Kera are variants of the same word. The word Cheral refers to the oldest known dynasty of Kerala kings and is derived from the Proto-Tamil-Malayalam word for lake, the earliest Sanskrit text to mention Kerala is the Aitareya Aranyaka of the Rigveda. It is also mentioned in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, the two Hindu epics, the Skanda Purana mentions the ecclesiastical office of the Thachudaya Kaimal who is referred to as Manikkam Keralar, synonymous with the deity of the Koodalmanikyam temple. Keralam may stem from the Classical Tamil cherive-alam or chera alam, the Greco-Roman trade map Periplus Maris Erythraei refers to Keralaputra as Celobotra. According to Hindu mythology, the lands of Kerala were recovered from the sea by the warrior sage Parasurama. Parasurama threw his axe across the sea, and the water receded as far as it reached, according to legend, this new area of land extended from Gokarna to Kanyakumari. The land which rose from sea was filled with salt and unsuitable for habitation, so Parasurama invoked the Snake King Vasuki, out of respect, Vasuki and all snakes were appointed as protectors and guardians of the land
3.
Thiruvananthapuram
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Thiruvananthapuram, formerly known as Trivandrum, is the capital and the largest city of the Indian state of Kerala. It is located on the west coast of India near the south of the mainland. Referred to by Mahatma Gandhi as the Evergreen city of India, Thiruvananthapuram was a trading post for spices, sandalwood and ivory. The city was ruled by the Ays and was captured by the rulers of Venad in tenth century A. D, in 1729, Marthanda Varma founded the princely state of Thiruvithamkoor and made Thiruvananthapuram the capital in 1745. It remained as a state ruled by Travancore under the loose governance of the British before joining the Indian Union in 1948. With nearly 80% of the software exports, Thiruvananthapuram is a major IT hub with the Technopark. Indias first and only magic academy, Magic Academy Research Centre run by Merlin award-winning magician Gopinath Muthukad is situated in Thiruvananthapuram, the city is home to animation companies like Toonz India Ltd and Tata Elxsi Ltd. The Kinfra Film and Video Park is one of the most advanced film and it is consistently ranked among the best cities to live in Kerala as well as India. The city was referred to as Trivandrum until 1991, when the government decided to reinstate the citys original name Thiruvananthapuram. Thiruvananthapuram is an ancient region with trading traditions dating back to 1000 BCE, the city was a trading post for spices, sandalwood and ivory. The early rulers of the city were the Ays and after their fall in the 10th century, in 1729, Marthanda Varma founded the princely state of Thiruvithamkoor and Thiruvananthapuram was made the capital in 1745 after shifting the capital from Padmanabhapuram in Tamil Nadu. In the mid-19th century, the city was under the reign of Swathi Thirunal, an observatory was established in 1837 with the Oriental Research Institute & Manuscripts Library and the University College established in 1873. Several colleges were established by Moolam Thirunal, sree Moolam Assembly, established in 1904, was the first democratically elected legislative council in any Indian state. After Indian Independence in 1947, Travancore chose to join the Indian union, in 1949, Thiruvananthapuram became the capital of Travancore-Cochin, the state formed by the integration of Travancore with the Kingdom of Cochin. The king of Travancore, Chitra Thirunal Bala Rama Varma, became the Rajpramukh of the Travancore-Cochin Union from 1 July 1949 until 31 October 1956, when the state of Kerala was formed on 1 November 1956, Thiruvananthapuram became its capital. The city has a population of 752,490 according to the 2011 census, the sex ratio is 1,032 females for every 1,000 males. In October 2010, the number of wards was increased from 86 to 100 post expansion of city limits by adding Sreekaryam, Vattiyoorkavu, Kudappanakunnu, hindus comprise 68. 5% of the population, Christians about 16. 7% and Muslims form 13. 7%. The major languages spoken are Malayalam and English, in Palayam in the city centre, there is a mosque, a temple and a Christian church next to each other as neighbours, establishing the communal harmony of Keralites
4.
Administrative divisions of India
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The Administrative divisions of India are Indian subnational administrative units, they compose a nested hierarchy of country subdivisions. Indian states and territories frequently use different local titles for the level of subdivision. The smaller subdivisions exist only in rural areas, in urban areas Urban Local Bodies exist instead of these rural subdivisions. The States have been grouped into six zones having an Advisory Council to develop the habit of cooperative working among these States, zonal Councils were set up vide Part-III of the States Reorganisation Act,1956. The North Eastern States special problems are addressed by another statutory body - The North Eastern Council, India is composed of 29 states and 7 union territories. The union territories are governed by administrators, appointed by the President of India, two of the territories have been given partial statehood, with elected legislatures and executive councils of ministers, but limited powers. The Regions of India are not official administrative divisions and they have no official administrative governmental status. They are purely geographic regions, some correspond to countries, states or provinces. A region may comprise one or more divisions, averaging about three divisions per region, however, the boundaries of the regions and the boundaries of the divisions do not always coincide exactly. So far there has no movement to give the regions official administrative status. If this was to be done, it would require that the boundaries of the regions be slightly modified so that they correspond exactly with their constituent districts. Tehsils, talukas, blocks or mandals, headed by a Tehsildar or Talukdar, the governmental bodies at the Tehsil level are called the panchayat samiti. States use varying names for their sub-districts, detailed information is as follows, The block is often the next level of administrative division after the tehsil. Villages are often the lowest level of subdivisions in India, the governmental bodies at the village level are called Gram Panchayat, of which there were an estimated 256,000 in 2002. Each Gram Panchayat covers a large village or a cluster of villages with a combined population exceeding 500 Gram Sabha. Clusters of villages are sometimes called Hobli or Patti. Certain governmental functions and activities - including clean water availability, rural development, India is composed of 1,714,556 habitations In some states, most villages have a single habitation, in others there is a high ratio of habitations to villages. A metro area usually comprises multiple jurisdictions and municipalities, neighbourhoods, townships, cities, exurbs, suburbs, counties, districts, states, as social, economic and political institutions have changed, metropolitan areas have become key economic and political regions. com
5.
Chirayinkeezhu taluk
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Chirayinkeezhu Taluk is a Taluk in Thiruvananthapuram district in the Indian state of Kerala. It is situated in the part of the Thiruvananthapuram district. It comprises 29 villages and two municipalities, there are 29 villages and two municipalities are in the taluk. Chirayinkeezh has a network of backwaters and canals, which is typical of Kerala. Also there are many Temples and important tourist places, some of them are given below. Varkala, a town famous for the Papanasam beach, is around 50 km north of Thiruvananthapuram and 37 km south of Kollam. Once a quiet hamlet, today it is a bustling tourist spot with many resorts. Places of interest include the Sivagiri Mutt established by Sree Narayana Guru, Varkala Beach is a haven for sun-bathing and swimming. There are several restaurants and snack shops near and around Papasnanam beach. Sivagiri Mutt was established by Sree Narayana Guru, a leader, renowned philosopher. Presently, the Sivagiri Mutt is the samadhi of Sree Narayana Guru, the Sivagiri Mutt, built in 1904, is situated at the top of the Sivagiri hill at Varkala. The Guru Deva Jayanti, the birthday of the Guru, and the Samadhi day, colourful processions, debates and seminars, public meetings, cultural shows, community feasts, group weddings and rituals mark the celebrations. Sarkaradevi Temple is an ancient and one of the most important Devi temples in South India, tradition accords a remote antiquity to this temple. Another festival which draws the crowds of devotees and tourists is the ten-day Meenabharani festival in March-April every year, ponnumthurut Island is a beautiful spot you can reach by cruise boat. There is a sivaparvathy Temple on this island
6.
Lok Sabha
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The Lok Sabha is the Lower house of Indias bicameral Parliament, with the Upper house being the Rajya Sabha. The house meets in the Lok Sabha Chambers of the Sansad Bhavan in New Delhi, under the current laws, the strength of Lok Sabha is 545, including the two seats reserved for members of the Anglo-Indian community. The total elective membership is distributed among the states in proportion to their population, a total of 131 seats are reserved for representatives of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. The quorum for the House is 10% of the total membership, term of the House The Lok Sabha, unless sooner dissolved, continues to operate for five years from the date appointed for its first meeting and the expiration of the period of five years. An exercise to redraw Lok Sabha constituencies boundaries has been carried out by the Delimitation Commission based on the Indian census of 2001, the 16th Lok Sabha was elected in May 2014 and is the latest to date. The Lok Sabha has its own channel, Lok Sabha TV. A major portion of the Indian subcontinent was under British rule from 1858 to 1947, the Indian Councils Act 1861 provided for a Legislative Council consisting of the members of the Executive Council and non-official members. The Indian Councils Act 1892 established legislatures in each of the provinces of British India, although these Acts increased the representation of Indians in the government, their power still remained limited, and the electorate very small. The Indian Councils Act 1909 and the Government of India Act 1919 further expanded the participation of Indians in the administration, the Constituent Assembly was divided into two for the separate nations, with each new Assembly having sovereign powers transferred to it for the respective dominion. The Constitution of India was adopted on 26 November 1949 and came into effect on 26 January 1950, proclaiming India to be a sovereign, democratic republic. This contained the principles of the law of the land which would govern India in its new form. The Lok Sabha was duly constituted for the first time on 17 April 1952 after the first General Elections held from 25 October 1951 to 21 February 1952 and he / She should not be less than 25 years of age. He / She possesses such other qualifications as may be prescribed in that behalf by or under any law made by Parliament, a seat in the Lok Sabha will become vacant in the following circumstances, When the holder of the seat, by writing to the speaker, resigns. When the holder of the seat is absent from 60 consecutive days of proceedings of the House, when the holder of the seat is subject to any disqualifications mentioned in the Constitution or any law enacted by Parliament. A seat may also be vacated when the holder stands disqualified under the Anti-Defection Law, a member both of Parliament and of a House of the Legislature of a State. System of elections in Lok Sabha Members of the Lok Sabha are directly elected by the people of India, for the purpose of holding direct elections to Lok Sabha, each state is divided into territorial constituencies. This provision does not apply for states having a population of less than 6 million, note, The expression population here refers to the population ascertained at the preceding census of which relevant figure have been published. Lok Sabha has certain powers that make it more powerful than the Rajya Sabha, motions of no confidence against the government can be introduced and passed in the Lok Sabha
7.
Literacy in India
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Literacy in India is a key for socio-economic progress, and the Indian literacy rate has grown to 74. 04% from 12% at the end of British rule in 1947. Although this was a greater than sixfold improvement, the level is well below the average literacy rate of 84%. The 2011 census, however, indicated a 2001–2011 decadal literacy growth of 9. 2%, there is a wide gender disparity in the literacy rate in India, effective literacy rates in 2011 were 82. 14% for men and 65. 46% for women. The low female literacy rate has had a negative impact on family planning. Studies have indicated that female literacy is a predictor of the use of contraception among married Indian couples. The table below shows the adult and youth literacy rates for India, Adult literacy rate is based on the 15+ years age group, while the youth literacy rate is for the 15–24 years age group. Now of the factors contributing to this relatively low literacy rate is usefulness of education. There is a shortage of classrooms to accommodate all the students in 2006–2007, in addition, there is no proper sanitation in most schools. The study of 188 government-run primary schools in central and northern India revealed that 59% of the schools had no drinking water facility, in 600,000 villages and multiplying urban slum habitats, free and compulsory education is the basic literacy instruction dispensed by barely qualified para teachers. The average Pupil Teacher Ratio for All India is 42,1, such inadequacies resulted in a non-standardized school system where literacy rates may differ. Furthermore, the allocated to education was never above 4. 3% of the GDP from 1951 to 2002 despite the target of 6% by the Kothari Commission. This further complicates the problem in India. Discrimination of lower castes has resulted in high rates and low enrollment rates. On 21 February 2005, the Prime Minister of India said that he was pained to note that only 47 out of 100 children enrolled in class I reach class VIII, putting the dropout rate at 52.78 per cent. It is estimated that at least 35 million, and possibly as many as 60 million, absolute poverty in India has also deterred the pursuit of formal education as education is not deemed of as the highest priority among the poor as compared to other basic necessities. The MRP-based poverty estimates of about 22% of poverty in 2004–05 which translated to 22 out of per 100 people are not meeting their basic needs, the large proportion of illiterate females is another reason for the low literacy rate in India. Inequality based on gender differences resulted in female literacy rates being lower at 65. 46% than that of their counterparts at 82. 14%. Due to strong stereotyping of female and male roles, Sons are thought of to be more useful, females are pulled to help out on agricultural farms at home as they are increasingly replacing the males on such activities which require no formal education
8.
Vehicle registration plate
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A vehicle registration plate, also known as a number plate or a license plate, is metal or plastic plate attached to a motor vehicle or trailer for official identification purposes. The registration identifier is a numeric or alphanumeric ID that uniquely identifies the owner within the issuing regions database. The first two letters indicate the state to which the vehicle is registered, the next two digit numbers are the sequential number of a district. Due to heavy volume of vehicle registration, the numbers were given to the RTO offices of registration as well, the third part indicates the year of registration of the vehicle and is a 4 digit number unique to each plate. In some countries, the identifier is unique within the entire country, whether the identifier is associated with a vehicle or a person also varies by issuing agency. In the vast majority of jurisdictions, the government holds a monopoly on the manufacturing of vehicle registration plates for that jurisdiction. Thus, it is illegal for private citizens to make and affix their own plates. Alternately, the government will merely assign plate numbers, and it is the owners responsibility to find an approved private supplier to make a plate with that number. In some jurisdictions, plates will be assigned to that particular vehicle for its lifetime. If the vehicle is destroyed or exported to a different country. Other jurisdictions follow a policy, meaning that when a vehicle is sold the seller removes the current plate from the vehicle. Buyers must either obtain new plates or attach plates they already hold, as well as register their vehicles under the buyers name, a person who sells a car and then purchases a new one can apply to have the old plates put onto the new car. One who sells a car and does not buy a new one may, depending on the laws involved, have to turn the old plates in or destroy them. Some jurisdictions permit the registration of the vehicle with personal plates, in some jurisdictions, plates require periodic replacement, often associated with a design change of the plate itself. Vehicle owners may or may not have the option to keep their original plate number, alternately, or additionally, vehicle owners have to replace a small decal on the plate or use a decal on the windshield to indicate the expiration date of the vehicle registration. Plates are usually fixed directly to a vehicle or to a frame that is fixed to the vehicle. Sometimes, the plate frames contain advertisements inserted by the service centre or the dealership from which the vehicle was purchased. Vehicle owners can also purchase customized frames to replace the original frames, in some jurisdictions licence plate frames are illegal
9.
Indian road network
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India has a road network of over 5,472,144 kilometres as on 31 March 2015, the second largest road network in the world. However, qualitatively Indias roads are a mix of modern highways and narrow, unpaved roads, as on 31 March 2015,61. 05% of Indian roads were paved. Adjusted for its population, India has less than 3.8 kilometres of roads per 1000 people. In terms of quality, all season,4 or more highways, India has less than 0.07 kilometres of highways per 1000 people. These are some of the lowest road and highway densities in the world, for context, United States has 21 kilometres of roads per 1000 people, while France about 15 kilometres per 1000 people – predominantly paved and high quality in both cases. In terms of all season,4 or more highways, developed countries such as United States. India in its past did not allocate enough resources to build or maintain its road network and this has changed since 1995, with major efforts currently underway to modernize the countrys road infrastructure. According to the CIA World Factbook, as of 2015, India had about 96,000 kilometers of highways and expressways. Major projects are being implemented under the National Highways Development Project, the Government of India is attempting to promote foreign investment in road projects. The first evidence of development in the Indian subcontinent can be traced back to approximately 2800 BC from the ancient cities of Harrapa. Ruling emperors and monarchs of ancient India had constructed roads to connect the cities, archaeological excavations give us fresh information about road connectivity in ancient India. The Grand Trunk Road was built by Sher Shah Suri in 1540-45 connecting Sonargaon near Dhaka in Bangladesh with Peshawar in modern-day Pakistan linking several cities from in India, India inherited a poor road network infrastructure at the time of its independence in 1947. Beyond that, between 1947 and 1988, India witnessed no new projects, and the roads were poorly maintained. Predominantly all roads were single lane, and most were unpaved, India had no expressways, and less than 200 kilometers of 4-lane highways. In 1988, an entity called the National Highways Authority of India was established in India by an Act of Parliament. The Act empowered this entity to develop, maintain and manage Indias road network through National Highways, however, even though the Authority was created in 1988, not much happened till India introduced widespread economic liberalization in the early 1990s. Road transport is vital to Indias economy and it enables the countrys transportation sector to contribute 4.7 percent towards India’s gross domestic product, in comparison to railways that contributed 1 percent, in 2009–2010. Road transport has gained its importance over the years despite significant barriers and inefficiencies in inter-state freight and passenger movement compared to railways, the government of India considers road network as critical to the countrys development, social integration and security needs of the country
10.
National Highway (India)
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The national highways network of India is a network of highways that is managed and maintained by agencies of the Government of India. These highways measured over 100,087 km as of June 2016, out of 1,00,087 km of national highways 26,200 plus km are at least 4 laned with the remaining 50,000 km 2 laned. Indian government has set itself a target of construct and upgrade 30 km of highway per day from 2017, the highways do not have shoulder lanes. The speed on highway is mostly unregulated and is slowed by heavy trucks in middle lanes. The highways are used by pedestrians and cyclists creating dangerous situations. The National Highways Authority of India is the agency responsible for building, upgrading and maintaining most of the national highways network. It operates under the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, the National Highways Development Project is a major effort to expand and upgrade the network of highways. NHAI often uses a public-private partnership model for development, maintenance. While national highways constitute 1. 7% of Indian roads, they carry 40% of the traffic, the majority of existing national highways are two-lane roads, though much of this is being expanded to four-lanes, and some to six or more lanes. Some sections of the network are toll roads, over 30,000 km of new highways are planned or under construction as part of the NHDP, as of 2011. This includes over 2,600 km of expressways under construction, India has 100,087 km of national highways connecting all the major cities and state capitals as of June 2016. National highways comprise 1. 7% of Indias total road network, most of them have two lanes. About 26,000 km have been widened to four lanes with two lanes in each direction as of May 2016, only a few national highways are built with cement concrete. As of 2010,19,064 km of highways were still single-laned roads. The government is working to ensure that by December 2014 the entire national network consists of roads with two or more lanes. India has the distinction of having the worlds second highest-altitude motor highway— Leh-Manali Highway, connecting Shimla to Leh in Ladakh, National highways form the economic backbone of the country and have often facilitated development along their routes, and many new towns have sprung up along major highways. Highways also have large numbers of small restaurants and inns along their length and they serve popular local cuisine and serve as truck stops. Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, Government of India adopted a new systematic numbering of highways in April 2010
11.
Malappuram district
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Malappuram district, First e-literate district in India, with its headquarters at Malappuram, is a district in the state of Kerala, India. The district was formed on 16 June 1969, the ancient Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics though mainly centred in Thrissur also had namboodiri and nair scholars coming from malappuram. Today the district includes Thirunavaya, the medieval centre of Vedic learning, Kottakkal. Islam came to Malappuram early in prophet Mohammeds era itself, as a religion Islam spread in Malappuram district and slowly it became the major religion in the region. The caste system present on those days was the factor which made people to think about Islam. Ponnani, one of the oldest centres of Islamic education in the region is located here, in 1921 the present-day Malappuram district was part of the Moplah rebellions, followed by decades of stagnant economic, social and political development. In the early years of Communist rule in Kerala, Malappuram experienced land reform under the Land Reform Ordinance, during the 1970s Persian Gulf oil reserves were opened to commercial extraction, and thousands of unskilled workers migrated to the Gulf. They sent money home, supporting the economy, and by the late 20th century the region had First World health standards. Malappuram is one of two Muslim-majority districts in south India, the Hindu temples and Moplah mosques of the region are known for their colorful festivals, and it is the most populous district in Kerala. Religions practised in the district include Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, Sikhism, Jainism, Malappuram, meaning terraced place atop the hills, derives from the geography of the district headquarters. Before the districts formation, the region was known as Eranad, Valluvanad, Vettathunad etc, the district has a rich cultural and political heritage. The port of Ponnani was a centre of trade with Ancient Rome, after the Chera Dynasty a number of dynasties controlled the area, and by the ninth century the region was ruled by the Kulasekharas of Mahodayapuram. After the disintegration of the Kulasekhara kingdom a number of Nair city-states emerged, including Valluvanad, Vettattunadu, Parappanad, during the 13th century, the Samoothiri of Calicut expanded their territories to Malabar. Thirunavaya, the seat of Mamankam, was in Malappuram district, european colonial powers first landed in Malabar during the 15th century, and the Samoothiris often allied with foreign powers. During the 18th century, the de facto Mysore kingdom rulers Hyder Ali, Malappuram has been part of movements such as Khilafat Movement and Moplah Rebellion in the early 20th century. Before Indian independence in 1947, Malappuram was part of Malabar District in the Madras Presidency of British India, the present district was administered as parts of Kozhikode, Eranad taluk, Valluvanad Taluk and Ponnani taluk. Malabar District remained part of Madras state for some time after independence, large-scale changes in the territorial jurisdiction of the region took place in 1957 and 1969. On 1 January 1957, Tirur taluk was formed from portions of Eranad taluk, another portion of Ponnani taluk was transferred to the new Chavakkad taluk, and the remainder is present-day Ponnani taluk
12.
Varkala
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Varkala is a coastal town and municipality in Thiruvananthapuram district situated in the Indian state of Kerala. It is the town of Thiruvananthapuram. It is located 50 kilometres north-west of Thiruvananthapuram and 37 km south-west of Kollam, Varkala is the only place in southern Kerala where cliffs are found adjacent to the Arabian Sea. There are numerous water spouts and spas on the sides of these cliffs, in 2015, Ministry of Mines, Government of India and Geological Survey of India have declared Varkala Cliff as a geo-heritage site. Varkala is also famous for the 2, 000-year-old Janardana Swami Temple which is an important Vaishnavaite shrine in India and is referred to as Dakshin Kashi. The temple is located close to the Papanasam beach, which is considered to have holy waters which wash away sins, the temple has an ancient bell removed from a shipwreck, donated by the captain of the Dutch vessel which sank near Varkala without causing any casualties. Another major landmark in Varkala is the Sivagiri Mutt, established by the social reformer Sree Narayana Guru, the hill-top mausoleum of Sree Narayana Guru is one of the most famous monuments in Kerala. It is believed that a Pandyan King was instructed by Lord Brahma to build a temple at this place to redeem him of his sins. But several other myths abound on the birth of Varkala, narada told the pilgrims to pray for their redemption at Papanasam, which literally means redemption from sins. Varkala is located at 8. 73°N76. 71°E /8.73,76.71, Warkalli formation along with Quilon formation represents sediments laid down in the Kerala basin that existed during the Mio-pliocene times. Thin seams of lignite in the shales of the Warkalli formation suggests good vegetation at the time of deposition of the clayey sediments, Varkala assembly constituency is part of Attingal, and current MP is Mr. Sampath. Current MLA of Varkala Municipality is Mr. Joy V. Varkala is a well-known tourist destination, the town has an average-rated water supply system, fire station, several post offices and a police station. The town has government-run medical facilities in addition to over 10 private hospitals, a government-run nature cure hospital is also near the Papanasam cliff. The District Ayurvedic Hospital is located in Varkala, Varkala is an important hub for neighbouring places Attingal, Kadakkavur, Chirayinkeezhu, Kallambalam, Paravur and Kilimanoor. In 2001, Varkala had a population of 42,273, males constitute 49% of the population and females 51%. Varkala has an literacy rate of 88%, with 92% of males. 11% of the population is under 6 years of age, according to the 2011 Census of India, The Varkala Municipality has population of 40,048 of which 18,312 are males while 21,736 are females. Population of Children with age of 0-6 is 4479 which is 11. 18% of total population of Varkala, in Varkala Municipality, Female Sex Ratio is of 1187 against state average of 1084
13.
Neyyattinkara
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Neyyattinkara in Thiruvananthapuram district is a municipal Town 20 km south of the kerala State capital Trivandrum on the National Highway 66 to Kanyakumari. The town spreads over an area of 16.21 km2 on the banks of the Neyyar River and is the headquarters of the Neyyattinkara taluk and it is a suburb of the extended metropolitan region of Thiruvananthapuram city. The name Neyyattinkara in Malayalam regional language means shore of Neyyar River and this river flows from Agasthyarkoodam, the highest peak in southern end of the Western Ghats. The town comes under the surveillance of Neyyattinkara Municipality and it is the town on the banks of Neyyar River. The rapidly growing Thiruvananthapuram city has almost reached its outskirts, the town is mostly residential, with lots of service sector establishments. There is 24 hours to and fro bus service in NH47 connecting Nagarcoil » Neyyattinkara » Trivandrum, further, there is to and fro rail service connecting Nagarcoil » Neyyattinkara » Trivandrum. Cave pictures, probably by Neolithic people, are found in Pandavanpara and this famous cave will come under Perumkadavila panchayath. The name of this portion of land, before Marthanda Varma became the ruler of Travancore, was Thenganad, Neyyattinkara is located at 8. 4°N77. 08°E /8.4,77.08. It has an elevation of 26 metres. The town is situated on the Neyyar River side, one of the rivers in Trivandrum district. The river flows to the part of the town. Water Supply for the town and the adjacent places is obtained from this river, topography of the town is rather uneven, with higher areas in the downtown. Nearby the town is the hillock Aruvippuram, the Western Ghats form a scenic backdrop to the town. The town is sandwiched between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea, the nearby sea shore is just 10 km. away in west, and seven kilometres to the east can take you to the mammoth hillocks of Western ghats. The geology is said to be typical of the Kerala soil - the Laterite, the town can still boast of a good green cover in residential and non-residential areas. The Neyyattinkara Sree Krishna Swamy Temple is situated in the centre of the town and is an important pilgrimage centre, the annual festival is an important attraction for people in the district. Besides the religious significance, the temple holds a place in Travancore history. Legend has it that the then Crown Prince Marthanda Marthanda Varma was redirected by a boy to a Jackfruit Tree near the Temple while he was being chased by his enemies
14.
Attingal
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Attingal is a municipality in the Thiruvananthapuram district of Kerala state, India. It is the headquarters of Chirayinkeezhu Taluk, and the important government institutions of the such as the Taluk office. It is in the suburb of the metropolitan region of Thiruvananthapuram city. Located 30 kilometres north of Thiruvananthapuram, it is the largest and most important town in Trivandrum district after the capital, according to the 2011 census, Attingal has a population of 37,346. Males constitute 17,009 of the population and females 20,337, Attingal has an average literacy rate of 88%. 9% of the population is under the age of 6, the town is famed for its cleanliness in recent years. The municipality has many plans which had been succeeded. The municipality also achieved a couple of awards for the success, the Attingal assembly constituency is part of Attingal. The Attingal Palace had an important role in the history of Kerala and it played a significant role in the growth of the Tranvancore Dynasty. The Attingal Palace gained prominence in the 14th century when Udaya Marthanda Varma ascended the throne of Travancore and he adopted two princesses from the royal family of the Kolathiris of North Malabar. A palace for one of them was built by the king at Attingal. The palace witnessed the first ever united rebellion against the British, the first uprising took place on April 15,1721. A British contingent comprising 140 men were killed and it triggered off a series of insurrections. The walls of the palace are adorned with murals, the main edifice of the palace is now under the control of the Devaswom Board. Veeralam Sree Krishna temple, also called as Veera-Keralapuram temple, is the hallmark of the town, sarkara Devi Temple located in Chirayinkizhu 4 km from the town. It is 15 km from the town to reach Janardanaswamy temple Varkala which is considered as one among the 108 sacred Dhams of Lord Vishnu, there is also a monument to the great poet of Kerala, Sri Kumaran Asan, who was born and brought up at Kaikkara. The monument is at Thonnakkal, just 5 km south of Attingal alongside National Highway 47, Trivandrum International Airport is the nearest Airport. Due to the prolonged traffic hassles of the town, a new NH-bypass is on the anvil, Attingal Outbreak refers to the massacre of 140 East India Company officers by native Indians and the following siege of Fort Anjengo
15.
Kanyakumari
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Kanyakumari pronunciation, also known as Kanniyakumari, formerly known as Cape Comorin, is a town in Kanyakumari District in the state of Tamil Nadu in India. The name comes from the Devi Kanya Kumari Temple in the region and it is the southernmost tip of peninsular India. Kanyakumari town is the tip of the Cardamom Hills, an extension of the Western Ghats range. The nearest town is Nagercoil, the headquarters of Kanyakumari District,22 km away. Kanyakumari has been a town since Sangam period and is a popular tourist destination, ptolemys geography describes commercial relations between western India and Alexandria, the chief eastern emporium of the Roman Empire. He identified Kanyakumari along with the Gulf of Mannar as a center for pearl fishery and he also identifies Korkai, a place to the east of Kanyakumari, as an emporium of pearl trade. Kanyakumari District consists of those known locally as Nanjil Nadu. The names of the villages of the such as Azhagiapaandipuram, Bhoothapandy. Nanjilnadu was under the rule of Pandiyas till the early 10th century, the Kalkulam and Vilavancode taluks were under the rule of the Chera Dynasty. Veera Kerala Varma, one such chieftain, styled himself as Nanjil Kuravan, the annexation commenced by Veera Kerala Varma was to a large extent continued by his successors and completed by AD1115. For about four centuries, the Venad was ruled by powerful kings who were making incursions into the Pandian territories. As a result, Vijayanagar kings proceeded against Venad, in 1609 Kanyakumari fell into the hands of Viswanatha Nayak of Madurai. Consequent on this, there was no threat to Nanjilnadu until 1634. During the regime of Ravi Varma and Marthanda Varma, Venad was disturbed by the internal strife, sanda Sahib of Arcot took advantage of this situation and attacked Nanjilnadu. After Marthanda Varma, Venad had weak rulers and as a result there was frequent interference by the British whose control was established over Venad. From 1947 to 1956, it was under the rule of Maharaja of Travancore. During the period between 1956–1961, the system has fallen in line with that of other districts in Tamil Nadu. Kanyakumari has been a centre for art and religion for centuries
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Deity
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A deity is a concept conceived in diverse ways in various cultures, typically as a natural or supernatural being considered divine or sacred. A male deity is a god, while a female deity is a goddess, the Oxford reference defines deity as a god or goddess, or anything revered as divine. Various cultures have conceptualized a deity differently than a monotheistic God, a plain deity need not be omnipotent, omnipresent, omniscient, omnibenevolent, or eternal, however an almighty monotheistic God generally does have these attributes. Monotheistic religions typically refer to God in masculine terms, while other religions refer to their deities in a variety of ways – masculine, feminine, androgynous, some Avestan and Vedic deities were viewed as ethical concepts. In Indian religions, deities have been envisioned as manifesting within the temple of every living beings body, as sensory organs, but in Indian religions, all deities are also subject to death when their merit runs out. The English language word deity derives from Old French deité, the Latin deitatem or divine nature, deus is related through a common Proto-Indo-European language origin to *deiwos. Deva is masculine, and the feminine equivalent is devi. Etymologically, the cognates of Devi are Latin dea and Greek thea, in Old Persian, daiva- means demon, evil god, while in Sanskrit it means the opposite, referring to the heavenly, divine, terrestrial things of high excellence, exalted, shining ones. The closely linked term god refers to supreme being, deity, which states Douglas Harper, is derived from Proto-Germanic *guthan, from PIE *ghut-, guth in the Irish language means voice. The term *ghut- is also the source of Old Church Slavonic zovo, Sanskrit huta-, from the root *gheu- An alternate etymology for the term god traces it to the PIE root *ghu-to-, the term *gheu- is also the source of the Greek khein to pour. Originally the German root was a noun, but the gender of the monotheistic God shifted to masculine under the influence of Christianity. In contrast, all ancient Indo-European cultures and mythologies recognized both masculine and feminine deities, the term deity often connotes the concept of sacred or divine, as a god or goddess, in a polytheistic religion. However, there is no accepted consensus concept of deity across religions and cultures. Huw Owen states that the deity or god or its equivalent in other languages has a bewildering range of meanings. Some engravings or sketches show animals, hunters or rituals, the Venus of Willendorf, a female figurine found in Europe and dated to about 25,000 BCE has been interpreted as an exemplar of a prehistoric divine feminine. In Buddhist mythology, devas are beings inhabiting certain happily placed worlds of Buddhist cosmology and these beings are mortal and numerous. It is also common for iṣṭadevatās to be called deities, although the nature of Yidams is distinct from what is meant by the term. Buddhism does not believe in a creator deity, however, deities are an essential part of Buddhist cosmology, rebirth and Saṃsāra doctrines
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Hindu
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Hindu refers to any person who regards themselves as culturally, ethnically, or religiously adhering to aspects of Hinduism. It has historically used as a geographical, cultural, or religious identifier for people indigenous to South Asia. The historical meaning of the term Hindu has evolved with time, by the 16th century, the term began to refer to residents of India who were not Turks or Muslims. The historical development of Hindu self-identity within the Indian population, in a religious or cultural sense, is unclear, competing theories state that Hindu identity developed in the British colonial era, or that it developed post-8th century CE after the Islamic invasion and medieval Hindu-Muslim wars. A sense of Hindu identity and the term Hindu appears in texts dated between the 13th and 18th century in Sanskrit and regional languages. The 14th- and 18th-century Indian poets such as Vidyapati, Kabir and Eknath used the phrase Hindu dharma, the Christian friar Sebastiao Manrique used the term Hindu in religious context in 1649. In the 18th century, the European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus, in contrast to Mohamedans for Mughals, scholars state that the custom of distinguishing between Hindus, Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs is a modern phenomenon. Hindoo is a spelling variant, whose use today may be considered derogatory. At more than 1.03 billion, Hindus are the third largest group after Christians. The vast majority of Hindus, approximately 966 million, live in India, according to Indias 2011 census. After India, the next 9 countries with the largest Hindu populations are, in decreasing order, Nepal, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, United States, Malaysia, United Kingdom and Myanmar. These together accounted for 99% of the worlds Hindu population, the word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan and Sanskrit word Sindhu, which means a large body of water, covering river, ocean. It was used as the name of the Indus river and also referred to its tributaries, the Punjab region, called Sapta Sindhava in the Vedas, is called Hapta Hindu in Zend Avesta. The 6th-century BCE inscription of Darius I mentions the province of Hidush, the people of India were referred to as Hinduvān and hindavī was used as the adjective for Indian in the 8th century text Chachnama. The term Hindu in these ancient records is an ethno-geographical term, the Arabic equivalent Al-Hind likewise referred to the country of India. Among the earliest known records of Hindu with connotations of religion may be in the 7th-century CE Chinese text Record of the Western Regions by the Buddhist scholar Xuanzang, Xuanzang uses the transliterated term In-tu whose connotation overflows in the religious according to Arvind Sharma. The Hindu community occurs as the amorphous Other of the Muslim community in the court chronicles, wilfred Cantwell Smith notes that Hindu retained its geographical reference initially, Indian, indigenous, local, virtually native. Slowly, the Indian groups themselves started using the term, differentiating themselves, the poet Vidyapatis poem Kirtilata contrasts the cultures of Hindus and Turks in a city and concludes The Hindus and the Turks live close together, Each makes fun of the others religion
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Hindu temple
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A temple is a structure reserved for religious or spiritual rituals and activities such as prayer and sacrifice. It is typically used for such buildings belonging to all faiths where a specific term such as church. These include Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism among religions with many modern followers, the form and function of temples is thus very variable, though they are often considered by believers to be in some sense the house of one or more deities. Typically offerings of some sort are made to the deity, and other rituals enacted, the degree to which the whole population of believers can access the building varies significantly, often parts or even the whole main building can only be accessed by the clergy. Temples typically have a building and a larger precinct, which may contain many other buildings. The word comes from Ancient Rome, where a templum constituted a sacred precinct as defined by a priest and it has the same root as the word template, a plan in preparation of the building that was marked out on the ground by the augur. Templa also became associated with the places of a god or gods. Hindu temples are large and magnificent with a rich history, there is evidence of use of sacred ground as far back as the Bronze Age and later the Indus Valley Civilization. Hindu temples have been built in countries around the world, including Cambodia, Nepal, Mauritius, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Great Britain. They include the structures called stupa, wat and pagoda in different regions, Temples in Buddhism represent the pure land or pure environment of a Buddha. Traditional Buddhist temples are designed to inspire inner and outer peace, a Jain temple is the place of worship for Jains, the followers of Jainism. Some famous Jain temples are Shikharji, Palitana Jain Temples, Ranakpur Jain Temple, Shravan Belgola, Dilwara Temples, Jain temples are built with various architectural designs. Jain temples in North India are completely different from the Jain temples in South India, additionally, a Manastambha is a pillar that is often constructed in front of Jain temples. The temple of Mesopotamia derived from the cult of gods and deities in the Mesopotamian religion and it spanned several civilizations, from Sumerian, Akkadian, Assyrian, and Babylonian. Ancient Egyptian temples were meant as places for the deities to reside on earth, indeed, the term the Egyptians most commonly used to describe the temple building, ḥwt-nṯr, means mansion of a god. A gods presence in the temple linked the human and divine realms and these rituals, it was believed, sustained the god and allowed it to continue to play its proper role in nature. They were therefore a key part of the maintenance of maat, maintaining maat was the entire purpose of Egyptian religion, and thus it was the purpose of a temple as well. Ancient Egyptian temples were also of significance to Egyptian society
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Shesha
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In Hinduism, Shesha, also known as Sheshanaga or Adishesha, is the nagaraja or king of all nāgas and one of the primal beings of creation. In the Puranas, Shesha is said to all the planets of the universe on his hoods. He is sometimes referred to as Ananta Shesha, which translates as endless-Shesha or Adishesha first Shesha and it is said that when Adishesa uncoils, time moves forward and creation takes place, when he coils back, the universe ceases to exist. Vishnu is often depicted as resting on Shesha, Shesha is considered a servant and a manifestation of Vishnu. He is said to have descended to Earth in two forms or avatars, Lakshmana, brother of Rama, Balarama, brother of Krishna. Shesha in Sanskrit texts, especially relating to mathematical calculation. But in Sanskrit it also means 6 shesham as the sheshanaga has been depicted to have many heads, Shesha is generally depicted with a massive form that floats coiled in space, or on the ocean of bliss, to form the bed on which Vishnu lies. Sometimes he is shown as five-headed or seven-headed, but more commonly as a many thousand-headed serpent and his name means that which remains, from the Sanskrit root śiṣ, because when the world is destroyed at the end of the kalpa, Shesha remains as he is. In the Bhagavadgita of Chapter 10, verse 29, Shri Krishna while describing 75 of his common manifestations, declares, anantaś ca asmi nāgānāṁ, Of the nagas, as per the Mahabharata, Shesha was born to sage Kashyap and his wife Kadru. Kadru gave birth to a snakes, of which Shesha was the eldest. After Shesha, Vasuki, Airavata and Takshaka were born, in order, a lot of Sheshas brothers were cruel and were bent upon inflicting harm on others. They were even unkind to Garuda, who was Kashyapa’s son through Vinatha, Shesha, disgusted by the cruel acts of his brothers, left his mother and kin, and took to austere penances. He lived on air and meditated in places including Gandhamadhana, Badrikashrama, Gokarna, Pushkara and his penances were so severe that his flesh, skin and muscles dried up and merged with his frame. Brahma, convinced of his Sheshas will, asked Shesha to request a boon, Shesha asked that he be able to keep his mind under control so that he could continue to perform ascetic penances. Brahma then asked a favour of Shesha, to go beneath the unstable earth, Shesha agreed and went to the netherworld and stabilized her with his hood. He is known to support her even today, thus making Patala his perennial residence, Shesha is also depicted as floating in the ocean of the changing world, forming the bed of Maha Vishnu. Since he is known as Adishesha and because he is Anantashesha or simply Ananta and he is said to live since before the creation of the universe. When the universe is towards its end, he creates 11 rudras from him to destroy the universe for a new one to be created and he expands himself as garbhodakshayi-vishnu in the beginning of the universe to create Brahma
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Vishnu
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Vishnu is one of the principal deities of Hinduism, and the Supreme Being in its Vaishnavism tradition. Along with Brahma and Shiva, Vishnu forms a Hindu trinity, however and his avatars most notably include Krishna in the Mahabharata and Rama in the Ramayana. He is also known as Narayana, Jagannath, Vasudeva, Vithoba and he is one of the five equivalent deities worshipped in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta Tradition of Hinduism. In Hindu inconography, Vishnu is usually depicted as having a dark, or pale blue complexion and having four arms. He holds a padma in his left hand, Kaumodaki gada in his lower right hand, Panchajanya shankha in his upper left hand. A traditional depiction is Lord Vishnu reclining on the coils of Ananta, accompanied by his consort devi Lakshmi, yaska, the mid 1st-millennium BCE Vedanga scholar, in his Nirukta, defines Vishnu as viṣṇur viṣvater vā vyaśnoter vā, one who enters everywhere. He also writes, atha yad viṣito bhavati tad viṣnurbhavati, that which is free from fetters, the medieval Indian scholar Medhātithi suggested that the word Vishnu has etymological roots in viś, meaning to pervade, thereby connoting that Vishnu is one who is everything and inside everything. Vishnu is a Vedic deity, but not a prominent one when compared to Indra, Agni, just 5 out of 1028 hymns of the Rigveda, a 2nd millennium BCE Hindu text, are dedicated to Vishnu, and he finds minor mention in the other hymns. Though a minor mention and with overlapping attributes in the Vedas, he has important characteristics in various hymns of Rig Veda and he is also described in the Vedic literature as the one who supports heaven and earth. In the Vedic hymns, Vishnu is invoked alongside other deities, especially Indra and his distinguishing characteristic in Vedas is his association with light. Two Rigvedic hymns in Mandala 7 refer to Vishnu, in section 7.99 of the Rgveda, Vishnu is addressed as the god who separates heaven and earth, a characteristic he shares with Indra. In the Vedic texts, the deity or god referred to as Vishnu is Surya or Savitr, in hymn 7.99 of Rigveda, Indra-Vishnu are equivalent and produce the sun, with the verses asserting that this sun is the source of all energy and light for all. In other hymns of the Rigveda, Vishnu is a friend of Indra. In the Yajurveda, Taittiriya Aranyaka, Narayana sukta, Narayana is mentioned as the supreme being, the first verse of Narayana Suktam mentions the words paramam padam, which literally mean highest post and may be understood as the supreme abode for all souls. This is also known as Param Dhama, Paramapadam or Vaikuntha, Rig Veda 1.22.20 a also mentions the same paramam padam. In the Atharvaveda, the mythology of a boar who raises goddess earth from the depths of cosmic ocean appears, in post-Vedic mythology, this legend becomes one of the basis of many cosmogonic myth called the Varaha legend, with Varaha as an avatar of Vishnu. Several hymns of the Rigveda repeat the mighty deed of Vishnu called the Trivikrama and it is an inspiration for ancient artwork in numerous Hindu temples such as at the Ellora Caves, which depict the Trivikrama legend through the Vamana avatar of Vishnu. Trivikrama refers to the three steps or three strides of Vishnu
21.
Padmanabhaswamy Temple
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Padmanabhaswamy Temple is located in Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India. While the Moolasthanam of the temple is the Ananthapuram Temple in Kasargod, architecturally to some extent and it is the richest Hindu temple in the world. At the time of writing, only 5 of the 8 underground vaults had been opened and explored, the principal deity Vishnu is enshrined in the Anantha Shayanam posture, the eternal yogic sleep on the serpent Adisheshan. Sree Padmanabhaswamy is the deity of the royal family of Travancore. The titular Maharaja of Travancore Moolam Thirunal Rama Varma is the trustee of the temple as Sree Padmanabhadasa, in line with the Temple Entry Proclamation, only those who profess the Hindu faith are permitted entry to the temple and devotees have to strictly follow the dress code. The name of the city of Thiruvananthapuram in Malayalam translates to The City of Lord Ananta, several extant Hindu Texts like the Brahma Purana, Matsya Purana, Varaha Purana, Skanda Purana, Padma Purana, Vayu Purana, Bhagavata Purana and the Mahabharata mention this shrine. Many extant pieces of Sangam Tamil literature and poetry, and even the works of Ninth Century poet-saints like Nammalwar, refer to the Temple. At some places, both the Temple and the city are often eulogized even as being made of gold. The temple is one of the 108 principal Divya Desams in Vaishnavism, the Divya Prabandha glorifies this shrine as being among the 13 Divya Desam in Malai Nadu. The 8th century Alvar Nammalvar sang the glories of Padmanabha, the Ananthapuram Temple in Kasargod is believed to be the Moolasthanam of the Temple. The sage Vilvamangalathu Swamiyar, who resided near Ananthapuram Temple in Kasargod District, the Lord is believed to have come in the guise of a little boy who was mischievous. The boy defiled the Idol which was kept for Puja, the sage became enraged at this and chased away the boy, who disappeared. After a long search, when he was walking on the banks of Arabian Sea, the moment the Swami heard the word Ananthankadu he was delighted. He proceeded to Ananthankadu based on the directions of the lady of whom he enquired, the Sage reached Ananthankadu searching for the boy. There he saw the boy merging into an Iluppa tree, the tree fell down and became Anantha Sayana Moorti. The Sage requested the Lord to shrink to a proportion that would be thrice the length of his staff. Immediately the Lord shrank to the form of the Idol that is seen at present in the Temple, but even then many Iluppa trees obstructed a complete vision of the Lord. The Sage saw the Lord in three parts – thirumukham, thiruvudal and thrippadam, Swami prayed to Padmanabha to be forgiven
22.
Umayamma Rani
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Aswathi Thirunal Umayamma, popularly known as Umayamma Rani, was the Regent of Venad from 1677 to 1684 on behalf of her nephew Rajah Ravi Varma who ruled thereafter till 1718. Venad or Travancore was at time in a state of turmoil. These collateral branches therefore started exercising independent authority in their domains and they were Elayadathu Swaroopam of Kottarakara, Peraka Thavazhi of Nedumangad and Desinganad Swaroopam of Quilon. Besides, even within the domains of the kingdom remaining with the chief branch, factions were rife due to the refractory nobles or madempis. In 1677, Kerala Varma of Nedumangad laid claim to the musnud, Kerala Varma of Nedumangad along with the Kottarakara branch even attempted a military coup in 1682. On failure they tried to conciliate the Senior Rani of Attingal, Makayiram Thirunal and it is generally believed that Umayamma Rani had six sons of whom five were drowned by the Ettuveetil Pillamar and that Ravi Varma was her eldest and only surviving son. Similarly the story of the poisoning of Rajah Aditya Varma has also been disproved, in 1682 the Senior Rani of Attingal died and Umayamma Rani succeeded as principal Queen of Venad. The Royal family followed Marumakkathayam or matrilineal system of inheritance and family for which presence of females in the family were essential. In 1682 Umayamma Rani adopted one male, Aditya Varma, and this was followed by war with an enraged Kerala Varma of Nedumangad which the Rani won and the claims of the Nedumangad family were found to be untenable. In 1684 Umayamma Rani also adopted a male from the related Royal family of Kottayam, Malabar. This adopted male was Kerala Varma and was given the title of Prince of Hiranyasimhallur and this prince took the reins of the kingdom into his hands by first silencing the collateral branches and asserting the power of the chief branch. During that period a Mughal raider invaded Venad in 1684 with his army, Kerala Varma defeated him in the battle near Thuckalay. He also abolished certain abhorrent customs known as Pulappedi, Mannapedi etc. in 1695, since he was consolidating the royal power, the nobles of the land and the temple trustees murdered him in 1695 and his obsequies were performed by Aditya Varma. Meanwhile, Ravi Varma became the Rajah and in 1688 adopted two males, Unni Kerala Varma and Rajah Rama Varma from Kolathunad, and two princesses from Kolathunad, the succession continued in these lines and again adoptions were made in 1705,1718 and so on. The Dutch representative William Van Nieuhoff describes the Rani as, Rajah Rama Varma Marthanda Varma Travancore Attingal
23.
East India Company
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The company also ruled the beginnings of the British Empire in India. The company received a Royal Charter from Queen Elizabeth I on 31 December 1600, wealthy merchants and aristocrats owned the Companys shares. Initially the government owned no shares and had only indirect control, during its first century of operation the focus of the Company was trade, not the building of an empire in India. The company eventually came to rule large areas of India with its own armies, exercising military power. Despite frequent government intervention, the company had recurring problems with its finances, the official government machinery of British India had assumed its governmental functions and absorbed its armies. Soon after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, London merchants presented a petition to Queen Elizabeth I for permission to sail to the Indian Ocean, one of them, Edward Bonventure, then sailed around Cape Comorin to the Malay Peninsula and returned to England in 1594. In 1596, three ships sailed east, however, these were all lost at sea. Two days later, on 24 September, the Adventurers reconvened and resolved to apply to the Queen for support of the project, the Adventurers convened again a year later. For a period of fifteen years the charter awarded the newly formed company a monopoly on trade with all countries east of the Cape of Good Hope and west of the Straits of Magellan. Anybody who traded in breach of the charter without a licence from the Company was liable to forfeiture of their ships and cargo, the governance of the company was in the hands of one governor and 24 directors or committees, who made up the Court of Directors. They, in turn, reported to the Court of Proprietors, ten committees reported to the Court of Directors. According to tradition, business was transacted at the Nags Head Inn, opposite St Botolphs church in Bishopsgate. Sir James Lancaster commanded the first East India Company voyage in 1601, in March 1604 Sir Henry Middleton commanded the second voyage. Early in 1608 Alexander Sharpeigh was appointed captain of the Companys Ascension, thereafter two ships, Ascension and Union sailed from Woolwich on 14 March 1607–8. Initially, the company struggled in the trade because of the competition from the already well-established Dutch East India Company. The company opened a factory in Bantam on the first voyage, the factory in Bantam was closed in 1683. During this time belonging to the company arriving in India docked at Surat. In the next two years, the company established its first factory in south India in the town of Machilipatnam on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal
24.
Anchuthengu
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Anchuthengu, formerly known as Anjengo or Anjenga, is a coastal town in the Thiruvananthapuram District of Kerala. The town contains old Portuguese-style churches, a lighthouse, a 100-year-old convent and school, tombs of Dutch and British sailors and soldiers, kaikara village, the birthplace of the famous Malayalam poet Kumaran Asan, is located nearby. Temples in the area are Sree Bala Subrahmanya Swami Kshethram and Parambil Sree Bhadrakali Yogeeshwara Kshethram, Anchuthengu is about 36 kilometers north of Thiruvananthapuram. The nearest airport is Trivandrum International Airport, kadakkavur Railway Station is 2 kilometers away. Anjengo is located in an oxbow at the mouth of Parvathy Puthanaar canal, originally, it was an old Portuguese settlement between Kollam and Thiruvananthapuram, and near Varkala. In 1694, the Queen of Attingal granted the British East India Company the right to establish a factory and a fort at Anjengo, the Anjengo Fort was erected in 1694-8. It was a port of call for East Indiamen. The fort played an important role in the Anglo-Mysore Wars of the 18th century but, by the 19th century, the EIC abandoned tt, and the factory, in 1813. In the 19th century, the town remained known for its excellent ropes and also exported pepper, homespun cotton cloth, citations References Anjengo, Encyclopædia Britannica, 9th ed. Vol. II, New York, Charles Scribners Sons,1878, p.58
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Travancore
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The Kingdom of Travancore (/ˈtrævəŋkɔər/, Malayalam, തിരുവിതാംകൂർ Thiruvithamkoor, was an Indian kingdom from 1729 until 1949. It was ruled by the Travancore Royal Family from Padmanabhapuram, the official flag of the state was red with a dextrally-coiled silver conch shell at its center. In the early 19th century, the became a princely state of the British Empire. When the region was part of the Chera empire, it was known as Thiruvazhumkode. It was contracted to Thiruvankode, and anglicised by the English to Travancore. In course of time, the Ay kingdom, part of the Chera empire, which ruled the Thiruvazhumkode area, became independent, the Aayis controlled the land from present day Kollam district in the north, through Thiruvananthapuram district, all in Kerala, to the Kanyakumari district. There were two capitals, the one at Kollam and a subsidiary one at Thrippapur. The kingdom was also called Venad. Kings of Venad had, at times, travelled from Kollam and built residential palaces in Thiruvithamcode. By the time of King Marthanda Varma, the half of the kingdom had become dominant. During his reign, it absorbed the north and Thiruvithamcode or Travancore became the official name, Travancore was located at the extreme southern tip of the Indian subcontinent. Geographically, Travancore was divided into three distinct regions, the eastern highlands, the central midlands, and the western lowlands. Venad was a state at the tip of the Indian Subcontinent. Till the end of the 11th century AD, it was a principality in the Ay Kingdom. The Ays were the earliest ruling dynasty in southern Kerala, who, at their zenith and their capital during the first Sangam age was in Aykudi and later, towards the end of the 8th century AD, was at Quilon. Though a series of attacks by the resurgent Pandyas between the 7th and 8th centuries caused the decline of the Ays, the dynasty was powerful till the beginning of the 10th century, when the Ay power diminished, Venad became the southernmost principality of the Second Chera Kingdom. An invasion of the Cholas into Venad caused the destruction of Kollam in 1096, however, the Chera capital, Mahodayapuram, also fell in the subsequent Chola attack, which compelled the Chera king, Rama varma Kulasekara, to shift his capital to Kollam. Thus the end of the Second Chera dynasty in the 12th century marks the independence of Venad, the history of Travancore began with Marthanda Varma, who inherited the kingdom of Venad, and expanded it into Travancore during his reign
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Marthanda Varma
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Marthanda Varma was ruler of the southern Indian state of Thiruvithaamkoor from 1729 until his death in 1758. He is most celebrated for crushing the Dutch expansionist designs at the Battle of Colachel in 1741, Marthanda Varma, then adopted a European mode of martial discipline and expanded his domain to encompass what became the modern state of Travancore. Marthanda Varma built a standing army of about 50,000, reduced the power of the Nair aristocracy. His alliance in 1757 with the ruler of Kochi, against Kingdom of Kozhikode, Travancore under Marthanda Varma did make a determined bid to consolidate its power by the use of maritime outlets. At his accession to the throne in early 18th century, the only route remaining was Thiruvithaamkoor to build an elaborate, the control of trade was also seen as crucial in the statecraft of the period. These principles were put into practice by Marthanda Varma and it was also the policy of Marthanda Varma to extend patronage to the Syrian Christians, a large trading community in Thiruvithaamkoor, as a means of limiting European involvement in trade. The key commodity was pepper, but other goods also came to be defined as Royal Monopoly Items, Thiruvananthapuram became a prominent city in Kerala under Marthanda Varma. Prime ministers under Marthanda Varma - Arumukham Pillai, Thanu Pillai, Marthanda Varmas policies were continued in large measure by his successor and nephew, Karthika Thirunal Rama Varma, who went on to successfully defend Thiruvithaamkoor against the Kingdom of Mysore. Marthanda Varma was born in 1705 to queen Karthika Thirunal and Raghava Varma of Kilimanur royal house, queen Karthika Thirunal - an adoptee from the Kingdom of Kannur in the north - was the senior queen of Attingal at the time. The state was ruled by chief Ravi Varma during this period, trippappur swaroopam then, was a small chiefdom extending from Edava in the north to Aruvamozhi in the south. According to historians, within this state the power of the chief was only nominal then, due to the power of the nobles, chief among them being the Barons of the Eight Houses. The powers of the ruler were also to a great extent curbed by the power of the Council of Eight and a Half, the rivalries of European powers like the Dutch and the English made the situation more complex. It was into these conditions, where the chief was powerless under the nobles of the state. It is also known that the prince advised the chief to sign treaty with the English East India Company, after being pleased by the maturity and administrative talent of his nephew, Rama Varma anointed the teenager as the Prince of Neyattinkara. After crushing the power of the feudal lords (the Nair aristocracy known as the Ettuveetil Pillamar, Marthanda Varma turned his attention to the neighbouring petty chiefdoms. The chief was brought to Thiruvananthapuram and lodged almost as state prisoner in the Valikoikkal palace, a contingent of Thiruvithaamkoor army under Dalawa Arumukham Pillai was stationed at Quilon. Marthanda Varma next turned his attention towards the little chiefdom of Marta, the neighbouring chiefdom of Kayamkulam - sensing an imminent invasion by Thiruvithaamkoor - soon allied itself with the Kochi, Purakkad and Vadakkumkur. The Kayamkulam chief was also successful in rescuing the Kollam chief from his Thiruvananthapuram prison, the allies built new fortification and strengthened their defences against the threat from Thiruvananthapuram
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Krishna
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Krishna is a major Hindu deity. He is one of the most widely revered and popular Indian divinities, worshipped as the incarnation of the Hindu god Vishnu. Krishnas birthday is celebrated every year by Hindus on Janmashtami according to the lunisolar Hindu calendar, Krishna is also known by numerous names, such as Govinda, Mukunda, Madhusudhana, Vasudeva and Makhan chor in affection. The anecdotes and narratives of Krishnas life are generally titled as Krishna Leela and he is a central character in the Bhagavata Purana, the Bhagavad Gita, and is mentioned in many Hindu philosophical, theological and mythological texts. They portray him in various perspectives, a god-child, a prankster, a lover, a divine hero. The synonyms of Krishna have been traced to 1st millennium BCE literature, worship of Krishna as Svayam Bhagavan, sometimes referred to as Krishnaism, arose in the Middle Ages in the context of the Bhakti movement. Krishna-related literature has inspired performance arts such as Bharatnatyam, Kathakali, Kuchipudi, Odissi. Since the 1960s, the worship of Krishna has also spread to the Western world, the name originates from the Sanskrit word Kṛṣṇa, which is primarily an adjective meaning black, dark or dark blue. The waning moon is called Krishna Paksha, relating to the adjective meaning darkening, the name is also interpreted sometimes as all attractive. As a name of Vishnu, Krishna is listed as the 57th name in the Vishnu Sahasranama, based on his name, Krishna is often depicted in idols as black or blue-skinned. Krishna is also known by other names, epithets and titles. Among the most common names are Mohan enchanter, Govinda meaning chief herdsman, Gopala, some of the distinct names may be regionally important—for instance, Jagannatha, a popular incarnation of Puri, Odisha in eastern India. Krishna is represented in the Indian traditions in many ways, with common features. His iconography typically depicts him as black or dark reflecting his name, however ancient and medieval reliefs and stone-based arts depict him in the natural color of the material he is made from, both in India and in southeast Asia. In some texts, his skin is described as the color of Jambul. Krishna is often depicted wearing a peacock feather wreathe or crown, in this form, he usually stands with one leg bent in front of the other in the Tribhanga posture. He is sometimes accompanied by cows or a calf, symbolism for the divine herdsman Govinda, alternatively, he is shown as an amorous man with the gopis, often making music or playing pranks. In other icons, he is a part of the scene on the battlefield of the epic Mahabharata
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Narasimha
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The avatar of Narasingha is evidenced in early epics, iconography, and temple and festival worship for over a millennium. Narasingha is often visualised as having a human torso and lower body, with a lion face and this image is widely worshipped in deity form by a significant number of Vaiṣṇava groups. Vishnu assumed this form on top of Himvat mountain and he is known primarily as the Great Protector who specifically defends and protects his devotees in times of need. Vishnu is believed to have taken the avatar to destroy the demon king Hiranyakashipu, the word Narasimha means lion-man/half man and half lion. There is also a reference in the Mahābhārata and a Gopāla Tapani Upaniṣad. The Ṛg Veda contains an epithet that has been attributed to Narasiṃha, the half-man, half-lion avatāra is described as, like some wild beast, dread, prowling, mountain-roaming. There is an allusion to a Namuci story in RV. VIII14.13, With waters foam you tore off, Indra and this short reference is believed to have culminated in the full puranic story of Narasiṃha. Bhagavata Purāṇa describes that Vishnu, in his previous avatar as Varāha, the younger brother of Hirṇayakṣa, Hiraṇyakaśipu, wanted revenge on Vishnu and his followers. He undertook many years of penance to take revenge on Viṣṇu, Brahma thus offers the demon a boon. Brahma replies that he himself is not immortal, so he cant grant immortality to anyone else. O my lord, O best of the givers of benediction, if you will grant me the benediction I desire. Grant me that I not die within any residence or outside any residence, during the daytime or at night, grant me that my death not be brought about by any weapon, nor by any human being or animal. Grant me that I not meet death from any entity, living or nonliving created by you, grant me, further, that I not be killed by any demigod or demon or by any great snake from the lower planets. Since no one can kill you in the battlefield, you have no competitor, therefore, grant me the benediction that I too may have no rival. Give me sole lordship over all the entities and presiding deities. Furthermore, give me all the mystic powers attained by long austerities, Hiraṇyakaśipu was happy thinking that he had won over death. Prior to this, while Hiraṇyakaśipu was performing austerities at Mandarācala Mountain, his home was attacked by Indra, at this point the Devarṣi Nārada intervenes to protect Kayādu, whom he describes as sinless. Thus, Prahlāda later begins to show symptoms of this training by Nārada, gradually becoming recognised as a devoted follower of Viṣṇu
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Ganesha
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Ganesha, also known as Ganapati and Vinayaka, is one of the best-known and most worshipped deities in the Hindu pantheon. His image is found throughout India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Hindu sects worship him regardless of affiliations. Devotion to Ganesha is widely diffused and extends to Jains and Buddhists, although he is known by many attributes, Ganeshas elephant head makes him easy to identify. Ganesha is widely revered as the remover of obstacles, the patron of arts and sciences, as the god of beginnings, he is honoured at the start of rituals and ceremonies. Ganesha is also invoked as patron of letters and learning during writing sessions, several texts relate mythological anecdotes associated with his birth and exploits and explain his distinct iconography. Ganesha emerged as a deity in the 4th and 5th centuries AD, during the Gupta period. He was formally included among the five deities of Smartism in the 9th century. A sect of devotees called the Ganapatya arose, who identified Ganesha as the supreme deity, the principal scriptures dedicated to Ganesha are the Ganesha Purana, the Mudgala Purana, and the Ganapati Atharvashirsa. Brahma Purana and Brahmanda Purana are other two Puranic genre encyclopedic texts that deal with Ganesha, Ganesha has been ascribed many other titles and epithets, including Ganapati and Vighneshvara. The Hindu title of respect Shri is often added before his name, the name Ganesha is a Sanskrit compound, joining the words gana, meaning a group, multitude, or categorical system and isha, meaning lord or master. The word gaņa when associated with Ganesha is often taken to refer to the gaņas, the term more generally means a category, class, community, association, or corporation. Some commentators interpret the name Lord of the Gaņas to mean Lord of Hosts or Lord of created categories, Ganapati, a synonym for Ganesha, is a compound composed of gaṇa, meaning group, and pati, meaning ruler or lord. Though the earliest mention of the word Ganapati is found in hymn 2.23.1 of the 2nd-millennium BCE Rigveda, it is however uncertain that the Vedic term referred specifically to Ganesha. The Amarakosha, an early Sanskrit lexicon, lists eight synonyms of Ganesha, Vinayaka, Vighnarāja, Dvaimātura, Gaṇādhipa, Ekadanta, Heramba, Lambodara, Vinayaka is a common name for Ganesha that appears in the Purāṇas and in Buddhist Tantras. This name is reflected in the naming of the eight famous Ganesha temples in Maharashtra known as the Ashtavinayak, the names Vighnesha and Vighneshvara refers to his primary function in Hinduism as the master and remover of obstacles. A prominent name for Ganesha in the Tamil language is Pillai or Pillaiyar, a. K. Narain differentiates these terms by saying that pillai means a child while pillaiyar means a noble child. He adds that the words pallu, pella, and pell in the Dravidian family of languages signify tooth or tusk, also elephant tooth or tusk. Anita Raina Thapan notes that the root word pille in the name Pillaiyar might have meant the young of the elephant
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Ayyappan
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Ayyappan also known as Dharmashaastha, Maṇikantan and Shaastha, is a Hindu deity who is the son of Mohini, an incarnation of Vishnu, and Shiva. He is generally depicted in a yogic posture wearing a bell around his neck, the most prominent Ayyappan shrine is the one at Sabarimala - the abode of Lord Ayyappa - in the hills of Pathanamthitta in Kerala. The shrine receives over ten million pilgrims every year making it one of the largest pilgrimage sites in the world, the pilgrims visiting Sabarimala fast and engage in austerities under the leadership of a Periya Swami. The austerity period starts on the first of the month of Malayalam calender. During this period men are clad in distinctive ritual dhotis of black, saffron and dark blue colors, the devotees address Lord Ayyappa as Sri Ayyappan respectfully. The mantra of Lord Ayyappa is Swamiye Saranam Ayyappa which translates to Lord Ayyappa, in ancient, the term Ayyan or Aiyan is a title of respect and the term Appan - which also means father - refers to senior members of the community as a mark of respect. Thus Ayyan and Appan put together - Ayyappan - refers to a senior respectable guardian deity of the community. Further evidences in favour of this include the similarities in the unique seating style, with one/two legs folded and raised from the seat. Ayyappan is also known as Hariharasutan - son of Hari and Haran in literal translation - because he is the son of Vishnu, also called Hari, and Haran, another name of Lord Shiva. He is also called Manikantan because when the king Rajasekara Pandiyan of Pandalam found little Ayyappan abandoned in a forest there was a Mani tied around his kantam - meaning neck in Malayalam. A demoness called Mahishi undertook severe penance to avenge the death of her brother and she pleased the creator God Brahma and asked for the boon of invulnerability to all men which He declined. She then pondered for a while and asked cleverly for the boon of invulnerability to all men but a son of Shiva, as both Shiva and Vishnu were male Gods there was no possibility of such an offspring and therefore this privilege would make her virtually indestructible. Emboldened by the boon she went on a rampage pulverizing people, elsewhere, Bhasmasura was granted the power by Lord Shiva that anyone whose head he placed his hand over would turn into ashes immediately. As soon as he was allowed his wish he wanted to test it, chased by Bhasmasura, Shiva requested Vishnu to help Him out of His plight and hid behind a peepal tree. Vishnu became aware of the events and decided that He would take the female form Mohini, the enchantress, such a fine enchantress she was, when Bhasmasura saw her he was bewitched by her beauty and asked for her hand at once, for marriage. She replied to him that she would marry him if he could match her dance move for move. Bhasmasura complied and they started dancing together, the feat went on for days, Bhasmasura trying his level best to match Mohinis moves. Mohini concluded by striking a pose with her hand on top of her head, oblivious of his boon Bhasmasura imitated her touching his own head with his hand and perished
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Padmanabhapuram
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Padmanabhapuram is a city and a municipality near Thuckalay in Kanyakumari district in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. As of 2011, the town had a population of 21,342, Padmanabhapuram was the erstwhile capital of the princely state of Travancore in India. The Travancore King, Rama Varma, who was known as Dharma Raja. By that time, the boundaries of the Travancore had extended to half of the present day Kerala State, up to 1957, Padmanabhapuram formed part of the Travancore Kingdom and subsequently the Travancore-Cochin State. Padmanabhapuram is located at 8. 23°N77. 33°E /8.23,77.33 and it has an average elevation of 15 metres. According to 2011 census, Padmanabhapuram had a population of 21,342 with a sex-ratio of 1,029 females for every 1,000 males, a total of 2,120 were under the age of six, constituting 1,084 males and 1,036 females. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes accounted for 10. 61% and. % of the population respectively, the average literacy of the town was 83. 92%, compared to the national average of 72. 99%. The town had a total of,5549 households, the popular Padmanabhapuram Palace, the old palace of the Travancore kings, is also located here. It is spread over an area of 6 acres, the palace is known for it antiques, including the armoury of the royal family. The woodwork in this palace is intricate and this Palace is maintained by the Govt. of Kerala Archaeology Department. Other tourist locations include Thirparappu Waterfalls, Hanging Bridge in Mathoor, one can take a bus from Thiruvananthapuram or Nagercoil and get down at Thuckalay, which is two kilometres away from Padmanabhapuram. The nearest places around this old city of South travancore is Marunthukottai, Saralvilai, Kumarakoil, Moolachel, Charode, Manali. Padmanabhapuram assembly constituency is part of Nagercoil
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Kanyakumari district
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Kanyakumari district is the southernmost district in Tamil Nadu state and mainland India. It is the second largest district in the state in terms of population density, the district stands first in terms of literacy rate in the state. Kanyakumari district has a topography with sea on three sides and the mountains of the Western Ghats bordering the northern side. A few artifacts unearthed by excavations in there. The Presidency was later renamed Tamil Nadu and Kanyakumari, today, is one of the 32 districts of Tamil Nadu state, many historical assumptions persist in the district and state, which associate sages such as Vyasa, Agastya, Tolkappiyar, Avvaiyar and Thiruvalluvar to the district. The district is also the birthplace of Ayyavazhi, the area that comprises the current Kanyakumari district was a part of the old Ay kingdom of the first and second Sangham ages. Following the decline of the Ay kingdoms, the area became Venad, the wealth of the Nanjalnadu beckoned many invaded including the Nayaks and later an Islamist army during the reign of Umayamma Rani. The Venad region was in anarchy before Marthanda Varma ascended the throne in 1729 AD, before his reign the Samanthan Nairs ruled the province. Under their rule anarchy was dominant in Kanyakumari region, however, Marthanda Varma brought a sense of disorder under control by annexing the nearby territories, putting down the feudal lords and establishing the strong state of Travancore. He had also bought some portions of Kanyakumari from the then viceroy making it the southern boundary, under his rule the district improved in a social context as well as economically. The famous battle of Colachel took place in the district, later, the maharajahs of Travancore built the forts at Aramboly to prevent any invasion from the Carnatic. Key elements of Velu Thampi Dalawas revolt occurred in the area, in the year 1949, the area became a part of the reestablished Travancore Cochin state. The people of Agasteeswarem, Thovalai, Kalkulam and Vilavancode taluks, an extreme agitation by Tamil speaking residents under the leadership of Marshal Nesamony took place for including Kanyakumari within Tamil Nadu. Eventually the merger happened in 1956 based on language reorganization of states, the district of Kanyakumari is the southern most districts in the state of Tamil Nadu. It is situated between 77°15 and 77°36 east latitude and 8°03 and 8°35 north longitude, the district has borders with Tirunelveli district, the Gulf of Mannar, the Indian Ocean, the Arabian Sea and the state of Kerala. Kanyakumari includes the special grade village of Chinnamuttom, located at the southernmost point of the Indian Subcontinent, for administrative purposes, the district comprises four taluks, Thovalai, Agastheeswaram, Kalkulam, and Vilavancode. At the lower levels of administration, there are 99 village panchayats, the major towns of the district include, Agastheeswaram taluk, Nagercoil, Kanyakumari, Agastheeswaram, Suchindram and Rajakkamangalam. Kalkulam taluk, Padmanabhapuram-Thuckalay, Colachel, Kalkulam, Thiruvithamcode, Kurunthancode, Thiruvattar and Kulasekaram, Vilavancode Taluk, Karungal, Kuzhithurai-Marthandam, Vilavancode, Killiyur, Munchirai, Manjalumoodu Arumanai and Melpuram
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Tamil Nadu
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Tamil Nadu is one of the 29 states of India. Its capital and largest city is Chennai, Tamil Nadu lies in the southernmost part of the Indian Peninsula and is bordered by the union territory of Puducherry and the South Indian states of Kerala, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh. The state shares a border with the nation of Sri Lanka. Tamil Nadu is the eleventh-largest state in India by area and the sixth-most populous, the state was ranked sixth among states in India according to the Human Development Index in 2011, with the second-largest state economy after Maharashtra. Tamil Nadu is the second largest state economy in India with ₹13,842 billion in gross domestic product after Maharashtra. Tamil Nadu was ranked as one of the top seven developed states in India based on a Multidimensional Development Index in a 2013 report published by the Reserve Bank of India and its official language is Tamil, which is one of the longest-surviving classical languages in the world. Tamil Nadu is home to natural resources. In addition, its people have developed and continue classical arts, classical music, historic buildings and religious sites include Hindu temples of Tamil architecture, hill stations, beach resorts, multi-religious pilgrimage sites, and eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Archaeological evidence points to this area being one of the longest continuous habitations in the Indian peninsula, the ASI archaeologists have proposed that the script used at that site is very rudimentary Tamil Brahmi. Adichanallur has been announced as a site for further excavation. About 60 per cent of the epigraphical inscriptions found by the ASI in India are from Tamil Nadu. A Neolithic stone celt with the Indus script on it was discovered at Sembian-Kandiyur near Mayiladuthurai in Tamil Nadu, according to epigraphist Iravatham Mahadevan, this was the first datable artefact bearing the Indus script to be found in Tamil Nadu. Mahadevan claimed that the find was evidence of the use of the Harappan language, the date of the celt was estimated at between 1500 BCE and 2000 BCE. The early history of the people and rulers of Tamil Nadu is a topic in Tamil literary sources known as Sangam literature, numismatic, archaeological and literary sources corroborate that the Sangam period lasted for about six centuries, from 300 BC to AD300. Three dynasties, namely the Chera, Chola and Pandya, ruled the area of present-day Tamil Nadu, the Chera ruled the whole of present-day Kerala and parts of western Tamil Nadu comprising Coimbatore, Dharmapuri, Karur, Salem and Erode districts from the capital of Vanchi Muthur. The Chola dynasty ruled the northern and central parts of Tamil Nadu from their capital, Uraiyur, All three dynasties had extensive trade relationships with Rome, Greece, Egypt, Ceylon, Phoenicia, Arabia, Mesopotamia and Persia. Trade flourished in commodities such as spices, ivory, pearls, beads, Chera traded extensively from Muziris on the west coast, Chola from Arikamedu and Puhar and Pandya through Korkai port. A Greco-Roman trade and travel document, the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea gives a description of the Tamil country, besides these three dynasties, the Sangam era Tamilakam was also divided into various provinces named nadu, meaning country
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Gopuram
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Gopuram is a monumental tower, usually ornate, at the entrance of any temple, especially in Southern India. This forms a prominent feature of Koils, Hindu temples of the Dravidian style and they are topped by the kalasam, a bulbous stone finial. They function as gateways through the walls that surround the temple complex and it also dominated the inner sanctum in amount of ornamentation. Often a shrine has more than one gopuram and they also appear in architecture outside India, especially Khmer architecture, as at Angkor Wat. A koil may have multiple gopurams, typically constructed into multiple walls in tiers around the main shrine, the temples walls are typically square with the outer most wall having gopuras. The sanctum sanctorum and its roof is also called the vimanam. The Tamil derivation is from the two words, கோ and புறம் meaning king and exterior respectively and it originates from the Sangam age when it was known as ஓங்கு நிலை வாயில் meaning imperishable gateway. Siegfried Lienhard considers this Tamil derivation but offers a new derivation from the Sanskrit word, separately, it consists of two words go, with the possible meanings of cow or sky, and pura, meaning city. A gopuram is usually rectangular in form with ground-level wooden doors, often richly decorated, above is the tapering gopuram, divided into many storeys which diminish in size as the gopuram tower narrows. Usually the tower is topped with a vaulted roof with a finial. The four gopurams of the Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram are important early examples, begun in the mid-13th century, sri Ranganathaswamy Temple in Srirangam, Tamil Nadu is the tallest Gopuram in the world. List of tallest Gopurams Dallapiccola, Anna L, dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend. The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent, 2nd edn,1994, Yale University Press Pelican History of Art, ISBN0300062176
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Indian independence movement
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The Indian independence movement encompassed all activities and ideas aiming to end the East India Company rule and the British Indian Empire in the Indian subcontinent. The movement spanned a total of 190 years, the early part of the 20th century saw a more radical approach towards political self-rule proposed by leaders such as the Lal, Bal, Pal and Aurobindo Ghosh, V. O. Chidambaram Pillai. The last stages of the struggle from the 1920s onwards saw Congress adopt Mohandas Karamchand Gandhis policy of nonviolence and civil resistance. Nationalist like Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose, Bhagat Singh and Vinayak Damodar Sawarkar preached armed revolution to achieve self-rule, feminists such as Sarojini Naidu and Begum Rokeya promoted the emancipation of Indian women and their participation in national politics. Babasaheb Ambedkar championed the cause of the sections of Indian society within the larger self-rule movement. The period of the Second World War saw the peak of the campaigns by the Quit India Movement led by Congress, the Indian self-rule movement was a mass-based movement that encompassed various sections of society. It also underwent a process of constant ideological evolution, in 1971, East Pakistan declared independence as the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh. European traders first reached Indian shores with the arrival of the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama in 1498 AD at the port of Calicut, in search of the lucrative spice trade. Just over a century later, the Dutch and English established trading outposts on the subcontinent, the decline of the Mughal empire in the first half of the eighteenth century provided the British with the opportunity to establish a firm foothold in Indian politics. After the defeat of Tipu Sultan, most of South India came either under the Companys direct rule, the Company subsequently gained control of regions ruled by the Maratha Empire, after defeating them in a series of wars. The Punjab was annexed in 1849, after the defeat of the Sikh armies in the First, in 1835, English was made the medium of instruction in Indias schools and many Indians increasingly disliked British rule. With the British now dominating most of the subcontinent, many British increasingly disregarded local customs, Puli Thevan was one of the opponents of the British rule in India. He was in conflict with the Nawab of Arcot who was supported by the British and his prominent exploits were his confrontations with Marudhanayagam, who later rebelled against the British in the late 1750s and early 1760s. Nelkatumseval the present Tirunelveli Dist of Tamil Nadu state of India was the headquarters of Puli Thevan, kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja was one of the earliest freedom fighters in India. He was the regent of the princely state of Kottiyur or Cotiote in North Malabar, near Kannur. He fought a war with tribal people from Wynad supporting him. He was caught by the British and his fort was razed to the ground, Rani Velu Nachiyar, was a queen of Indian Sivaganga in 1760–1790. She was the first queen to fight against the British in India, Rani Nachiyar was trained in war match weapons usage, martial arts like Valari, Silambam, horse riding and archery
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Arabian Sea
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The Arabian Sea is a region of the northern Indian Ocean bounded on the north by Pakistan and Iran, on the west by northeastern Somalia and the Arabian Peninsula, and on the east by India. Historically the sea has been known by names including the Erythraean Sea. Its total area is 3,862,000 km2 and its depth is 4,652 metres. The Gulf of Aden is in the southwest, connecting the Arabian Sea to the Red Sea through the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, the Arabian Sea has been crossed by important marine trade routes since the third or second millennium BCE. Major seaports include Jawaharlal Nehru Port in Mumbai, the Port of Karachi and the Gwadar Port in Pakistan, other important ports include in India, Kandla Port, and Mormugao in Goa. The largest islands in the Arabian Sea include Socotra, Masirah Island, Astola Island, the Arabian Seas surface area is about 3,862,000 km2. The maximum width of the Sea is approximately 2,400 km, the biggest river flowing into the Sea is the Indus River. There are also the gulfs of Khambhat and Kutch on the Indian coast, the countries with coastlines on the Arabian Sea are Somalia, Djibouti, Yemen, Oman, United Arab Emirates, Iran, Pakistan, India and the Maldives. There are several cities on the seas coast including Mumbai, Surat, Karachi, Gwadar, Pasni, Ormara, Aden, Muscat, Keti Bandar, Salalah, Duqm. International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Arabian Sea as follows, the Eastern limit of the Gulf of Aden. A line joining Ràs al Hadd, East point of Arabia, a line running from the South extremity of Addu Atoll, to the Eastern extreme of Ràs Hafun. The Western limit of the Laccadive Sea, by the time of Julius Caesar, several well-established combined land-sea trade routes depended upon water transport through the Sea around the rough inland terrain features to its north. Each major route involved transhipping to pack animal caravan, travel through country and risk of bandits. Later the kingdom of Axum arose in Ethiopia to rule a mercantile empire rooted in the trade with Europe via Alexandria, Jawaharlal Nehru Port in Mumbai is the largest port in the Arabian Sea, and the largest container port in India. The Port of Karachi is Pakistans largest and busiest seaport, handling about 60% of the nations cargo and it is located between the Karachi towns of Kiamari and Saddar, close to the main business district and several industrial areas. The geographic position of the places it in close proximity to major shipping routes such as the Strait of Hormuz. The history of the port is intertwined with that of the city of Karachi, several ancient ports have been attributed in the area including Krokola, Morontobara, Barbarikon (the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, and Debal. It warns sailors about whirlpools and advises them to safety in Kaurashi harbour if they found themselves drifting dangerously
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Latitude
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In geography, latitude is a geographic coordinate that specifies the north–south position of a point on the Earths surface. Latitude is an angle which ranges from 0° at the Equator to 90° at the poles, lines of constant latitude, or parallels, run east–west as circles parallel to the equator. Latitude is used together with longitude to specify the location of features on the surface of the Earth. Without qualification the term latitude should be taken to be the latitude as defined in the following sections. Also defined are six auxiliary latitudes which are used in special applications, there is a separate article on the History of latitude measurements. Two levels of abstraction are employed in the definition of latitude and longitude, in the first step the physical surface is modelled by the geoid, a surface which approximates the mean sea level over the oceans and its continuation under the land masses. The second step is to approximate the geoid by a mathematically simpler reference surface, the simplest choice for the reference surface is a sphere, but the geoid is more accurately modelled by an ellipsoid. The definitions of latitude and longitude on such surfaces are detailed in the following sections. Lines of constant latitude and longitude together constitute a graticule on the reference surface, latitude and longitude together with some specification of height constitute a geographic coordinate system as defined in the specification of the ISO19111 standard. This is of importance in accurate applications, such as a Global Positioning System, but in common usage, where high accuracy is not required. In English texts the latitude angle, defined below, is denoted by the Greek lower-case letter phi. It is measured in degrees, minutes and seconds or decimal degrees, the precise measurement of latitude requires an understanding of the gravitational field of the Earth, either to set up theodolites or to determine GPS satellite orbits. The study of the figure of the Earth together with its field is the science of geodesy. These topics are not discussed in this article and this article relates to coordinate systems for the Earth, it may be extended to cover the Moon, planets and other celestial objects by a simple change of nomenclature. The primary reference points are the poles where the axis of rotation of the Earth intersects the reference surface, the plane through the centre of the Earth and perpendicular to the rotation axis intersects the surface at a great circle called the Equator. Planes parallel to the plane intersect the surface in circles of constant latitude. The Equator has a latitude of 0°, the North Pole has a latitude of 90° North, the latitude of an arbitrary point is the angle between the equatorial plane and the radius to that point. The latitude, as defined in this way for the sphere, is termed the spherical latitude
Thiruvananthapuram district
