1.
Governor of Virginia
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The Governor of the Commonwealth of Virginia serves as the chief executive of the Commonwealth of Virginia for a four-year term. The current holder of the office is Terry McAuliffe, who was sworn in on January 11,2014 and his term will expire on January 13,2018. McAuliffe is a member of the Democratic Party and was elected to the office on November 5,2013, candidates for governor must be United States citizens who have resided in Virginia and been a registered voter for five years prior to the election in which they are running. The candidates must be at least 30 years of age, Virginia governors are not allowed to serve consecutive terms, therefore, they cannot stand for reelection at the end of their term, as per the 1830 state constitution. However, a governor is permitted to run for a second term in a future election. Only two governors since 1830, William Smith and Mills Godwin, were elected to additional terms, the governor is the head of government in Virginia. At the beginning of regular session, he or she must report the state of the Commonwealth to the Virginia General Assembly. He or she must convene the legislature when two-thirds of each house calls for a special session. The governor must ensure that the laws of the Commonwealth are faithfully executed by either signing, or allowing it to come into law, or vetoing and they are responsible for the safety of the state, as they serve as commander-in-chief of the Virginia Militia. The governor has the power to submit recommendations and to call special sessions when he finds them necessary. All bills must be sent to the governor before becoming law, the governor may sign the bill, let it sit unsigned for seven days, after which it becomes law, or veto the legislation. After a veto, the returns to its house of origin. The governor also has the power to use a line-item veto and he may send legislation back to the legislature with recommendations and amendments. The legislature must either approve the changes by a majority in each house or override the veto with a majority in each house. The governor is commander-in-chief of Virginias militia forces, the governor may also communicate with other states and foreign powers. The governor has the power to fill vacancies in positions unless the position is appointed by the legislature, the governor may commute fines or sentences and issue pardons. The governor may also restore voting rights and overturn other political penalties on individuals, the position of Governor of Virginia dates back to the first permanent English settlement in America, Jamestown. The Virginia Company of London set up a government run by a council, the President of the Council basically served as governor
2.
Allie Edward Stakes Stephens
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His state political career ended with a loss in the Democratic primary for Governor in 1961, after he and Governor James Lindsay Almond Jr. Born on November 4,1900, in Wicomico Church, Virginia, Stephens and Allie Tyson Beane Stephens. He attended local schools in Northumberland County through high school. Beginning in 1919, Stevens attended the College of William and Mary where he was a baseball pitcher. There he gained the nickname Gi meaning giraffe for his lanky physique and he continued on to graduate with both an undergraduate and a law degree in 1923, declining an offer to play for the Washington Senators farm system. He married Anna Spratley Delk of Smithfield in 1928, and they had three children who survived their parents, upon admission to the Virginia bar, Stephens began a private legal practice in Isle of Wight County, Virginia. Stephens did, however, become active in politics, and later the Byrd Organization and he was elected the Isle of Wights delegate to the Virginia House of Delegates in 1929 and served for 12 years in that part-time position. In 1940, Stephens successfully ran for Senate District 5, then encompassing Nansemond, Suffolk, Southampton and his main legislative accomplishments included establishing the Hampton Roads Sanitation Commission, the Denny Commission and assisting the local seafood industry. After the unexpected death of lieutenant governor Lewis Preston Collins II, Stephens ran in the 3-candidate Democratic primary and he took office on December 2,1952, and won reelection in 1953 and 1957. Realized further active resistance was futile, and hurt Virginia businesses as well as citizens, Stephens resigned in December 1960 to run for governor. However, the Byrd Organization slated Albertis Harrison as their candidate, however, the machines vote totals were lower than previously. He retained political influence in Virginia, even as the Byrd organization declined, Stephens helped restore and preserve the commonwealths oldest Episcopal church, St. Lukes Church, and was a member of Old Dominion Universitys Board of Visitors until 1972. Stephens died after an illness at Riverside Hospital in Newport News. He and Anna are buried in the cemetery of the historic St. Lukes Church at Smithfield that they helped preserve, Old Dominion University has his papers from 1949–1961
3.
John S. Battle
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John Stewart Battle was an American lawyer and politician who served in both houses of the Virginia General Assembly and as the 56th Governor of Virginia. Battle was born in 1890 in New Bern, Craven County and he earned an associates degree from Mars Hill College, in North Carolina. He then earned a degree from Wake Forest University and a law degree from the University of Virginia. Battle won election to the Virginia House of Delegates in 1929, Battle was a Delegate to the Democratic National Convention in 1948,1952,1956,1960, and 1968. When the Virginia delegation was threatened with expulsion at the 1952 Democratic Party national convention for refusing to sign a loyalty oath to whomever the party nominated (U. S. In 1956, Battle became the Dixiecrat candidate for the Democratic Presidential nomination, Battle was prepared to run for the U. S. Senate in 1958 if Senator Byrd chose not to run for reelection. Former Governor William Tuck had similar ambitions and even more fiery rhetoric, in 1959, President Eisenhower called on Battle to serve on the U. S. Commission on Civil Rights, citing his history on racism. Battle died in 1972, at the age of 81, and was buried in Monticello Memorial Park in Charlottesville and his two sons became lawyers and continued their fathers public involvement, William C. Battle High School in Washington County, Virginia, built in 1959, Battle Hall at the Virginia School for the Deaf and the Blind is also named for the former governor. 1949, Battle was elected Governor of Virginia with 70. 43% of the vote, defeating Republican Walter Johnson and Social Democrat Clark T. Robb
4.
J. Lindsay Almond
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James Lindsay Almond Jr. was a United States federal judge and politician. He served as the 58th Governor of Virginia from 1958 until 1962, Almond was born in Charlottesville, Virginia and raised in Orange County, Virginia. Almond attended Virginia Tech and served as a private in the Students Army Training Corps in 1917 and 1918 in World War I, then, he taught school in Locust Grove, Orange County, Virginia. He served as a school principal and earned an LL. B. from the University of Virginia School of Law in 1923. Almond was assistant commonwealth attorney of Roanoke, Virginia from 1930 to 1933 and was a court judge to the Hustings Court of Roanoke from 1933 to 1945. He was then elected to the US House of Representatives from Virginias 6th congressional district, Almond resigned his Congressional seat in 1948, when he was elected Attorney General of Virginia. Virginia lost both in 1954 and 1955, although not a favorite of Senator Harry F. Byrd, Almond had demonstrated loyalty to the Byrd Organization as well as the national ticket and racial segregation. In 1957, Almond resigned as general and announced early for the Democratic nomination for governor. Almond refused Byrds offer of a position on the Virginia Supreme Court conditioned upon his endorsing Byrds preferred nominee, Garland Gray, Gray then withdrew from the Democratic primary, and Almond easily won the Democratic nomination for Governor of Virginia. His Republican opponent, Theodore Roosevelt Dalton, would have allowed integration of the public schools pursuant to court orders. Almond took office in January 1958 for a term that ended in 1962. On January 19,1959, the Virginia Supreme Court and a three judge federal panel both found the Stanley Plan unconstitutional, Almond initially protested but soon called a special legislative session and announced that he would not resist the federal court orders. He allowed public schools in Arlington and Norfolk to desegregate peacefully by to court orders on February 5,1959, County School Board of New Kent County. Thus, except for Prince Edward County, massive resistance had been transformed into passive resistance against school desegregation. However, Harry F. Byrd Jr. and longtime Byrd lieutenant E. Blackburn Moore defeated Almonds request for a tax in 1960. Stephens resigned just before year end to run for governor, however, the Byrd Organization slated Albertis Harrison as their candidate. Stephens lost badly in the 1961 Democratic primary, and Byrd loyalist Mills Godwin defeated moderate Armistead Boothe for lieutenant governor, both Harrison and Godwin won election in November, with Robert Young Button being elected attorney general. In 1960, Almond had campaigned for President John F. Kennedy, Byrd blocked his initial confirmation so Kennedy gave Almond a recess appointment
5.
National Governors Association
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The National Governors Association is an organization consisting of the governors of the states, territories and commonwealths of the United States. The NGAs role is to act as a voice for governors on matters of national policy, as well as allowing governors to share best practices. The organization was founded in 1908 as the National Governors Conference, the NGA represents the governors of the fifty U. S. states and five U. S. territories. It is funded primarily by state dues, federal grants and contracts, NGA serves as a key public policy liaison between the state governments and the federal government. The NGA Center for Best Practices focuses on state innovations and best practices on issues that range from education and health to technology, welfare reform, NGA also provides management and technical assistance to both new and incumbent governors. The vice chair is usually of the party to the chair. The current NGA chair is Governor Terry McAuliffe of Virginia, a Democrat, the vice chair is Governor Brian Sandoval of Nevada, a Republican. Bill Clinton is, to date, the former chair of the organization to become President of the United States. Janet Napolitano became the first female chair in 2006, formally adopted as policy in 1977, chairs preside for a one-year term and alternate party affiliation, which means that the same party never serves for two terms in a row. A similar organization in Mexico United States Conference of Mayors National Governors Association –19 official homepage of the American NGA
6.
Arthur B. Langlie
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Arthur Bernard Langlie served as the mayor of Seattle, Washington and was the 12th and 14th Governor of the U. S. state of Washington from 1941 to 1945 and from 1949 to 1957. Langlie was born in Lanesboro, Minnesota and his father, Bjarne Langlie, had emigrated from Norway. His mother, Carrie Dahl, was of Norwegian and Dutch ancestry and he moved with his family to Washingtons Kitsap Peninsula at the age of nine. Langlie attended Coontz Junior High and graduated from Union High both in Bremerton, Washington, Langlie graduated from the University of Washington, where he was a member of Phi Kappa Sigma Fraternity. He then became a partner in the law firm of Langlie, Todd. He practiced law in Seattle for nearly 10 years before winning a Seattle City Council seat in 1935 as a candidate of the conservative and he served as mayor of Seattle during the period 1938-1941. He became the Republican candidate for governor in 1940 and won a narrow victory and he is to date the only mayor of Seattle to be elected Governor of Washington. At 40, Langlie was the youngest governor in the history of the state until Dan Evans was elected, Langlie was defeated for re-election in 1944 by Democrat Monrad C. Wallgren but won the back by defeating Wallgren in 1948. Langlie is the only Washington governor to regain that office after losing it, in 1952, he was one of five people on the short list for the Republican vice presidential nomination. Dwight Eisenhower instead chose Richard Nixon and he was an unsuccessful candidate for the U. S. Senate in 1956. Langlie left politics after failing in his 1956 campaign to defeat Democratic US Senator Warren G. Magnuson, los Angeles financier Norton Simon asked Langlie to take charge of the McCall publishing house that Simon had just acquired. In 1958, Langlie was named as the new president of the McCall Corporation Frederick G. Hamley Papers, contains correspondence between Hamley and Langlie when Hamley served as Langlie’s political and legal advisor. At the Labor Archives of Washington, University of Washington Special Collections, Langlie, Republican Governor in a Democratic Age Langlie, Arthur B. at HistoryLink Arthur B
7.
William Stratton
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William Grant Stratton, known as Billy the Kid, was the 32nd Governor of Illinois from 1953 to 1961, succeeding Adlai Stevenson II in that office. He was elected State Treasurer in 1944 and 1950 and he won the Republican nomination for Governor in 1952, then defeated Lt. Governor Sherwood Dixon to become the youngest governor in America at that time, Stratton was re-elected Governor in 1956. In 1960 he ran for a third consecutive term, but was defeated by Democrat Otto Kerner. In 1968, he ran in the Republican primary for Governor and was defeated by Richard B, in retirement, Stratton resided in Chicago. At the time of his death, he was a member of the Illinois Civil Service Commission and he died at Northwestern Memorial Hospital in Chicago on March 2,2001, aged 87. Among his pallbearers were his successors as governor, James R. Thompson, Jim Edgar, the following are named in his honor, Stratton Lock and Dam on the Fox River near McHenry, Illinois. William G. Stratton State Park on the Illinois River in Morris, Illinois, the William G. Stratton Building in the Illinois State Capitol complex, which houses offices of many state legislators and other state agencies and was completed during his first term as governor. Stratton Quadrangle at Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, in recognition of his position as governor at the time of the universitys founding and he was also the speaker at SIUEs first commencement in 1960
8.
United States House of Representatives
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The United States House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the Senate, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the House are established by Article One of the United States Constitution, since its inception in 1789, all representatives are elected popularly. The total number of voting representatives is fixed by law at 435, the House is charged with the passage of federal legislation, known as bills, which, after concurrence by the Senate, are sent to the President for consideration. The presiding officer is the Speaker of the House, who is elected by the members thereof and is traditionally the leader of the controlling party. He or she and other leaders are chosen by the Democratic Caucus or the Republican Conferences. The House meets in the wing of the United States Capitol. Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress of the Confederation was a body in which each state was equally represented. All states except Rhode Island agreed to send delegates, the issue of how to structure Congress was one of the most divisive among the founders during the Convention. The House is referred to as the house, with the Senate being the upper house. Both houses approval is necessary for the passage of legislation, the Virginia Plan drew the support of delegates from large states such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, as it called for representation based on population. The smaller states, however, favored the New Jersey Plan, the Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states in 1788, but its implementation was set for March 4,1789. The House began work on April 1,1789, when it achieved a quorum for the first time, during the first half of the 19th century, the House was frequently in conflict with the Senate over regionally divisive issues, including slavery. The North was much more populous than the South, and therefore dominated the House of Representatives, However, the North held no such advantage in the Senate, where the equal representation of states prevailed. Regional conflict was most pronounced over the issue of slavery, One example of a provision repeatedly supported by the House but blocked by the Senate was the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in the land gained during the Mexican–American War. Conflict over slavery and other issues persisted until the Civil War, the war culminated in the Souths defeat and in the abolition of slavery. Because all southern senators except Andrew Johnson resigned their seats at the beginning of the war, the years of Reconstruction that followed witnessed large majorities for the Republican Party, which many Americans associated with the Unions victory in the Civil War and the ending of slavery. The Reconstruction period ended in about 1877, the ensuing era, the Democratic and the Republican Party held majorities in the House at various times. The late 19th and early 20th centuries also saw an increase in the power of the Speaker of the House
9.
Virginia
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Virginia is a state located in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States, as well as in the historic Southeast. The geography and climate of the Commonwealth are shaped by the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Chesapeake Bay, the capital of the Commonwealth is Richmond, Virginia Beach is the most populous city, and Fairfax County is the most populous political subdivision. The Commonwealths estimated population as of 2014 is over 8.3 million, the areas history begins with several indigenous groups, including the Powhatan. In 1607 the London Company established the Colony of Virginia as the first permanent New World English colony, slave labor and the land acquired from displaced Native American tribes each played a significant role in the colonys early politics and plantation economy. Although the Commonwealth was under one-party rule for nearly a century following Reconstruction, the Virginia General Assembly is the oldest continuous law-making body in the New World. The state government was ranked most effective by the Pew Center on the States in both 2005 and 2008 and it is unique in how it treats cities and counties equally, manages local roads, and prohibits its governors from serving consecutive terms. Virginias economy changed from agricultural to industrial during the 1960s and 1970s. Virginia has an area of 42,774.2 square miles, including 3,180.13 square miles of water. Virginias boundary with Maryland and Washington, D. C. extends to the mark of the south shore of the Potomac River. The southern border is defined as the 36° 30′ parallel north, the border with Tennessee was not settled until 1893, when their dispute was brought to the U. S. Supreme Court. The Chesapeake Bay separates the portion of the Commonwealth from the two-county peninsula of Virginias Eastern Shore. The bay was formed from the river valleys of the Susquehanna River. Many of Virginias rivers flow into the Chesapeake Bay, including the Potomac, Rappahannock, York, and James, the Tidewater is a coastal plain between the Atlantic coast and the fall line. It includes the Eastern Shore and major estuaries of Chesapeake Bay, the Piedmont is a series of sedimentary and igneous rock-based foothills east of the mountains which were formed in the Mesozoic era. The region, known for its clay soil, includes the Southwest Mountains around Charlottesville. The Blue Ridge Mountains are a province of the Appalachian Mountains with the highest points in the state. The Ridge and Valley region is west of the mountains and includes the Great Appalachian Valley, the region is carbonate rock based and includes Massanutten Mountain. The Cumberland Plateau and the Cumberland Mountains are in the southwest corner of Virginia, in this region, rivers flow northwest, with a dendritic drainage system, into the Ohio River basin
10.
Virginia's 5th congressional district
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Virginias fifth congressional district is a United States congressional district in the commonwealth of Virginia.03 square miles -193 sq mi, larger than New Jersey and Vermont. The districts first representative in Congress was James Madison, later the 4th President of the United States, the current Congressman is Republican Thomas Garrett, Jr. Virginias congressional districts List of United States congressional districts Martis, Kenneth C. The Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress, the Historical Atlas of United States Congressional Districts. Congressional Biographical Directory of the United States 1774–present Rep. Thomas Garretts official House of Representatives website
11.
Thomas G. Burch
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Thomas Granville Burch was an American farmer, tobacco manufacturer, and politician from Martinsville, Virginia. He represented Virginia in the U. S. House of Representatives from 1931 until 1946, in 1946 he served as a U. S. Senator after Carter Glass died in office until a successor was elected, Burch was born near the community of Dyers Store in Henry County, Virginia. Early in his life, he worked as a farmer and for a manufacturing company. After his move to Martinsville, where he was elected mayor, Burch worked in banking, Burch was elected as a Democrat to the 72nd Congress in 1931, and served until May 1946, when he was appointed to the United States Senate. Thomas Tom Burch was married April 22,1903 to Mary Ellen Anson, the daughter of Rev. Alfred W. Anson, on March 20,1951 Burch died of a heart attack in Martinsville and was buried in the citys Oakwood Cemetery. 1930, Burch was elected to the U. S. House of Representatives unopposed,1932, Burch was re-elected with the Democratic slate in Virginias at-large Congressional district, he won 8. 29% in a 24-way race. 1934, Burch was re-elected with 88. 18% of the vote, defeating Republican Henry P. Wilder,1936, Burch was re-elected with 64. 96% of the vote, defeating Republican Taylor G. Vaughan. 1942, Burch was re-elected with 93. 14% of the vote,1944, Burch was re-elected with 84. 61% of the vote, defeating now-Independent Carwile. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, thomas G. Burch at Find a Grave
12.
William M. Tuck
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William Munford Tuck was a Virginia lawyer and lieutenant in the Byrd Organization, who served as the 55th Governor of Virginia from 1946 to 1950 as a Democrat, and as a U. S. He was the youngest of nine children of Halifax County, Virginia tobacco warehouseman Robert James Tuck and he was named for his grandfather William Munford Tuck, who served in the Third Virginia Infantry during the American Civil War. Tucks mother died when he was 13 and he attended county schools, Virgilina High School, and Chatham Training School. He attended the College of William and Mary for two years, earning a certificate and working for a year as a teacher/principal in Northumberland County. Tuck then enlisted in the U. S. Marine Corps, Tuck returned to attend law school at the Washington and Lee University School of Law, graduating in 1921. In 1929 he married widow Eva Lovelace Dillard, to whom he remained married until her death in 1975, upon being admitted to Virginia bar, Tuck maintained a private legal practice in Halifax for decades, eventually with his stepson L. L. Dillard. His career as an elected official began in 1923, when Halifax County voters elected Tuck as their delegate to the Virginia General Assembly and he was re-elected once but declined to run for re-election in 1929, citing the need to grow his legal business to support his new family. However, when his successor died, Tuck was drafted in 1930. He was then elected to the Virginia State Senate in 1931, Senator Harry F. Byrd, a former governor. During the national New Deal, state Senator Tuck worked to repeal Prohibition and sponsored new child labor laws, as well as an unemployment compensation system, old age assistance and he also helped develop the state park system. In 1941, Tuck sought statewide office, but Senator Byrd slated Colgate Darden to run for Governor of Virginia, so Tuck was slated for and he served from 1942 to 1946 under Governor Darden, and gained visibility throughout the Commonwealth. Tuck defeated his Republican opponent, S. Floyd Landreth by a 2 to 1 margin, as governor from 1946-1950, Tuck demonstrated his fiscal conservatism as a Dixiecrat by reorganizing state government and enacting a right-to-work law. He also created a water pollution control agency, helped reform state schools and mental hospitals. Governor Tuck gained national exposure, however, for labor unrest in his home state and he worked with Senator Harry Byrd to oppose President Harry Truman, although a fellow Democrat, especially Trumans plan to establish a Fair Employment Practices Commission. Once, as governor, Tuck drafted workers of the Virginia Electric Power Company into the national guard to avoid a threatened strike in an unionization effort. Transportation and coal also experienced labor unrest, tucks resumption of legal practice in South Boston after his governorship proved short-lived, for he rose within the Byrd Organization. In 1953 Tuck won election as a Democrat to U. S. Congress vacated by Thomas Bahnson Stanley who had resigned to run for Governor of Virginia, a militant segregationist, Congressman Tuck opposed most major items of civil rights legislation during the 1950s and 1960s. Tuck was a member of the U. S. House of Representatives Committee on Un-American Activities and he was a delegate to Democratic National Conventions of 1948 and 1952, and in 1967 announced he would not seek reelection to Congress, citing health problems
13.
Virginia House of Delegates
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The Virginia House of Delegates is one of two parts in the Virginia General Assembly, the other being the Senate of Virginia. It has 100 members elected for terms of two years, unlike most states, these take place during odd-numbered years. The House is presided over by the Speaker of the House, the Speaker is almost always a member of the majority party and, as Speaker, becomes the most powerful member of the House. The House shares legislative power with the Senate of Virginia, the house of the Virginia General Assembly. The House of Delegates is the successor to the Virginia House of Burgesses. The House is divided into Democratic and Republican caucuses, in addition to the Speaker, there is a majority leader, majority caucus chair, minority leader, minority caucus chair, and the chairs of the several committees of the House. Through the House of Burgesses, the Virginia House of Delegates is considered the oldest continuous legislative body in the New World, originally having 22 members, the House of Burgesses met from 1619 through 1632 in the choir of the church at Jamestown. From 1632 to 1699 the legislative body met at four different state houses in Jamestown, the first state house convened at the home of Colonial Governor Sir John Harvey from 1632 to 1656. The burgesses convened at the state house from 1656 until it was destroyed in 1660. Historians have yet to identify its location. The House has met in Virginias Capitol Building, designed by Thomas Jefferson, the legislative body met from 1788 to 1904 in what is known as today the Old Hall of the House of Delegates or commonly referred to as the Old House Chamber. The Old House Chamber is part of the original Capitol building structure and it measures 76 feet in width and is filled today with furnishings that resemble what the room would have looked like during its time of use. There are many bronze and marble busts of historic Virginians on display in the Old House Chamber, including, George Mason, George Wythe, Patrick Henry, Richard Henry Lee, and Meriwether Lewis. From 1904 to 1906, University of Virginia graduate and architect John K. Peeples designed, the General Assembly members and staff operate from offices in the General Assembly Building, located in Capitol Square. Prior to 1788 the House of Delegates met in the Colonial Capital of Williamsburg, in 1999, Republicans took control of the long-time Democratic House of Delegates for the first time since Reconstruction. The annual salary for delegates is $17,640 per year, each delegate represents roughly 83,000 people. Candidates for office must be at least 21 years of age at the time of the election, residents of the districts they seek to represent, and qualified to vote for General Assembly legislators. The regular session of the General Assembly is 60 days long during even numbered years and 30 days long during odd numbered years, the House has 14 standing committees
14.
Henry County, Virginia
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Henry County is a county located in the U. S. state of Virginia. As of the 2010 census, the population was 54,151, the county seat is usually identified as Martinsville, however, the administration building and county courthouse are located in Collinsville. Henry County is part of the Martinsville, VA Micropolitan Statistical Area, the county was established in 1777 when it was carved from Pittsylvania County. The new county was initially named Patrick Henry County in honor of Patrick Henry, who was serving as the first Governor of Virginia. Governor Henry also had a 10, 000-acre plantation called Leatherwood plantation in the named county. In 1785 the northern part of Patrick Henry County was combined with part of Bedford County to form Franklin County, in 1790, Patrick Henry County was split again, the western part became Patrick County and the rest remained Henry County. Other notable early settlers included, George Waller, Captain George Hairston and Major John Redd, all of whom were present at the surrender of General Cornwallis at Yorktown, Col. Captain Robert Hairston, a politician in the Colony of Virginia, owned Marrowbone plantation, commanded a militia company. During the War of 1812, the 64th Virginia Militia, under Captain Graves, was formed in 1815 from Henry County, tavner Hailey of Martinsville became an early pioneer in Tennessee and served in the War of 1812. He was 1st Cpl. in Captain Brice Edwards Company, 64th Regiment, during the American Civil War, the 42nd Virginia Infantry was formed in part from Henry County volunteers. Thomas, owned Henrys former Leatherwood plantation and would briefly serve in the U. S. House of Representatives after the war. He was succeeded by George Cabell, a Confederate army veteran born in nearby Danville, in 1902, the Henry County Historical Society was incorporated at Martinsville with its first officers being John W. Carter, J. Harrison Spencer and C. B. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 384 square miles. The county is divided into six districts, Blackberry, Collinsville, Horsepasture, Iriswood, Reed Creek. The population density was 152 people per square mile, there were 25,921 housing units at an average density of 68 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 89. 47% White, 10% Black or African American,0. 16% Native American,0. 41% Asian,0. 03% Pacific Islander,1. 39% from other races, and 0. 92% from two or more races. 3. 46% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,25. 80% of all households were made up of individuals and 10. 30% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.40 and the family size was 2.87
15.
Martinsville, Virginia
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Martinsville is an independent city near the southern border of the U. S. state of Virginia. As of the 2010 census, the population was 13,821 and it is the county seat of Henry County, although the two are separate jurisdictions. The Bureau of Economic Analysis combines the city of Martinsville with Henry County for statistical purposes, Martinsville is the principal city of the Martinsville Micropolitan Statistical Area, with a population of 73,346 as of the 2000 census. Martinsville was founded by American Revolutionary War General, Indian agent and explorer Joseph Martin and he developed his plantation Scuffle Hill on the banks of the Smith River near the present-day southern city limits. General Martin and revolutionary patriot Patrick Henry, who lived briefly in Henry County, the citys chief industry for many early years was the manufacture of plug chewing tobacco. The Henry County area became known as the tobacco capital of the world. In the wake of the collapse of the economy following the American Civil War. Stepping into the breach were several thriving plug firms which sold their merchandise across the nation beginning in the nineteenth century. Local families were involved in these companies, bestowing their names on them and reaping sizeable profits until the early twentieth century. Reynolds and James Buchanan Duke bought out most firms, among the earliest of these firms were D. H. Spencer & Sons and Spencer Bros, other families soon joined in founding other early firms, including the Gravelys, the Comptons, the Ruckers, the Wittens, the Lesters and the Browns. The citys main industry for a century was furniture construction, Martinsville declared itself an independent city in 1928, while retaining its status as county seat. DuPont in 1941 built a manufacturing plant for producing textile nylon filament. During the Cold War, the city was identified as a target for bombing by the Soviet Union. This nylon production jump-started the growth of the industry in the area. For several years Martinsville was known as the Sweatshirt Capital of the World, business leaders in the mid-20th century, like Whitney Shumate, worked to improve sub-standard housing in Martinsville. He helped clear out a portion of Martinsville called Mill Town, new homes were constructed in the neighborhood, built with sound materials and with all city services for the first time. What had originally considered a depressed civic area rapidly became a center of progress as middle class blacks finally began to prosper
16.
Spencer, Virginia
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Spencer is an unincorporated community in Henry County, Virginia, United States. It takes its name from its earliest settler, James Spencer Sr. who moved from Loudoun County to Henry County with his sons in the eighteenth century, Spencers son ensign James Spencer, Jr. died of wounds suffered during the Revolutionary War. Spencer was the site of the Spencer Bros. Tobacco Company, as well as the D. H, Spencer & Sons Tobacco, both begun by the Spencer family, with operations at Spencer, and later at Martinsville, Danville and elsewhere. The family-owned firm later became one of the nations largest manufacturers of plug chewing tobacco with its well-known brand Calhoun, the Spencer family built Grassdale Farm, their tobacco plantation, beginning in the eighteenth century. Grassdale, once called The Homestead, is on the National Register of Historic Places, the family later sold their tobacco company to the R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company in one of the first consolidations in the industry. Spencer and Sons and Spencer Brothers agreed in December 1903 to form a corporation with Reynolds in return for stock in the enterprise, R. J. Reynolds had grown up in nearby Critz, Virginia, and he and the Spencers were bitter rivals. Grassdale Farm was once owned by Thomas Jefferson Penn, who built Chinqua-Penn Plantation outside Reidsville, North Carolina, in addition to Grassdale Farm, the Spencer-Penn School and Aurora are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Margaret Spencer Shackelfords sister Mary Holt married Kennon C, whittle, a justice on the Virginia Supreme Court of Appeals, who lived at Belleview, built by their shared ancestor Major John Redd. A third sister, Blanche Spencer, married Julian H. Robertson Sr. of Salisbury, North Carolina, Spencer is part of the Martinsville Micropolitan Statistical Area
17.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
18.
Stanleytown, Virginia
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Stanleytown is a census-designated place in Henry County, Virginia, United States. The population was 1,422 at the 2010 census and it is part of the Martinsville Micropolitan Statistical Area. Edgewood and Stoneleigh houses are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, stanleytown is located at 36°45′6″N 79°56′55″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has an area of 2.7 square miles. As of the census of 2000, there were 1,515 people,662 households, the population density was 564.3 people per square mile. There were 723 housing units at a density of 269. 3/sq mi. The racial makeup of the CDP was 88. 32% White,2. 57% African American,0. 13% Native American,0. 13% Pacific Islander,7. 46% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 11. 49% of the population. 27. 9% of all households were made up of individuals and 14. 0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.29 and the average family size was 2.73. In the CDP, the population was out with 17. 8% under the age of 18,8. 8% from 18 to 24,27. 1% from 25 to 44,25. 6% from 45 to 64. The median age was 42 years, for every 100 females there were 105.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 103.9 males, the median income for a household in the CDP was $32,386, and the median income for a family was $36,927. Males had an income of $26,164 versus $17,063 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $18,959, about 12. 4% of families and 14. 4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 14. 7% of those under age 18 and 19. 6% of those age 65 or over
19.
Democratic Party (United States)
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The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president
20.
Bachelor of Arts
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A Bachelor of Arts is a bachelors degree awarded for an undergraduate course or program in either the liberal arts, the sciences, or both. Bachelor of Arts degree programs take three to four years depending on the country, academic institution, and specific specializations, majors or minors. The word baccalaureus or baccalarium should not be confused with baccalaureatus, degree diplomas generally are printed on high-quality paper or parchment, individual institutions set the preferred abbreviation for their degrees. In Pakistan, the Bachelor of Arts degree can also be attained within two years as an external degree, in colleges and universities in Australia, New Zealand, Nepal and South Africa, the BA degree can be taken over three years of full-time study. Unlike in other countries, students do not receive a grade for their Bachelor of Arts degree with varying levels of honours. Qualified students may be admitted, after they have achieved their Bachelors program with an overall grade point average. Thus, to achieve a Bachelor Honours degree, a postgraduate year. A student who holds a Honours degree is eligible for entry to either a Doctorate or a very high research Master´s degree program. Education in Canada is controlled by the Provinces and can be different depending on the province in Canada. Canadian universities typically offer a 3-year Bachelor of Arts degrees, in many universities and colleges, Bachelor of Arts degrees are differentiated either as Bachelors of Arts or as honours Bachelor of Arts degree. The honours degrees are designated with the abbreviation in brackets of. It should not be confused with the consecutive Bachelor of Arts degree with Honours, Latin Baccalaureatus in Artibus Cum Honore, BA hon. de jure without brackets and with a dot. It is a degree, which is considered to be the equivalent of a corresponding maîtrise degree under the French influenced system. Going back in history, a three-year Bachelor of Arts degree was called a pass degree or general degree. Students may be required to undertake a long high-quality research empirical thesis combined with a selection of courses from the relevant field of studies. The consecutive B. cum Honore degree is essential if students ultimate goal is to study towards a two- or three-year very high research masters´ degree qualification. A student holding a Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree also may choose to complete a Doctor of Philosophy program without the requirement to first complete a masters degree, over the years, in some universities certain Baccalaureatus cum Honore programs have been changed to corresponding master´s degrees. In general, in all four countries, the B. A. degree is the standard required for entry into a masters programme, in science, a BA hons degree is generally a prerequisite for entrance to a Ph. D program or a very-high-research-activity master´s programme
21.
Holstein Friesian cattle
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Holstein Friesians are a breed of dairy cattle originating from the Dutch provinces of North Holland and Friesland, and what is now Schleswig-Holstein in Northern Germany and Jutland. They are known as the worlds highest-production dairy animals, the Dutch breeders bred and oversaw the development of the breed with the goal of obtaining animals that could best use grass, the areas most abundant resource. Over the centuries, the result was a high-producing, black-and-white dairy cow, with the growth of the New World, markets began to develop for milk in North America and South America, and dairy breeders turned to the Netherlands for their livestock. After about 8,800 Friesians had been imported, disease problems in Europe led to the cessation of exports to markets abroad, in Europe, the breed is used for milk in the north, and meat in the south. Since 1945, European national development has led to cattle breeding, more than 80% of dairy production is north of a line joining Bordeaux and Venice, which also has more than 60% of the total cattle. This change led to the need for specialized animals for dairy production, until this time, milk and beef had been produced from dual-purpose animals. The breeds, national derivatives of the Dutch Friesian, had very different animals from those developed by breeders in the United States. Breeders imported specialized dairy Holsteins from the United States to cross with the European black, for this reason, in modern usage, Holstein is used to describe North or South American stock and its use in Europe, particularly in the North. Friesian denotes animals of a traditional European ancestry, bred for both dairy and beef use, crosses between the two are described by the term Holstein-Friesian. Holsteins have distinctive markings, usually black and white or red, on rare occasions some have both black and red colouring with white. Red factor causes this unique colouring, blue is also a known colour. This colour is produced by white hairs mixed with the hairs giving the cow a blueish tint. This colouring is also known as blue roan in some farm circles and they are famed for their large dairy production, averaging 22530 pounds of milk per year. Of this milk 858 pounds is butterfat and 719 pounds is protein, a healthy calf weighs 40 to 50 kg or more at birth. A mature Holstein cow typically weighs 680-770 kg, and stands 145-165 cm tall at the shoulder, Holstein heifers should be bred by 11 to 14 months of age, when they weigh 317-340 kg or 55% of adult weight. Generally, breeders plan for Holstein heifers to calve for the first time between 21 and 24 months of age and 80% of adult bodyweight, the gestation period is about nine and a half months. Historical records suggest these cattle were black, and the Friesian cattle at this time were pure white, crossbreeding may have led to the foundation of the present Holstein-Friesian breed, as the cattle of these two tribes from then are described identically in historical records. The portion of the country bordering on the North Sea, called Frisia, was situated within the provinces of North Holland, Friesland and Groningen, the people were known for their care and breeding of cattle
22.
Byrd Organization
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The Byrd Organization was a political machine led by former Governor and U. S. Senator Harry F. Byrd, Sr. that dominated Virginia politics for much of the portion of the 20th century. “The Organization” had its greatest strength in rural areas, when the Senator resigned in 1965, he was replaced by his son Harry F. Byrd, Jr. in the U. S. Senate. After the American Civil War, Virginia’s politics were chaotic, initially, former Confederates were not allowed to vote, and factions of newly enfranchised black voters joined the electorate. In the late 1870s, a coalition of blacks, Republicans, readjusters aspired “to break the power of wealth and established privilege” and to promote public education. It was led by Harrison H. Riddleberger of Woodstock, an attorney, and William Mahone, of Petersburg, Senator Thomas Staples Martin took over after Barbour died, but Senator Martin’s political control was thin by the time he died in office in 1919. By this time, as a state senator from Winchester, Harry F. Byrd, was a rising star in state politics. He had served the Wilson Administration during World War I helping with gasoline rationing as a volunteer, in 1922, with seven years of experience in the Virginia State Senate, Byrd gained statewide prominence by confronting Virginia’s powerful lobby of highway builders. Byrd had gained a lot of related experience when earlier managing the Valley Turnpike, in the Virginia General Assembly, he led a fight against using bonded indebtedness as a method to pay for new roads. He feared the state would sacrifice future flexibility by committing too many resources to paying off construction debt, in 1923, Byrd was sued for libel by the Virginia Highway Contractors Association because he said their activities “by combination and agreements may be very detrimental” to the State. The court dismissed the suit, stating the criticism was legal, the publicity figuratively paved the way for the election of Harry Byrd to statewide office and the creation of the Byrd Organization. The broad lines of what would become the Byrd Organization formed in 1925 and he served until 1930, then was elected to the United States Senate in 1933, serving until his retirement in 1965. Over forty years, Byrd built up relationships with the “courthouse cliques, the five constitutional officers in each county were the sheriff, Commonwealth’s attorney, clerk of the court, county treasurer, and commissioner of revenue. Perhaps contrary to first appearances, the low public profile “clerk of the position held the greatest power in most counties within the Byrd Organization. These courthouse cliques made recommendations for suitable candidates, and Byrd only decided on candidates after careful consultation, without Byrd’s “nod, ” no candidate had a chance at statewide office in Virginia. This move not only centralized power in the hands but also eliminated potential bases for opposition. The courthouse cliques of the Byrd machine strove to ensure that “reliable” voters’ poll taxes were paid on time, the General Assembly, through circuit court judges, controlled the electoral commissions that ruled on voter eligibility. Byrd’s fiscal policy was principled conservativism, restructuring state government to streamline operations and he made property taxes solely a county and city responsibility
23.
Supreme Court of the United States
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The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court of the United States. In the legal system of the United States, the Supreme Court is the interpreter of federal constitutional law. The Court normally consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight justices who are nominated by the President. Once appointed, justices have life tenure unless they resign, retire, in modern discourse, the justices are often categorized as having conservative, moderate, or liberal philosophies of law and of judicial interpretation. Each justice has one vote, and while many cases are decided unanimously, the Court meets in the United States Supreme Court Building in Washington, D. C. The Supreme Court is sometimes referred to as SCOTUS, in analogy to other acronyms such as POTUS. The ratification of the United States Constitution established the Supreme Court in 1789 and its powers are detailed in Article Three of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is the court specifically established by the Constitution. The Court first convened on February 2,1790, by which five of its six initial positions had been filled. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, in its first session, he Supreme Court convened for the first time at the Royal Exchange Building on Broad Street and they had no cases to consider. After a week of inactivity, they adjourned until September, the sixth member was not confirmed until May 12,1790. Because the full Court had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was made by two-thirds. However, Congress has always allowed less than the Courts full membership to make decisions, under Chief Justices Jay, Rutledge, and Ellsworth, the Court heard few cases, its first decision was West v. Barnes, a case involving a procedural issue. The Courts power and prestige grew substantially during the Marshall Court, the Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion seriatim, a remnant of British tradition, and instead issuing a single majority opinion. Also during Marshalls tenure, although beyond the Courts control, the impeachment, the Taney Court made several important rulings, such as Sheldon v. Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford, which helped precipitate the Civil War. In the Reconstruction era, the Chase, Waite, and Fuller Courts interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution, during World War II, the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens and the mandatory pledge of allegiance. Nevertheless, Gobitis was soon repudiated, and the Steel Seizure Case restricted the pro-government trend, the Warren Court dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional civil liberties. It held that segregation in public schools violates equal protection and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote
24.
Brown v. Board of Education
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The decision overturned the Plessy v. Ferguson decision of 1896, which allowed state-sponsored segregation, insofar as it applied to public education. Handed down on May 17,1954, the Warren Courts unanimous decision stated that educational facilities are inherently unequal. As a result, de jure segregation was ruled a violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution. This ruling paved the way for integration and was a victory of the Civil Rights Movement. For much of the sixty years preceding the Brown case, race relations in the United States had been dominated by racial segregation, racial segregation in education varied widely from the 17 states that required racial segregation to the 16 in which it was prohibited. Brown was influenced by UNESCOs 1950 Statement, signed by a variety of internationally renowned scholars. This declaration denounced previous attempts at scientifically justifying racism as well as morally condemning racism, another work that the Supreme Court cited was Gunnar Myrdals An American Dilemma, The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy. Myrdal had been a signatory of the UNESCO declaration, the research performed by the educational psychologists Kenneth B. Clark and Mamie Phipps Clark also influenced the Courts decision. The Clarks doll test studies presented substantial arguments to the Supreme Court about how segregation affected black schoolchildrens mental status, the plaintiffs were thirteen Topeka parents on behalf of their 20 children. The suit called for the district to reverse its policy of racial segregation. The plaintiffs had been recruited by the leadership of the Topeka NAACP, notable among the Topeka NAACP leaders were the chairman McKinley Burnett, Charles Scott, one of three serving as legal counsel for the chapter, and Lucinda Todd. The named plaintiff, Oliver L. Brown, was a parent, a welder in the shops of the Santa Fe Railroad, an assistant pastor at his church. He was convinced to join the lawsuit by Scott, a childhood friend, as directed by the NAACP leadership, the parents each attempted to enroll their children in the closest neighborhood school in the fall of 1951. They were each refused enrollment and directed to the segregated schools, linda Brown Thompson later recalled the experience in a 2004 PBS documentary. Like I say, we lived in a neighborhood and I had all of these playmates of different nationalities. And so when I found out that day that I might be able to go to their school, I was just thrilled, you know. And I remember walking over to Sumner school with my dad that day and going up the steps of the school, and I remember going inside and my dad spoke with someone and then he went into the inner office with the principal and they left me out. To sit outside with the secretary, and while he was in the inner office, I could hear voices and hear his voice raised, you know, as the conversation went on
25.
Virginia Supreme Court
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The Supreme Court of Virginia is the highest court in the Commonwealth of Virginia. It is one of the oldest continuously active judicial bodies in the United States and it was known as the Supreme Court of Appeals until 1970, when it was renamed the Supreme Court of Virginia. In 1623, the Virginia House of Burgesses created a five-member appellate court, meeting on the first day of March, June, September, and December, it became known as the Quarter Court. The June term became unnecessary over the years, and in 1661 and it was a court of last resort for the Virginia colonists except in those rare circumstances when an appeal could be made to the king in England. Its members were appointed by the king on the basis of standing, property. Though the judges were generally most capable, the majority possessed no formal legal training, at the close of the Revolutionary War, the court system was reorganized. The Supreme Court of Appeals, which served as a model for the United States Supreme Court, shortly thereafter, the Court was moved to Richmond and held its sessions in the Henrico County Courthouse. Its jurisdiction was primarily appellate, and its members were elected by the legislature, among the courts first members were several distinguished legal scholars and jurists as well as leaders of the revolutionary period. Edmund Pendleton, who served Virginia as a delegate to the First Continental Congress, was selected by the judges as its first president, other notable members were William Fleming, the third governor of Virginia and Paul Carrington. Until 1788, the judges did not render written opinions or give reasons for their decisions, Pendleton felt that the policy of no written opinions preserved a semblance of unity for the court and lent more credence to their decisions. Thomas Jefferson disagreed and began recording the decisions of the court in his reports, the court convened on the tenth day of April and met for twenty-four days unless they were able to complete their business sooner. A legislative act of 1788 provided that the court should be separated from the other courts with five judges to be elected by joint vote of both houses of the General Assembly. These men were commissioned by the Governor and appointed for life on good behavior and this resulted in placing the judges beyond control of the legislature once on the bench, and the court continued to function in this manner for more than half a century. The Reform Convention of 1850–51 again reorganized the judiciary by limiting the terms of the justices to twelve years, the state was divided into five judicial sections, and each candidate was required to be at least thirty-five years old and to reside within the section he wished to represent. The resulting Constitution of 1851 also required the court to state in writing its reasons for reversing or affirming a judgment or a decree, the constitution also required that annual sessions be held away from Richmond in the localities of Wytheville, Staunton, and Winchester. This mandate from the days of horse and buggy travel continued into the twentieth century, in recent years, however, the court has held panels to hear petitions for appeal outside of Richmond during the summer. These sessions are held for the convenience of the attorneys who would otherwise have to travel to Richmond, by constitutional amendment in 1928, the number of justices was increased to seven and the title of the presiding officer of the court was changed from President to Chief Justice. At the same time, the amendment significantly increased the power given the Supreme Court, the courts original jurisdiction is limited to cases of habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition, and writs of actual innocence based on DNA or other biological evidence
26.
Stanley plan
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The legislative program was named for Governor Thomas B. Stanley, who proposed the program and successfully pushed for its enactment, the Stanley plan was a critical element in the policy of massive resistance to the Brown ruling advocated by U. S. The plan was enacted by the Virginia Assembly on September 22,1956, a federal court struck down a portion of the Stanley plan as unconstitutional in January 1957. By 1960, nearly all of the elements of the plan had been struck down by the U. S. Supreme Court and other federal. The constitutional invalidity of the Stanley plan led new governor of Virginia, James Lindsay Almond, the Supreme Court declared portions of passive resistance unconstitutional in 1964 and again in 1968. Although agitation for an end to segregation in schools had been building in the United States since the end of World War II. The initial reaction of most Virginia politicians and newspapers to the Brown decision was restrained, from the 1920s to the late 1960s, Virginia politics had been dominated by the Byrd Organization, a political machine led by Senator Harry F. Byrd, Sr. Top leaders in the Byrd Organization, such as Governor Thomas B. Stanley and then-Attorney General James Lindsay Almond, Jr. were also at first reserved in their reaction to the Brown ruling. However, this changed when James J. Kilpatrick, editor of The Richmond News Leader in Richmond, Virginia, quickly adopted a defiant and unyielding opposition to racial integration of public schools. Kilpatrick adopted the pre-American Civil War constitutional theory of interposition, kilpatricks hardening position, historian Joseph J. Thorndike has written, likely. helped stiffen the resolve of several key figures, especially Byrd. On June 18,1954, political leaders in Virginias Southside met and they began calling themselves the Defenders of State Sovereignty and Civil Liberties, and members included U. S. Congressmen William Munford Tuck and Watkins Abbitt as well as state senators Charles Moses and they selected Farmville businessman Robert B. Crawford as their president. Stanley, himself from the Southside, was influenced by the strong segregationist sentiments expressed at this meeting. Six days later, Governor Stanley announced he would use every means at my command to continue segregated schools in Virginia. On August 30,1954, Governor Stanley announced the appointment of a commission, chaired by State Senator Garland Gray, officially titled the Virginia Public Education Commission, it was more popularly known as the Gray Commission. In October 1954, a group called the Defenders of State Sovereignty. Although limited primarily to the Southside and numbering no more than 15,000 members, the crisis over school desegregation worsened throughout 1955. On May 31,1955, the Supreme Court in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka ordered that school desegregation occur with all deliberate speed
27.
Bassett, Virginia
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Bassett is a census-designated place in Henry County, Virginia, United States. The population was 1,100 at the 2010 census and it is part of the Martinsville Micropolitan Statistical Area. The town was founded along a line by the same family that later started Bassett Furniture. Bassett Furnitures headquarters have remained in Bassett, Va. since it began in 1902, the John D. Bassett High School, Eltham Manor, and R. L. Stone House are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Bassett is located at 36°45′36″N 79°59′12″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 3.5 square miles, all of it land. As of the census of 2000, there were 1,338 people,530 households, the population density was 379.5 people per square mile. There were 601 housing units at a density of 170. 5/sq mi. The racial makeup of the CDP was 72. 94% White,24. 14% African American,0. 07% Asian,0. 07% Pacific Islander,1. 79% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 4. 93% of the population. 32. 8% of all households were made up of individuals and 18. 7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.33 and the average family size was 2.93. In the CDP, the population was out with 18. 2% under the age of 18,6. 9% from 18 to 24,24. 1% from 25 to 44,25. 0% from 45 to 64. The median age was 46 years, for every 100 females there were 92.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.6 males, the median income for a household in the CDP was $28,359, and the median income for a family was $34,940. Males had an income of $23,125 versus $17,868 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $17,651, about 13. 3% of families and 17. 8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 26. 2% of those under age 18 and 15. 2% of those age 65 or over. The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers, according to the Köppen climate classification system, Bassett has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated Cfa on climate maps. Blue Ridge Music Trails, Finding a Place in the Circle
28.
Bassett Furniture
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Bassett Furniture is a furniture manufacturer and retailer, headquartered in Bassett, Virginia, United States. It was founded in 1902, by John David Bassett, Charles C, Bassett, Samuel H. Bassett, and Reed L. Stone. Bassett Furniture is one of the oldest furniture manufacturers in Virginia and has been producing hand-crafted furniture for over 100 years. In 1900, Bassett Furniture Company was started by John David Bassett, Charles Columbus Bassett, Samuel H. Bassett, and Reed L. Stone, which began as a sawmill. It then became a company after J. D. Bassett took a trip to Winston-Salem, NC. They then pooled their assets together, $29,000 for a business that grossed $60,000, in January 1918, the Bassett plant burnt to the ground. In 1919, the plant was rebuilt with brick and modernized, by 1921, the company had doubled in size. By 1925, the company had doubled again, a fire cost the company $800,000. In 1928, the company moved nine miles into Martinsville and added Craig Furniture Manufacturing which became known as WM Bassett Company. In 1929, another expansion program doubled the size of the Martinsville plant In 1930, they announced consolidation, in 1930, John D. Bassett retired as president. In January 1934, they purchased Ramsey Furniture Manufacturing Company which became home of Bassett Superior Lines, during World War II, the companys main plant in Bassett, Virginia produced wooden truck frames for troop haulers in Europe. In 1949, Bassett Furniture reached their highest net sales ever recorded, in 1957, the Bassett Chair Company was established. In 1960, Bassett Furniture became the worlds largest manufacturer of wood, in 1964, the company became the first to advertise in Readers Digest. In 1967, Bassett Furniture opened their first retail outlet, in 1971, the company purchased E. B. Malone Bedding Company. In 1984, Bassett Furniture launched the Bassett Gallery Program, in 1999, the company sold its mattress division. In 2004, Bassett Furniture acquired all of LRG Furniture stores.7 million dollar loss, the re-opened factory is a part of Vaughan-Bassett company, which is distinct from Bassett Furniture Co. Virginia portal General references $800,000 Fire At Bassett, the Decline of an American Furniture Maker. July 10,2014. http, //www. newyorker. com/business/currency/the-decline-of-an-american-furniture-maker Bassett More Than a Brand Name, Bassett Furniture Industries of Bassett Virginia
29.
Poughkeepsie, New York
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Poughkeepsie /pəˈkɪpsi/, officially the City of Poughkeepsie, is a city in the state of New York, United States, which is the county seat of Dutchess County. As of the 2010 census it had a population of 32,736, Poughkeepsie is in the Hudson Valley midway between New York City and Albany, and is part of the New York metropolitan area. Poughkeepsie is known as The Queen City of the Hudson and it was settled in the 17th century by the Dutch and became New Yorks second capital shortly after the American Revolution. It was chartered as a city in 1854. S, the city of Poughkeepsie lies in New Yorks 18th congressional district. The site of Poughkeepsie was purchased from the Indians in 1686 by Robert Sanders, an Englishman, and Myndert Harmense Van Den Bogaerdt, the first settlers were the families of Barent Baltus Van Kleeck and Hendrick Jans van Oosterom. The settlement grew quickly, and the Reformed Church of Poughkeepsie was established by 1720, the community was set off from the town of Poughkeepsie when it became an incorporated village on 27 March 1799. The city of Poughkeepsie was chartered on 28 March 1854, spared from battle during the American Revolution, Poughkeepsie became the second capital of New York. With its ratification, New York entered the new union as the eleventh of the thirteen colonies to join together as the United States of America. In 1799, a new seal was created for Poughkeepsie, due to the areas natural beauty and proximity to New York City, families such as the Astors, Rogers, and Vanderbilts built palatial weekend homes nearby. The city is home to the oldest continuously operating entertainment venue in the state, the city is on the western edge of Dutchess County, bordered by the Hudson River on the west and by the town of Poughkeepsie on the north, east and south. There are two crossings of the Hudson River in Poughkeepsie, the Mid-Hudson Bridge for motor vehicles and pedestrians, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 5.7 square miles. 5.1 square miles of it is land, and 0.23 square miles of it is water and it is about 75 miles north of New York City and is in southeastern New York State. It receives approximately 44.12 inches of precipitation per year, much of which is delivered in the late spring, due to its inland location, Poughkeepsie can be very cold during the winter, with temperatures dropping below zero a few times per year. Poughkeepsie can also be hit by powerful noreasters, but usually significantly less snow or rain from these storms compared to locations to the south. As of the census of 2010, there were 32,736 people, the population density was 5,806.2 inhabitants per square mile. There were 13,153 housing units at a density of 2,556.6 per square mile. 35. 4% of all households were made up of individuals and 13. 2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.40 and the average family size was 3.15. In the city, the population was out with 25. 9% under the age of 18,12. 2% from 18 to 24,29. 2% from 25 to 44,19. 0% from 45 to 64
30.
Virginia furniture
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Virginia furniture is furniture that originates from the US state of Virginia. Furniture was first produced in Virginia during the Colonial period and continued through the Industrial Revolution, Furniture production has decreased in recent times due to imported furniture but Virginia is still home to a few large furniture companies. In colonial Virginia, there were at least six furniture makers, many of these early cabinetmakers also worked at house joinery. Across the South, furniture making flourished and Virginia was no exception, during the early part of the century, most historians thought that furniture making was centered on larger Northern cities like Philadelphia and New York. But in recent years, scholars and Virginia historians have come to understand that in colonial and Federal years. Styles included Chippendale, Queen Anne and vernacular styles, as Virginia citizens emigrated west in the 19th century, Virginia stylists and furniture makers took their patterns and styles with them. Not all the styles mimicked the British, emigrants like the German Johannes Spitler brought their native painting, some companies from the early 19th century survived. It is now one of the oldest companies in the United States, in the 19th century, a typical small town like Waterford, Virginia had a number of small manufacturers, in Waterfords case makers like John Mount, William T. Mount, and Lewis N. Hough. By the 20th century, the interest in historic preservation fostered by groups like the Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities meant a renewed interest in colonial styles. Companies like Biggs Furniture grew out of an antiques shop in Richmond into a major reproductions manufacturer that came close to rivaling Ethan Allen. Through the 20th century, mass-marketed furniture prevailed, and companies like Stanley Furniture, Pulaski Furniture, Rowe Furniture and they grew around the area of Martinsville, where they sometimes even formed company towns. The height of this movement came when Thomas Bahnson Stanley, founder of Stanley Furniture, many of these companies now show their wares in High Point, North Carolina, the American city most synonymous with furniture, located just south of Martinsville. With the advent of the more casual 1970s, rustic pine crate-style furniture became the rage, imports gained strength through the 1990s and early 21st century, and once dominant Virginia companies have struggled with the onslaught of Asian imports. While not a descriptive adjective like Williamsburg, Virginia furniture is also a look, Virginia natives like Nancy Lancaster, William Haines, Charlotte Moss and Bunny Williams have had influential roles in interior design using neo-traditional and modern approaches. In addition, high-end start ups like McKinnon & Harris have created new markets in lawn, in 2008, Swedwood Danville, a subsidiary of IKEA, opened a North American manufacturing plant in Cane Creek Center near Danville, Virginia, which employs 335 workers. American Furniture in The Metropolitan Museum of Art, a fully digitized 2 volume exhibition catalog
31.
Great Depression
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The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression that took place during the 1930s. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, in most countries it started in 1929 and it was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century. In the 21st century, the Great Depression is commonly used as an example of how far the economy can decline. The depression originated in the United States, after a fall in stock prices that began around September 4,1929. Between 1929 and 1932, worldwide GDP fell by an estimated 15%, by comparison, worldwide GDP fell by less than 1% from 2008 to 2009 during the Great Recession. Some economies started to recover by the mid-1930s, however, in many countries, the negative effects of the Great Depression lasted until the beginning of World War II. The Great Depression had devastating effects in both rich and poor. Personal income, tax revenue, profits and prices dropped, while international trade plunged by more than 50%, unemployment in the U. S. rose to 25% and in some countries rose as high as 33%. Cities all around the world were hit hard, especially dependent on heavy industry. Construction was virtually halted in many countries, farming communities and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by about 60%. Facing plummeting demand with few sources of jobs, areas dependent on primary sector industries such as mining and logging suffered the most. Even after the Wall Street Crash of 1929 optimism persisted for some time, john D. Rockefeller said These are days when many are discouraged. In the 93 years of my life, depressions have come, prosperity has always returned and will again. The stock market turned upward in early 1930, returning to early 1929 levels by April and this was still almost 30% below the peak of September 1929. Together, government and business spent more in the first half of 1930 than in the period of the previous year. On the other hand, consumers, many of whom had suffered losses in the stock market the previous year. In addition, beginning in the mid-1930s, a severe drought ravaged the agricultural heartland of the U. S, by mid-1930, interest rates had dropped to low levels, but expected deflation and the continuing reluctance of people to borrow meant that consumer spending and investment were depressed. By May 1930, automobile sales had declined to below the levels of 1928, prices in general began to decline, although wages held steady in 1930
32.
Speaker (politics)
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The speaker of a deliberative assembly, especially a legislative body, is its presiding officer. The title was first used in 1399 in England, the speakers official role is to moderate debate, make rulings on procedure, announce the results of votes, and the like. The speaker decides who may speak and has the powers to members who break the procedures of the chamber or house. The speaker often also represents the body in person, as the voice of the body in ceremonial, the title was first recorded in 1377 to describe the role of Thomas de Hungerford in the Parliament of England. By convention, speakers are normally addressed in Parliament as Mister Speaker, if a man, or Madam Speaker, in other cultures other styles are used, mainly being equivalents of English chairman or president. Many bodies also have a pro tempore, designated to fill in when the speaker is not available. The Speaker of the Australian House of Representatives is the officer of the Australian House of Representatives. The President of the Australian Senate is the officer of the Australian Senate. Now constitutional community highlights changes also in this role, in Canada, the Speaker of the House of Commons is the individual elected to preside over the House of Commons, the elected lower house. The speaker is a Member of Parliament and is elected at the beginning of new parliament by fellow MPs. The Speakers role in presiding over Canadas House of Commons is similar to that of speakers elsewhere in countries that use the Westminster system. The Speaker does not vote except in the case of a tie, by convention, if required to vote, the Speaker will vote in favour of continuing debate on a matter, but will not ultimately vote for a measure to be approved. The Speaker of the Senate of Canada is the officer of the Senate of Canada. The Speaker represents the Senate at official functions, rules on questions of procedure and parliamentary privilege. The Speaker of the Senate is appointed by the Governor General of Canada from amongst sitting senators upon the advice of the Prime Minister, the Speaker has a vote on all matters. In the event of a tie, the matter fails, at the provincial level, the presiding officer of the provincial legislatures is called the Speaker in all provinces except Quebec, where the term President is used. The presiding officer fulfills the role as the Speaker of the House of Commons. In the United Kingdom, the Speaker of the House of Commons is the elected to preside over the elected House of Commons
33.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
34.
Republican Party (United States)
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The Republican Party, commonly referred to as the GOP, is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, the other being its historic rival, the Democratic Party. The party is named after republicanism, the dominant value during the American Revolution and it was founded by anti-slavery activists, modernists, ex-Whigs, and ex-Free Soilers in 1854. The Republicans dominated politics nationally and in the majority of northern States for most of the period between 1860 and 1932, there have been 19 Republican presidents, the most from any one party. The Republican Partys current ideology is American conservatism, which contrasts with the Democrats more progressive platform, further, its platform involves support for free market capitalism, free enterprise, fiscal conservatism, a strong national defense, deregulation, and restrictions on labor unions. In addition to advocating for economic policies, the Republican Party is socially conservative. As of 2017, the GOP is documented as being at its strongest position politically since 1928, in addition to holding the Presidency, the Republicans control the 115th United States Congress, having majorities in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a majority of governorships and state legislatures, the main cause was opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which repealed the Missouri Compromise by which slavery was kept out of Kansas. The Northern Republicans saw the expansion of slavery as a great evil, the first public meeting of the general anti-Nebraska movement where the name Republican was suggested for a new anti-slavery party was held on March 20,1854, in a schoolhouse in Ripon, Wisconsin. The name was chosen to pay homage to Thomas Jeffersons Republican Party. The first official party convention was held on July 6,1854, in Jackson and it oversaw the preserving of the union, the end of slavery, and the provision of equal rights to all men in the American Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861–1877. The Republicans initial base was in the Northeast and the upper Midwest, with the realignment of parties and voters in the Third Party System, the strong run of John C. Fremont in the 1856 United States presidential election demonstrated it dominated most northern states, early Republican ideology was reflected in the 1856 slogan free labor, free land, free men, which had been coined by Salmon P. Chase, a Senator from Ohio. Free labor referred to the Republican opposition to labor and belief in independent artisans. Free land referred to Republican opposition to the system whereby slaveowners could buy up all the good farm land. The Party strove to contain the expansion of slavery, which would cause the collapse of the slave power, Lincoln, representing the fast-growing western states, won the Republican nomination in 1860 and subsequently won the presidency. The party took on the mission of preserving the Union, and destroying slavery during the American Civil War, in the election of 1864, it united with War Democrats to nominate Lincoln on the National Union Party ticket. The partys success created factionalism within the party in the 1870s and those who felt that Reconstruction had been accomplished and was continued mostly to promote the large-scale corruption tolerated by President Ulysses S. Grant ran Horace Greeley for the presidency. The Stalwarts defended Grant and the system, the Half-Breeds led by Chester A. Arthur pushed for reform of the civil service in 1883
35.
Psychiatric hospital
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Psychiatric hospitals vary widely in their size and grading. Some hospitals may specialize only in short-term or outpatient therapy for low-risk patients, others may specialize in the temporary or permanent care of residents who, as a result of a psychological disorder, require routine assistance, treatment, or a specialized and controlled environment. Patients are often admitted on a basis, but people whom psychiatrists believe may pose a significant danger to themselves or others may be subject to involuntary commitment. Psychiatric hospitals may also be referred to as psychiatric wards when they are a subunit of a regular hospital, modern psychiatric hospitals evolved from, and eventually replaced the older lunatic asylums. The treatment of inmates in early lunatic asylums was sometimes brutal, a crisis stabilization unit is in effect an emergency room for psychiatry, frequently dealing with suicidal, violent, or otherwise critical individuals. Open units are units that are not as secure as crisis stabilization units. Another type of hospital is medium term, which provides care lasting several weeks. In the United Kingdom, both admissions and medium term care is usually provided on acute admissions wards. Juvenile or adolescent wards are sections of psychiatric hospitals or psychiatric wards set aside for children or adolescents with mental illness, long-term care facilities have the goal of treatment and rehabilitation back into society within a short time-frame. Another institution for the mentally ill is a halfway house. Modern psychiatric hospitals evolved from, and eventually replaced the older lunatic asylums, the development of the modern psychiatric hospital is also the story of the rise of organized, institutional psychiatry. It greatly differed from the view in which the insane were viewed as under the influence of the Devil therefore needing to be isolated from society. The first psychiatric hospital was built by the Muslims in Baghdad in 705 AD, others would rapidly follow, with some of the more famous ones being built in Cairo in 800 AD and in Damascus in 1270 AD. The physicians of the Islamic world would invent and use a variety of treatments, including occupational therapy, music therapy, as well as medication. Western Europe would adopt these views later on with the advances of physicians like Philippe Pinel at the Bicêtre Hospital in France and they advocated the viewing of mental illness as a disorder that required compassionate treatment that would aid in the rehabilitation of the victim. The arrival in the Western world of institutionalisation as a solution to the problem of madness was very much an event of the nineteenth century, nine counties first applied, the first public asylum opening in 1812 in Nottinghamshire. In 1828, the newly appointed Commissioners in Lunacy were empowered to license and supervise private asylums, the Lunacy Act 1845 made the construction of asylums in every country compulsory with regular inspections on behalf of the Home Secretary. The Act required asylums to have written regulations and to have a resident physician, at the beginning of the nineteenth century there were a few thousand sick people housed in a variety of disparate institutions throughout England, but by 1900 that figure had grown to about 100,000
36.
State school
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State schools generally refer to primary or secondary schools mandated for or offered to all children without charge, funded in whole or in part by taxation. The term may refer to public institutions of post-secondary education. State education is inclusive, both in its treatment of students and in that enfranchisement for the government of public education is as broad as for government generally and it is often organized and operated to be a deliberate model of the civil community in which it functions. Although typically provided to groups of students in classrooms in a school, it may be provided in-home, employing visiting teachers. It can also be provided in non-school, non-home settings, such as shopping mall space, State education is generally available to all. In most countries, it is compulsory for children to school up to a certain age. In the case of private schooling, schools operate independently of the state, the funding for state schools, on the other hand, is provided by tax revenues, so that even individuals who do not attend school help to ensure that society is educated. In poverty stricken societies, authorities are often lax on compulsory school attendance because child labour is exploited and it is these same children whose income-securing labor cannot be forfeited to allow for school attendance. The term public education when applied to schools is not synonymous with the term publicly funded education. Government may make a policy decision that it wants to have some financial resources distributed in support of, and it may want to have some control over. Grants-in-aid of private schools and vouchers systems provide examples of publicly funded private education, conversely, a state school may rely heavily on private funding such as high fees or private donations and still be considered state by virtue of governmental ownership and control. In some countries, private associations or churches can operate schools according to their own principles, when these specific requirements are met, especially in the area of the school curriculum, the schools will qualify to receive state funding. Proponents of state education assert it to be necessary because of the need in society for people who are capable of reading, writing. In most industrialized countries, these views are distinctly in the minority, Government schools are free to attend for Australian citizens and permanent residents, whereas independent schools usually charge attendance fees. They can be divided into two categories, open and selective schools, the open schools accept all students from their government-defined catchment areas. Government schools educate approximately 65% of Australian students, with approximately 34% in Catholic, regardless of whether a school is part of the Government or independent systems, they are required to adhere to the same curriculum frameworks of their state or territory. The curriculum framework however provides for flexibility in the syllabus. Public or Government funded schools are found throughout Bangladesh and these schools mostly teach students from Year 1 to 10, with examinations for students in years 5,8, and 10
37.
Prince Edward County, Virginia
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Prince Edward County is a county located in the Commonwealth of Virginia. As of the 2010 census, the population was 23,368, Prince Edward County, Virginia was formed in the Virginia Colony in 1754 from Amelia County. It was named for Prince Edward, second son of Frederick, Prince of Wales, the original county seat housed the courthouse and was called Prince Edward Courthouse, it is now the village of Worsham. Near the headwaters of the Appomattox River, the Town of Farmville was formed in 1798, the county seat was moved from Worsham to Farmville in 1871. In the 1850s, the Southside Railroad between Petersburg and Lynchburg was built through Farmville between Burkeville and Pamplin City, the route, which was subsidized by a contribution from Farmville, required an expensive crossing of the Appomattox River slightly downstream which became known as the High Bridge. The Southside Railroad was heavily damaged during the American Civil War, after the Civil War, under the leadership of former Confederate General William Billy Mahone, the Southside Railroad was rebuilt. After the Financial Panic of 1873, the AM&O fell into default on its debt, it was purchased in the early 1880s by new owners who renamed it the Norfolk, in 1982, it became part of the current Norfolk Southern Railway system. It was later renamed the Tidewater and Western Railroad, but was dismantled in the early 20th century and this ultimately led to the desegregation of public schools in the U. S. The all-black R. R. Moton High School, named after Robert Russa Moton, due to overcrowding, three plywood buildings had been erected, and some students had to take classes in a school bus parked outside. Teachers and students did not have desks or blackboards, the schools requests for additional funds were denied by the all-white school board. On Monday, April 23,1951, Barbara Johns, the niece of Reverend Vernon Johns. The NAACP took up their case when the agreed to petition for an integrated school rather than improved conditions at their black school. This vote passed by one count, howard University-trained attorneys Spotswood W. Robinson and Oliver Hill filed suit against the county school system on behalf of the students. As in other states, since the turn of the century, black voters in Virginia had been largely disfranchised. In Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County, justin Moore that Virginia was vigorously equalizing conditions in black and white schools. The state verdict was appealed to the U. S. District Court, which ruled for the plaintiffs, a decision the school district and the state appealed. In 1956, the Virginia General Assembly passed a series of laws to implement Massive Resistance, Senator Harry F. Byrd, to avoid compliance with the Supreme Court ruling in Brown and its direction to integrate public schools. The state legislature created a program of grants, which could be given to students so they could attend a private school of their choice
38.
Southside (Virginia)
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Southside, or Southside Virginia has traditionally referred to the portion of the state south of the James River, the geographic feature from which the term derives its name. This was the first area to be developed in the colonial period, during the colonial era, Southside was considered the area where entrepreneurs settled, as opposed to some of the more established and wealthier families in the Tidewater counties. Many early Southside settlers were younger sons of established Tidewater families, a major portion of the territory was formed in 1703, when Prince George County, Virginia was organized from Charles City County. Four other counties and three independent cities were formed from territory, the counties in the 18th century and some of the independent cities in the 19th and 20th centuries. This is the portion of Virginias Piedmont region. This definition describes an area considered to be the heart of Southside. It also accounts for social and economic changes as the eastern counties developed dense populations, counties considered part of this region began those divided from Prince George County, Brunswick, Dinwiddie, Nottoway, Amelia, and Prince Edward, formed from parts of Prince George County. In addition to Richmond, the independent city of Petersburg, Virginia was established in this region, in addition, the western part of Southside has long been reputed for its isolated, rural, and culturally conservative character. Associated counties are Patrick, Henry, Bedford, Pittsylvania, Halifax, Charlotte, Mecklenburg, Campbell, Lunenburg, Appomattox, Buckingham, Cumberland, Powhatan, and Greensville counties. The independent cities of Danville, Emporia, Lynchburg, and Martinsville, are considered to be in the western part of this region. These more rural, western areas of Southside are noted for sharing similarities, for instance, residents of Danville frequently visit Greensboro, North Carolina for amenities. Residents of South Boston and Clarksville, Virginia travel to the Research Triangle for amenities, Southside Piedmont region has a climate different from the coastal areas of Virginia. Summers are typically hot, with highs generally in the upper 80s to low 90s, winters are generally mild, and nighttime lows often drop below freezing, frequently 5-7 degrees cooler than Richmond or Norfolk. Much of this has to do with the distance of the region from the effect of the Atlantic Ocean. Snow and frozen precipitation usually falls every year in Southside, with the western and northern fringes of the area getting several inches more snow than the rest, Southside, along with much of Upper South, was long known for its tobacco crop. The nutrient-rich soil, along with frequent spring rains, provided ideal growing conditions for tobacco, as well as soybeans, tobacco exhausts the soil, however, and in the early 19th century, planters moving into the Piedmont area shifted to mixed crops. The fall line was the area where the first industries were established, with mills running off the power of rivers, in Richmond and Petersburg, Virginia. Petersburg was a city with a large proportion of free blacks even before the American Civil War
39.
United States Senate
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The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the House of Representatives, the lower chamber, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. S. From 1789 until 1913, Senators were appointed by the legislatures of the states represented, following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. The Senate chamber is located in the wing of the Capitol, in Washington. It further has the responsibility of conducting trials of those impeached by the House, in the early 20th century, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began, although they are not constitutional officers. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise, there was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a Peoples House directly elected by the people, the other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Senate was thus not designed to serve the people of the United States equally, the Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation. First convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate, the name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders. James Madison made the comment about the Senate, In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people. An agrarian law would take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation, landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority, the senate, therefore, ought to be this body, and to answer these purposes, the people ought to have permanency and stability. The Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that states consent, the District of Columbia and all other territories are not entitled to representation in either House of the Congress. The District of Columbia elects two senators, but they are officials of the D. C. city government. The United States has had 50 states since 1959, thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming and this means some citizens are effectively two orders of magnitude better represented in the Senate than those in other states. Seats in the House of Representatives are approximately proportionate to the population of each state, before the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, Senators were elected by the individual state legislatures
40.
Harry F. Byrd
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Harry Flood Byrd, Sr. of Berryville in Clarke County, Virginia, was an American newspaper publisher, and political leader of the Democratic Party in Virginia. He was the leader of the coalition in the United States Senate. He was a descendant of one of the First Families of Virginia and his son Harry F. Byrd, Jr. succeeded him as U. S. Senator. Byrd was a dominant figure in Virginia who reorganized and modernized Virginias government and his political machine dominated Virginia Democratic Party politics for much of the first half of the 20th century. Financial conditions in Virginia during his youth conditioned his thinking on fiscal matters throughout his life and he is best remembered for his austere pay-as-you-go financial policies. Byrd was also known as a racist and avowed white separatist and this policy created a large subset of black students who were denied their education in several Virginia counties. These students, many of whom are alive, are known as the lost generation. Harry Flood Byrd was born in Martinsburg, West Virginia in 1887 and moved with his parents, Eleanor Bolling and Richard Evelyn Byrd, Sr. to Winchester, Virginia the same year. Byrd was a descendant of one of the First Families of Virginia, his ancestors included William Byrd II of Westover Plantation, who established Richmond, Harry Flood Byrd was the brother of famed aviator Richard Evelyn Byrd. Joel Flood served as Commonwealth Attorney of Appomattox County from 1919 to 1932 and he became a long-time Federal Court Judge of the Fifth Judiciary Circuit, serving from 1940 to 1964. Young Harry Byrds father was an apple grower in the Shenandoah Valley. He attended the schools and Shenandoah Valley Academy in Winchester. Harry Byrd never lacked food, but he had no money for luxuries, if a man got into debt, there was small chance of getting out of it. Even worse in Byrds eyes was the dilemma of the state itself, Virginia beginning in 1816 had taken on debt to help finance many internal public improvements through the Virginia Board of Public Works before the Civil War. Some of these improvements, which were primarily canals, turnpikes, others had been made in the former portion of the state that separated to form the new State of West Virginia. For several decades thereafter, Virginia and West Virginia disputed the new share of the Virginia governments debt. The issue was settled in 1915, when the United States Supreme Court ruled that West Virginia owed Virginia $12,393,929.50. West Virginia paid the final installment of this sum in 1939, however, the issue of Virginias public debt was far from resolved during Byrds formative years
