1.
Governor of New York
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The Governor of the State of New York is the chief executive of the U. S. state of New York. The governor is the head of the branch of New Yorks state government. The current governor is Andrew Cuomo, a Democrat, Cuomo won the November 2010 gubernatorial election and was sworn in as the 56th governor of the state of New York on January 1,2011. Cuomo was re-elected on November 5,2014, defeating his Republican challenger Robert Astorino, unlike the other government departments that compose the executive branch of government, the governor is themselves head of the state Executive Department. The officeholder is afforded the courtesy style of His/Her Excellency while in office, the governor of New York is often considered a potential candidate for President. Ten governors have been major-party candidates for president, and four, Martin Van Buren, Grover Cleveland, Theodore Roosevelt, six New York governors have gone on to serve as vice president. Additionally two Governors of New York, John Jay and Charles Evans Hughes, have served as Chief Justice of the United States, the office of Governor was established by the first New York State Constitution in 1777 to coincide with the calendar year. An 1874 amendment extended the term of office back to three years, but the 1894 constitution again reduced it to two years, the most recent constitution of 1938 extended the term to the current four years. The state constitution has provided since 1777 for the election of a lieutenant governor, originally, in the event of the death, resignation or impeachment of the governor, or absence from the state, the lieutenant governor would take on the governors duties and powers. Since the 1938 constitution, the lieutenant governor becomes governor upon such vacancy in the office. Although no provision exists in the constitution for it, precedent set in 2009 allows the governor to appoint a lieutenant governor should a vacancy occur, should the president pro tempore be unable to fulfill the duties, the speaker of the assembly is next in the line of succession. The lieutenant governor is elected on the ticket as the governor
2.
Thomas W. Wallace
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Thomas W. Wallace was an American lawyer and Republican politician. Running on the ticket with Governor Thomas E. Dewey, he was elected Lieutenant Governor of New York in November 1942, Wallace was corporation counsel of Schenectady, New York, and District Attorney of Schenectady County. At the New York state election,1942, he defeated the incumbent Democrat, Wallace took office on January 1,1943 as Lieutenant Governor of New York. In early July 1943, however, he contracted chicken pox from his two children, two days later he began to suffer from pneumonia, and was placed in an oxygen tent at Ellis Hospital in Schenectady. His condition rapidly deteriorated, and he died on July 17,1943 and he was buried at the Holy Redeemer Cemetery in Niskayuna, New York. His death raised the question if the revised State Constitution, adopted in 1938, the New York Court of Appeals decided in the affirmative, meeting with harsh criticism from Governor Dewey. Despite Deweys objections, a special election was held in November 1943
3.
Joe R. Hanley
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Joseph Rhodes Hanley was an American lawyer and Republican politician who served as Lieutenant Governor of New York from 1943 to 1950. He served in the U. S. Army during the Spanish–American War, in 1941 and 1942, he was Commander-in-Chief of the United Spanish War Veterans. He was a member of the New York State Assembly in 1927,1928,1929,1930 and 1931. He was a member of the New York State Senate from 1932 to 1943, sitting in the 155th, 156th, 157th, 158th, 159th, 160th, 161st, 162nd, 163rd and 164th New York State Legislatures. After the death of Perley A. Pitcher, Hanley was elected Temporary President of the State Senate on February 27,1939. When Charles Poletti succeeded to the office upon the resignation of Herbert H. Lehman in December 1942. When Lt. Gov. Thomas W. Wallace died on July 17,1943 and he was a delegate to the 1944 and 1948 Republican National Conventions. Early in 1950, Governor Thomas E. Dewey announced he would not seek another term as governor, Hanley was the leading candidate to succeed him. Then Dewey decided to run after all and was re-elected, for the record, Hanley claimed he had bowed out of the campaign voluntarily to clear the way for Dewey. But, in a Dear King letter to W. Kingsland Macy, senator from New York instead and had promised him a state job if he lost the Senate race. He lost the race and was appointed special counsel to the State Division of Veterans Affairs
4.
Frank C. Moore
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Frank Charles Moore was an American lawyer and politician. He was a delegate to the New York State Constitutional Conventions of 1938 and 1967 and he was New York State Comptroller from 1943 to 1950, elected in 1942 and 1946. At the New York state election,1950, he was elected Lieutenant Governor of New York and he resigned on September 30,1953, to become President of Nelson A. Rockefellers Government Affairs Foundation. He was buried at Elmlawn Cemetery in Kenmore, New York, political Graveyard His resignation announced, in TIME Magazine on May 4,1953
5.
Arthur H. Wicks
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Arthur H. Wicks was an American politician from New York. He was born on December 24,1887, in New York City and he owned a steam laundry in Kingston, New York. He was a delegate to the 1940 and 1944. Fay while the latter was incarcerated at Sing-Sing prison, william J. Keating, with Richard Carter, The Man Who Rocked the Boat
6.
Walter J. Mahoney
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Walter J. Mahoney was an American lawyer and politician. He graduated from Canisius College in 1930, and from the University at Buffalo Law School and he was admitted to the bar in 1934, and practiced law in Buffalo. While studying law, he was a reporter for the Buffalo Times and he attended on October 2,1932, in a vacant storefront in the old Gerrons Building in Buffalo, the first meeting of the Association of New York State Young Republican Clubs. The association was incorporated in 1934 and in 1935 Mahoney was elected president and he was also Acting Lieutenant Governor of New York in 1954. He was a delegate to the 1956,1960 and 1964 Republican National Conventions, in 1965 he was appointed by Gov. Nelson D. Rockefeller to the New York State Thruway Authority. In 1967, he was elected as a Justice of the New York Supreme Court and he retired in 1977, and resumed his private practice in Buffalo. The Walter J. Mahoney State Office Building on 65 Court Street, Walter J. Mahoney at the Historical Society of the New York Courts
7.
Charles Poletti
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Charles Poletti was an American lawyer and politician. He was the 46th Governor of New York in December 1942, aldo Charles Poletti was born in Barre, Vermont to Dino Poletti and Carolina Poletti. Dino Poletti worked as a stonecutter in a Barre granite quarry, Poletti intended to manage a bakery after graduating from Spaulding High School in 1920, but was encouraged by his principal to attend college. He attended Harvard University on a scholarship, and worked at a variety of jobs to finance his studies, including waiting tables, washing dishes. He received his bachelors degree in 1924, was admitted to Phi Beta Kappa, and then studied at the University of Rome, the University of Bologna, Poletti later served on Harvards Board of Overseers. Poletti graduated from Harvard Law School in 1928, after passing the bar exam Poletti joined the New York City firm of 1924 Democratic nominee for president John W. Davis. In 1928 he was active in the campaign of Governor Alfred E. Smith. In 1933 Poletti was appointed on the recommendation of Felix Frankfurter to be counsel to Governor Herbert H. Lehman. In 1937 Lehman appointed Poletti to a vacancy as a Justice of the New York State Supreme Court, in 1938, Poletti was elected Lieutenant Governor of New York on the Democratic ticket with Governor Lehman. In 1939 Poletti was elected to the National Association for the Advancement of Colored Peoples board of directors, Poletti was a candidate for the Democratic nomination for governor in November 1942. When state Attorney General John J. Bennett was selected, Poletti accepted the nomination for reelection as lieutenant governor, Bennett and Poletti were defeated by Thomas E. Dewey and Thomas W. Wallace. He served 29 days, the shortest term of any New York governor, after leaving office Poletti was appointed special assistant to Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson. In this position Poletti worked on efforts to integrate the military. On Dec.27,1942 Poletti broadcast for the Office of War Information a radio address in the Italian language to the Italian people, in July,1943 Poletti was assigned to serve as a U. S. Initially assigned to assist in restoring civil government in Palermo, he responsible for rebuilding efforts throughout Sicily. Some sources state that while he served in Sicily Polettis driver and interpreter was Mafia boss Vito Genovese, Genovese was allegedly heavily involved in black market activities with other Sicilian Mafiosi, including Calogero Vizzini. Another Mafia boss, Lucky Luciano, is alleged to have once described Poletti as one of our good friends. Poletti always stated that he had no connection to Genovese, Luciano, in a 1993 interview for BBC TV, Poletti stated, We had no problems at all with the Mafia
8.
W. Averell Harriman
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William Averell Harriman was an American Democratic politician, businessman, and diplomat. He was the son of railroad baron E. H. Harriman and he served as Secretary of Commerce under President Harry S. Truman and later as the 48th Governor of New York. He was a candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination in 1952, Harriman served President Franklin D. Roosevelt as special envoy to Europe and served as the U. S. Ambassador to the Soviet Union and U. S. Ambassador to Britain. He served in numerous U. S. diplomatic assignments in the Kennedy and he was a core member of the group of foreign policy elders known as The Wise Men. Better known as Averell Harriman, he was born in New York City and he was the brother of E. Roland Harriman and Mary Harriman Rumsey. Harriman was a friend of Hall Roosevelt, the brother of Eleanor Roosevelt. Hart Merriam, Grove Karl Gilbert, and Edward Curtis, along with 100 family members and staff, young Harriman would have his first introduction to Russia, a nation on which he would spend a significant amount of attention in his later life in public service. He attended Groton School in Massachusetts before going on to Yale where he joined the Skull, after graduating, he inherited the largest fortune in America and became Yales youngest Crew coach. Using money from his father he established W. A. Harriman & Co banking business in 1922, in 1927 his brother Roland joined the business and the name was changed to Harriman Brothers & Company. In 1931, it merged with Brown Bros. & Co. to create the highly successful Wall Street firm Brown Brothers Harriman & Co, notable employees included George Herbert Walker and his son-in-law Prescott Bush. Harrimans main properties included Brown Brothers & Harriman & Co, Union Pacific Railroad, Merchant Shipping Corporation, Harrimans associated properties included the Southern Pacific Railroad, Illinois Central Railroad, Wells Fargo & Co. the Pacific Mail Steamship Co. American Ship & Commerce, Hamburg-Amerikanische Packetfahrt-Aktiengesellschaft, the American Hawaiian Steamship Co, United American Lines, the Guaranty Trust Company, and the Union Banking Corporation. He served as Chairman of The Business Council, then known as the Business Advisory Council for the United States Department of Commerce in 1937 and 1939. Harrimans older sister, Mary Rumsey, encouraged Averell to leave his job and work with her and their friends. Averell joined the NRA National Recovery Administration, the first government consumer rights group, following the death of August Belmont, Jr. in 1924, Harriman, George Walker, and Joseph E. Widener purchased much of Belmonts thoroughbred breeding stock. Harriman raced under the name of Arden Farms, among his horses, Chance Play won the 1927 Jockey Club Gold Cup. He also raced in partnership with Walker under the name Log Cabin Stable before buying him out, racing Hall of Fame inductee Louis Feustel, trainer of Man o War, trained the Log Cabin horses until 1926. Of the partnerships successful runners purchased from the August Belmont estate, Harrimans banking business was the main Wall Street connection for German companies and the varied U. S. financial interests of Fritz Thyssen, who was a financial backer of the Nazi party until 1938
9.
New York County District Attorney
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The New York County District Attorney is the elected district attorney for New York County, New York. The office is responsible for the prosecution of violations of New York state laws, the current district attorney is Cyrus Vance, Jr. From 1801 to 1813, New York County was part of the First District, which included the counties of New York, Kings, Queens, Richmond, at that time, Queens included current-day Nassau County and Westchester included The Bronx. In 1818, each county in the state became its own district. From 1874 to 1895, the New York County included the West Bronx, on January 1,1914, the Bronx became a separate county with its own district attorney. Until 1822, the attorney was appointed by the Council of Appointment. The term was three years, beginning on January 1 and ending on December 31, the Consolidation Charter of 1896 extended the term of the incumbent John R. Fellows, who had been elected in 1893 to a three-year term by a year. Since the City election of 1897, the D. A, the long-running television series Law & Order and its spin-offs depict the prosecution of criminal suspects by lawyers of the New York County District Attorneys office. The district attorneys depicted in the franchise are Adam Schiff, Nora Lewin, Arthur Branch and Jack McCoy
10.
Herbert H. Lehman
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Herbert Henry Lehman was a Democratic Party politician from New York. He served from 1933 until 1942 as the 45th Governor of New York and he was born to a Reform Jewish family in New York City, the son of Babetta and German-born immigrant Mayer Lehman, one of the three brothers who cofounded the Lehman Brothers investment banking firm. Herberts father arrived from Rimpar, Germany, in 1848, settling in Montgomery, Alabama, where he engaged in the cotton business and he attended The Sachs School, founded by Julius Sachs. In 1895, he graduated from Sachs Collegiate Institute in New York City, after college, Lehman worked in textile manufacturing, eventually becoming vice-president and treasurer of the J. Spencer Turner Company in Brooklyn. In 1908, he became a partner in the investment banking firm Lehman Brothers of New York City with his brother Arthur, during World War I, he became a colonel on the U. S. Army general staff. By 1928, when he entered service, he had withdrawn entirely from business. Lehman became active in politics in 1920 and became chairman of the committee of the Democratic Party in 1928 as a reward for having been a strong supporter of Alfred E. Smith. He was elected lieutenant governor of New York in 1928 and 1930 and he then served four terms as Governor of New York, elected in 1932 to replace Franklin D. Roosevelt, and re-elected in 1934,1936 and 1938. Unlike Smith, Lehman was a supporter of Roosevelts New Deal and he served as director-general of the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration from 1943 to 1946. Lehman was the Democratic nominee for US Senator from New York in 1946 and also ran on the Liberal and American Labor tickets but was defeated by the Republican candidate, Irving Ives. In 1949, he ran again, this time in an election to serve the remainder of Robert F. Wagners term. Lehman defeated John Foster Dulles, who had appointed to temporarily fill the vacancy after Wagners resignation. In the campaign, he ran on the Democratic and Liberal tickets, in 1950, Lehman was re-elected to a full term, running on Democratic and Liberal lines and opposed by the American Labor Party. Lehman was one of two US senators who were opposed to nominating Mississippi Senator James O. Eastland to be chairman of the Senate Judiciary Committee and he was also an early and vocal opponent of Senator Joseph McCarthy. Lehman was one of the most liberal senators and was not considered part of the Senates club of insiders. He retired from the Senate after his term and was not a candidate for renomination or re-election in 1956. On April 28,1910, Lehman married Edith Louise Altschul, the couple had three children, Hilda, Peter, and John. Hilda, Peter and John served in the United States military during World War II, according to a group history published April 6,1944, the governors son was to be awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross
11.
Owosso, Michigan
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Owosso is a city in Shiawassee County in the U. S. state of Michigan. The population was 15,194 at the 2010 census, the city is located on the eastern side of Owosso Township, but is politically independent. The city was named after Chief Wasso, an Ojibwa leader of the Shiawassee area, alfred L. and Benjamin O. Williams were early settlers to the town. They drew Elias Comstock, who built the first permanent home in the settlement, Owosso was incorporated as a city in 1859 at which time it had 1000 people. It had never had a period as a village, the towns first mayor was Amos Gould, a judge originally from New York. In 1876, it organized its fire department, the city has a council-manager form of government. Owosso is served by the Shiawassee District Library branch, education is provided by the Owosso Public Schools, which owns the historic Lincoln School on Michigan Avenue south of M-21. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 5.37 square miles. Each year Owosso averages eleven days with temperatures below 0 °F, and nine days with temperatures above 90 °F. Owosso averages twenty-nine inches of rain per year, the average growing season in Owosso is 144 days. As of the census of 2010, there were 15,194 people,6,161 households, the population density was 2,905.2 inhabitants per square mile. There were 6,823 housing units at a density of 1,304.6 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 95. 7% White,0. 8% African American,0. 5% Native American,0. 3% Asian,0. 6% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 3. 9% of the population. 31. 9% of all households were made up of individuals and 12. 5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.41 and the average family size was 3.00. The median age in the city was 34.8 years. 25. 2% of residents were under the age of 18,11. 5% were between the ages of 18 and 24,25. 9% were from 25 to 44,24. 7% were from 45 to 64, and 12. 8% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48. 4% male and 51. 6% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 15,713 people,6,340 households, and 4,076 families. The population density was 3,174.5 per square mile, there were 6,724 housing units at an average density of 1,358.4 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 97% White,0. 20% African American,0. 60% Native American,0. 40% Asian,0. 80% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 3% of the population
12.
Miami
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Miami is a seaport city at the southeastern corner of the U. S. state of Florida and its Atlantic coast. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, Miamis metro area is the eighth-most populous, Miami is a major center, and a leader in finance, commerce, culture, media, entertainment, the arts, and international trade. In 2012, Miami was classified as an Alpha−World City in the World Cities Study Groups inventory, in 2010, Miami ranked seventh in the United States in terms of finance, commerce, culture, entertainment, fashion, education, and other sectors. It ranked 33rd among global cities, in 2008, Forbes magazine ranked Miami Americas Cleanest City, for its year-round good air quality, vast green spaces, clean drinking water, clean streets, and citywide recycling programs. According to a 2009 UBS study of 73 world cities, Miami was ranked as the richest city in the United States, Miami is nicknamed the Capital of Latin America and is the largest city with a Cuban-American plurality. Miami has the third tallest skyline in the U. S. with over 300 high-rises, Downtown Miami is home to the largest concentration of international banks in the United States, and many large national and international companies. The Civic Center is a center for hospitals, research institutes, medical centers. For more than two decades, the Port of Miami, known as the Cruise Capital of the World, has been the number one cruise port in the world. It accommodates some of the worlds largest cruise ships and operations, Metropolitan Miami is the major tourism hub in the American South, number two in the U. S. after New York City and number 13 in the world, including the popular destination of Miami Beach. The Miami area was inhabited for thousands of years by indigenous Native American tribes, the Tequestas occupied the area for a thousand years before encountering Europeans. An Indian village of hundreds of people dating to 500–600 B. C. was located at the mouth of the Miami River, in 1566 the explorer, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, claimed it for Spain. A Spanish mission was constructed one year later in 1567, Spain and Great Britain successively controlled Florida, and Spain ceded it to the United States in 1821. In 1836, the US built Fort Dallas as part of its development of the Florida Territory and attempt to suppress, the Miami area subsequently became a site of fighting during the Second Seminole War. Miami is noted as the major city in the United States conceived by a woman, Julia Tuttle, a local citrus grower. The Miami area was known as Biscayne Bay Country in the early years of its growth. In the late 19th century, reports described the area as a promising wilderness, the area was also characterized as one of the finest building sites in Florida. The Great Freeze of 1894–95 hastened Miamis growth, as the crops of the Miami area were the ones in Florida that survived. Julia Tuttle subsequently convinced Henry Flagler, a tycoon, to expand his Florida East Coast Railway to the region
13.
Republican Party (United States)
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The Republican Party, commonly referred to as the GOP, is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, the other being its historic rival, the Democratic Party. The party is named after republicanism, the dominant value during the American Revolution and it was founded by anti-slavery activists, modernists, ex-Whigs, and ex-Free Soilers in 1854. The Republicans dominated politics nationally and in the majority of northern States for most of the period between 1860 and 1932, there have been 19 Republican presidents, the most from any one party. The Republican Partys current ideology is American conservatism, which contrasts with the Democrats more progressive platform, further, its platform involves support for free market capitalism, free enterprise, fiscal conservatism, a strong national defense, deregulation, and restrictions on labor unions. In addition to advocating for economic policies, the Republican Party is socially conservative. As of 2017, the GOP is documented as being at its strongest position politically since 1928, in addition to holding the Presidency, the Republicans control the 115th United States Congress, having majorities in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a majority of governorships and state legislatures, the main cause was opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which repealed the Missouri Compromise by which slavery was kept out of Kansas. The Northern Republicans saw the expansion of slavery as a great evil, the first public meeting of the general anti-Nebraska movement where the name Republican was suggested for a new anti-slavery party was held on March 20,1854, in a schoolhouse in Ripon, Wisconsin. The name was chosen to pay homage to Thomas Jeffersons Republican Party. The first official party convention was held on July 6,1854, in Jackson and it oversaw the preserving of the union, the end of slavery, and the provision of equal rights to all men in the American Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861–1877. The Republicans initial base was in the Northeast and the upper Midwest, with the realignment of parties and voters in the Third Party System, the strong run of John C. Fremont in the 1856 United States presidential election demonstrated it dominated most northern states, early Republican ideology was reflected in the 1856 slogan free labor, free land, free men, which had been coined by Salmon P. Chase, a Senator from Ohio. Free labor referred to the Republican opposition to labor and belief in independent artisans. Free land referred to Republican opposition to the system whereby slaveowners could buy up all the good farm land. The Party strove to contain the expansion of slavery, which would cause the collapse of the slave power, Lincoln, representing the fast-growing western states, won the Republican nomination in 1860 and subsequently won the presidency. The party took on the mission of preserving the Union, and destroying slavery during the American Civil War, in the election of 1864, it united with War Democrats to nominate Lincoln on the National Union Party ticket. The partys success created factionalism within the party in the 1870s and those who felt that Reconstruction had been accomplished and was continued mostly to promote the large-scale corruption tolerated by President Ulysses S. Grant ran Horace Greeley for the presidency. The Stalwarts defended Grant and the system, the Half-Breeds led by Chester A. Arthur pushed for reform of the civil service in 1883
14.
Alma mater
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Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
15.
University of Michigan
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The University of Michigan, frequently referred to simply as Michigan, is a public research university in Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States. Founded in 1817 in Detroit as the Catholepistemiad, or University of Michigania,20 years before the Michigan Territory became a state, in 1821, the university was officially renamed the University of Michigan. It moved to Ann Arbor in 1837 onto 40 acres of what is now known as Central Campus, the University was a founding member of the Association of American Universities. Considered one of the foremost research universities in the United States, Michigans body of living alumni comprises more than 540,000 people, one of the largest alumni bases of any university in the world. Besides academic life, Michigans athletic teams compete in Division I of the NCAA and are known as the Wolverines. They are members of the Big Ten Conference, the University of Michigan was established in Detroit on August 26,1817 as the Catholepistemiad, or University of Michigania, by the governor and judges of Michigan Territory. Judge Augustus B. Woodward specifically invited The Rev. John Monteith and Father Gabriel Richard, Monteith became its first President and held seven of the professorships, and Richard was Vice President and held the other six professorships. Concurrently, Ann Arbor had set aside 40 acres in the hopes of being selected as the state capital, but when Lansing was chosen as the state capital, the city offered the land for a university. What would become the university moved to Ann Arbor in 1837 thanks to Governor Stevens T. Mason, the original 40 acres was the basis of the present Central Campus. The first classes in Ann Arbor were held in 1841, with six freshmen, eleven students graduated in the first commencement in 1845. By 1866, enrollment increased to 1,205 students, many of whom were Civil War veterans, Women were first admitted in 1870. U-M also became the first American university to use the method of study. Among the early students in the School of Medicine was Jose Celso Barbosa, who in 1880 graduated as valedictorian and he returned to Puerto Rico to practice medicine and also served in high-ranking posts in the government. In 1920 the university reorganized the College of Engineering and formed a committee of 100 industrialists to guide academic research initiatives. The university became a choice for bright Jewish students from New York in the 1920s and 1930s. Because of its standards, U-M gained the nickname Harvard of the West. During World War II, U-Ms research supported military efforts, such as U. S. Navy projects in proximity fuzes, PT boats, and radar jamming. After the war, enrollment expanded rapidly and by 1950, it reached 21,000, as the Cold War and the Space Race took hold, U-M received numerous government grants for strategic research and helped to develop peacetime uses for nuclear energy
16.
Bachelor of Arts
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A Bachelor of Arts is a bachelors degree awarded for an undergraduate course or program in either the liberal arts, the sciences, or both. Bachelor of Arts degree programs take three to four years depending on the country, academic institution, and specific specializations, majors or minors. The word baccalaureus or baccalarium should not be confused with baccalaureatus, degree diplomas generally are printed on high-quality paper or parchment, individual institutions set the preferred abbreviation for their degrees. In Pakistan, the Bachelor of Arts degree can also be attained within two years as an external degree, in colleges and universities in Australia, New Zealand, Nepal and South Africa, the BA degree can be taken over three years of full-time study. Unlike in other countries, students do not receive a grade for their Bachelor of Arts degree with varying levels of honours. Qualified students may be admitted, after they have achieved their Bachelors program with an overall grade point average. Thus, to achieve a Bachelor Honours degree, a postgraduate year. A student who holds a Honours degree is eligible for entry to either a Doctorate or a very high research Master´s degree program. Education in Canada is controlled by the Provinces and can be different depending on the province in Canada. Canadian universities typically offer a 3-year Bachelor of Arts degrees, in many universities and colleges, Bachelor of Arts degrees are differentiated either as Bachelors of Arts or as honours Bachelor of Arts degree. The honours degrees are designated with the abbreviation in brackets of. It should not be confused with the consecutive Bachelor of Arts degree with Honours, Latin Baccalaureatus in Artibus Cum Honore, BA hon. de jure without brackets and with a dot. It is a degree, which is considered to be the equivalent of a corresponding maîtrise degree under the French influenced system. Going back in history, a three-year Bachelor of Arts degree was called a pass degree or general degree. Students may be required to undertake a long high-quality research empirical thesis combined with a selection of courses from the relevant field of studies. The consecutive B. cum Honore degree is essential if students ultimate goal is to study towards a two- or three-year very high research masters´ degree qualification. A student holding a Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree also may choose to complete a Doctor of Philosophy program without the requirement to first complete a masters degree, over the years, in some universities certain Baccalaureatus cum Honore programs have been changed to corresponding master´s degrees. In general, in all four countries, the B. A. degree is the standard required for entry into a masters programme, in science, a BA hons degree is generally a prerequisite for entrance to a Ph. D program or a very-high-research-activity master´s programme
17.
Columbia Law School
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Columbia Law School is a professional graduate school of Columbia University, a member of the Ivy League. It is widely regarded as one of the most prestigious law schools in the world and has always ranked in the top five by U. S. News. Columbia is especially known for its strength in corporate law. Columbia Law School was founded in 1858 as the Columbia College Law School and was known for its legal scholarship dating back to the 18th century. Cabinet members and Presidential advisers, U. S. Senators, Representatives, and Governors, according to Columbia Law Schools 2013 ABA-required disclosures, 95% of the Class of 2013 obtained full-time, long-term, JD-required employment nine months after graduation. The law school was ranked #1 of all law schools nation-wide by the National Law Journal in terms of sending the highest percentage of 2015 graduates to the largest 100 law firms in the US, the teaching of law at Columbia reaches back to the 18th century. Columbia College appointed its first professor of law, James Kent, the lectures of Chancellor Kent in the course of four years had developed into the first two volumes of his Commentaries, the second volume being published November 1827. Kent did not, however, succeed in establishing a law school or department in the College, thus, the formal instruction of law as a course of study did not commence until the middle of the 19th century. The Columbia College Law School, as it was officially called, was founded in 1858. The first law school building was a Gothic Revival structure located on Columbias Madison Avenue campus, thereafter, the college became Columbia University and moved north to the neighborhood of Morningside Heights. As Columbia Law Professor Theodore Dwight observed, at its founding the demand for a course of study in law was still speculative. No institution resembling a law school had existed in New York. Legal education was, however, at a low ebb. The clerks in the law offices were left almost wholly to themselves, frequently they were not even acquainted with the lawyers with whom, by a convenient fiction, they were supposed to be studying. In general, the examinations were purely perfunctory, a politician of influence was not readily turned away. Few studied law as a science, many followed it as a trade or as a convenient ladder whereby to rise in a political career, indeed, Columbia Law School was one of the few law schools established in the United States before the Civil War. Jay was fortunate to have attentive supervision because the quality and time of learning the law varied greatly within the profession, the original course of study to obtain a degree consisted of just two years, rather than the modern standard of three. The first lecture in the Law School was delivered on Monday, Nov 1,1858, by Mr. Dwight and it was an introductory lecture, afterwards printed
18.
Juris Doctor
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The Juris Doctor degree, also known as the Doctor of Jurisprudence degree, is a graduate-entry professional degree in law and one of several Doctor of Law degrees. It is earned by completing law school in Australia, Canada and the United States and it has the academic standing of a second-entry, professional baccalaureate degree in Canada, a masters degree in Australia and a professional doctorate in the United States. The degree was first awarded in the United States in the early 20th century and was created as a version of the old European doctor of law degree. Originating from the 19th century Harvard movement for the study of law. It involves a program in most jurisdictions. To be authorized to practice law in the courts of a state in the United States. Lawyers must, however, be admitted to the bar of the court before they are authorized to practice in that court. Admission to the bar of a district court includes admission to the bar of the related bankruptcy court. In the United States, the doctorate in law may be conferred in Latin or in English, as Juris Doctor and at some law schools Doctor of Law. Juris Doctor literally means Teacher of Law, while the Latin for Doctor of Jurisprudence—Jurisprudentiae Doctor—literally means Teacher of Legal Knowledge, the J. D. is not to be confused with Doctor of Laws or Legum Doctor. In institutions where the latter can be earned, e. g. D, the LL. D. is invariably an honorary degree in the United States. The first university in Europe, the University of Bologna, was founded as a school of law by four famous legal scholars in the 11th century who were students of the school in that city. This served as the model for law schools of the Middle Ages. While Bologna granted only doctorates, preparatory degrees were introduced in Paris, the nature of the J. D. can be better understood by a review of the context of the history of legal education in England. The teaching of law at Cambridge and Oxford Universities was mainly for philosophical or scholarly purposes, the universities taught only civil and canon law but not the common law that applied in most jurisdictions. The original method of education at the Inns of Court was a mix of moot court-like practice and lecture, by the fifteenth century, the Inns functioned like a university akin to the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge, though very specialized in purpose. With the frequent absence of parties to suits during the Crusades, the importance of the role grew tremendously. The apprenticeship program for solicitors thus emerged, structured and governed by the rules as the apprenticeship programs for the trades
19.
United States presidential election, 1944
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The United States presidential election of 1944 was the 40th quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 7,1944. Incumbent President Franklin D. Roosevelt, the Democratic nominee, sought his fourth term in office, the election was set against the backdrop of World War II, which was going well for the United States and its Allies. Roosevelt had already served longer than any president, but remained popular. Unlike in 1940, there was doubt that he would run for another term as the Democratic candidate. Dewey, the Governor of New York, campaigned against the New Deal and for a smaller government, Democratic candidates, President Roosevelt was the popular, wartime incumbent and faced little formal opposition. Although many Southern Democrats distrusted Roosevelts racial policies, he brought enormous war activities to the region, no major figure opposed Roosevelt publicly, and he was re-nominated easily when the Democratic Convention met in Chicago. Opposition to Wallace came especially from Catholic leaders in big cities, Wallace, who was Roosevelt’s vice president since January 1941, was regarded by most conservatives as being too left-wing and personally eccentric to be next in line for the presidency. He had performed so poorly as economic coordinator that Roosevelt had to him from that post. Numerous party leaders sent word to Roosevelt that they would fight Wallaces re-nomination as vice president and proposed instead Senator Harry S. Truman. Truman was highly visible as the chairman of a Senate wartime committee investigating fraud, Roosevelt, who personally liked Wallace and knew little about Truman, reluctantly agreed to accept Truman as his running mate to preserve party unity. Even so, many delegates on the refused to abandon Wallace. However, enough large Northern, Midwestern, and Southern states supported Truman to give him victory on the second ballot, the fight over the vice presidential nomination proved to be consequential, Roosevelt died in April 1945, and Truman instead of Wallace became the nation’s thirty-third President. Taft surprised many by announcing that he was not a candidate as he wanted to remain in the Senate, instead, he voiced his support for a fellow conservative, with Taft out of the race some Republican conservatives favored General MacArthur. However, MacArthur’s chances were limited by the fact that he was leading Allied forces against Japan and his supporters entered his name in the Wisconsin primary nonetheless. The Wisconsin primary proved to be the key contest, as Dewey won by a wide margin. He took fourteen delegates to four for Harold Stassen, while MacArthur won the three remaining delegates, Willkie was shut out in the Wisconsin primary, he did not win a single delegate. His unexpectedly poor showing in Wisconsin forced him to withdraw as a candidate for the nomination, however, at the time of his sudden death in early October 1944, Willkie had endorsed neither Dewey nor Roosevelt. At the 1944 Republican National Convention in Chicago, Illinois, Dewey easily overcame Bricker and was nominated for president on the first ballot, Dewey, a moderate to liberal Republican, chose the conservative Bricker as his running mate
20.
President of the United States
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The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is considered to be one of the worlds most powerful political figures, the role includes being the commander-in-chief of the worlds most expensive military with the second largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The office of President holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad, Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The president is empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves. The president is responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is a member. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States, since the office of President was established in 1789, its power has grown substantially, as has the power of the federal government as a whole. However, nine vice presidents have assumed the presidency without having elected to the office. The Twenty-second Amendment prohibits anyone from being elected president for a third term, in all,44 individuals have served 45 presidencies spanning 57 full four-year terms. On January 20,2017, Donald Trump was sworn in as the 45th, in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives to Congress, only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1,1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies, with peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. Prospects for the convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washingtons attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia. It was through the negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U. S. The first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto, the Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options, Sign the legislation, the bill becomes law. Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections, in this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation
21.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
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Franklin Delano Roosevelt, commonly known as FDR, was an American statesman and political leader who served as the 32nd President of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. A Democrat, he won a record four presidential elections and emerged as a figure in world events during the mid-20th century. He directed the United States government during most of the Great Depression and he is often rated by scholars as one of the three greatest U. S. Presidents, along with George Washington and Abraham Lincoln. Roosevelt was born in 1882 to an old, prominent Dutch family from Dutchess County and he attended the elite educational institutions of Groton School, Harvard College, and Columbia Law School. At age 23 in 1905, he married Eleanor Roosevelt, and he entered politics in 1910, serving in the New York State Senate, and then as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under President Woodrow Wilson. In 1920, Roosevelt was presidential candidate James M. Coxs running mate and he was in office from 1929 to 1933 and served as a reform governor, promoting the enactment of programs to combat the depression besetting the United States at the time. In the 1932 presidential election, Roosevelt defeated incumbent Republican president Herbert Hoover in a landslide to win the presidency, Roosevelt took office while in the United States was in the midst of the worst economic crisis in its history. Energized by his victory over polio, FDR relied on his persistent optimism and activism to renew the national spirit. He created numerous programs to support the unemployed and farmers, and to labor union growth while more closely regulating business. His support for the repeal of Prohibition in 1933 added to his popularity, the economy improved rapidly from 1933–37, but then relapsed into a deep recession in 1937–38. The bipartisan Conservative Coalition that formed in 1937 prevented his packing the Supreme Court, when the war began and unemployment ended, conservatives in Congress repealed the two major relief programs, the WPA and CCC. However, they kept most of the regulations on business, along with several smaller programs, major surviving programs include the Securities and Exchange Commission, the Wagner Act, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and Social Security. His goal was to make America the Arsenal of Democracy, which would supply munitions to the Allies, in March 1941, Roosevelt, with Congressional approval, provided Lend-Lease aid to Britain and China. He supervised the mobilization of the U. S. economy to support the war effort, as an active military leader, Roosevelt implemented a war strategy on two fronts that ended in the defeat of the Axis Powers and initiate the development of the worlds first atomic bomb. His work also influenced the creation of the United Nations. Roosevelts physical health declined during the war years, and he died 11 weeks into his fourth term. One of the oldest Dutch families in New York State, the Roosevelts distinguished themselves in other than politics. One ancestor, Isaac Roosevelt, had served with the New York militia during the American Revolution, Roosevelt attended events of the New York society Sons of the American Revolution, and joined the organization while he was president
22.
United States presidential election, 1948
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The United States presidential election of 1948 was the 41st quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 2,1948. Trumans victory is considered to be one of the greatest election upsets in American history, virtually every prediction indicated that he would be defeated by Dewey. The Democratic Party had a severe three-way ideological split, with both the far left and far right of the Party running third-party campaigns, with simultaneous success in the 1948 congressional elections, the Democrats regained control of both houses of Congress, which they had lost in 1946. Thus, Trumans election confirmed the Democratic Partys status as the majority party. As would be experienced by the Democrats, there was a boom for General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the most popular general of World War II, unlike the latter movement within the Democratic party, however, the Republican draft movement came largely from the grassroots of the party. With the first state primary approaching, Eisenhower was forced to make a quick decision, stating that soldiers should keep out of politics, Eisenhower declined to run and requested that the grassroots draft movement cease its activities. Dewey, who had been the Republican nominee in 1944, was regarded as the frontrunner when the primaries began, Dewey was the acknowledged leader of the Republican Partys Eastern Establishment. In 1946 he had been re-elected governor of New York by the largest margin in state history, Deweys handicap was that many Republicans disliked him on a personal level, he often struck observers as cold, stiff, and calculating. Taft was the leader of the Republican Partys conservative wing, which was strongest in the Midwest, Taft had two major weaknesses, He was a plodding, dull campaigner, and he was viewed by most party leaders as being too conservative and controversial to win a presidential election. Both Vandenberg and Warren were highly popular in their states, but each refused to campaign in the primaries. Their supporters, however, hoped that in the event of a Dewey-Taft-Stassen deadlock, General MacArthur, the famous war hero, was especially popular among conservatives. Since he was serving in Japan as the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers occupying that nation and they chose to enter his name in the Wisconsin primary. The surprise candidate of 1948 was Stassen, a liberal from Minnesota, in 1938, Stassen had been elected governor of Minnesota at the age of 31, he resigned as governor in 1943 to serve in the wartime Navy. In 1945 he served on the committee created the United Nations. Stassen was widely regarded as the most liberal of the Republican candidates, Stassen stunned Dewey and MacArthur in the Wisconsin primary, Stassens surprise victory virtually eliminated General MacArthur, whose supporters had made a major effort on his behalf. Stassen defeated Dewey again in the Nebraska primary, thus making him the new frontrunner and he then made the strategic mistake of trying to beat Taft in Ohio, Tafts home state. Stassen believed that if he could defeat Taft in his state, Taft would be forced to quit the race. Taft defeated Stassen in his native Ohio, however, and Stassen earned the hostility of the partys conservatives, even so, Stassen was still leading Dewey in the polls for the upcoming Oregon primary
23.
Harry S. Truman
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Harry S. Truman was an American politician who served as the 33rd President of the United States, assuming the office upon the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt during the waning months of World War II. In domestic affairs, he was a moderate Democrat whose liberal proposals were a continuation of Franklin Roosevelts New Deal, but the conservative-dominated Congress blocked most of them. He also used weapons to end World War II, desegregated the U. S. armed forces, supported a newly independent Israel. Truman was born in Lamar, Missouri, and spent most of his youth on his familys 600-acre farm near Independence, in the last months of World War I, he served in combat in France as an artillery officer with his National Guard unit. After the war, he owned a haberdashery in Kansas City, Missouri, and joined the Democratic Party. Truman was first elected to office as a county official in 1922. After serving as a United States Senator from Missouri and briefly as Vice President, he succeeded to the presidency on April 12,1945, upon the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt. Germany surrendered on Trumans 61st birthday, just a few weeks after he assumed the presidency, but the war with Imperial Japan raged on and was expected to last at least another year. Although this decision and the issues that arose as a result of it remain the subject of debate to this day. Truman presided over a surge in economic prosperity as America sought readjustment after long years of depression. His presidency was a point in foreign affairs, as the United States engaged in an internationalist foreign policy. Truman helped found the United Nations in 1945, issued the Truman Doctrine in 1947 to contain Communism and his political coalition was based on the white South, labor unions, farmers, ethnic groups, and traditional Democrats across the North. Truman was able to rally groups of supporters during the 1948 presidential election. The Soviet Union became an enemy in the Cold War, Truman oversaw the Berlin Airlift of 1948 and the creation of NATO in 1949, but was unable to stop Communists from taking over China. When communist North Korea invaded South Korea in 1950, he sent U. S. troops, after initial successes in Korea, however, the UN forces were thrown back by Chinese intervention, and the conflict was stalemated throughout the final years of Trumans presidency. Scholars, starting in 1962, ranked Trumans presidency as near great, Harry S. Truman was born on May 8,1884, in Lamar, Missouri, the oldest child of John Anderson Truman and Martha Ellen Young Truman. His parents chose the name Harry after his mothers brother, Harrison Harry Young, while the S did not stand for any one name, it was chosen as his middle initial to honor both of his grandfathers, Anderson Shipp Truman and Solomon Young. The initial has been written and printed followed by a period
24.
Dwight D. Eisenhower
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Dwight David Ike Eisenhower was an American politician and Army general who served as the 34th President of the United States from 1953 until 1961. He was a general in the United States Army during World War II. He was responsible for planning and supervising the invasion of North Africa in Operation Torch in 1942–43, in 1951, he became the first Supreme Commander of NATO. Eisenhower was of mostly Pennsylvania Dutch ancestry and was raised in a family in Kansas by parents with a strong religious background. He graduated from West Point in 1915 and later married Mamie Doud, after World War II, Eisenhower served as Army Chief of Staff under President Harry S. Truman and then accepted the post of President at Columbia University. Eisenhower entered the 1952 presidential race as a Republican to counter the non-interventionism of Senator Robert A. Taft, campaigning against communism, Korea and he won in a landslide, defeating Democratic candidate Adlai Stevenson and temporarily upending the New Deal Coalition. Eisenhower was the first U. S. president to be constitutionally term-limited under the 22nd Amendment, Eisenhowers main goals in office were to keep pressure on the Soviet Union and reduce federal deficits. He ordered coups in Iran and Guatemala, Eisenhower gave major aid to help the French in the First Indochina War, and after the French were defeated he gave strong financial support to the new state of South Vietnam. Congress agreed to his request in 1955 for the Formosa Resolution, after the Soviet Union launched Sputnik in 1957, Eisenhower authorized the establishment of NASA, which led to the space race. During the Suez Crisis of 1956, Eisenhower condemned the Israeli, British and French invasion of Egypt and he also condemned the Soviet invasion during the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 but took no action. Eisenhower sent 15,000 U. S. troops to Lebanon to prevent the government from falling to a Nasser-inspired revolution during the 1958 Lebanon crisis. Near the end of his term, his efforts to set up a meeting with the Soviets collapsed because of the U-2 incident. On the domestic front, he covertly opposed Joseph McCarthy and contributed to the end of McCarthyism by openly invoking executive privilege and he otherwise left most political activity to his Vice President, Richard Nixon. Eisenhower was a conservative who continued New Deal agencies and expanded Social Security. Eisenhowers two terms saw considerable economic prosperity except for a decline in 1958. Voted Gallups most admired man twelve times, he achieved widespread popular esteem both in and out of office, since the late 20th century, consensus among Western scholars has consistently held Eisenhower as one of the greatest U. S. Presidents. The Eisenhauer family migrated from Karlsbrunn in the Saarland, to North America, first settling in York, Pennsylvania, in 1741, accounts vary as to how and when the German name Eisenhauer was anglicized to Eisenhower. Eisenhowers Pennsylvania Dutch ancestors, who were farmers, included Hans Nikolaus Eisenhauer of Karlsbrunn
25.
United States presidential election, 1952
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The United States presidential election of 1952 was that nations 42nd quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 4,1952. Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower was the winner, ending a string of Democratic wins that stretched back to 1932. He carried the Republican Party to narrow control of the House, during this time, Cold War tension between the United States and the Soviet Union was at a high level, as was fear of communism in the US, epitomized by the campaign of McCarthyism. Foreign policy was an issue in the race for the Republican nomination. The nation was polarized over the stalemated Korean War, and the extent of corruption in the government became a major issue as well. The economy was prosperous and economic and social issues played little role in the campaign, incumbent President Harry S. Truman, knocked out of the race by a poor showing in the early primaries, decided to back Illinois Governor Adlai Stevenson. Stevenson had gained a reputation in Illinois as a reformer and intellectual, however, President Truman had several meetings with Stevenson about the Presidents desire for Stevenson to become the standard-bearer for the party. Truman became very frustrated with Stevenson and his level of indecision before Stevenson actually committed to running. The Republican Party saw a battle for its nomination contest between Senator Robert A. Taft of Ohio and Eisenhower. The issue was foreign policy, with Eisenhower supporters attacking Taft as too isolationist, Taft saw little role for the United States in the Cold War. Eisenhower, the former NATO commander and war hero, narrowly defeated Taft. Eisenhower then crusaded against the Truman policies he blasted as Korea, Communism, Eisenhower did well in all major demographic and regional groups outside the Deep South. Republican candidates, The fight for the Republican nomination was between General Dwight D. Eisenhower, who became the candidate of the partys eastern establishment. The moderate Eastern Republicans were led by New York Governor Thomas E. Dewey, the moderates were also concerned with ending the Republicans losing streak in presidential elections, they felt that the personally popular Eisenhower had the best chance of beating the Democrats. For this reason, Dewey himself declined the notion of a run for president. The conservative Republicans led by Taft were based in the Midwest, the conservatives wanted to abolish many of the New Deal welfare programs, in foreign policy they were often non-interventionists who believed that America should avoid alliances with foreign powers. Taft had been a candidate for the Republican nomination in 1940 and 1948, Taft, who was 62 when the campaign began, freely admitted that 1952 was his last chance to win the nomination, and this led his supporters to work hard for him. Tafts weakness, which he was never able to overcome, was the fear of many party bosses that he was too conservative, Warren, although highly popular in California, refused to campaign in the presidential primaries and thus limited his chances of winning the nomination. He did retain the support of the California delegation, and his supporters hoped that, in the event of an Eisenhower-Taft deadlock, Warren might emerge as a compromise candidate
26.
Richard Nixon
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Richard Milhous Nixon was an American politician who served as the 37th President of the United States from 1969 until 1974, when he became the only U. S. president to resign from office. He had previously served as a U. S, Representative and Senator from California and as the 36th Vice President of the United States from 1953 to 1961 under the presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower. Nixon was born in Yorba Linda, California, after completing his undergraduate studies at Whittier College, he graduated from Duke University School of Law in 1937 and returned to California to practice law. He and his wife Pat moved to Washington in 1942 to work for the federal government and he subsequently served on active duty in the U. S. Navy Reserve during World War II. Nixon was elected to the House of Representatives in 1946 and to the Senate in 1950 and his pursuit of the Hiss Case established his reputation as a leading anti-communist, and elevated him to national prominence. He was the mate of Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Republican Party presidential nominee in the 1952 election. Nixon served for eight years as vice president and he waged an unsuccessful presidential campaign in 1960, narrowly losing to John F. Kennedy, and lost a race for Governor of California to Pat Brown in 1962. In 1968, he ran for the presidency again and was elected by defeating incumbent Vice President Hubert Humphrey, Nixon ended American involvement in the war in Vietnam in 1973 and brought the American POWs home, and ended the military draft. His administration generally transferred power from Washington D. C. to the states and he imposed wage and price controls for a period of ninety days, enforced desegregation of Southern schools and established the Environmental Protection Agency. Nixon also presided over the Apollo 11 moon landing, which signaled the end of the moon race and he was reelected in one of the largest electoral landslides in U. S. history in 1972, when he defeated George McGovern. The year 1973 saw an Arab oil embargo, gasoline rationing, the scandal escalated, costing Nixon much of his political support, and on August 9,1974, he resigned in the face of almost certain impeachment and removal from office. After his resignation, he was issued a pardon by his successor, in retirement, Nixons work writing several books and undertaking of many foreign trips helped to rehabilitate his image. He suffered a stroke on April 18,1994. Richard Milhous Nixon was born on January 9,1913 in Yorba Linda, California and his parents were Hannah Nixon and Francis A. Nixon. His mother was a Quaker and his father converted from Methodism to the Quaker faith, Nixons upbringing was marked by evangelical Quaker observances of the time, such as refraining from alcohol, dancing, and swearing. Nixon had four brothers, Harold, Donald, Arthur, four of the five Nixon boys were named after kings who had ruled in historical or legendary England, Richard, for example, was named after Richard the Lionheart. Nixons early life was marked by hardship, and he quoted a saying of Eisenhower to describe his boyhood, We were poor. The Nixon family ranch failed in 1922, and the moved to Whittier
27.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
28.
American Mafia
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The American Mafia, also referred to as the Italian Mafia or the Italian-American Mafia, is a highly organized Italian-American criminal society. The organization is referred to by members as Cosa Nostra or La Cosa Nostra. The Mafia in the United States emerged in impoverished Italian immigrant neighborhoods in New Yorks East Harlem, Lower East Side and it has its roots in the Sicilian Mafia but is a separate organization in the United States. Today, the American Mafia cooperates in various activities with Italian organized crime groups, such as the Sicilian Mafia, Camorra in Naples. The most important unit of the American Mafia is that of a family, despite the name of family to describe the various units, they are not familial groupings. The Mafia is currently most active in the Northeastern U. S. especially in New York City, Philadelphia, New Jersey, and New England while also being active in Chicago and Florida. At the Mafias peak, there were at least 26 cities around the United States with Cosa Nostra families, with many more offshoots and associates in other cities. There are five main New York City Mafia families, known as the Five Families, the Gambino, Lucchese, Genovese, Bonanno, at its peak, the Mafia dominated organized crime in the U. S. Each crime family has its own territory and operates independently, while nationwide coordination is overseen by the Commission, the term Mafia was originally used in Italy by the media and law enforcement to describe criminal groups in Sicily. The origins of the term are debatable though most agree the term is derived from the word Maafir a term rooted in Arabic, like the Sicilian Mafia, the American Mafia did not use the term Mafia to describe itself. Neither group has a name and instead used the term cosa nostra when referring to themselves. Mafia properly refers to either the Sicilian or Italian-American Mafia, kennedys political team, referred to as the Irish Mafia. The press also coined the name National Crime Syndicate to refer to the network of U. S. organized crime, which includes the Jewish Mafia elements. The first published account of what became the Mafia in the United States dates to the spring of 1869, emigration from southern Italy to the Americas was primarily to Brazil and Argentina, and New Orleans had a heavy volume of port traffic to and from both locales. The Black Hand was a given to an extortion method used in Italian neighborhoods at the turn of the 20th century. It has been mistaken for the Mafia itself, which it is not. The Black Hand was a society, but there were many small Black Hand gangs. Black Hand extortion was often viewed as the activity of a single organization because Black Hand criminals in Italian communities throughout the United States used the methods of extortion
29.
Organized crime
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Some criminal organizations, such as terrorist groups, are politically motivated. Sometimes criminal organizations force people to do business with them, such as when a gang extorts money from shopkeepers for so-called protection, gangs may become disciplined enough to be considered organized. A criminal organization or gang can also be referred to as a mafia, mob, or crime syndicate, European sociologists define the mafia as a type of organized crime group that specializes in the supply of extra-legal protection and quasi law enforcement. There is a tendency to distinguish organized crime from other forms of crime, such as crime, financial crimes, political crimes, war crime, state crimes. This distinction is not always apparent and academics continue to debate the matter, for example, in failed states that can no longer perform basic functions such as education, security, or governance, organised crime, governance and war sometimes complement each other. The term Oligarchy has been used to describe democratic countries whose political, social and economic institutions come under the control of a few families, in the United States, the Organized Crime Control Act defines organized crime as he unlawful activities of a highly organized, disciplined association. Criminal activity as a process is referred to as racketeering. In the UK, police estimate that organized crime involves up to 38,000 people operating in 6,000 various groups, bureaucratic/corporate organized crime groups are defined by the general rigidity of their internal structures. An estimate on youth street gangs nationwide provided by Hannigan, et al. marked an increase of 35% between 2002 and 2010, the term “street gang” is commonly used interchangeably with “youth gang, ” referring to neighborhood or street-based youth groups that meet “gang” criteria. Some reasons youth join gangs include to feel accepted, attain status, a sense of unity brings together many of the youth gangs that lack the family aspect at home. Zones of transition are deteriorating neighborhoods with shifting populations, in such areas, conflict between groups, fighting, turf wars, and theft promote solidarity and cohesion. Participation in gang-related events during adolescence perpetuate a pattern of maltreatment on their own children years later, klein like Spergel studied the effects on members of social workers’ interventions. More interventions actually lead to greater participation and solidarity and bonds between members. Downes and Rock on Parker’s analysis, strain theory applies, labeling theory, control theory and these may also be defined by age or peer group influences, and the permanence or consistency of their criminal activity. These groups also form their own identity or public representation which are recognizable by the community at large. Some studied street gangs involved in drug dealing - finding that their structure, members saw themselves as organized criminals, gangs were formal-rational organizations, Strong organizational structures, well defined roles and rules that guided members’ behavior. Also a specified and regular means of income, padilla agreed with the two above. However some have found these to be rather than well-defined and lacking persistent focus, there was relatively low cohesion, few shared goals
30.
Lucky Luciano
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Charles Lucky Luciano was an Italian-American mobster and Crime Boss. Luciano is considered the father of organized crime in the United States for the establishment of the first Commission. He was the first official boss of the modern Genovese crime family and he was, along with his associates instrumental in the development of the National Crime Syndicate in the United States. Luciano was tried and successfully convicted for prostitution in 1936 after years of investigation by District Attorney Thomas E. Dewey. Salvatore Lucania was born on November 24,1897 in Lercara Friddi, Lucianos parents, Antonio and Rosalia Lucania, had four other children, Bartolomeo, Giuseppe, Filippa, and Concetta. Lucianos father worked in a mine in Sicily. In 1907, when Luciano was nine years old, the family immigrated to the United States and they settled in New York City in the borough of Manhattan on its Lower East Side, a popular destination for Italian immigrants. At age 14, Luciano dropped out of school and started a job delivering hats, however, after winning $244 in a dice game, Luciano quit his job and went to earning money on the street. That same year, Lucianos parents sent him to the Brooklyn Truant School, as a teenager, Luciano started his own gang and was a member of the old Five Points Gang. Unlike other street gangs whose business was petty crime, Luciano offered protection to Jewish youngsters from Italian and he was also learning the pimping trade in the years around World War I. Around this time, Luciano also met Meyer Lansky, his business partner. It is not clear how Luciano earned the nickname Lucky and it may have come from surviving a severe beating by three men in the 1920s, as well as a throat slashing. This was because Luciano refused to work for mob boss. From 1916 to 1936, Luciano was arrested 25 times on charges including assault, illegal gambling, blackmail and robbery, the name Lucky may have also been a mispronunciation of Lucianos surname Lucania. On January 17,1920, the Eighteenth Amendment to the U. S, constitution was ratified, and Prohibition lasted until the amendment was repealed in 1933. The Amendment prohibited the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcoholic beverages, as there was still a substantial demand for alcohol, this provided criminals with an added source of income. By 1920, Luciano had met many future Mafia leaders, including Vito Genovese and Frank Costello, his longtime friend, the same year, Lower Manhattan gang boss Joe Masseria recruited Luciano as one of his gunmen. Around that same time, Luciano and his associates started working for gambler Arnold The Brain Rothstein
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Waxey Gordon
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Waxey Gordon was an American gangster who specialized in bootlegging and illegal gambling. An associate of Arnold Rothstein during prohibition, he was caught up in a power struggle following Rothsteins death, fellow Rothstein associates Charles Luciano and Meyer Lansky provided authorities with evidence that led to his imprisonment for ten years. He was born Irving Wexler to Polish Jewish immigrant parents in New Yorks Lower East Side on January 19,1888, in 1914, he participated in a gang fight that resulted in the death of a court clerk named Samuel Straus. Wexler was put on trial for the crime but acquitted by a jury in February 1917, Gordon, now earning an estimated $2 million a year, began buying numerous breweries and distilleries as well as owning several speakeasies. Rothstein died in 1928 and Gordons position began to decline and he made an alliance with future National Crime Syndicate founders Charles Luciano, Louis Buchalter, and Meyer Lansky. Gordon, however, constantly fought with Lansky over bootlegging and gambling interests, Lansky, with Luciano, supplied interim United States Attorney Thomas E. Dewey with information leading to Gordons conviction on charges of tax evasion in 1933. Gordon was sentenced to ten years imprisonment, at this time he was married to a rabbis daughter and their son was in medical school. This son died in an automobile accident while traveling from an out-of-town college planning to plead with the judge for leniency with his fathers sentence. Upon Gordons release from prison, he found his gang long since disbanded, ignored by his former political connections, he reportedly remarked to a journalist, Waxey Gordon is dead. He moved to California, a man, and during World War II he was able to obtain 10,000 lbs of scarce. FBI investigations revealed he had high-level international narcotics connections, and was given the U. S, west Coast as a protected territory for distribution of imported illegal drugs since he lost his bootlegging business on the East Coast. In 1951, Gordon was arrested for selling heroin to a police officer. The 62-year-old gangster reportedly offered the detective all his money in exchange for his release, when the detective refused, Gordon jokingly pleaded with the detective to kill him instead of arresting him for peddling junk. Gordon was later convicted, and due to his criminal record was sentenced to 25 years of imprisonment in Alcatraz. Waxey Gordon appears as a character portrayed by Nick Sandow in the HBO series Boardwalk Empire. In The Waxey Gordon Story, a 1960 episode of The Untouchables, Almog, Oz, Kosher Nostra Jüdische Gangster in Amerika, 1890–1980, Jüdischen Museum der Stadt Wien,2003, Text Oz Almog, Erich Metz, ISBN 3-901398-33-3 Chiocca, Olindo Romeo. Mobsters and Thugs, Quotes from the Underworld, the Rise and Fall of the Jewish Gangster in America. New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston,1980, ISBN 0-231-09683-6 Kelly, Robert J. Encyclopedia of Organized Crime in the United States
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Rum-running
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Rum-running, or bootlegging, is the illegal business of transporting alcoholic beverages where such transportation is forbidden by law. Smuggling is usually done to circumvent taxation or prohibition laws within a particular jurisdiction, the term rum-running is more commonly applied to smuggling over water, bootlegging is applied to smuggling over land. The term rum-running most likely originated at the start of Prohibition in the United States and it was said that some ships carried $200,000 in contraband in a single run. It was not long after the first taxes on alcoholic beverages that someone began to smuggle them, the British government had revenue cutters in place to stop smugglers as early as the 16th century. Pirates often made extra money running rum to heavily taxed colonies, an irony of the history of prohibition in North America is that industrial-scale smuggling flowed both ways across the Canada–US border at different points in the early twentieth century. National prohibition in the United States did not begin until 1920, as well, Canadas version of prohibition had never included a ban on the manufacture of liquor for export. Soon the black-market trade was reversed with Canadian whisky and beer flowing in large quantities to the United States, again, this illegal international trade undermined the support for prohibition in the receiving country, and the American version ended in 1933. One of the most famous periods of rum-running began in the United States with the Prohibition began on January 16,1920 and this period lasted until the Eighteenth Amendment was repealed with ratification of the Twenty-first Amendment, on December 5,1933. At first, there was action on the seas. This was the start of the Bimini–Bahamas rum trade and the introduction of Bill McCoy, with the start of Prohibition Captain McCoy began bringing rum from Bimini and the rest of the Bahamas into south Florida through Government Cut. The rum-running business was good, and McCoy soon bought a Gloucester knockabout schooner named Arethusa at auction. He installed an auxiliary, mounted a concealed machine gun on her deck. In the days of rum running, it was common for captains to add water to the bottles to stretch their profits, any cheap sparkling wine became French champagne or Italian Spumante, unbranded liquor became top-of-the-line name brands. McCoy became famous for never watering his booze, and selling only top brands, although the phrase appears in print in 1882, this is one of several folk etymologies for the origin of the term The real McCoy. On November 15,1923, McCoy and Tomoka encountered the U. S. Coast Guard Cutter Seneca, a boarding party attempted to board, but McCoy chased them off with the machine gun. Tomoka tried to run, but the Seneca placed a shell just off her hull, the small, quick boats could more easily outrun Coast Guard ships and could dock in any small river or eddy and transfer their cargo to a waiting truck. They were also known to float planes and flying boats. Soon others were following suit, the limit became known as Rum Line
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Tax evasion
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Tax evasion is the illegal evasion of taxes by individuals, corporations, and trusts. Tax evasion is an activity associated with the informal economy. In contrast, tax avoidance is the use of tax laws to reduce ones tax burden. In 1968, Nobel laureate economist Gary Becker first theorized the economics of crime, allingham and A. Sandmo produced, in 1972, an economic model of tax evasion. This model deals with the evasion of tax, the main source of tax revenue in developed countries. According to the authors, the level of evasion of income tax depends on the detection probability, the literatures theoretical models are elegant in their effort to identify the variables likely to affect non-compliance. Alternative specifications, however, yield conflicting results concerning both the signs and magnitudes of variables believed to affect tax evasion, empirical work is required to resolve the theoretical ambiguities. Income tax evasion appears to be influenced by the tax rate, the unemployment rate. The U. S. Tax Reform Act of 1986 appears to have reduced tax evasion in the United States, customs duties are an important source of revenue in developing countries. Importers purport to evade customs duty by under-invoicing and misdeclaration of quantity, when there is ad valorem import duty, the tax base can be reduced through underinvoicing. Misdeclaration of quantity is more relevant for products with specific duty, production description is changed to match a H. S. Code commensurate with a lower rate of duty. Smuggling is importation or exportation of products by illegal means. Smuggling is resorted to for total evasion of customs duties, as well as for the importation of contraband, during the second half of the 20th century, value-added tax emerged as a modern form of consumption tax throughout the world, with the notable exception of the United States. Producers who collect VAT from consumers may evade tax by under-reporting the amount of sales, the US has no broad-based consumption tax at the federal level, and no state currently collects VAT, the overwhelming majority of states instead collect sales taxes. Canada uses both a VAT at the level and sales taxes at the provincial level, some provinces have a single tax combining both forms. In addition, most jurisdictions which levy a VAT or sales tax also legally require their residents to report and this is especially prevalent in federal countries like Nigeria, US and Canada where sub-national jurisdictions charge varying rates of VAT or sales tax. In Nigeria, for example, some federated states enforce VAT on each item of goods sold by traders, the price must be clearly stated and the VAT shown separately from the basic price. If the trader does not comply this is punishable as an attempt to siphon the VAT, therefore, it is not generally cost-effective to enforce tax collection on low-value goods carried in private vehicles from one jurisdiction to another with a different tax rate
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Jewish-American organized crime
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Jewish-American organized crime emerged within the American Jewish community during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It has been referred to variously in media and popular culture as the Jewish Mob, Jewish Mafia, Kosher Mafia, Kosher Nostra, or Undzer Shtik. Another notorious gang, known as the Lenox Avenue Gang, led by Harry Gyp the Blood Horowitz, consisted of mostly Jewish members and it was one of the most violent gangs of the early 20th century and became famous for the murder of gambler and gangster Herman Rosenthal. According to crime writer Leo Katcher, Rothstein transformed organized crime from an activity by hoodlums into a big business, run like a corporation. Rothstein was allegedly responsible for fixing the 1919 World Series, and becoming affiliates of the Italian-American Mafia. The largely Jewish-American and Italian-American gang known as Murder, Inc, for decades after, Jewish-American mobsters would continue to work closely and at times compete with Italian-American organized crime. Jewish-American gangsters were involved in many different criminal activities, including murder, racketeering, bootlegging, prostitution and their role was also significant in New Yorks burgeoning labor movement, especially the garment and trucking unions, as well as the poultry industry. Jewish organized crime fueled antisemitism and deeply concerned the Jewish community, Jewish organized crime was used by antisemites and anti-immigration supporters as arguments to bolster their agenda. Jewish gangs controlled portions of the Lower East Side and Brownsville in New York City, ethnic involvement in organized crime gave rise to alien conspiracy theories in the US law enforcement community, in which the conception of organized crime as an alien and united entity was vital. The involvement of a percentage of recent immigrants in organized crime created a lasting stereotype of devious immigrants corrupting the morality of native-born Americans. From the late 1960s, Jewish-American organized crime became part of a literature on tough Jews. However, Cohens description of Jewish gangsters ignores their criminality and immorality and these tough characters were still gangsters who extorted, exploited and murdered other members of the Jewish-American community for profit. They forced Jewish women into prostitution, and were considered a scourge within their own community. The Yiddish press and literature of the 1920s and 1930s was resolute in its condemnation of Jewish mobsters, a significant Jewish underworld already existed in New York at the start of the 20th century, with Jewish mobsters conversing in a jargon with Yiddish origins. A pimp was known as a simcha, a detective as a shamus, the lure of quick money, power and the romance of the criminal lifestyle was attractive to both second-generation Jewish and Italian immigrants. There was a supposed Jewish crime wave in early-20th-century New York, in disturbing numbers young Jews had joined crime rackets, it was said, along with children of Irish, Italian and other immigrants. However, the supposed Jewish-immigrant crime may have been exaggerated by the press, Crime and population figures show that Jews in New York committed crimes at a rate far below the average for the wider society. As described by sociologist Stephen Steinberg, about a sixth of the citys felony arrests were Jews during the 1920s, other Jewish organized crime figures involved in controlling labor unions include Moses Annenberg and Arnold Rothstein, the latter reportedly responsible for fixing the 1919 World Series
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Dutch Schultz
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Dutch Schultz was a New York City-area German Jewish-American mobster of the 1920s and 1930s who made his fortune in organized crime-related activities, including bootlegging and the numbers racket. Weakened by two tax evasion trials led by prosecutor Thomas Dewey, Schultzs rackets were also threatened by fellow mobster Lucky Luciano, in an attempt to avert his conviction, Schultz asked the Commission for permission to kill Dewey, which they refused. When Schultz disobeyed them and made an attempt to kill Dewey, Schultz was born to German Jewish immigrants Herman and Emma Flegenheimer, who had married in Manhattan on November 10,1900. He had a sister, Helen, born in 1904. Herman Flegenheimer apparently abandoned his family, and Emma is listed as divorced in the 1910 census, the event traumatized Schultz, and he always denied his father had left them. Schultz would drop out of school in the 8th grade to support himself. From 1916 to 1919, he worked as a feeder and pressman for the Clark Loose Leaf Company, Caxton Press, American Express and he then worked at a neighborhood night club owned by a minor mobster, and began robbing craps games before turning to burglary. Schultz was caught breaking into an apartment and sent to the prison on Blackwells Island, a photograph of Schultz at age 18, during his incarceration, was published in the 2010 book New York City Gangland. The prison staff soon found their new prisoner to be unmanageable and transferred him to the farm in Westhampton. He managed to escape, but was recaptured and two months were added to his sentence and he was paroled December 8,1920. Flegenheimer went back to work at Schultz Trucking and was associating with known criminals. When they asked his name, he told them he was Dutch Schultz, with the enactment of Prohibition, Schultz Trucking began smuggling liquor and beer into New York City from Canada. After an argument, Dutch left Schultz Trucking to work for Schultzs Italian competitors, in 1928, a gangster named Joey Noe opened the Hub Social Club, a small speakeasy, and hired Schultz to work as a bouncer. Schultz earned a reputation for brutality when he lost his temper, impressed by his ruthlessness, Noe made him a partner. Noe and Schultz soon opened more operations, to avoid the high delivery costs, they bought their own trucks. Frankie Dunn, a Union City, New Jersey, brewery owner, Schultz rode shotgun to protect the beer trucks from hijackers. The Rock brothers, who controlled an operation in the Bronx, refused to buy from Noe. However, the Rock brothers underestimated the newcomers, eventually, the elder brother, John Rock, agreed to cooperate, but younger brother Joe refused
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The Commission (mafia)
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The Commission is the governing body of the American Mafia, formed in 1931. The Commission replaced the Boss of all Bosses title with a committee consisting of the New York Five Families bosses. The last known Commission meeting held with all the bosses was in November 1985, before the Commission was formed, the American Mafia crime families were under control of one man known as the capo di tutti capi. This man held great power over all their bosses, leading to disputes, in 1929, two New York Mafia bosses, Joe The Boss Masseria and Salvatore Maranzano, fought over the title in the Castellammarese War. Masseria was murdered on April 15,1931, allowing Maranzano to assume the title of capo di tutti capi, Maranzano began to divide all the national criminal gangs into several crime families. Charles Lucky Luciano and his allies decided that Maranzano would be removed, after Maranzanos murder in 1931, the Mafia families called a meeting in Chicago. The purpose of the meeting was to replace the old Sicilian Mafia regime of boss of all bosses, charlie Luciano established a Mafia board of directors to be known as The Commission to oversee all Mafia activities in the United States and serve to mediate conflicts between families. Charlie Luciano was appointed chairman of the Commission, the Commission agreed to hold meetings every five years or when they needed to discuss family problems. The Commission held the power of approving a new boss before he could take over officially, the New York Five Families also decided that the names of all new proposed members must be approved by the other families. After the new proposed member is approved by the other families, the Commission allowed Jewish mobsters Meyer Lansky, Bugsy Siegel, Louis Lepke Buchalter, Dutch Schultz, and Abner Longie Zwillman to work alongside them and participate in some meetings. In 1935, Dutch Schultz questioned the Commissions authority when he wanted to have prosecutor Thomas Dewey murdered, instead, the Commission had Schultz killed on October 23,1935. The Commission used Louis Buchalters Murder, Inc. to dispose of any rivals to their authority, in 1936, Charles Lucky Luciano was imprisoned, which allowed bosses Vincent Mangano, Joseph Profaci, Joseph Bonanno, Tommy Gagliano, and Stefano Magaddino to take control of the Commission. The five bosses were all from the faction of the commission. The conservative faction selected Vincent Mangano as the new chairman, in 1946, the Havana Conference was arranged by Charles Luciano to discuss with the Commission the American Mafias future. In 1951, conservative faction leader Vincent Mangano went missing and Albert Anastasia sided with liberal-American faction members Frank Costello, the power of the Commission shifted from the conservative-Sicilian faction to the liberal-American faction. Jack Dragna, boss of the Los Angeles crime family for 25 years, since Dragnas death in 1956, the Los Angeles crime family has been represented by the Chicago Outfit. The Commission is still reported to exist today, though its current membership is composed of only the bosses of the Five Families and its activities have receded from public view as a matter of necessity, like much of the Mafia in general. The five New York City bosses have not met since Paul Castellano was killed in 1985 because of increased law enforcement scrutiny, the Commission no longer meets as a whole, but they still must approve major actions
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History of the United States Republican Party
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The Republican Party, also commonly called the GOP, is one of the worlds oldest extant political parties. It is the second oldest existing political party in the United States after its primary rival, the Democratic Party. The Party had almost no presence in the Southern United States, with its election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860, and its success in guiding the Union to victory and abolishing slavery, the party came to dominate the national political scene until 1932. The Republican Party was based on northern white Protestants, businessmen, small business owners, professionals, factory workers, farmers and it was pro-business, supporting banks, the gold standard, railroads, and high tariffs to protect factory workers and grow industry faster. Under William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt, it emphasized a foreign policy. The GOP lost its majorities during the Great Depression, instead, the Democrats under Franklin D. Roosevelt formed a winning New Deal coalition, which was dominant from 1932 through 1964. That coalition collapsed in the mid-1960s, partly because of white Southern Democrats disaffection with passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Republicans won five of the six presidential elections from 1968 to 1988, with Ronald Reagan as the partys iconic conservative hero. The GOP expanded its base throughout the South after 1968, largely due to its strength among socially conservative white Evangelical Protestants and traditionalist Roman Catholics. The Republican Partys transforming leader by 1980 was Reagan, whose conservative policies called for reduced government spending and regulation, lower taxes, and his influence upon the party persists, as nearly every GOP speaker still reveres him. This includes current US President Donald Trump, who utilized his own version of Reagans Make America Great Again slogan during the 2016 US Election. Social scientists Theodore Caplow et al. argue, The Republican party, nationally, moved from right-center toward the center in the 1940s and 1950s, then moved right again in the 1970s and 1980s. The Republican party began as a coalition of anti-slavery Conscience Whigs and Free Soil Democrats opposed to the Kansas–Nebraska Act and this change was viewed by Free Soil and Abolitionist Northerners as an aggressive, expansionist maneuver by the slave-owning South. The Act was supported by all Southerners, by Northern Doughface Democrats, in the North, the old Whig Party was almost defunct. The opponents were motivated and began forming a new party. The new party went well beyond the issue of slavery in the territories and it envisioned modernizing the United States—emphasizing giving free western land to farmers as opposed to letting slave owners buy up the best lands, expanded banking, more railroads, and factories. They vigorously argued that free labor was superior to slavery. The Republicans absorbed the traditions of its members, most of whom had been Whigs. Many Democrats who joined were rewarded with governorships, or seats in the U. S. Senate, or House of Representatives
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Ohio
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Ohio /oʊˈhaɪ. oʊ/ is a Midwestern state in the Great Lakes region of the United States. Ohio is the 34th largest by area, the 7th most populous, the states capital and largest city is Columbus. The state takes its name from the Ohio River, the name originated from the Iroquois word ohi-yo’, meaning great river or large creek. Partitioned from the Northwest Territory, the state was admitted to the Union as the 17th state on March 1,1803, Ohio is historically known as the Buckeye State after its Ohio buckeye trees, and Ohioans are also known as Buckeyes. Ohio occupies 16 seats in the United States House of Representatives, Ohio is known for its status as both a swing state and a bellwether in national elections. Six Presidents of the United States have been elected who had Ohio as their home state, Ohios geographic location has proven to be an asset for economic growth and expansion. Because Ohio links the Northeast to the Midwest, much cargo, Ohio has the nations 10th largest highway network, and is within a one-day drive of 50% of North Americas population and 70% of North Americas manufacturing capacity. To the north, Lake Erie gives Ohio 312 miles of coastline, Ohios southern border is defined by the Ohio River, and much of the northern border is defined by Lake Erie. Ohios neighbors are Pennsylvania to the east, Michigan to the northwest, Ontario Canada, to the north, Indiana to the west, Kentucky on the south, Ohio is bounded by the Ohio River, but nearly all of the river itself belongs to Kentucky and West Virginia. Ohio has only that portion of the river between the rivers 1792 low-water mark and the present high-water mark, the border with Michigan has also changed, as a result of the Toledo War, to angle slightly northeast to the north shore of the mouth of the Maumee River. Much of Ohio features glaciated plains, with a flat area in the northwest being known as the Great Black Swamp. Most of Ohio is of low relief, but the unglaciated Allegheny Plateau features rugged hills, in 1965 the United States Congress passed the Appalachian Regional Development Act, at attempt to address the persistent poverty and growing economic despair of the Appalachian Region. This act defines 29 Ohio counties as part of Appalachia, the worst weather disaster in Ohio history occurred along the Great Miami River in 1913. Known as the Great Dayton Flood, the entire Miami River watershed flooded, as a result, the Miami Conservancy District was created as the first major flood plain engineering project in Ohio and the United States. Grand Lake St. Marys in the west central part of the state was constructed as a supply of water for canals in the era of 1820–1850. For many years this body of water, over 20 square miles, was the largest artificial lake in the world and it should be noted that Ohios canal-building projects were not the economic fiasco that similar efforts were in other states. Some cities, such as Dayton, owe their emergence to location on canals. Summers are typically hot and humid throughout the state, while winters generally range from cool to cold, precipitation in Ohio is moderate year-round
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Robert A. Taft
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Robert Alphonso Taft was a conservative American politician, statesman, and presidential hopeful who served as a United States Senator from Ohio from 1939 until his death in 1953. A member of the Republican Taft political family, he was the son of William Howard Taft. Taft was the Senates main opponent of Franklin Roosevelts New Deal domestic policies, after the presidents death, Taft successfully led the conservative coalitions efforts to curb the power of labor unions. Taft was an advocate of non-interventionism in foreign policy. He failed in his quests to win the Republican Partys presidential nomination in 1940,1948, throughout that period he battled New York Governor Thomas E. Dewey for control of the party. A1957 Senate committee named Taft as one of Americas five greatest senators, along with Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, la Follette, Sr. Taft was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, a product of one of Americas most prominent political families. He was the grandson of Attorney General and Secretary of War Alphonso Taft, and his younger brother, Charles Phelps Taft II, served as the Mayor of Cincinnati and was the unsuccessful Republican candidate for Ohio Governor in 1952. As a boy he spent four years in the Philippines, where his father was governor and he was first in his class at the Taft School, at Yale College, and at Harvard Law School. He was a member of Psi Upsilon, his fathers fraternity and Skull and Bones, in 1913, Taft scored the highest in the state on the Ohio bar exam. He then practiced for four years with the firm of Maxwell and Ramsey in Cincinnati, after a two-year stint in Washington working for the Food and Drug Administration, he returned to Cincinnati and opened his own law office. In 1924 he and his brother, Charles, helped form the law partnership Taft, Stettinius, on October 17,1914, he married Martha Wheaton Bowers, daughter of Lloyd Wheaton Bowers and Louisa Bennett Wilson. Two of Robert and Marthas grandsons are Robert Alphonso Bob Taft III, Governor of Ohio from 1999 to 2007, in 1917, Taft and his wife bought a 46-acre farm in Indian Hill, a well-to-do suburb of Cincinnati. Called Sky Farm, it would serve as Tafts primary residence for the rest of his life, the Tafts gradually made extensive renovations that turned the small farmhouse into a sixteen-room mansion. On the farm Taft enjoyed growing strawberries, asparagus, and potatoes for profit, during the summer, Taft often vacationed with his wife and children at the Taft familys summer home at Murray Bay, in Quebec, Canada. When reporters asked his wife Martha what church he attended, she replied, Id have to say the Burning Tree. When the United States entered World War I in April,1917 Taft attempted to join the army but was rejected due to his poor eyesight, instead, he joined the legal staff of the Food and Drug Administration where he met Herbert Hoover, who became his idol. In 1918 and 1919, he was in Paris as legal adviser for the American Relief Administration and he came to distrust governmental bureaucracy as inefficient and detrimental to the rights of the individual, a principle he promoted throughout his career. He urged membership in the League of Nations but generally distrusted European politicians and he endorsed the idea of a powerful world court to enforce international law, but no such idealized court ever existed during his lifetime
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Northeastern United States
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The Northeast is one of the four regions defined by the Census Bureau for the collection and analysis of statistics. The Census Bureau-defined region has an area of 181,324 sq mi with 162,257 square miles of that being land mass. Though lacking a unified identity, the Northeastern region is the nations most economically developed, densely populated. Of the nations four census regions, the Northeast is the second most urban, with 85 percent of its residing in urban areas. The region is subdivided into New England and the Mid-Atlantic States and this definition has been essentially unchanged since 1880 and is widely used as a standard for data tabulation. C. Similarly, the Geological Society of America defines the Northeast as these same states but with the addition of Maryland, the narrowest definitions include only the states of New England. Other more restrictive definitions include New England and New York as part of the Northeast United States, States beyond the Census Bureau definition that other entities include in the Northeast United States are, Delaware, Maryland, and Washington, D. C. Delaware, Maryland, Washington, D. C. and West Virginia Delaware, Maryland, Washington, most did not settle in North America until the 17th century. Among the many tribes that inhabited this area were those made up the Iroquois nations. In the United States of the 21st century,18 federally recognized tribes reside in the Northeast, the two cultural and geographic regions that form parts of the Northeastern region have distinct histories. The first Europeans to settle New England were Pilgrims from England, the Pilgrims arrived by the Mayflower ship and founded Plymouth Colony so they could practice religion freely. Ten years later, a group of Puritans settled north of Plymouth Colony in Boston to form Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1636, colonists established Connecticut Colony and Providence Plantations, Providence was founded by Roger Williams, who was banished by Massachusetts for his beliefs in freedom of religion, and it was the first colony to guarantee all citizens freedom of worship. Anne Hutchinson, who was banished by Massachusetts, formed the town of Portsmouth. Providence, Portsmouth, and two towns consolidated to form the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. Although the first settlers of New England were motivated by religion, in recent history. In a 2009 Gallup survey, less than half of residents in Vermont, New Hampshire, Maine, and Massachusetts reported religion as an important part of their daily life. In a 2010 Gallup survey, less than 30% of residents in Vermont, New Hampshire, Maine, New England played a prominent role in early American education
41.
Rockefeller Republican
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Rockefeller Republicanism has been described as the last phase of the Eastern Establishment of the GOP, which had been led by New York governor Thomas E. Dewey. The groups powerful role in the GOP came under attack in 1964. You are looking at it, buddy, Rockefeller told Spencer, the term largely fell out of use by the end of the twentieth century, and has been replaced by the term moderate Republican. Rockefeller Republicans were typically moderate to center-right, vehemently rejected conservatives like Barry Goldwater and his policies and they espoused government and private investments in environmentalism, healthcare, and higher education as necessities for a better society and economic growth, in the tradition of Rockefeller. In general, Rockefeller Republicans opposed socialism and government ownership and they supported some regulation of business and many New Deal–style social programs. A critical element was their support for labor unions, the building trades, especially, appreciated the heavy spending on infrastructure. In turn, the unions gave these politicians enough support to overcome the anti-union rural element in the Republican Party, as the unions weakened after the 1970s, so too did the need for Republicans to cooperate with them. In foreign policy, most wanted to use American power in cooperation with allies to fight against the spread of communism and they wanted to help American business expand abroad. Nixon set up the Environmental Protection Agency, supported expanded welfare programs, imposed wage and price controls, Rockefeller Republicans were most common in the Northeast and the West Coast, with their larger liberal constituencies, they were rare in the South and Midwest. Thomas E. Taft of Ohio, known as Mr. Republican, with the help of Dewey, General Dwight D. Eisenhower defeated Taft for the 1952 presidential nomination and became the leader of the moderates. Eisenhower coined the phrase Modern Republicanism to describe his vision of Republicanism. After Eisenhower, Nelson Rockefeller, the Governor of New York, emerged as the leader of the wing of the Republican party, running for President in 1960,1964. Rockefeller Republicans suffered a defeat in 1964 when conservatives captured control of the Republican party. Rockefeller Republicans included moderates such as Senator Margaret Chase Smith and liberals such as Jacob Javits, historically, Rockefeller Republicans were moderate or liberal on domestic and social policies. They typically favored New Deal programs and a safety net. Rockefeller Republicans also saw themselves as champions of good government, contrasting themselves to the corrupt machine politics of the Democratic Party. In state politics, they were supporters of state colleges and universities, low tuition. They favored infrastructure improvements, such as highway projects, in foreign policy, they tended to be Hamiltonian, espousing internationalist and realist policies, supporting the United Nations, and promoting American business interests abroad
42.
Internationalism (politics)
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Internationalism is a political principle which transcends nationalism and advocates a greater political or economic cooperation among nations and people. In 19th-century UK there was a liberal internationalist strand of political thought epitomized by Richard Cobden, Cobden and Bright were against the protectionist Corn Laws and in a speech at Covent Garden on September 28,1843 Cobden outlined his utopian brand of internationalism, Free Trade. Cobden believed that Free Trade would pacify the world by interdependence, a belief in the idea of the moral law and an inherent goodness in human nature also inspired their faith in internationalism. One of the first international organisations in the world was the International Workingmens Association, in this sense, the socialist understanding of internationalism is closely related to the concept of international solidarity. From this perspective, it is in the ruling class interest to promote nationalism in order to hide the inherent class conflicts at play within a given society, therefore, socialists see nationalism as a form of ideological control arising from a societys given mode of economic production. The First, Second, Third, and Fourth Internationals were socialist political groupings which sought to advance workers revolution across the globe and achieve international socialism. Socialist internationalism is anti-imperialist, and therefore supports the liberation of peoples from all forms of colonialism and foreign domination, therefore, socialists have often aligned themselves politically with anti-colonial independence movements, and actively opposed the exploitation of one country by another. In socialist theory, world peace can only come once economic competition has been ended, in proportion as the antagonism between classes within the nation vanishes, the hostility of one nation to another will come to an end. The idea was reiterated later by Lenin and advanced as the policy of the Bolshevik party during World War I. But our attitude towards war is different from that of the bourgeois pacifists. Figures such as Karl Marx and anarchist revolutionary Mikhail Bakunin would play prominent roles in the First International, one faction, with Marx as the figurehead, argued that workers and radicals must work within parliaments in order to win political supremacy and create a workers government. The Socialist International, known as the Second International, was founded in 1889 after the disintegration of the International Workingmens Association, unlike the First International, it was a federation of socialist political parties from various countries, including both reformist and revolutionary groupings. The parties of the Second International were the first socialist parties to win support among the working class and have representatives elected to parliaments. Ostensibly committed to peace and anti-imperialism, the International Socialist Congress held its meeting in Basel, Switzerland in 1912. This betrayal led the few anti-war delegates left within the Second International to organize the International Socialist Conference at Zimmerwald, known as the Zimmerwald Conference, its purpose was to formulate a platform of opposition to the war. The conference was unable to reach agreement on all points, but ultimately was able to publish the Zimmerwald Manifesto, the most left-wing and stringently internationalist delegates at the conference were organized around Lenin and the Russian Social Democrats, and known as the Zimmerwald Left. The Zimmerwald Left resolutions urged all socialists who were committed to the internationalist principles of socialism to struggle against the war and it was an association of communist political parties from throughout the world dedicated to proletarian internationalism and the revolutionary overthrow of the world bourgeoisie. A variety of still active left-wing political organizations claim to be the successors of Trotskys original Fourth International
