1.
Cowes
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Cowes is an English seaport town and civil parish on the Isle of Wight. Cowes is located on the west bank of the estuary of the River Medina, the two towns are linked by the Cowes Floating Bridge, a chain ferry. The population was 9,663 in the 2001 census, which doubles during the regatta in early August, the population at the 2011 census was 10,405. Charles Godfrey Lelands 19th century verses describe the towns poetically as The two great Cowes that in loud thunder roar/This on the eastern, that the western shore, Cowes has been seen as a home for international yacht racing since the founding of the Royal Yacht Squadron in 1815. It gives its name to the worlds oldest regular regatta, Cowes Week, much of the towns architecture is still heavily influenced by the style of ornate building that Prince Albert popularised. The name Westcowe was attested in 1413 as the name of one of two sandbanks, on side of the River Medina estuary, so-called after a supposed likeness to cows. The name was transferred to fortifications built during the reign of Henry VIII on the east and west banks of the river to dispel a French invasion. They subsequently gave their names to the towns of Cowes and East Cowes, the towns name has been subject to dispute in the past, sometimes being called Cowes, and then West Cowes. For example, a milestone from the 17th century exists, calling the town Cowes, in 1895 West Cowes Urban District Council applied for permission to change the name of the town to Cowes officially, and this was granted on 21 August 1895. In earlier centuries the two settlements were much smaller and known as East and West Shamblord or Shamelhorde, the East being the more significant settlement, the Isle of Wight was a target of attempted French invasions, and there were notable incursions. Henrician Castles were built in both settlements in the sixteenth century, the west fort in Cowes still survives to this day, albeit without the original Tudor towers, as Cowes Castle. The fort built in East Cowes is believed to have similar but was abandoned c1546. However, seafaring for recreation and sport remained the exception rather than the rule until much later and it was not until the reign of keen sailor George IV that the stage was set for the heyday of Cowes as The Yachting Capital of the World. In 1826 the Royal Yacht Squadron organised a regatta for the first time. This became known as Cowes Regatta and it grew into a four-day event that always ended with a fireworks display. The opium clippers Nina, Eamont and Wild Dayrell were built in Cowes, in Cowes the 18th-century house of Westbourne was home to a collector of customs whose son, born there in 1795, lived to become Dr Thomas Arnold, headmaster of Rugby School. Northwood House was the home of the Ward family and it was donated under trust to the town in 1929, the grounds becoming Northwood Park. William George Ward was a friend of the poet Tennyson
2.
Isle of Wight
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The Isle of Wight /ˈaɪl əv ˈwaɪt/ is a county and the largest and second-most populous island in England. It is located in the English Channel, about 4 miles off the coast of Hampshire, the island has resorts that have been holiday destinations since Victorian times, and is known for its mild climate, coastal scenery, and verdant landscape of fields, downland and chines. The island has been home to the poets Swinburne and Tennyson and to Queen Victoria and it has a maritime and industrial tradition including boat building, sail making, the manufacture of flying boats, the hovercraft, and Britains space rockets. The island hosts annual festivals including the Isle of Wight Festival. It has well-conserved wildlife and some of the richest cliffs and quarries for dinosaur fossils in Europe, the Isle was owned by a Norman family until 1293 and was earlier a kingdom in its own right. Rural for most of its history, its Victorian fashionability and the affordability of holidays led to significant urban development during the late 19th. The island was part of Hampshire until 1890 when it became its own administrative county, apart from a shared police force, there is now no administrative link with Hampshire, although a combined local authority with Portsmouth and Southampton is being considered. Until 1995 the island had a governor, the quickest public transport link to the mainland is the hovercraft from Ryde to Southsea, while three ferry and two catamaran services cross the Solent to Southampton, Lymington and Portsmouth. During the Ice Age, sea levels were lower and the Solent was part of a river flowing south east from current day Poole Harbour towards mid-Channel. As sea levels rose, the valley became flooded. The first inhabitants are assumed to have been hunter-gatherers migrating by land during the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age period, as the ice age began to recede. From the Neolithic era onwards, there are indications that the island had wide trading links, with a port at Bouldnor, evidence of Bronze Age tin trading, caesar reported that the Belgae took the Isle of Wight in about 85 BC and gave its name as Vectis. The Roman historian Suetonius mentions that the island was captured by the commander Vespasian, the Romans built no towns or roads on the island, but the remains of at least seven Roman villas have been found, indicating the prosperity of local agriculture. During the Dark Ages the island was settled by Jutes as the kingdom of Wihtwara under King Arwald. In 685 it was invaded by Caedwalla, who tried to replace the inhabitants with his own followers and it suffered especially from Viking raids, and was often used as a winter base by Viking raiders when they were unable to reach Normandy. Later, both Earl Tostig and his brother Harold Godwinson held manors on the island, the Norman Conquest of 1066 created the position of Lord of the Isle of Wight, the island being given by William the Conqueror to his kinsman William FitzOsbern. Carisbrooke Priory and the fort of Carisbrooke Castle were then founded, allegiance was sworn to FitzOsbern rather than the king, the Lordship was subsequently granted to the de Redvers family by Henry I, after his succession in 1100. For nearly 200 years the island was a semi-independent feudal fiefdom, the final private owner was the Countess Isabella de Fortibus, who, on her deathbed in 1293, was persuaded to sell it to Edward I
3.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
4.
Rugby, Warwickshire
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Rugby is a market town in Warwickshire, England, close to the River Avon. The town has a population of 70,628 making it the second largest town in the county, the enclosing Borough of Rugby has a population of 100,500. Rugby is 13 miles east of Coventry, on the edge of Warwickshire. The town is credited with being the birthplace of rugby football, Early Iron age settlement existed in the Rugby area, and a few miles outside what is now Rugby, existed a Roman settlement known as Tripontium. Rugby was originally a small Anglo-Saxon farming settlement, and was mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086 as Rocheberie, Rugby obtained a charter to hold a market in 1255, and soon developed into a small country market town. Rugby School was founded in 1567 with money left in the will of Lawrence Sheriff, a locally born grocer, Rugby School was originally intended as a school for local boys, but over time became a mostly fee-paying private school. The Lawrence Sheriff School was eventually founded in the late 19th century to carry on Sheriffs original intentions, Rugby remained a sleepy country market town until the 19th century and the coming of the railways. In 1838 the London and Birmingham Railway was constructed past it, Rugby became an important railway junction, and the proliferation of rail yards and workshops attracted workers. Rugbys population grew from just 2,500 in 1835, to over 10,000 by the 1880s, in the 1890s and 1900s heavy engineering industries began to set up in the town, and Rugby rapidly grew into a major industrial centre. Rugby expanded rapidly in the decades of the 20th century as workers moved in. By the 1940s, the population of Rugby had grown to over 40,000, in the postwar years, Rugby became well served by the motorway network, with the M1 and M6 merging close to the town. Rugby is most famous for the invention of rugby football, which is played throughout the world, the invention of the game is credited to William Webb Ellis whilst breaking the existing rules of a football match played in 1823 at Rugby School. Rugby School is one of Englands oldest and most prestigious public schools, a substantial part of the 2004 dramatisation of the novel, starring Stephen Fry, was filmed on location at Rugby School. Hughes later set up a colony in America for the sons of the English gentry. The town of Rugby, Tennessee still exists, Rugby is a birthplace of the jet engine. Much of his work was carried out at nearby Lutterworth, holography was invented in Rugby by the Hungarian inventor Dennis Gabor in 1947. In the 19th century, Rugby became famous for its once important railway junction which was the setting for Charles Dickenss story Mugby Junction, Rugby also includes the areas of New Bilton, Overslade and Hillside. The spread of Rugby has nearly reached the villages of Clifton-upon-Dunsmore, Cawston, Dunchurch, the town centre is mostly Victorian and early 20th century, however a few much older buildings survive, along with some more modern developments
5.
Rugby School
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Rugby School is a day and boarding co-educational independent school in Rugby, Warwickshire, England. It is one of the oldest independent schools in Britain and its re-establishment by Thomas Arnold during his time as Headmaster, from 1828 to 1841, was seen as the forerunner of the Victorian Public School. It is one of the original seven English Public Schools defined by the Public Schools Act 1868, total enrolment of day pupils from forms 4 to 12 numbers around 800. Rugby School was the birthplace of Rugby football, in 1845, three Rugby School pupils produced the first written rules of the Rugby style of game. Rugby School was founded in 1567 as a provision in the will of Lawrence Sheriff, since Lawrence Sheriff lived in Rugby and the neighbouring Brownsover, the school was intended to be a free grammar school for the boys of those towns. Up to 1667, the school remained in comparative obscurity, a final decision was handed down in 1667, confirming the findings of a commission in favour of the trust, and henceforth the school maintained a steady growth. Floreat Rugbeia is the school song. Pupils beginning Rugby in the F Block study various subjects and this is continued through to D block. The school then provides standard A-levels in 29 subjects, students at this stage have the choice of taking 3 or four subjects and are also offered the opportunity to take an extended project. The Governing Body provides financial benefits with school fees to families unable to afford them, parents of pupils who are given a Scholarship are capable of obtaining a 10% fee deduction, although more than one scholarship can be awarded to one student. Rugby School claim they aim to give more than education with their new tagline being The Whole Person. The school has three magazines, The Meteor, The Boomer and Quod, the core of the school was completed in 1815 and is built around the Old Quad, with its Georgian architecture. Especially notable rooms are the Upper Bench, the Old Hall of School House, Thomas Hughes once carved his name onto the hands of the school clock, situated on a tower above the Old Quad. By the twentieth century Rugby expanded and new buildings were inspired by this Edwardian Era. The Temple Speech Room, named after former headmaster and Archbishop of Canterbury Frederick Temple and now used for assemblies, speech days, concerts, musicals –. Oak-panelled walls boast the portraits of alumni, including Neville Chamberlain holding his piece of paper. Between the wars, the Memorial Chapel, the Music Schools and she wrote to John Vickers, the OFT director-general, saying, They are not a group of businessmen meeting behind closed doors to fix the price of their products to the disadvantage of the consumer. They are schools that have quite openly continued to follow a long-established practice because they were unaware that the law had changed, rugbys most famous headmaster was Thomas Arnold, appointed in 1828, he executed many reforms to the school curriculum and administration
6.
Warminster School
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Warminster School, originally called Lord Weymouths Grammar School, is a co-educational independent day and boarding school at Warminster, Wiltshire, for students aged three to eighteen. The school has long-established links with the town and enjoys strong support, the Preparatory School is on a neighbouring site. This became known as Lord Weymouths Grammar School - referred to locally as the Latin School -, Lord Weymouth was descended from the first Sir John Thynne of Longleat House. In 1673 he married Lady Francis Finch, a daughter of the Earl of Winchelsea and he was Member of Parliament for the University of Oxford, and High Steward of Tamworth in 1679. In 1680 he was created Baron Thynne and in 1682 Viscount Weymouth and he was High Steward of the Royal Town of Sutton Coldfield from 1679 to 1714. His three sons all predeceased him, the present-day school also occupies some buildings once used by the former St Boniface Missionary College and the St Denys Convent and retreat. James Erasmus Philipps, whose family was interested in missionary work, the original intention was to train boys and young men who had little previous education but were capable of becoming good workers. Later on the aim was to them for entry into missionary colleges. The Mission House was formally opened in a house near the church on 5 October 1860. In the same year the students built an iron chapel. In 1890 the students built themselves a cricket pavilion and established a printing press, in 1897 the foundation stone of new permanent buildings was laid on the site of the former Wilton House, on the town side of the parish church. The first block of buildings was opened on 1 August 1899. They are built in the Jacobean style of Doulting stone, with Bath stone dressings, the student numbers grew, in 1908 there were 40 and this later rose to 53. In 1913, after the death of the Rev. J. E. Philipps, the College closed during the First World War but then re-opened and flourished. In 1936, a new chapel and lecture rooms were built, the College again closed for the duration of the Second World War. In fact, when the college re-opened in 1948 it was associated with Kings College, London, the numbers expanded to 57 students and a staff of three priests. In 1969 the course was moved from Warminster to Canterbury and the College closed, the St Boniface Trust was established and has leased the buildings and land to Warminster School ever since. When in 1969 it became part of Warminster School as a boarding house
7.
Winchester College
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Winchester College is an independent boarding school for boys in the British public school tradition, situated in Winchester, Hampshire. It has existed in its present location for over 600 years and it is the oldest of the original seven English public schools defined by the Clarendon Commission and regulated by the Public Schools Act 1868. It is sometimes referred to by pupils, former pupils and others as Win, Coll, the upper-class lifestyle magazine Tatler named the school as its Public School of the Year in 2010. Winchester College was founded in 1382 by William of Wykeham, Bishop of Winchester and it was founded in conjunction with New College, Oxford, for which it was designed to act as a feeder, the buildings of both colleges were designed by master mason William Wynford. In addition to the 70 scholars and 16 Quiristers, the provided for ten noble Commoners. These Commoners were paying guests of the Headmaster or Second Master in his apartments in College. In the 1860s New Commoners was closed and converted to classrooms, at the same time two more houses were acquired and added to the Houses category, a tenth was acquired in 1905 and allotted to Commoners. There are therefore now ten houses in addition to College, which continues to occupy the original 14th-century buildings, from the late 1970s there has been a continual process of extension to and upgrading of College Chambers. The Scholars live in the buildings, known as College. College is not usually referred to as a house, hence the terms housemaster of College and College house are not generally used, the housemaster of College is now known as the Master in College, though these duties formerly belonged to the Second Master. Within the school, College refers only to the body of scholars, Winchester College, every pupil at Winchester, apart from the Scholars, lives in a boarding house, chosen or allocated when applying to Winchester. It is here that he studies, eats and sleeps, each house is presided over by a housemaster and a number of house tutors. Houses compete in competitions, mostly in sporting competitions. Each house has a name, usually based on the family name of the first housemaster. Each house also has a name, which is more frequently used in speech. Each house also has a letter assigned to it, in the order of their founding, to act as an abbreviation, especially on laundry tags. A member of a house is described by the name of the house with -ite suffixed, as a Furleyite, a Toyeite. The houses have been ordered by their year of founding, College does not have an informal name, although the abbreviation Coll is sometimes used, especially on written work
8.
Corpus Christi College, Oxford
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Corpus Christi College is one of the constituent colleges of the University of Oxford in the United Kingdom. Founded in 1517, it is the 12th oldest college in Oxford, the college, situated on Merton Street between Merton College and Oriel College, is one of the smallest in Oxford by student population, having around 230 undergraduates and 120 graduates. It is academic by Oxford standards, averaging in the top half of the universitys informal ranking system, the Norrington Table, in recent years, the colleges historical significance includes its role in the translation of the King James Bible. The college is noted for the pillar sundial in the main quadrangle, known as the Pelican Sundial. Corpus achieved notability in recent years when teams representing them won University Challenge on 9 May 2005 and once again on 23 February 2009. The Visitor of the College is ex officio the Bishop of Winchester, the college dates its founding to 1517, when its founder, Richard Foxe, the Bishop of Winchester, established the college statutes. Letters patent had been granted by Henry VIII in the previous year, the library, founded at the same time as the college, was probably, when completed, the largest and best furnished library then in Europe. The important Spanish humanist Juan Luis Vives taught at Corpus during the 1520s while tutor to Mary Tudor, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the college was again involved in religious ferment. Reginald Pole, a fellow of the college in the 1520s, was Archbishop of Canterbury during the reign of Queen Mary, john Rainolds, another fellow, and Corpuss seventh President, was involved in the inception and translation of the King James Bible, published in 1611. John Keble, a leader of the Oxford Movement, was an undergraduate at Corpus at the start of the nineteenth century, and went on to a fellowship at Oriel and to have a college named after him. The coat of arms is quite complex, since it incorporates a symbol chosen by the founder, the arms of the See of Winchester, and the arms of Hugh Oldham. Because of the complexity of the arms they are not suitable for use on items such as the college crested tie, the pelican also appears alone on the college flag and on top of the Pelican Sundial. The college maintains a hive of bees, and the front wall of the MBI Al Jaber auditorium is decorated with images of bees. The college traditionally keeps at least one tortoise as a living mascot, the Tortoise Fair, at which the Corpus tortoise are raced against tortoises belonging to other colleges and local residents, is an annual event held to raise funds for charity
9.
University of Oxford
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The University of Oxford is a collegiate research university located in Oxford, England. It grew rapidly from 1167 when Henry II banned English students from attending the University of Paris, after disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled north-east to Cambridge where they established what became the University of Cambridge. The two ancient universities are frequently referred to as Oxbridge. The university is made up of a variety of institutions, including 38 constituent colleges, All the colleges are self-governing institutions within the university, each controlling its own membership and with its own internal structure and activities. Being a city university, it not have a main campus, instead, its buildings. Oxford is the home of the Rhodes Scholarship, one of the worlds oldest and most prestigious scholarships, the university operates the worlds oldest university museum, as well as the largest university press in the world and the largest academic library system in Britain. Oxford has educated many notable alumni, including 28 Nobel laureates,27 Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom, the University of Oxford has no known foundation date. Teaching at Oxford existed in form as early as 1096. It grew quickly in 1167 when English students returned from the University of Paris, the historian Gerald of Wales lectured to such scholars in 1188 and the first known foreign scholar, Emo of Friesland, arrived in 1190. The head of the university had the title of chancellor from at least 1201, the university was granted a royal charter in 1248 during the reign of King Henry III. After disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled from the violence to Cambridge, the students associated together on the basis of geographical origins, into two nations, representing the North and the South. In later centuries, geographical origins continued to many students affiliations when membership of a college or hall became customary in Oxford. At about the time, private benefactors established colleges as self-contained scholarly communities. Among the earliest such founders were William of Durham, who in 1249 endowed University College, thereafter, an increasing number of students lived in colleges rather than in halls and religious houses. In 1333–34, an attempt by some dissatisfied Oxford scholars to found a new university at Stamford, Lincolnshire was blocked by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge petitioning King Edward III. Thereafter, until the 1820s, no new universities were allowed to be founded in England, even in London, thus, Oxford and Cambridge had a duopoly, the new learning of the Renaissance greatly influenced Oxford from the late 15th century onwards. Among university scholars of the period were William Grocyn, who contributed to the revival of Greek language studies, and John Colet, the noted biblical scholar. With the English Reformation and the breaking of communion with the Roman Catholic Church, recusant scholars from Oxford fled to continental Europe, as a centre of learning and scholarship, Oxfords reputation declined in the Age of Enlightenment, enrolments fell and teaching was neglected
10.
Tom Brown's School Days
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Tom Browns School Days is an 1857 novel by Thomas Hughes. The story is set in the 1830s at Rugby School, a school for boys. Hughes attended Rugby School from 1834 to 1842, the novel was originally published as being by an Old Boy of Rugby, and much of it is based on the authors experiences. Tom Brown is largely based on the authors brother George Hughes, George Arthur, another of the books main characters, is generally believed to be based on Arthur Penrhyn Stanley. The fictional Toms life also resembles the authors, in that the event of his school career was a cricket match. The novel also features Dr Thomas Arnold, who was the headmaster of Rugby School from 1828 to 1841. Tom Browns School Days has been the source for several film, a sequel, Tom Brown at Oxford, was published in 1861. Tom Brown is energetic, stubborn, kind-hearted and athletic, rather than intellectual and he follows his feelings and the unwritten rules of the boys. The early chapters of the deal with his childhood at his home in the Vale of White Horse. This part of the book, when young Tom wanders the valleys freely on his pony and his first school year is at a local school. His second year starts at a school, but due to an epidemic of fever in the area, all the schools boys are sent home. On his arrival, the eleven-year-old Tom Brown is looked after by a more experienced classmate, Toms nemesis at Rugby is the bully Flashman. The intensity of the bullying increases, and, after refusing to hand over a sweepstake ticket for the favourite in a horse race, Tom and East defeat Flashman with the help of Diggs, a kind, comical, older boy. In their triumph they become unruly, a fight that Tom gets into to protect Arthur, and Arthurs nearly dying of fever, are described in loving detail. Tom and Arthur help each other and their friends develop into young gentlemen who say their prayers, do not cheat on homework. An epilogue shows Toms return to Rugby and its chapel when he hears of Arnolds death and he is portrayed as the perfect teacher and counsellor, and as managing everything behind the scenes. In particular, he is the one who chums Arthur with Tom, the central theme of the novel is the development of boys. The novel is essentially didactic and was not primarily written as an entertainment, now this I most distinctly decline to do
11.
John Cramer (priest)
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John Antony Cramer, English classical scholar and geographer, was born at Mitlödi in Switzerland. He was educated at Westminster and Christ Church, Oxford and he resided in Oxford till 1844, during which time he held many important offices, being public orator, principal of New Inn Hall, and Regius Professor of Modern History from 1842 until 1848. In 1844 he was appointed to the deanery of Carlisle Cathedral and his works include, A Dissertation on the Passage of Hannibal over the Alps, published with his cousin, Henry Lewis Wickham. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh. Catenae Graecorum Patrum in Novum Testamentum vol, 1-8, available at Google Books and Internet Archive
12.
Matthew Arnold
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Matthew Arnold was an English poet and cultural critic who worked as an inspector of schools. He was the son of Thomas Arnold, the headmaster of Rugby School. Matthew Arnold has been characterised as a writer, a type of writer who chastises. The Reverend John Keble, who would one of the leaders of the Oxford Movement. Thomas Arnold admired Kebles hymns in The Christian Year, only reversing himself with exasperation when this old friend became a Romeward-tending High Church reactionary in the 1830s. In 1828, Arnolds father was appointed Headmaster of Rugby School and his family took up residence. In 1831, Arnold was tutored by his uncle, Rev. John Buckland in the village of Laleham. In 1834, the Arnolds occupied a home, Fox How. William Wordsworth was a neighbour and close friend, in 1836, Arnold was sent to Winchester College, but in 1837 he returned to Rugby School where he was enrolled in the fifth form. He moved to the form in 1838 and thus came under the direct tutelage of his father. He wrote verse for the manuscript Fox How Magazine co-produced with his brother Tom for the enjoyment from 1838 to 1843. During his years there, he won prizes for English essay writing. His prize poem, Alaric at Rome, was printed at Rugby, in 1841, he won an open scholarship to Balliol College, Oxford. During his residence at Oxford, his friendship ripened with Arthur Hugh Clough, Arnold attended John Henry Newmans sermons at St. Marys but did not join the Oxford Movement. His father died suddenly of disease in 1842, and Fox How became his familys permanent residence. Arnolds poem Cromwell won the 1843 Newdigate prize and he graduated in the following year with a 2nd class honours degree in Literae Humaniores. In 1845, after an interlude of teaching at Rugby, he was elected Fellow of Oriel College. In 1847, he became Private Secretary to Lord Lansdowne, Lord President of the Council, in 1849, he published his first book of poetry, The Strayed Reveller
13.
Tom Arnold (literary scholar)
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Tom Arnold, also known as Thomas Arnold the Younger, was an English literary scholar. He was the son of Thomas Arnold, headmaster of Rugby School. After gaining a first class degree at University College, Oxford, Arnold grew discontented with Victorian Britain, failing to make a success of this career, in 1850 he moved to Tasmania, having been invited to take the job of Inspector of Schools by Governor William Denison. Soon after arriving in Hobart, he fell in love with and married Julia Sorell, after being widowed in 1888, Arnold in 1890 married for a second time, to Josephine Benison, daughter of James Benison, Ballyconnell, County Cavan, Ireland. The marriage was to be plagued by strife over religious loyalty until Julias death. At the time Tasmania would not employ Catholics in senior civil service positions, Arnold took a job teaching English literature at the Catholic University in Dublin, and wrote A Manual of English Literature, which became a standard textbook. He resigned from the university in 1862 to become head of classics at The Oratory School in Birmingham. He left in 1865, when a letter he had written insisting that he would need a higher salary to continue at the school was interpreted by Cardinal Newman as a tendering of resignation. Arnold opened a private tutoring establishment in Oxford, and began to attend Church of England services and he edited a number of important literary works, including Beowulf. In 1876 he stood for election to the Chair of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford and it is unlikely that this had much effect on the election, but family tradition maintained that he had cast away a great opportunity for a scruple. One of his last students was James Joyce, a Manual of English Literature, Historical and Critical. Chaucer to Wordsworth, a Short History of English Literature to the present day, Dublin, M. H. Gill & Son,1897. Select English Works of John Wycliffe from Original Manuscripts, selections from Addison’s Papers contributed to the Spectator. Beowulf, an Heroic Poem of the Eighth Century, with a translation, the History of the English, by Henry, Archdeacon of Huntingdon, from A. D.55 to A. D.1154. Chronicles and memorials of Great Britain and Ireland during the Middle Ages 74, English Poetry and Prose, a collection of illustrative passages from the writings of English authors, commencing in the Anglo-Saxon period, and brought down to the present time. London, Longmans, Green, and Co.1882, edward Hyde, The History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England. Together with William E. Addis he compiled A Catholic Dictionary, first edition, London, Kegan Paul & Co.1884. Bernard Bergonzi, “Arnold, Thomas, ” in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, ed. H. C. G. Matthew, bernard Bergonzi, A Victorian Wanderer The Life of Thomas Arnold the Younger
14.
Anglicanism
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Anglicanism is a tradition within Christianity comprising the Church of England and churches which are historically tied to it or hold similar beliefs, worship practices and church structures. The word Anglican originates in ecclesia anglicana, a medieval Latin phrase dating to the Magna Carta and before, adherents of Anglicanism are called Anglicans. As the name suggests, the churches of the Anglican Communion are linked by bonds of tradition, affection and they are in full communion with the See of Canterbury, and thus the Archbishop of Canterbury, in his person, is a unique focus of Anglican unity. He calls the once-a-decade Lambeth Conference, chairs the meeting of primates, Anglicans base their Christian faith on the Bible, traditions of the apostolic Church, apostolic succession, and writings of the Church Fathers. Anglicanism forms one of the branches of Western Christianity, having declared its independence from the Holy See at the time of the Elizabethan Religious Settlement. Many of the new Anglican formularies of the mid-16th century corresponded closely to those of contemporary Protestantism, the word Anglican originates in ecclesia anglicana, a medieval Latin phrase dating to at least 1246 that means the English Church. Adherents of Anglicanism are called Anglicans, as an adjective, Anglican is used to describe the people, institutions and churches, as well as the liturgical traditions and theological concepts developed by the Church of England. As a noun, an Anglican is a member of a church in the Anglican Communion, the word is also used by followers of separated groups which have left the communion or have been founded separately from it, although this is sometimes considered as a misuse. The word Anglicanism came into being in the 19th century, although the term Anglican is found referring to the Church of England as far back as the 16th century, its use did not become general until the latter half of the 19th century. Elsewhere, however, the term Anglican Church came to be preferred as it distinguished these churches from others that maintain an episcopal polity, as such, it is often referred to as being a via media between these traditions. Anglicans understand the Old and New Testaments as containing all necessary for salvation and as being the rule. Reason and Tradition are seen as means to interpret Scripture. Anglicans understand the Apostles Creed as the symbol and the Nicene Creed as the sufficient statement of the Christian faith. Anglicans celebrate the sacraments, with special emphasis being given to the Eucharist, also called Holy Communion. Unique to Anglicanism is the Book of Common Prayer, the collection of services that worshippers in most Anglican churches used for centuries and it was called common prayer originally because it was intended for use in all Church of England churches which had previously followed differing local liturgies. The term was kept when the church became international because all Anglicans used to share in its use around the world, in 1549, the first Book of Common Prayer was compiled by Thomas Cranmer, who was then Archbishop of Canterbury. The founding of Christianity in Britain is commonly attributed to Joseph of Arimathea, according to Anglican legend, Saint Alban, who was executed in 209 AD, is the first Christian martyr in the British Isles. A new culture emerged around the Irish Sea among the Celtic peoples with Celtic Christianity at its core, what resulted was a form of Christianity distinct from Rome in many traditions and practices
15.
HM Customs and Excise
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HM Customs and Excise was, until April 2005, a department of the British Government. It was also responsible for managing the import and export of goods, HMCE merged with the Inland Revenue to form a new department, HM Revenue and Customs, with effect from 18 April 2005. HM Customs and Excise Investigators guarded the borders of the United Kingdom from smugglers, Customs officers had authority throughout the country, including the powers of entry to premises and of arrest. These functions were transferred to HMRC, and further transferred in 2008 to the UK Border Agency of the Home Office, the prefix of HM abbreviates Her Majestys or His Majestys, depending on the gender of the reigning monarch. The Board of Customs, responsible for collecting His or Her Majestys Customs, had a long history. Originally, the term meant any customary payments or dues of any kind. Legislation concerning customs can be traced to King Edward I, the first Customs officers were appointed in 1294, and later on included Geoffrey Chaucer, Thomas Paine, Robert Burns and Richard Whittington. Under this act the regulation of the collection of customs was entrusted to a parliamentary committee, Customs could call on the Royal Navy to assist in apprehending a non-compliant vessel, Customs also worked closely with the Royal Navys Fishery Protection Squadron. A Board of Excise was established by the Long Parliament, and Excise Duties first levied, the Board of Excise was merged with the existing Board of Taxes and Board of Stamps to create the new Board of Inland Revenue in 1849. Famous Excise Officers include Robert Burns, Thomas Paine and Adam Smith, the combined Board of Customs and Excise was formed in 1909 by the transfer of responsibility for Excise from the Board of Inland Revenue. HMCE was not responsible for collecting taxes, that was the job of the Inland Revenue. Prior to the mid-1950s, Chief Preventive Officers wore two and a half gold rings on their uniform, after that date they wore three rings. Higher grades were the Assistant Superintendent and Superintendent, neither of whom wore a uniform, Preventive Officers wore two gold rings with a navy curl on their uniforms. And Assistant Preventive Officers wore one gold ring with navy curl and these were only the ranks of the Preventive, or former Waterguard service. The majority of staff belonged to the Civil Service grades and did not wear uniform and they were responsible for excise duties, purchase tax, import duties and, from 1972, VAT. The main grades were clerical staff, Officer of C&E, Allowanced Officer of C&E, Surveyor of C&E – all of which were at level and then Assistant Collector. The regions of London Port and Liverpool were graded as slightly higher than the others, all grades were amalgamated and incorporated into the general Civil Service grades in 1971. Each team of, usually, six was headed by a Senior Investigations Officer and consisted of a mix of Investigations Officers, a collection of revenue stamps of H. M. C. E. in the British Library Philatelic Collections
16.
Landed gentry
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Landed gentry is a largely historical British social class consisting of land owners who could live entirely from rental income. It was distinct from, and socially below, the aristocracy or peerage and they often worked as administrators of their own lands, while others became public, political and armed forces figures. The decline of this privileged class largely stemmed from the 1870s agricultural depression, by the late 19th century, the term was also applied to peers such as the Duke of Westminster who lived on landed estates. The book series Burkes Landed Gentry recorded the members of this class, successful burghers often used their accumulated wealth to buy country estates, with the aim of establishing themselves as landed gentry. Knights, originally a rank, this status was increasingly awarded to civilians as a reward for service to the Crown. Holders have the right to be addressed as Sir as are baronets, but unlike baronet, Esquires, originally men aspiring to knighthood, were the principal attendants on a knight. After the Middle Ages the title of Esquire - Esq. - became an honour that could be conferred by the Crown, gentlemen, possessors of a social status recognised as a separate title by the Statute of Additions of 1413. Generally men of birth or rank, good social standing, and wealth. The term landed gentry, although used to mean nobility. Once identical, eventually these terms became complementary, in the sense that their definitions began to fill in parts of what the other lacked, the historical term gentry by itself, so Peter Coss argues, is a construct that historians have applied loosely to rather different societies. Any particular model may not fit a specific society, yet a single definition nevertheless remains desirable, the phrase landed gentry referred in particular to the untitled members of the landowning upper class. The most stable and respected form of wealth has historically been land, the primary meaning of landed gentry encompasses those members of the land owning classes who are not members of the peerage. It was a designation, one belonged to the landed gentry if other members of that class accepted one as such. However, during the 19th century, as the new rich of the Industrial Revolution became more and more numerous and politically powerful, from the late 16th-century, the gentry emerged as the class most closely involved in politics, the military and law. It provided the bulk of Members of Parliament, with many gentry families maintaining political control in a locality over several generations. Owning land was a prerequisite for suffrage in county constituencies until the Reform Act 1832, until then, Members of the landed gentry were upper class, this was a highly prestigious status. Particular prestige was attached to those who inherited landed estates over a number of generations and these are often described as being from old families. Titles are often considered central to the class, but this is certainly not universally the case
17.
Warminster
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Warminster is a town and civil parish in western Wiltshire, England, by-passed by the A36 and the partly concurrent A350 between Westbury and Blandford Forum. It has a population of about 17,000, the River Were runs through the town and can be seen running through the middle of the town park. The Minster Church of St Denys sits on the River Were, the name Warminster first occurs in the early 10th century. Two Roman Villas have also discovered in the area, as have caches of Roman coins. By the 10th century, Warminster included a manor and an Anglo-Saxon Minster. The royal manor was passed to new lords in the 12th century, during the 13th century, a market was set up at Warminster, and by 1377 the town had 304 poll-tax payers, the tenth largest in Wiltshire. The towns name has evolved over time, known as Worgemynstre in approximately 912, the rivers name, Were may derive from the Old English worian to wander. During the English Civil War, between 1642 and 1645, the town was the site of a few incidents, a major for the Roundheads, Henry Wansey was besieged in Warminster, while a force under Edmund Ludlow entered a skirmish on Warminster Common whilst trying to relieve him. By 1646, the town had suffered £500 worth of damages by supporting the Roundheads, the market also included a significant corn trade throughout the period and was regarded as the second largest corn market in the west of England in 1830. The town had an amount of accommodation for visitors to the market. By 1710 there were approximately fifty inns and alehouses in the town, the town was an early adopter of the Turnpikes Act to improve the roads around the town. Unlike many roads improved at the time which would link to towns, Warminster chose to improve seven roads around the town, despite the prosperity, one settlement of houses near Warminster Common had a poor reputation. William Daniell wrote in 1781 that people were living in unplastered hovels with earth floors, the people were considered rude and drunk criminals. Daniell and members of the clergy were keen to help the residents, the town was significantly redesigned in after 1807 when George Wansey, who was from a family of clothiers in Warminster, left £1,000 to improve the town, provided it could be matched by fundraising. The money was spent on demolishing houses to widen roads, allowing for new houses to be built, in 1851, a railway line from West In 1907, a committee was put together to advertise the town, creating a town guide and advertising in national publications. Unfortunately the committee could not come to an agreement with Lord Bath over the location of a new hotel, between 1937 and 1961, a military presences formed at Warminster, with the addition of camps, a permanent Barracks at Battlesbury, married quarters and workshops for vehicle repairs. Warminster falls under two levels of government, Wiltshire Council and Warminster Town Council. The town council was established in April 1974, after the reorganisation which removed the Warminster Urban District Council which had established in 1894
18.
Oriel College, Oxford
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Oriel College is a constituent college of the University of Oxford in Oxford, England. Located in Oriel Square, the college has the distinction of being the oldest royal foundation in Oxford, in recognition of this royal connection, the college has also been known as Kings College and Kings Hall. The reigning monarch of the United Kingdom is the official Visitor of the College, the original medieval foundation set up by Adam de Brome, under the patronage of Edward II, was called the House or Hall of the Blessed Mary at Oxford. The first design allowed for a Provost and ten Fellows, called scholars, and the College remained a body of graduate Fellows until the 16th century. During the English Civil War, Oriel played host to high-ranking members of the Kings Oxford Parliament, the College has nearly 40 Fellows, about 300 undergraduates and some 160 graduates, the student body having roughly equal numbers of men and women. Oriels notable alumni include two Nobel laureates, prominent Fellows have included founders of the Oxford Movement, among Oriels more notable possessions are a painting by Bernard van Orley and three pieces of medieval silver plate. In 1329, the college received by royal grant a large house belonging to the Crown, known as La Oriole and it is from this property that the college acquired its common name, Oriel, the name was in use from about 1349. The word referred to an oratoriolum, or oriel window, forming a feature of the earlier property, the arrangement was cancelled in 1450. In 1643 a general obligation was imposed on Oxford colleges to support the Royalist cause in the English Civil War. The King called for Oriels plate, and almost all of it was given, the total weighing 29 lb.0 oz.5 dwt. of gilt, and 52 lb.7 oz.14 dwt. of white plate. In the same year the College was assessed at £1 of the sum of £40 charged on the colleges. When the Oxford Parliament was assembled during the Civil War in 1644, Oriel housed the Executive Committee of the Privy Council, following the defeat of the Royalist cause, the University was scrutinised by the Parliamentarians, and five of the eighteen Oriel Fellows were removed. In 1673 James Davenant, a Fellow since 1661, complained to William Fuller, then Bishop of Lincoln, Bishop Fuller appointed a commission that included the Vice-Chancellor, Peter Mews, the Dean of Christ Church, John Fell, and the Principal of Brasenose, Thomas Yates. During the early 1720s, a struggle began between the Provost and the Fellows, culminating in a lawsuit. In 1721, Henry Edmunds was elected as a Fellow by 9 votes to 3, his election was rejected by Provost George Carter, and on appeal, by the Visitor, Edmund Gibson, then Bishop of Lincoln. The Provost continued to reject candidates, fuelling discontent among the Fellows, the jury decided for the Fellows, supporting the original charter of Edward II. In the early 19th century, the zeal of Provosts John Eveleigh. The group was disgusted by the then Church of England and sought to revive the spirit of early Christianity, tension arose in College since Provost Edward Hawkins was a determined opponent of the Movement
19.
Laleham
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Laleham is a village beside the River Thames, immediately downriver from Staines-upon-Thames in the Spelthorne borough of Surrey. Until 1965 the village was in Middlesex, one village sign and the residents association call the village Laleham on Thames. In its south is Laleham Park by the River Thames, across green belt farmland to its north and south east are Ashford and Shepperton, to its east are woods then Queen Mary Reservoir. Penton Hook Lock is on the border with Staines and Laleham Burway is directly across the river, centred 1 mile south along the towpath or the humped river road is Chertsey Bridge, just within the boundaries of Shepperton, marking the easternmost point of the town of Chertsey. The north of the area has a number of fields, including the Staines and Laleham Sports Ground. Laleham is just over 3 miles from three motorway junctions, the nearest railway station is Staines,1.5 miles north, on the Waterloo to Reading Line, which has branch lines to Windsor & Eton Riverside and Weybridge. Two Surrey County Council bus routes run by Abellio serve the village, the poet Matthew Arnold lived here, dividing his time between Laleham and Rugby School. The toponym Laleham probably comes from lael meaning twig and ham meaning water meadow or village, there may have been a 1st-century Roman marching camp on the field which is now part of Matthew Arnold School. Iron Age spearheads from the 5th century have found in the River Thames at Laleham Ferry. 10th-century charters record the village of Laelham, the Middlesex section of the Domesday Book of 1086 records the village as Leleham. The manor was partly by Fécamp Abbey from Robert of Mortain and partly by Estrild. Its Domesday assets were,10 hides of land, 6½ ploughs,5 ploughlands, meadow and its villagers and chief tenants rendered £5 per year to its feudal overlords. The manor of Laleham was later held by Westminster Abbey, the Church of England parish church of All Saints dates from the 12th century but was largely rebuilt in brick about 1600 and the present tower was built in 1780. It is a Grade I listed building, the church has a stained glass window by Wilhelmina Geddes. In the 13th century Westminster Abbey had a grange and watermill on the banks of the Thames near the site of Laleham Abbey, in 1970 the nucleated village centre of Laleham was designated a conservation area. The traditional borders resemble Staines in being a long tract of land, today, Laleham has a Church of England primary school, an archery club and Burway Rowing Club. Church Farmhouse, next to All Saints church, is an early 17th-century brick farmhouse with Georgian alterations and it is an example of a central chimney house with a standard layout for such a house. On either side of the chimney is a living room and the entrance is through a tiled two-storey porch
20.
Prefect
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Prefect is a magisterial title of varying definition, but which, basically, refers to the leader of an administrative area. A prefects office, department, or area of control is called a prefecture, the words prefect and prefecture are also used, more or less conventionally, to render analogous words in other languages, especially Romance languages. They did have authority in their prefecture such as controlling prisons. The Praetorian prefect began as the commander of a generals guard company in the field. From the Emperor Diocletians tetrarchy they became the administrators of the four Praetorian prefectures, Praefectus urbi, or praefectus urbanus, city prefect, in charge of the administration of Rome. Praefectus vigilum, commander of the Vigiles, Praefectus aerarii, nobles appointed guardians of the state treasury. Praefectus aerarii militaris, prefect of the military treasury Praefectus annonae, Praefectus alae, commander of a cavalry unit. Praefectus cohortis, commander of a cohort, Praefectus fabrum, officer in charge of fabri, i. e. well-trained engineers and artisans. Praefectus legionis agens vice legati, equestrian acting legionary commander, Praefectus orae maritimae, official in charge with the control and defense of an important sector of sea coast. Praefectus socium, Roman officer appointed to a function in an ala sociorum. For some auxiliary troops, specific titles could even refer to their peoples, less important provinces though were entrusted to prefects, military men who would otherwise only govern parts of larger provinces. The most famous example is Pontius Pilate, who governed Judaea at a time when it was administered as an annex of Syria, septimius Severus, after conquering Mesopotamia, introduced the same system there too. Praefectus urbi, a prefect of the era who guarded the city during the annual sacrifice of the Latin. His former title was custos urbi, especially in Medieval Latin, præfectus was used to refer to various officers—administrative, military, judicial, etc. —usually alongside a more precise term in the vernacular. The term is used by the Roman Catholic Church, which based much of its canon law terminology on Roman law, the Roman Curia has the nine Prefects of all the Congregations as well as the two of the Papal Household and of the Economic Affairs of the Holy See. The title also attaches to the heads of some Pontifical Council, who are titled president. For example, the president of the Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue is also the prefect of the Commission for Religious Relations with Muslims, traditionally these Curial officials are Cardinals, hence often called Cardinal-Prefect or Cardinal-President. There was a custom that those who were not cardinals when they were appointed were titled Pro-Prefect or Pro-President, then these officials would be appointed prefect or president after their elevation to the Sacred College
21.
Thomas Hughes
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Thomas Hughes QC was an English lawyer, judge, politician and author. He is most famous for his novel Tom Browns School Days, a work set at Rugby School. It had a sequel, Tom Brown at Oxford. Hughes had numerous interests, in particular as a Member of Parliament, in the British co-operative movement. Hughes was the son of John Hughes, editor of the Boscobel Tracts and was born in Uffington. He had six brothers, and one sister, Jane Senior who later became Britains first female civil servant, at the age of eight he was sent to Twyford School, a preparatory public school near Winchester, where he remained until the age of eleven. In February 1834 he went to Rugby School, which was then under the celebrated Thomas Arnold, Hughes excelled at sports rather than in scholarship, and his school career culminated in a cricket match at Lords Cricket Ground. In 1842 he went on to Oriel College, and graduated B. A. in 1845. At Oxford, he played cricket for the university team in the annual University Match against Cambridge University, also at Lords, Hughes was called to the bar in 1848, became Queens Counsel in 1869 and a bencher in 1870. He was appointed to a county judgeship in the Chester district in July 1882. A committed social reformer, Hughes became involved in the Christian socialism movement led by Frederick Maurice, in January 1854 he was one of the founders of the Working Mens College in Great Ormond Street, and was the Colleges principal from 1872 to 1883. Hughes gave evidence in 1850 to a House of Commons committee on savings, the Act was the work of Robert Aglionby Slaney, with whom Hughes worked in alliance. He invested with William Romaine Callender in co-operative mills, in 1866, Hughes was elected to Parliament as a Liberal for Lambeth, and for Frome. He stood as candidate in 1874 for Marylebone in 1874, but dropped out just before the election, the context for the end of his political career was the unpopularity with Hughess Frome constituents of his support for the Elementary Education Act 1870. As an MP Hughes worked on trade legislation, but was not in a position to have major changes passed. He had greater success in improving the position of co-operatives. The issue of legal obstacles to the operation of labour unions was topical, Hughes then worked with Harrison and Robert Applegarth to diminish the effect of some of the testimony from employers. The outcome of this Commission was that Harrison, Hughes and Lord Lichfield produced a minority report, then the matter was raised again in a second Commission, at the end of Hughess time in Parliament
22.
Pierre de Coubertin
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Pierre de Frédy, Baron de Coubertin was a French educator and historian, and founder of the International Olympic Committee. He is considered the father of the modern Olympic Games, born into a French aristocratic family, he became an academic and studied a broad range of topics, most notably education and history. The Pierre de Coubertin medal is a given by the International Olympic Committee to athletes that demonstrate the spirit of sportsmanship in the Olympic Games. Pierre de Frédy was born in Paris on 1 January 1863 into an aristocratic family and he was the fourth child of Baron Charles Louis de Frédy, Baron de Coubertin and Marie–Marcelle Gigault de Crisenoy. His paintings often centred on themes related to the Roman Catholic Church, classicism, and nobility and his memoirs elaborated further, describing as a pivotal moment his disappointment upon meeting Henri, Count of Chambord, whom the elder Coubertin believed to be the rightful king. But while these events were the setting of his childhood, his experiences were just as formative. This suggests that despite his rebelliousness at home, Coubertin adapted well to the rigors of a Jesuit education. As an aristocrat, Coubertin had a number of paths from which to choose. But he chose instead to pursue a career as an intellectual, studying and later writing on a range of topics, including education, history, literature. The subject which he seems to have been most deeply interested in was education, and his study focused in particular on physical education, in 1883, he visited England for the first time, and studied the program of physical education instituted by Thomas Arnold at the Rugby School. Coubertin credited these methods with leading to the expansion of British power during the 19th century, the inclusion of physical education in the curriculum of French schools would become an ongoing pursuit and passion of Coubertins. In fact, Coubertin is thought to have exaggerated the importance of sport to Thomas Arnold, nonetheless, Coubertin was an enthusiast in need of a cause and he found it in England and in Thomas Arnold. Thomas Arnold, the leader and classic model of English educators, wrote Coubertin, playing fields sprang up all over England. Intrigued by what he had read about English public schools, in 1883, at the age of twenty, Fredy went to Rugby and he described the results in a book, LEducation en Angleterre, which was published in Paris in 1888. This hero of his book is Thomas Arnold, and on his visit in 1886. What Coubertin saw on the fields of Rugby and the other English schools he visited was how “organised sport can create moral and social strength”. Not only did organised games help to set the mind and body in equilibrium, First developed by the ancient Greeks, it was an approach to education that he felt the rest of the world had forgotten and to whose revival he was to dedicate the rest of his life. As a historian and a thinker on education, Coubertin romanticised ancient Greece, Coubertin advocated for these concepts, this triple unity, to be incorporated into schools
23.
Erastian
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Thomas Erastus was a Swiss physician and theologian. He wrote 100 theses in which he argued that the committed by Christians should be punished by the State. They were published in 1589, after his death, with the title Explicatio gravissimae quaestionis and his name was later applied to Erastianism. He was born of parents on 7 September 1524, probably at Baden, canton of Aargau. In 1540 he was studying theology at Basel, the plague of 1544 drove him to Bologna and from there to Padua as student of Philosophy and medicine. His patrons successor, Frederick III, made him a privy Councillor and he ineffectually resisted the efforts of the Calvinists, led by Caspar Olevian, to introduce the Presbyterian polity and discipline, which were established at Heidelberg in 1570, on the Geneva model. One of the first acts of the new system was to excommunicate Erastus on a charge of Socinianism. The ban was not removed until 1575, Erastus declaring his firm adhesion to the doctrine of the Trinity and his position, however, was uncomfortable, and in 1580 he returned to Basel, where in 1583 he was made professor of ethics. He died on 31 December 1583, Erastus published several pieces focused on medicine, astrology, alchemy, and attacked in his publications the system of Paracelsus. In doing so, he defended medieval tradition in general, and Galen in particular and his name is permanently associated with a posthumous publication, written in 1568. Its immediate occasion was the disputation at Heidelberg in 1568 for the doctorate of theology by George Withers, Withers had proposed a disputation against vestments, which the university would not allow, his thesis affirming the excommunicating power of the presbytery was sustained. The Treatise of Erastus was published by Giacomo Castelvetro, who had married Erastuss widow and it consists of seventy-five Theses, followed by a Confirmatio in six books. An appendix of letters to Erastus by Heinrich Bullinger and Rudolf Gwalther, showed that the Theses, in his Theses, he explained that sins of professing Christians are to be punished by civil authority, and not by the withhold of sacraments on the part of the clergy. Those holding this view in the Westminster Assembly included John Selden, John Lightfoot, Thomas Coleman and Bulstrode Whitelocke, however, after much controversy, the opposite view was carried, with Lightfoot alone dissenting. The consequent chapter of the Westminster Confession of Faith was not ratified by the English parliament, according to the Catholic Encyclopedia, The Theses and Confirmatio thesium appeared together in 1589. The central question about which the Theses turned was that of excommunication, the term is not, however, used by Erastus in the Catholic sense as excluding the delinquent from the society or membership of the Church. The excommunication to which alludes was the exclusion of those of bad life from participation in the sacraments and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed. Veronika Feller-Vest, Thomas Erastus in German, French and Italian in the online Historical Dictionary of Switzerland, auguste Bonnard, Thomas Éraste et la discipline ecclésiastique Charles Gunnoe, Thomas Erastus and the Palatinate, A Renaissance Physician in the Second Reformation
24.
Queen Victoria
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Victoria was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death. From 1 May 1876, she adopted the title of Empress of India. Victoria was the daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, both the Duke of Kent and King George III died in 1820, and Victoria was raised under close supervision by her German-born mother Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. She inherited the throne aged 18, after her fathers three brothers had all died, leaving no surviving legitimate children. The United Kingdom was already a constitutional monarchy, in which the sovereign held relatively little direct political power. Privately, Victoria attempted to influence government policy and ministerial appointments, publicly, Victoria married her first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, in 1840. Their nine children married into royal and noble families across the continent, tying them together, after Alberts death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion, republicanism temporarily gained strength and her Golden and Diamond Jubilees were times of public celebration. Her reign of 63 years and seven months is known as the Victorian era and it was a period of industrial, cultural, political, scientific, and military change within the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire. She was the last British monarch of the House of Hanover and her son and successor, Edward VII, belonged to the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the line of his father. Victorias father was Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, until 1817, Edwards niece, Princess Charlotte of Wales, was the only legitimate grandchild of George III. Her death in 1817 precipitated a crisis that brought pressure on the Duke of Kent. In 1818 he married Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, a widowed German princess with two children—Carl and Feodora —by her first marriage to the Prince of Leiningen and her brother Leopold was Princess Charlottes widower. The Duke and Duchess of Kents only child, Victoria, was born at 4.15 a. m. on 24 May 1819 at Kensington Palace in London. Victoria was christened privately by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Manners-Sutton, on 24 June 1819 in the Cupola Room at Kensington Palace and she was baptised Alexandrina, after one of her godparents, Emperor Alexander I of Russia, and Victoria, after her mother. Additional names proposed by her parents—Georgina, Charlotte, and Augusta—were dropped on the instructions of the Dukes eldest brother, George, the Duke of Clarence and the Duke of Kent married on the same day in 1818, but both of Clarences daughters died as infants. Victorias father died in January 1820, when Victoria was less than a year old, a week later her grandfather died and was succeeded by his eldest son, George IV. The Duke of York died in 1827, when George IV died in 1830, he was succeeded by his next surviving brother, William IV, and Victoria became heir presumptive
25.
Penryn, Cornwall
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Penryn is a civil parish and town in Cornwall, England, United Kingdom. It is situated on the Penryn River about 1 mile north-west of Falmouth, the population was 7,166 in the 2001 census and a receded 6,812 in the 2011 census, a drop of more than 300 people across the ten year time gap. There are two wards covering Penryn, Penryn East and Mylor and Penryn West. Penryn is one of Cornwalls most ancient towns and boasts a wealth of history, the ancient town first appears in the Domesday Book under the name of Trelivel, and was since founded and named Penryn in 1216 by the Bishop of Exeter. The borough was enfranchised and its Charter of Incorporation was made in 1236, the contents of this Charter were embodied in a confirmation by Bishop Walter Bronescombe in the year 1259. In 1265, a college, called Glasney College, was built in Penryn for the Bishop of Exeter to develop the churchs influence in the far west of the diocese. In 1374, the chapel of St Thomas was opened, standing at the head of the Penryn River, Penryn occupies a sheltered position and was a port of some significance in the 15th century. The dissolution of Glasney College helped trigger the Prayer Book Rebellion of 1549, the loss of Glasney and the defeat of the 1549 rebellion proved to be a turning point in the history of the town from which Penryn has never recovered. From 1554, Penryn held a constituency, which became Penryn. The constituency was abolished in 1950, with Penryn becoming part of the Falmouth and it received a royal charter as a borough in 1621, mainly in a bid by the crown to cure the town of piracy. At least three mayors of Penryn were convicted of piracy between 1550 and 1650, the arms of the borough of Penryn were Sa. A Saracens head Or in a bordure of eight bezants, by the mid 17th century the port was thriving with the trade in Cornish fish, tin and copper. However, Penryn lost its house and market rights to the new town of Falmouth as a direct result of supporting the Parliamentary side in the English Civil War. The Killigrews of Arwenack were more skilful turncoats, and as their new town grew so the port of Penryn declined from the 17th century right up to today. In the early 19th century, granite works were established by the river, the town is the setting of the play The Penryn Tragedy, which tells of a young man unwittingly murdered by his parents after disguising himself as a rich stranger. Today, Penryn is a town and has retained a large amount of its heritage. With a large proportion of its buildings dating back to Tudor, Jacobean and Georgian times, the local museum is housed in the Town Hall. Penryn has a small but active Rotary Club, Penryn is twinned with Audierne in Brittany, France
26.
Cornwall
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Cornwall is a ceremonial county and unitary authority area of England within the United Kingdom. It is bordered to the north and west by the Celtic Sea, to the south by the English Channel, Cornwall has a population of 551,700 and covers an area of 3,563 km2. Cornwall forms the westernmost part of the south-west peninsula of the island of Great Britain, and this area was first inhabited in the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods. It continued to be occupied by Neolithic and then Bronze Age peoples, there is little evidence that Roman rule was effective west of Exeter and few Roman remains have been found. In the mid-19th century, however, the tin and copper mines entered a period of decline, subsequently, china clay extraction became more important and metal mining had virtually ended by the 1990s. Traditionally, fishing and agriculture were the important sectors of the economy. Railways led to a growth of tourism in the 20th century, however, the area is noted for its wild moorland landscapes, its long and varied coastline, its attractive villages, its many place-names derived from the Cornish language, and its very mild climate. Extensive stretches of Cornwalls coastline, and Bodmin Moor, are protected as an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, Cornwall is the homeland of the Cornish people and is recognised as one of the Celtic nations, retaining a distinct cultural identity that reflects its history. Some people question the present constitutional status of Cornwall, and a nationalist movement seeks greater autonomy within the United Kingdom in the form of a devolved legislative Cornish Assembly. On 24 April 2014 it was announced that Cornish people will be granted minority status under the European Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities. The modern English name Cornwall derives from the concatenation of two ancient demonyms from different linguistic traditions, Corn- records the native Brythonic tribe, the Cornovii. The Celtic word kernou is cognate with the English word horn. -wall derives from the Old English exonym walh, the Ravenna Cosmography first mentions a city named Purocoronavis in the locality. This is thought to be a rendering of Duro-cornov-ium, meaning fort of the Cornovii. The exact location of Durocornovium is disputed, with Tintagel and Carn Brea suggested as possible sites, in later times, Cornwall was known to the Anglo-Saxons as West Wales to distinguish it from North Wales. The name appears in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 891 as On Corn walum, in the Domesday Book it was referred to as Cornualia and in c.1198 as Cornwal. Other names for the county include a latinisation of the name as Cornubia, the present human history of Cornwall begins with the reoccupation of Britain after the last Ice Age. The area now known as Cornwall was first inhabited in the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods and it continued to be occupied by Neolithic and then Bronze Age people. The Common Brittonic spoken at the time developed into several distinct tongues
27.
William Edward Forster
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William Edward Forster PC, FRS was an English industrialist, philanthropist and Liberal Party statesman. His staunch advocacy of force against the Land League earned him the nickname Buckshot Forster. He declined to enter a brewery and became involved in manufacture in Burley-in-Wharfedale. In 1850 he married Jane Martha, eldest daughter of Dr Thomas Arnold and she was not a Quaker and Forster was formally read out of meeting for marrying her, but the Friends who were commissioned to announce the sentence shook hands and stayed to luncheon. Forster thereafter ranked himself as a member of the Church of England, the Forsters had no natural children, but when Mrs Forsters brother, W. D. Arnold, died in 1859, leaving four orphans, the Forsters adopted them as their own. One of the children was H. O. Arnold-Forster, a Liberal Unionist member of parliament, another was Florence Arnold-Forster, who wrote a journal about family life and politics in the 1880s. In 1846–47, he accompanied his father to Ireland as distributor of the Friends relief fund for the famine in Connemara, and he began to take an active part in public affairs by speaking and lecturing. In 1859, Forster stood as Liberal candidate for Leeds, and he was highly esteemed in the West Riding, and in 1861 was returned unopposed for Bradford. He was returned again in 1865 and in 1868 and he took a prominent part in parliament in the debates on the American Civil War, and in 1865 was made Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies in Lord John Russells ministry. It was then that he first became a prominent advocate of imperial federation, in 1866, his attitude on parliamentary reform attracted attention. Directly after the Reform Bill had passed, Forster and Edward Cardwell brought in Education Bills in 1867 and 1868, in 1868, when the Liberal party returned to office, Forster was appointed Vice-president of the Council, with the duty of preparing a government measure for national education. The Elementary Education Bill was introduced on 17 February 1870 and school boards were set up with elected representatives the same year where possible, the religious difficulty at once came to the front. The Dissenters were not satisfied with Forsters conscience clause as contained in the bill, and they regarded him and they resented the 25th clause, permitting school boards to pay the fees of needy children at denominational schools out of the rates, as an insidious attack on their interests. The government made its rejection a question of confidence, and the amendment was withdrawn, the bill of 1870, imperfect as it was, established at last some approach to a system of national education in England. Forsters next important work was in passing the Ballot Act 1872, in 1874, he was again returned for Bradford. In 1875, when Gladstone retired, Forster was strongly supported for the leadership of the Liberal party, in the same year he was elected to the Royal Society, and made Lord Rector of Aberdeen University. In 1876, when the Eastern question was looming, he visited Serbia and Turkey, on Gladstones return to office in 1880, he was made Chief Secretary for Ireland. He carried the Compensation for Disturbance Bill through the Commons, only to see it out in the Lords
28.
H. O. Arnold-Forster
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Hugh Oakeley Arnold-Forster PC, known as H. O. Arnold-Forster, was a British politician and writer. He notably served as Secretary of State for War from 1903 in Balfours Conservative government until December 1905, Arnold-Forster was the son of William Delafield Arnold, Director of Public Instruction in the Punjab, and grandson of Thomas Arnold, of Rugby. When his father died in 1859, he was adopted by William Edward Forster and his wife Jane and he was educated at Rugby and University College, Oxford, from which he graduated with 1st Class Honours. He was called to the bar in 1879, Arnold-Forster acted as private secretary to his adoptive father, who became Chief Secretary for Ireland in 1880. He joined Cassell & Co. in 1885, for whom he prepared educational manuals and he was secretary of the Imperial Federation League from 1884. In 1903 he was sworn of the Privy Council, during the Army reforms he clashed with Lord Esher, the Kings minister attendant. He complained to the Prime Minister that he was being circumvented by an unelected, Balfours proposal, to annexe some of the royal prerogatives, was partly because of the challenge to the post of Commander-in-Chief which was abolished as a royal sinecure. Arnold-Foster was frequently ignored at cabinet meetings, as decisions had been taken behind his back by moving in Military circles. Arnold-Forster married Mary Lucy Story-Maskelyne, daughter of Nevil Story Maskelyne and they had four sons, of whom his Times obituary states the eldest is just beginning to practise as an artist, and the youngest is a naval cadet. They were, William Edward Arnold-Forster artist, author and Labour politician and she was the former lover of Rupert Brooke. After Coxs death, he married Ruth Mallory, widow of George Mallory the mountaineer, mervyn Nevill Arnold-Forster John Anthony Arnold-Forster, married Daphne Mansel-Pleydell in 1919. Vanda Morton, biographer of Nevil Story Maskelyne, is their daughter, Arnold-Forster died in March 1909, aged fifty-three. Oxford rebels, the life and friends of Nevil Story Maskelyne 1823-1911, pioneer Oxford scientist, photographer, hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by H. O. Arnold-Forster
29.
Arthur Balfour
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Entering Parliament in 1874, Balfour achieved prominence as Chief Secretary for Ireland, in which position he suppressed agrarian unrest whilst taking measures against absentee landlords. He opposed Irish Home Rule, saying there could be no half-way house between Ireland remaining within the United Kingdom or becoming independent. From 1891 he led the Conservative Party in the House of Commons, serving under his uncle, Lord Salisbury, a brilliant debater, he was bored by the mundane tasks of party management. In July 1902 he succeeded his uncle as Prime Minister and he oversaw reform of British defence policy and supported Fishers naval innovations. He secured the Entente Cordiale with France, leaving Germany in the cold and he cautiously embraced the imperial preference championed by Joseph Chamberlain, but resignations from the Cabinet over tariffs left his party divided. He also suffered from public anger at the stages of the Boer war. He resigned as Prime Minister in December 1905 and the month the Conservatives suffered a landslide defeat at the 1906 election. He resigned as party leader later in 1911, Balfour returned as First Lord of the Admiralty in Asquiths Coalition Government. In December 1916 he became Foreign Secretary in David Lloyd Georges coalition and he was frequently left out of the inner workings of foreign policy, although the Balfour Declaration on a Jewish homeland bore his name. He continued to serve in positions throughout the 1920s, and died on 19 March 1930 aged 81. Arthur Balfour was born at Whittingehame House, East Lothian, Scotland and his godfather was the Duke of Wellington, after whom he was named. He was the eldest son, third of eight children, and had four brothers, Arthur Balfour was educated at Grange preparatory school in Hoddesdon, Hertfordshire, and Eton College, where he studied with the influential master, William Johnson Cory. He went to the University of Cambridge, where he read moral sciences at Trinity College and his younger brother was the Cambridge embryologist Francis Maitland Balfour. Margot Tennant wished to marry him, but Balfour said, No, I rather think of having a career of my own. His household was maintained by his sister, Alice. In middle age, Balfour had a 40-year friendship with Mary Charteris, Lady Elcho, later Countess of Wemyss, in 1874 he was elected Conservative Member of Parliament for Hertford until 1885. In spring 1878, Balfour became Private Secretary to his uncle and he accompanied Salisbury to the Congress of Berlin and gained his first experience in international politics in connection with the settlement of the Russo-Turkish conflict. At the same time he became known in the world of letters, Balfour divided his time between politics and academic pursuits
30.
Ireland
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Ireland is an island in the North Atlantic. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, Ireland is the second-largest island of the British Isles, the third-largest in Europe, and the twentieth-largest on Earth. Politically, Ireland is divided between the Republic of Ireland, which covers five-sixths of the island, and Northern Ireland, in 2011, the population of Ireland was about 6.4 million, ranking it the second-most populous island in Europe after Great Britain. Just under 4.6 million live in the Republic of Ireland, the islands geography comprises relatively low-lying mountains surrounding a central plain, with several navigable rivers extending inland. The island has lush vegetation, a product of its mild, thick woodlands covered the island until the Middle Ages. As of 2013, the amount of land that is wooded in Ireland is about 11% of the total, there are twenty-six extant mammal species native to Ireland. The Irish climate is moderate and classified as oceanic. As a result, winters are milder than expected for such a northerly area, however, summers are cooler than those in Continental Europe. Rainfall and cloud cover are abundant, the earliest evidence of human presence in Ireland is dated at 10,500 BC. Gaelic Ireland had emerged by the 1st century CE, the island was Christianised from the 5th century onward. Following the Norman invasion in the 12th century, England claimed sovereignty over Ireland, however, English rule did not extend over the whole island until the 16th–17th century Tudor conquest, which led to colonisation by settlers from Britain. In the 1690s, a system of Protestant English rule was designed to materially disadvantage the Catholic majority and Protestant dissenters, with the Acts of Union in 1801, Ireland became a part of the United Kingdom. Northern Ireland saw much civil unrest from the late 1960s until the 1990s and this subsided following a political agreement in 1998. In 1973 the Republic of Ireland joined the European Economic Community while the United Kingdom, Irish culture has had a significant influence on other cultures, especially in the fields of literature. Alongside mainstream Western culture, an indigenous culture exists, as expressed through Gaelic games, Irish music. The culture of the island shares many features with that of Great Britain, including the English language, and sports such as association football, rugby, horse racing. The name Ireland derives from Old Irish Eriu and this in turn derives from Proto-Celtic *Iveriu, which is also the source of Latin Hibernia. Iveriu derives from a root meaning fat, prosperous, during the last glacial period, and up until about 9000 years ago, most of Ireland was covered with ice, most of the time
31.
Ambleside
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Ambleside is a town in Cumbria, in North West England. Historically within the county of Westmorland, it is situated at the head of Windermere, the town is within the Lake District National Park. Ambleside is administered by South Lakeland District Council and forms part of the Lakes civil parish, ‘Steamers’ run to Bowness-on-Windermere and Lakeside offering fine views of the lake and surrounding mountains. Ambleside is a base for hiking, mountaineering and mountain biking and it has a number of hotels, guest houses, pubs and restaurants as well as shops. In particular, there are a number of shops selling equipment for walkers and climbers in the town, Ambleside is also home to the headquarters of Brathay Exploration Group, a youth charity based just beyond Clappersgate on the road to Hawkshead. The album CSI, Ambleside, by Birkenhead-based band Half Man Half Biscuit, is named after the town, Ambleside features an oceanic climate, but being within the Lake District it does experience higher annual rainfall than the average for the North-West of England. Parts of the town have been flooded on numerous occasions, with the River Rothay breaking its banks during Storm Desmond in December 2015, the towns name is derived from the Old Norse Á-mel-sǽtr which literally translates as river – sandbank – summer pasture. To the south of Ambleside is the Roman fort of Galava, in 1650 the town was granted a charter to hold a market. In the reign of James II, another charter was granted for the town to collect tolls, the towns Market Place became the commercial centre for agriculture and the wool trade. The old packhorse trail between Ambleside and Grasmere was the route between the two towns before the new turnpike road was completed in 1770. Smithy Brow at the end of the trail was where pack ponies were re-shod after their journey, with the coming of the turnpikes, the packhorse trains were superseded by horse-drawn stagecoaches, which regularly travelled between Keswick and Kendal via Ambleside. William Wordsworth worked in Ambleside, as Distributor of Stamps for Westmorland, from 1813 and this government position induced Shelley to write a sonnet of mild reprimand, To Wordsworth, but it gave Wordsworth the financial security to pursue his poetry. In 1842, he became the Poet Laureate and resigned his office as Stamp Distributor, Ambleside & District Golf Club was founded in 1903. The German artist Kurt Schwitters lived in Ambleside for two years until his death in 1947 and he had been interned in the Isle of Man during World War II after moving to England to escape the Nazis. The railway engineer Edward Bury and his wife Priscilla Susan Bury lived at Ambleside, Bridge House was built over Stock Ghyll more than 300 years ago, probably as a summer house and apple store for Ambleside Hall. It was purchased by people in 1926 and given to the National Trust. Listed Grade I, the building is now used as a centre for the National Trust. The building was depicted by the Victorian landscapist Lewis Pinhorn Wood in his late 19th century work The Cobblers Shop on the Bridge
32.
Lake District
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The Lake District, also known as the Lakes or Lakeland, is a mountainous region in North West England. A popular holiday destination, it is famous for its lakes, forests and mountains and its associations with the early 19th century writings of William Wordsworth and the other Lake Poets. It is located in the county of Cumbria, and all the land in England higher than 3,000 feet above sea level lies within the National Park, including Scafell Pike, the highest mountain in England. It also contains the deepest and longest bodies of water in England, respectively Wast Water, the Lake District National Park includes nearly all of the Lake District, though the town of Kendal and the Lakeland Peninsulas are currently outside the park boundary. Its aim is to protect the landscape by restricting unwelcome change by industry or commerce, Most of the land in the park is in private ownership, with about 55% registered as agricultural land. Landowners include, Individual farmers and other landowners, with more than half of the agricultural land farmed by the owners. The National Trust owns about a quarter of the total area, the Forestry Commission and other investors in forests and woodland. United Utilities owns 8% Lake District National Park Authority The National Park Authority is based at offices in Kendal and it runs a visitor centre on Windermere at a former country house called Brockhole, Coniston Boating Centre, and Information Centres. Much of the land has statutory open access rights, which cover around 50% of the park. The lakes and mountains combine to form impressive scenery, farmland and settlement have altered the natural scenery, and the ecology has been modified by human influence for millennia and includes important wildlife habitats. However, in 2016 the English Lake District bid for World Heritage Status was submitted to UNESCO in the category of cultural landscape, a decision is expected in 2017. In December 2009, Natural England proposed extending the National Park in the direction of the Yorkshire Dales National Park and this would include land of high landscape value in the Lune Valley. The proposal was opposed by Cumbria County Council who said it would lead to less democratic control, a public inquiry was held into the proposals, which required a decision by the Secretary of State. The decision to recommend approval was announced on October 23,2015, the precise extent of the Lake District was not defined traditionally, but is slightly larger than that of the National Park, the total area of which is about 912 square miles. The park extends just over 32 miles from east to west, the Lake District is one of the most highly populated national parks. There are, however, only a handful of settlements within this mountainous area, the towns of Keswick, Windermere, Ambleside. Villages such as Coniston, Threlkeld, Glenridding, Pooley Bridge, Broughton-in-Furness, Grasmere, Newby Bridge, Staveley, Lindale, Gosforth, the economies of almost all are intimately linked with tourism. Beyond these are a scattering of hamlets and many isolated farmsteads, some of which are tied to agriculture
33.
Mary Augusta Ward
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Mary Augusta Ward CBE was a British novelist who wrote under her married name as Mrs Humphry Ward. Mary Augusta Arnold was born in Hobart, Tasmania, Australia, into a prominent intellectual family of writers, Mary was the daughter of Tom Arnold, a professor of literature, and Julia Sorrell. Her uncle was the poet Matthew Arnold and her grandfather Thomas Arnold and her sister Julia married Leonard Huxley, the son of Thomas Huxley, and their sons were Julian and Aldous Huxley. The Arnolds and the Huxleys were an important influence on British intellectual life, marys father Tom Arnold was appointed inspector of schools in Van Diemens Land and commenced his role on 15 January 1850. Tom Arnold was received into the Roman Catholic Church on 12 January 1856, Mary Arnold had her fifth birthday the month before they left, and had no further connection with Tasmania. Tom Arnold was ratified as chair of English literature at the contemplated Catholic university, Dublin, Mary spent much of her time with her grandmother. She was educated at boarding schools and at 16 returned to live with her parents at Oxford. Her schooldays formed the basis for one of her later novels, on 6 April 1872, not yet 21 years old, Mary married Humphry Ward, a fellow and tutor of Brasenose College, and also a writer and editor. For the next nine years she continued to live at Oxford, at 17 Bradmore Road and she had by now made herself familiar with French, German, Italian, Latin and Greek. She was developing an interest in social and educational service and making efforts at literature. Her translation of Amiels Journal appeared in 1885, Mary Augusta Ward began her career writing articles for Macmillans Magazine while working on a book for children that was published in 1881 under the title Milly and Olly. This was followed in 1884 by an ambitious, though slight, study of modern life, Miss Bretherton. Wards novels contained strong religious subject matter relevant to Victorian values she herself practised and her popularity spread beyond Great Britain to the United States. Her book Lady Roses Daughter was the novel in the United States in 1903. It started, as no work could have done, a popular discussion on historic. Ward helped establish an organisation for working and teaching among the poor and she also worked as an educator in the residential settlement movements she founded. Mary Wards declared aim was equalisation in society, and she established educational settlements first at Marchmont Hall and this was originally called the Passmore Edwards Settlement, after its benefactor John Passmore Edwards, but after Wards death it became the Mary Ward Settlement. It is now known as the Mary Ward Centre and continues as an education college
34.
Leonard Huxley (writer)
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Leonard Huxley was an English schoolteacher, writer and editor. His father was the zoologist Thomas Henry Huxley, commonly referred to as Darwins bulldog, Leonard was educated at University College School, London, St. Andrews University, and Balliol College, Oxford. He first married Julia Arnold, daughter of Tom Arnold and she was a sister of the novelist Mrs. Humphry Ward, niece of the poet Matthew Arnold, and granddaughter of Thomas Arnold, the headmaster of Rugby School. Their four children included the biologist Julian Huxley and the writer Aldous Huxley and their middle son, Noel Trevenen, committed suicide in 1914. Their daughter, Margaret Arnold Huxley, was born in 1899, Julia Arnold died of cancer in 1908. After the death of his first wife, Leonard married Rosalind Bruce, the elder of these was David Bruce Huxley, whose daughter Angela married George Pember Darwin, son of the physicist Charles Galton Darwin. The younger was the 1963 Nobel Prize-winning physiologist Andrew Huxley, huxleys major biographies were the three volumes of Life and Letters of Thomas Henry Huxley and the two volumes of Life and Letters of Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker OM GCSI. He also published Thomas Henry Huxley, a sketch. He was assistant master at Charterhouse School between 1884 and 1901 and he was then the assistant editor of Cornhill Magazine between 1901 and 1916, becoming its editor in 1916. 1900 Life and Letters of Thomas Henry Huxley,1912 Thoughts on education drawn from the writings of Matthew Arnold. 1918 Life and Letters of Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker OM, GCSI,1920 Thomas Henry Huxley, a character sketch. 1924 Jane Welsh Carlyle, letters to her family 1839–1863,1930 Elizabeth Barrett Browning, letters to her sister 1846–1859. Works by Leonard Huxley at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Leonard Huxley at Internet Archive Works by Leonard Huxley at LibriVox
35.
Thomas Henry Huxley
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Thomas Henry Huxley PC PRS FLS was an English biologist, known as Darwins Bulldog for his advocacy of Charles Darwins theory of evolution. Huxleys famous debate in 1860 with Samuel Wilberforce was a key moment in the acceptance of evolution. Huxley had been planning to leave Oxford on the day, but, after an encounter with Robert Chambers. Wilberforce was coached by Richard Owen, against whom Huxley also debated about whether humans were closely related to apes. Huxley was slow to accept some of Darwins ideas, such as gradualism, and was undecided about natural selection, instrumental in developing scientific education in Britain, he fought against the more extreme versions of religious tradition. Originally coining the term in 1869, Huxley elaborated on agnosticism in 1889 to frame the nature of claims in terms of what is knowable and what is not. Huxley states Agnosticism, in fact, is not a creed, but a method, the fundamental axiom of modern science. In matters of the intellect, follow your reason as far as it will take you, in matters of the intellect, do not pretend that conclusions are certain which are not demonstrated or demonstrable. Use of that term has continued to the present day, Huxley had little formal schooling and was virtually self-taught. He became perhaps the finest comparative anatomist of the latter 19th century and he worked on invertebrates, clarifying relationships between groups previously little understood. Later, he worked on vertebrates, especially on the relationship between apes and humans, after comparing Archaeopteryx with Compsognathus, he concluded that birds evolved from small carnivorous dinosaurs, a theory widely accepted today. Thomas Henry Huxley was born in Ealing, which was then a village in Middlesex and he was the second youngest of eight children of George Huxley and Rachel Withers. Like some other British scientists of the century such as Alfred Russel Wallace. His father was a teacher at Ealing School until it closed. As a result, Thomas left school at age 10, after two years of formal schooling. Despite this unenviable start, Huxley was determined to educate himself and he became one of the great autodidacts of the nineteenth century. At first he read Thomas Carlyle, James Huttons Geology, in his teens he taught himself German, eventually becoming fluent and used by Charles Darwin as a translator of scientific material in German. He learned Latin, and enough Greek to read Aristotle in the original, later on, as a young adult, he made himself an expert, first on invertebrates, and later on vertebrates, all self-taught
36.
Julian Huxley
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Sir Julian Sorell Huxley FRS was a British evolutionary biologist, eugenicist, and internationalist. He was a proponent of natural selection, and a figure in the mid-twentieth century modern evolutionary synthesis. He was secretary of the Zoological Society of London, the first Director of UNESCO, a member of the World Wildlife Fund. Huxley was well known for his presentation of science in books and articles and he directed an Oscar-winning wildlife film. He was awarded UNESCOs Kalinga Prize for the popularisation of science in 1953, the Darwin Medal of the Royal Society in 1956, and the Darwin–Wallace Medal of the Linnaean Society in 1958. He was also knighted in that year,1958, a hundred years after Charles Darwin. In 1959 he received a Special Award of the Lasker Foundation in the category Planned Parenthood – World Population, Huxley was a prominent member of the British Eugenics Society and its president from 1959–1962. There is a house named after Sir Julian in Selsdon, Surrey. Huxley came from the distinguished Huxley family and his maternal grandfather was the academic Tom Arnold, his great-uncle was poet Matthew Arnold and his great-grandfather was Thomas Arnold of Rugby School. Huxley was born on 22 June 1887, at the London house of his aunt, Huxley grew up at the family home in Surrey, England, where he showed an early interest in nature, as he was given lessons by his grandfather, Thomas Henry Huxley. When he heard his grandfather talking at dinner about the lack of care in fish, Julian piped up with What about the stickleback. Also, according to Julian himself, his grandfather took him to visit J. D. Hooker at Kew, at Eton he developed an interest in ornithology, guided by science master W. D. Piggy Hill. Piggy was a genius as a teacher… I have always been grateful to him, in 1905 Huxley won a scholarship in Zoology to Balliol College, Oxford. In 1906, after a summer in Germany, Huxley took his place in Oxford, in the autumn term of his final year,1908, his mother died from cancer at only 46, a terrible blow for her husband, three sons, and eight-year-old daughter Margaret. That same year he won the Newdigate Prize for his poem Holyrood, in 1909 he graduated with first class honours, and spent that July at the international gathering for the centenary of Darwins birth, held at the University of Cambridge. Also, it was the anniversary of the publication of the Origin of species. Huxley was awarded a scholarship to spend a year at the Naples Marine Biological Station where he developed his interest in biology by investigating sea squirts. Bird watching in childhood had given Huxley his interest in ornithology and his particular interest was bird behaviour, especially the courtship of water birds
37.
Aldous Huxley
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Aldous Leonard Huxley was an English writer, novelist, philosopher, and prominent member of the Huxley family. He graduated from Balliol College at the University of Oxford with an honours in English literature. Early in his career Huxley edited the magazine Oxford Poetry and published short stories, mid career and later, he published travel writing, film stories, and scripts. He spent the part of his life in the U. S. living in Los Angeles from 1937 until his death. In 1962, a year before his death, he was elected Companion of Literature by the Royal Society of Literature, Huxley was a humanist, pacifist, and satirist. He later became interested in subjects such as parapsychology and philosophical mysticism. By the end of his life, Huxley was widely acknowledged as one of the pre-eminent intellectuals of his time and he was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in seven different years. Huxley was born in Godalming, Surrey, England, in 1894 and he was the third son of the writer and schoolmaster Leonard Huxley, who edited Cornhill Magazine, and his first wife, Julia Arnold, who founded Priors Field School. Julia was the niece of poet and critic Matthew Arnold and the sister of Mrs. Humphrey Ward, Aldous was the grandson of Thomas Henry Huxley, the zoologist, agnostic, and controversialist. His brother Julian Huxley and half-brother Andrew Huxley also became outstanding biologists, Aldous had another brother, Noel Trevelyan Huxley, who committed suicide after a period of clinical depression. As a child, Huxleys nickname was Ogie, short for Ogre and he was described by his brother, Julian, as someone who frequently the strangeness of things. According to his cousin and contemporary, Gervas Huxley, he had an early interest in drawing, Huxleys education began in his fathers well-equipped botanical laboratory, after which he enrolled at Hillside School near Godalming. He was taught there by his own mother for years until she became terminally ill. After Hillside, he went on to Eton College and his mother died in 1908 when he was 14. In 1911 he contracted the eye disease which left practically blind for two to three years and this ended his early dreams of becoming a doctor. In October 1913, Huxley went up to Balliol College, Oxford, in January 1916, he volunteered to join the British Army in the Great War, but was rejected on health grounds, being half-blind in one eye. In 1916 he edited Oxford Poetry and in June of that year graduated BA with First Class honours and his brother Julian wrote, I believe his blindness was a blessing in disguise. For one thing, it put paid to his idea of taking up medicine as a career and his uniqueness lay in his universalism
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Cousin, John William (1910). A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature. London: J. M. Dent & Sons. Wikisource
