1.
Cincinnati
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Cincinnati is a city in the U. S. state of Ohio that serves as county seat of Hamilton County. Settled in 1788, the city is located on the side of the confluence of the Licking with the Ohio River. With a population of 298,550, Cincinnati is the third-largest city in Ohio and its metropolitan statistical area is the 28th-largest in the United States and the largest centered in Ohio. The city is part of the larger Cincinnati–Middletown–Wilmington combined statistical area. In the 19th century, Cincinnati was an American boomtown in the heart of the country, it rivaled the larger cities in size. Throughout much of the 19th century, it was listed among the top 10 U. S and it was by far the largest city in the west. By the end of the 19th century, with the shift from steamboats to railroads drawing off freight shipping, trade patterns had altered and Cincinnatis growth slowed considerably. Cincinnati is home to two sports teams, the Cincinnati Reds, the oldest franchise in Major League Baseball. The University of Cincinnati, founded in 1819, is one of the 50 largest in the United States, Cincinnati is known for its historic architecture. In the late 1800s, Cincinnati was commonly referred to as Paris of America, due mainly to such ambitious projects as the Music Hall, Cincinnatian Hotel. The original surveyor, John Filson, named it Losantiville, in 1790, Arthur St. Ethnic Germans were among the early settlers, migrating from Pennsylvania and the backcountry of Virginia and Tennessee. General David Ziegler succeeded General St. Clair in command at Fort Washington, after the conclusion of the Northwest Indian Wars and removal of Native Americans to the west, he was elected as the mayor of Cincinnati in 1802. Cincinnati was incorporated as a city in 1819, exporting pork products and hay, it became a center of pork processing in the region. From 1810 to 1830 its population tripled, from 9,642 to 24,831. Completion of the Miami and Erie Canal in 1827 to Middletown, Ohio further stimulated businesses, the city had a labor shortage until large waves of immigration by Irish and Germans in the late 1840s. The city grew rapidly over the two decades, reaching 115,000 persons by 1850. Construction on the Miami and Erie Canal began on July 21,1825, the first section of the canal was opened for business in 1827. In 1827, the canal connected Cincinnati to nearby Middletown, by 1840, during this period of rapid expansion and prominence, residents of Cincinnati began referring to the city as the Queen City
2.
Ohio
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Ohio /oʊˈhaɪ. oʊ/ is a Midwestern state in the Great Lakes region of the United States. Ohio is the 34th largest by area, the 7th most populous, the states capital and largest city is Columbus. The state takes its name from the Ohio River, the name originated from the Iroquois word ohi-yo’, meaning great river or large creek. Partitioned from the Northwest Territory, the state was admitted to the Union as the 17th state on March 1,1803, Ohio is historically known as the Buckeye State after its Ohio buckeye trees, and Ohioans are also known as Buckeyes. Ohio occupies 16 seats in the United States House of Representatives, Ohio is known for its status as both a swing state and a bellwether in national elections. Six Presidents of the United States have been elected who had Ohio as their home state, Ohios geographic location has proven to be an asset for economic growth and expansion. Because Ohio links the Northeast to the Midwest, much cargo, Ohio has the nations 10th largest highway network, and is within a one-day drive of 50% of North Americas population and 70% of North Americas manufacturing capacity. To the north, Lake Erie gives Ohio 312 miles of coastline, Ohios southern border is defined by the Ohio River, and much of the northern border is defined by Lake Erie. Ohios neighbors are Pennsylvania to the east, Michigan to the northwest, Ontario Canada, to the north, Indiana to the west, Kentucky on the south, Ohio is bounded by the Ohio River, but nearly all of the river itself belongs to Kentucky and West Virginia. Ohio has only that portion of the river between the rivers 1792 low-water mark and the present high-water mark, the border with Michigan has also changed, as a result of the Toledo War, to angle slightly northeast to the north shore of the mouth of the Maumee River. Much of Ohio features glaciated plains, with a flat area in the northwest being known as the Great Black Swamp. Most of Ohio is of low relief, but the unglaciated Allegheny Plateau features rugged hills, in 1965 the United States Congress passed the Appalachian Regional Development Act, at attempt to address the persistent poverty and growing economic despair of the Appalachian Region. This act defines 29 Ohio counties as part of Appalachia, the worst weather disaster in Ohio history occurred along the Great Miami River in 1913. Known as the Great Dayton Flood, the entire Miami River watershed flooded, as a result, the Miami Conservancy District was created as the first major flood plain engineering project in Ohio and the United States. Grand Lake St. Marys in the west central part of the state was constructed as a supply of water for canals in the era of 1820–1850. For many years this body of water, over 20 square miles, was the largest artificial lake in the world and it should be noted that Ohios canal-building projects were not the economic fiasco that similar efforts were in other states. Some cities, such as Dayton, owe their emergence to location on canals. Summers are typically hot and humid throughout the state, while winters generally range from cool to cold, precipitation in Ohio is moderate year-round
3.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
4.
Cambridge, Massachusetts
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Cambridge is a city in Middlesex County, Massachusetts, and is a part of the Boston metropolitan area. According to the 2010 Census, the population was 105,162. As of July 2014, it was the fifth most populous city in the state, behind Boston, Worcester, Springfield, Cambridge was one of the two seats of Middlesex County prior to the abolition of county government in 1997, Lowell was the other. The site for what would become Cambridge was chosen in December 1630, because it was located safely upriver from Boston Harbor, Thomas Dudley, his daughter Anne Bradstreet, and her husband Simon, were among the first settlers of the town. The first houses were built in the spring of 1631, the settlement was initially referred to as the newe towne. Official Massachusetts records show the name capitalized as Newe Towne by 1632, the original village site is in the heart of todays Harvard Square. In the late 19th century, various schemes for annexing Cambridge itself to the city of Boston were pursued and rejected, in 1636, the Newe College was founded by the colony to train ministers. Newe Towne was chosen for the site of the college by the Great and General Court primarily—according to Cotton Mather—to be near the popular, in May 1638 the name of the settlement was changed to Cambridge in honor of the university in Cambridge, England. Hooker and Shepard, Newtownes ministers, and the colleges first president, major benefactor, in 1629, Winthrop had led the signing of the founding document of the city of Boston, which was known as the Cambridge Agreement, after the university. It was Governor Thomas Dudley who, in 1650, signed the charter creating the corporation which still governs Harvard College, Cambridge grew slowly as an agricultural village eight miles by road from Boston, the capital of the colony. By the American Revolution, most residents lived near the Common and Harvard College, with farms and estates comprising most of the town. Coming up from Virginia, George Washington took command of the volunteer American soldiers camped on Cambridge Common on July 3,1775, most of the Tory estates were confiscated after the Revolution. On January 24,1776, Henry Knox arrived with artillery captured from Fort Ticonderoga, a second bridge, the Canal Bridge, opened in 1809 alongside the new Middlesex Canal. The new bridges and roads made what were formerly estates and marshland into prime industrial and residential districts, in the mid-19th century, Cambridge was the center of a literary revolution when it gave the country a new identity through poetry and literature. Cambridge was home to some of the famous Fireside Poets—so called because their poems would often be read aloud by families in front of their evening fires, the Fireside Poets—Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, James Russell Lowell, and Oliver Wendell Holmes—were highly popular and influential in their day. Cambridge was incorporated as a city in 1846, the citys commercial center began to shift from Harvard Square to Central Square, which became the downtown of the city around this time. The coming of the railroad to North Cambridge and Northwest Cambridge then led to three changes in the city, the development of massive brickyards and brickworks between Massachusetts Ave. For many decades, the citys largest employer was the New England Glass Company, by the middle of the 19th century it was the largest and most modern glassworks in the world
5.
Massachusetts
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It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
6.
Harvard University
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Although never formally affiliated with any denomination, the early College primarily trained Congregationalist and Unitarian clergy. Its curriculum and student body were gradually secularized during the 18th century, james Bryant Conant led the university through the Great Depression and World War II and began to reform the curriculum and liberalize admissions after the war. The undergraduate college became coeducational after its 1977 merger with Radcliffe College, Harvards $34.5 billion financial endowment is the largest of any academic institution. Harvard is a large, highly residential research university, the nominal cost of attendance is high, but the Universitys large endowment allows it to offer generous financial aid packages. Harvards alumni include eight U. S. presidents, several heads of state,62 living billionaires,359 Rhodes Scholars. To date, some 130 Nobel laureates,18 Fields Medalists, Harvard was formed in 1636 by vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1638, it obtained British North Americas first known printing press, in 1639 it was named Harvard College after deceased clergyman John Harvard an alumnus of the University of Cambridge who had left the school £779 and his scholars library of some 400 volumes. The charter creating the Harvard Corporation was granted in 1650 and it offered a classic curriculum on the English university model—many leaders in the colony had attended the University of Cambridge—but conformed to the tenets of Puritanism. It was never affiliated with any denomination, but many of its earliest graduates went on to become clergymen in Congregational. The leading Boston divine Increase Mather served as president from 1685 to 1701, in 1708, John Leverett became the first president who was not also a clergyman, which marked a turning of the college toward intellectual independence from Puritanism. When the Hollis Professor of Divinity David Tappan died in 1803 and the president of Harvard Joseph Willard died a year later, in 1804, in 1846, the natural history lectures of Louis Agassiz were acclaimed both in New York and on the campus at Harvard College. Agassizs approach was distinctly idealist and posited Americans participation in the Divine Nature, agassizs perspective on science combined observation with intuition and the assumption that a person can grasp the divine plan in all phenomena. When it came to explaining life-forms, Agassiz resorted to matters of shape based on an archetype for his evidence. Charles W. Eliot, president 1869–1909, eliminated the position of Christianity from the curriculum while opening it to student self-direction. While Eliot was the most crucial figure in the secularization of American higher education, he was motivated not by a desire to secularize education, during the 20th century, Harvards international reputation grew as a burgeoning endowment and prominent professors expanded the universitys scope. Rapid enrollment growth continued as new schools were begun and the undergraduate College expanded. Radcliffe College, established in 1879 as sister school of Harvard College, Harvard became a founding member of the Association of American Universities in 1900. In the early 20th century, the student body was predominately old-stock, high-status Protestants, especially Episcopalians, Congregationalists, by the 1970s it was much more diversified
7.
20th-century philosophy
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20th-century philosophy saw the development of a number of new philosophical schools— including logical positivism, analytic philosophy, phenomenology, existentialism, and poststructuralism. In terms of the eras of philosophy, it is labelled as contemporary philosophy. However, there have been disputes regarding both the terminology and the reasons behind the divide, as well as philosophers who see themselves as bridging the divide, in addition, philosophy in the twentieth century became increasingly technical and harder for lay people to read. Analytic philosophy is a term for a style of philosophy that came to dominate English-speaking countries in the 20th century. In the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Scandinavia, Australia, and New Zealand, epistemology in the Anglo-American tradition was radically shaken up by the publication of Edmund Gettiers 1963 paper Is Justified True Belief Knowledge. This paper provided counter-examples to the formulation of knowledge going back to Plato. Neopragmatism, sometimes called linguistic pragmatism is a recent philosophical term for philosophy that reintroduces many concepts from pragmatism. V. O and it repudiates the notion of universal truth, epistemological foundationalism, representationalism, and the notion of epistemic objectivity. It is a nominalist approach that denies that natural kinds and linguistic entities have substantive ontological implications and this approach typically involves eschewing philosophical theories in favour of close attention to the details of the use of everyday, ordinary language. The later Ludwig Wittgenstein is ordinary language philosophys most celebrated proponent outside the Oxford circle, second generation figures include Stanley Cavell and John Searle. Continental philosophy, in usage, refers to a set of traditions of 19th and 20th century philosophy from mainland Europe. This sense of the term originated among English-speaking philosophers in the half of the 20th century. Existentialism is generally considered a philosophical and cultural movement that holds that the point of philosophical thinking must be the individual. Common themes are the primacy of experience, Angst, the absurd, while György Lukácss History and Class Consciousness and Karl Korschs Marxism and Philosophy, first published in 1923, are often seen as the works that inaugurated this current. Maurice Merleau-Ponty coined the phrase Western Marxism much later, phenomenology is the study of the phenomena of experience. It is a philosophical movement founded in the early years of the 20th century by Edmund Husserl. Phenomenology, in Husserls conception, is concerned with the systematic reflection on, and study of, the structures of consciousness. This phenomenological ontology can be differentiated from the Cartesian method of analysis, which sees the world as objects, sets of objects. Post-structuralism is a label formulated by American academics to denote the heterogeneous works of a series of French intellectuals who came to prominence in the 1960s and 70s
8.
Western philosophy
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Western philosophy is the philosophical thought and work of the Western world. The word philosophy itself originated from the Hellenic, philosophia, literally, the scope of philosophy in the ancient understanding, and the writings of the ancient philosophers, were all intellectual endeavors. Western Philosophy is generally said to begin in the Greek cities of western Asia Minor with Thales of Miletus and his most noted students were respectively Anaximander and Anaximenes of Miletus. Pythagoras, from the island of Samos off the coast of Ionia, pythagoreans hold that all is number, giving formal accounts in contrast to the previous material of the Ionians. They also believe in metempsychosis, the transmigration of souls, or reincarnation, Socrates The key figure in Greek philosophy is Socrates. Socrates studied under several Sophists but transformed Greek philosophy into a unified, Socrates used a critical approach called the elenchus or Socratic method to examine peoples views. He aimed to study human things, the life, justice, beauty. Although Socrates wrote nothing himself, some of his many disciples wrote down his conversations and he was tried for corrupting the youth and impiety by the Greek democracy. He was found guilty and sentenced to death, although his friends offered to help him escape from prison, he chose to remain in Athens and abide by his principles. His execution consisting in drinking the poison hemlock and he died in 399 B. C, Plato Socrates most important student was Plato. Plato founded the Academy of Athens and wrote a number of dialogues, some central ideas of Platos dialogues are the immortality of the soul, the benefits of being just, that evil is ignorance, and the Theory of Forms. Forms are universal properties that constitute reality and contrast with the changeable material things he called becoming. Aristotle Platos most outstanding student was Aristotle, Aristotle was perhaps the first truly systematic philosopher and scientist. He wrote books on physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, aesthetics, poetry, theater, music, rhetoric, politics, Aristotelian logic was the first type of logic to attempt to categorize every valid syllogism. Aristotelian philosophy exercised considerable influence on almost all western philosophers, including Greek, Roman, Christian, Jewish, the Neoplatonic and Christian philosophers of Late Antiquity. Early medieval philosophy was influenced by the likes of Stoicism, neo-Platonism, but, above all, the prominent figure of this period was St. Augustinianism was the preferred starting point for most philosophers up until the 13th century. The foundations of many northern European universities were built in the Middle Ages by waves of Irish, Scottish & English monks from the Celtic Church begun by Columba, see Celtic Christianity. Erigena is said to have been stabbed to death by his students with their pens and his theology would today be called pantheistic, in keeping with Celtic resolutions of pagan and Christian philosophy
9.
Analytic philosophy
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Analytic philosophy is a style of philosophy that became dominant in English-speaking countries at the beginning of the 20th century. In the United Kingdom, United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Scandinavia, as a historical development, analytical philosophy refers to certain developments in early 20th-century philosophy that were the historical antecedents of the current practice. Central figures in historical development are Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein, G. E. Moore, Gottlob Frege. This may be contrasted with the traditional foundationalism, which considers philosophy to be a science that investigates the fundamental reasons. Consequently, many philosophers have considered their inquiries as continuous with, or subordinate to. This is an attitude that begins with John Locke, who described his work as that of an underlabourer to the achievements of scientists such as Newton. During the twentieth century, the most influential advocate of the continuity of philosophy with science was Willard Van Orman Quine, the principle that the logical clarification of thoughts can be achieved only by analysis of the logical form of philosophical propositions. The logical form of a proposition is a way of representing it, to reduce it to simpler components if necessary, however, analytic philosophers disagree widely about the correct logical form of ordinary language. The neglect of generalized philosophical systems in favour of more restricted inquiries stated rigorously and it is thus able, in regard to certain problems, to achieve definite answers, which have the quality of science rather than of philosophy. Its methods, in respect, resemble those of science. Analytic philosophy is often understood in contrast to other traditions, most notably continental philosophies such as existentialism and phenomenology. British idealism, as taught by such as F. H. Bradley and Thomas Hill Green. With reference to this basis the initiators of analytic philosophy, G. E. Moore and Bertrand Russell. Inspired by developments in logic, the early Russell claimed that the problems of philosophy can be solved by showing the simple constituents of complex notions. An important aspect of British idealism was logical holism — the opinion that the aspects of the world cannot be wholly without also knowing the whole world. This is closely related to the opinion that relations between items are actually internal relations, that is, properties internal to the nature of those items. Russell, along with Wittgenstein, in response promulgated logical atomism, Frege was also influential as a philosopher of mathematics in Germany at the beginning of the 20th century. Like Frege, Russell attempted to show that mathematics is reducible to logical fundamentals in The Principles of Mathematics, later, his book written with Whitehead, Principia Mathematica, encouraged many philosophers to renew their interest in the development of symbolic logic
10.
The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
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The Structure of Scientific Revolutions is a book about the history of science by philosopher Thomas S. Kuhn. Kuhn challenged the prevailing view of progress in normal science. Normal scientific progress was viewed as development-by-accumulation of accepted facts and theories, Kuhn argued for an episodic model in which periods of such conceptual continuity in normal science were interrupted by periods of revolutionary science. The discovery of anomalies during revolutions in science leads to new paradigms, new paradigms then ask new questions of old data, move beyond the mere puzzle-solving of the previous paradigm, change the rules of the game and the map directing new research. Kuhn called the core concepts of an ascendant revolution its paradigms, Kuhns insistence that a paradigm shift was a mélange of sociology, enthusiasm and scientific promise, but not a logically determinate procedure, caused an uproar in reaction to his work. Kuhn addressed concerns in the 1969 postscript to the second edition, the Structure of Scientific Revolutions was first published as a monograph in the International Encyclopedia of Unified Science, then as a book by University of Chicago Press in 1962. In 1969, Kuhn added a postscript to the book in which he replied to critical responses to the first edition, a 50th Anniversary Edition was published by the University of Chicago Press in April 2012. Kuhn later commented that until then, Id never read an old document in science, Aristotles Physics was astonishingly unlike Isaac Newtons work in its concepts of matter and motion. As I was reading him, Aristotle appeared not only ignorant of mechanics, about motion, in particular, his writings seemed to me full of egregious errors, both of logic and of observation. This was in an apparent contradiction with the fact that Aristotle was a brilliant mind, while perusing Aristotles Physics, Kuhn formed the view that in order to properly appreciate Aristotles reasoning, one must be aware of the scientific conventions of the time. Kuhn concluded that Aristotles concepts were not bad Newton, just different and this insight was the foundation of The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Prior to the publication of Kuhn’s book, a number of ideas regarding the process of scientific investigation, ludwig Fleck developed the first system of the sociology of scientific knowledge in his book The Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact. He claimed that the exchange of ideas led to the establishment of a collective, which. Kuhn wrote the foreword to the 1979 edition of Flecks book, Kuhn also addresses verificationism, a philosophical movement that emerged in the 1920s among logical positivists. The verifiability principle claims that meaningful statements must be supported by evidence or logical requirements. What sorts of intellectual options and strategies were available to people during a given period, what types of lexicons and terminology were known and employed during certain epochs. Such an approach is largely commensurate with the historical school of non-linear history. Kuhn explains his ideas using examples taken from the history of science, for instance, eighteenth century scientists believed that homogenous solutions were chemical compounds
11.
Philosophy of science
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Philosophy of science is a branch of philosophy concerned with the foundations, methods, and implications of science. The central questions of this study concern what qualifies as science, the reliability of theories. This discipline overlaps with metaphysics, ontology, and epistemology, for example, in addition to these general questions about science as a whole, philosophers of science consider problems that apply to particular sciences. Some philosophers of science also use contemporary results in science to reach conclusions about philosophy itself, Karl Popper and Charles Sanders Pierce moved on from positivism to establish a modern set of standards for scientific methodology. Subsequently, the coherentist approach to science, in which a theory is validated if it makes sense of observations as part of a coherent whole, became prominent due to W. V. Quine and others. Some thinkers such as Stephen Jay Gould seek to ground science in axiomatic assumptions, another approach to thinking about science involves studying how knowledge is created from a sociological perspective, an approach represented by scholars like David Bloor and Barry Barnes. Finally, a tradition in continental philosophy approaches science from the perspective of an analysis of human experience. Philosophies of the particular sciences range from questions about the nature of time raised by Einsteins general relativity, a central theme is whether one scientific discipline can be reduced to the terms of another. That is, can chemistry be reduced to physics, or can sociology be reduced to individual psychology, the general questions of philosophy of science also arise with greater specificity in some particular sciences. For instance, the question of the validity of scientific reasoning is seen in a different guise in the foundations of statistics, the question of what counts as science and what should be excluded arises as a life-or-death matter in the philosophy of medicine. Distinguishing between science and non-science is referred to as the demarcation problem, for example, should psychoanalysis be considered science. How about so-called creation science, the multiverse hypothesis, or macroeconomics. Karl Popper called this the question in the philosophy of science. However, no unified account of the problem has won acceptance among philosophers, Martin Gardner has argued for the use of a Potter Stewart standard for recognizing pseudoscience. Early attempts by the logical positivists grounded science in observation while non-science was non-observational, Popper argued that the central property of science is falsifiability. That is, every genuinely scientific claim is capable of being proven false, a closely related question is what counts as a good scientific explanation. In addition to providing predictions about events, society often takes scientific theories to provide explanations for events that occur regularly or have already occurred. One early and influential theory of scientific explanation is the deductive-nomological model and it says that a successful scientific explanation must deduce the occurrence of the phenomena in question from a scientific law
12.
Paradigm shift
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A paradigm shift, a concept identified by the American physicist and philosopher Thomas Kuhn, is a fundamental change in the basic concepts and experimental practices of a scientific discipline. Kuhn contrasted these shifts, which characterize a scientific revolution, to the activity of normal science, in this context, the word paradigm is used in its original meaning, as example. The nature of scientific revolutions has been studied by modern philosophy since Immanuel Kant used the phrase in the preface to his Critique of Pure Reason and he referred to Greek mathematics and Newtonian physics. In the 20th century, new crises in the concepts of mathematics, physics. It was against this background that Kuhn published his work. Kuhn presented his notion of a shift in his influential book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. As one commentator summarizes, Kuhn acknowledges having used the term paradigm in two different meanings, in the second sense, the paradigm is a single element of a whole, say for instance Newton’s Principia, which, acting as a common model or an example. Stands for the rules and thus defines a coherent tradition of investigation. Thus the question is for Kuhn to investigate by means of the paradigm what makes possible the constitution of what he calls normal science and that is to say, the science which can decide if a certain problem will be considered scientific or not. This is precisely the meaning of the term paradigm, which Kuhn considered the most new and profound. An epistemological paradigm shift was called a revolution by epistemologist. The paradigm, in Kuhns view, is not simply the current theory, but the entire worldview in which it exists and this is based on features of landscape of knowledge that scientists can identify around them. There are anomalies for all paradigms, Kuhn maintained, that are brushed away as acceptable levels of error, or simply ignored, rather, according to Kuhn, anomalies have various levels of significance to the practitioners of science at the time. When enough significant anomalies have accrued against a current paradigm, the discipline is thrown into a state of crisis. During this crisis, new ideas, perhaps ones previously discarded, are tried, eventually a new paradigm is formed, which gains its own new followers, and an intellectual battle takes place between the followers of the new paradigm and the hold-outs of the old paradigm. Some found Arthur Eddingtons photographs of light bending around the sun to be compelling, while some questioned their accuracy, after a given discipline has changed from one paradigm to another, this is called, in Kuhns terminology, a scientific revolution or a paradigm shift. If this is correct, Kuhns claims must be taken in a weaker sense than they often are, at that time, physics seemed to be a discipline filling in the last few details of a largely worked-out system. In 1900, Lord Kelvin famously told an assemblage of physicists at the British Association for the Advancement of Science, all that remains is more and more precise measurement
13.
Immanuel Kant
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Immanuel Kant was a German philosopher who is considered a central figure in modern philosophy. Kant took himself to have effected a Copernican revolution in philosophy and his beliefs continue to have a major influence on contemporary philosophy, especially the fields of metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, political theory, and aesthetics. Politically, Kant was one of the earliest exponents of the idea that peace could be secured through universal democracy. He believed that this will be the outcome of universal history. Kant wanted to put an end to an era of futile and speculative theories of human experience, Kant argued that our experiences are structured by necessary features of our minds. In his view, the shapes and structures experience so that, on an abstract level. Among other things, Kant believed that the concepts of space and time are integral to all human experience, as are our concepts of cause, Kant published other important works on ethics, religion, law, aesthetics, astronomy, and history. These included the Critique of Practical Reason, the Metaphysics of Morals, which dealt with ethics, and the Critique of Judgment, Immanuel Kant was born in 1724 in Königsberg, Prussia. His mother, Anna Regina Reuter, was born in Königsberg to a father from Nuremberg. His father, Johann Georg Kant, was a German harness maker from Memel, Immanuel Kant believed that his paternal grandfather Hans Kant was of Scottish origin. Kant was the fourth of nine children, baptized Emanuel, he changed his name to Immanuel after learning Hebrew. Young Kant was a solid, albeit unspectacular, student and he was brought up in a Pietist household that stressed religious devotion, humility, and a literal interpretation of the Bible. His education was strict, punitive and disciplinary, and focused on Latin and religious instruction over mathematics, despite his religious upbringing and maintaining a belief in God, Kant was skeptical of religion in later life, various commentators have labelled him agnostic. Common myths about Kants personal mannerisms are listed, explained, and refuted in Goldthwaits introduction to his translation of Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime. It is often held that Kant lived a strict and disciplined life. He never married, but seemed to have a social life — he was a popular teacher. He had a circle of friends whom he met, among them Joseph Green. A common myth is that Kant never traveled more than 16 kilometres from Königsberg his whole life, in fact, between 1750 and 1754 he worked as a tutor in Judtschen and in Groß-Arnsdorf
14.
Michael Polanyi
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Michael Polanyi, FRS was a Hungarian-British polymath, who made important theoretical contributions to physical chemistry, economics, and philosophy. He argued that positivism supplies a false account of knowing, which if taken seriously undermines our highest achievements as human beings and his wide-ranging research in physical science included chemical kinetics, x-ray diffraction, and adsorption of gases. He pioneered the theory of diffraction analysis in 1921. Two of his pupils and his son won Nobel Prizes in Chemistry, in 1944 Polanyi was elected to the Royal Society. Polanyi, born Pollacsek Mihály in Budapest, was the child of Mihály and Cecília Pollacsek, secular Jews from Ungvár and Wilno, then Russian Empire. His fathers family were entrepreneurs, while his mothers father was the rabbi of Wilno. The family moved to Budapest and Magyarized their surname to Polányi and his father built much of the Hungarian railway system, but lost most of his fortune in 1899 when bad weather caused a railway building project to go over budget. Cecília Polányi established a salon that was known among Budapests intellectuals. His older brother was Karl Polanyi, the political economist and anthropologist, and his niece was Eva Zeisel, in 1909, after leaving his teacher-training secondary school, Polanyi studied to be a physician, obtaining his medical diploma in 1914. He was an member of the Galilei Society. In the First World War, he served in the Austro-Hungarian army as a medical officer, while on sick-leave in 1916, he wrote a PhD thesis on adsorption. His research, which was encouraged by Albert Einstein, was supervised by Gusztáv Buchböck, in October 1918, Mihály Károlyi established the Hungarian Democratic Republic, and Polanyi became Secretary to the Minister of Health. When Communists seized power in March 1919 he returned to medicine, when the Hungarian Soviet Republic was overthrown, Polanyi emigrated to Karlsruhe in Germany, and was invited by Fritz Haber to join the Kaiser Wilhelm Institut für Faserstoffchemie in Berlin. In 1923 he converted to Christianity, and in a Roman Catholic ceremony married Magda Elizabeth Kemeny, in 1926 he became the professorial head of department of the Institut für Physikalische Chemie und Elektrochemie. In 1929, Magda gave birth to their son John, who was awarded a Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1986 and their other son, George Polanyi, who predeceased him, became a well-known economist. His experience of runaway inflation and high unemployment in Weimar Germany led Polanyi to become interested in economics, with the coming to power in 1933 of the Nazi party, he accepted a chair in physical chemistry at the University of Manchester. Two of his pupils, Eugene Wigner and Melvin Calvin went on to win a Nobel Prize, because of his increasing interest in the social sciences, Manchester University created a new chair in Social Science for him. In 1944 Polanyi was elected a member of the Royal Society, in 1962 he was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
15.
John Hasbrouck Van Vleck
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Then he went to Harvard for graduate studies and earned a Ph. D degree in 1922. He joined the University of Minnesota as an assistant professor in 1923 and he also earned Honorary D. Sc. or D. Honoris Causa, degree from Wesleyan University in 1936. J. H. Van Vleck established the fundamentals of the mechanical theory of magnetism. He is regarded as the Father of Modern Magnetism, during World War II, J. H. Van Vleck worked on radar at the MIT Radiation Lab. He was half time at the Radiation Lab and half time on the staff at Harvard and this was to have important consequences not just for military radar systems but later for the new science of radioastronomy. J. H. Van Vleck participated in the Manhattan Project, in June 1942, J. Robert Oppenheimer held a summer study for confirming the concept and feasibility of nuclear weapon at the University of California, Berkeley. Eight theoretical scientists, including J. H. Van Vleck, from July to September, the theoretical study group examined and developed the principles of atomic bomb design. J. H. Van Vlecks theoretical work led to the establishment of the Los Alamos Nuclear Weapons Laboratory and he also served on the Los Alamos Review committee in 1943. The committee, established by General Leslie Groves, also consisted of W. K. Lewis of MIT, Chairman, E. L. Rose, of Jones & Lamson, E. B. Wilson of Harvard, and Richard C. However, it was not employed for the Fat Man bomb at Nagasaki, in 1961/62 he was George Eastman Visiting Professor at University of Oxford and Professorship of Balliol College. In 1950 he became member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts. He was awarded the National Medal of Science in 1966 and the Lorentz Medal in 1974. For his contributions to the understanding of the behavior of electrons in solids, Van Vleck was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics 1977, along with Philip W. Anderson. Van Vleck transformations and Van Vleck paramagnetism are also named after him, Van Vleck died in Cambridge, Massachusetts, aged 81. The Absorption of Radiation by Multiply Periodic Orbits, and its Relation to the Correspondence Principle, some Extensions of the Correspondence Principle, Physical Review, vol. 24, Issue 4, pp. 330–346 The Absorption of Radiation by Multiply Periodic Orbits, and its Relation to the Correspondence Principle, calculation of Absorption by Multiply Periodic Orbits, Physical Review, vol. 24, Issue 4, pp. 347–365 Quantum Principles and Line Spectra,14, pp. 178–188 He was awarded the Irving Langmuir Award in 1965, the National Medal of Science in 1966 and elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society in 1967. He was awarded the Elliott Cresson Medal in 1971, the Lorentz Medal in 1974, J. H. Van Vleck and his wife Abigail were also important art collectors, particularly in the medium of Japanese woodblock prints, known as Van Vleck Collection
16.
Ludwig Wittgenstein
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Ludwig Josef Johann Wittgenstein was an Austrian-British philosopher who worked primarily in logic, the philosophy of mathematics, the philosophy of mind, and the philosophy of language. From 1929 to 1947, Wittgenstein taught at the University of Cambridge, during his lifetime he published just one slim book, the 75-page Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, one article, one book review and a childrens dictionary. His voluminous manuscripts were edited and published posthumously, Philosophical Investigations appeared as a book in 1953, and has since come to be recognised as one of the most important works of philosophy in the twentieth century. His teacher Bertrand Russell described Wittgenstein as the most perfect example I have ever known of genius as traditionally conceived, passionate, profound, intense, born in Vienna into one of Europes richest families, he inherited a large fortune from his father in 1913. Three of his brothers committed suicide, with Wittgenstein contemplating it too and he described philosophy as the only work that gives me real satisfaction. His philosophy is divided into an early period, exemplified by the Tractatus. The later Wittgenstein rejected many of the assumptions of the Tractatus, ludwigs grandmother Fanny was a first cousin of the famous violinist Joseph Joachim. They had 11 children—among them Wittgensteins father, Karl Otto Clemens Wittgenstein became an industrial tycoon, and by the late 1880s was one of the richest men in Europe, with an effective monopoly on Austrias steel cartel. Thanks to Karl, the Wittgensteins became the second wealthiest family in Austria-Hungary, however, their wealth diminished due to post-1918 hyperinflation and subsequently during the Great Depression, although even as late as 1938 they owned 13 mansions in Vienna alone. Wittgensteins mother was Leopoldine Maria Josefa Kalmus, known among friends as Poldi and her father was a Bohemian Jew and her mother was Austrian-Slovene Catholic—she was Wittgensteins only non-Jewish grandparent. She was an aunt of the Nobel Prize laureate Friedrich Hayek on her maternal side, Wittgenstein was born at 8,30 pm on 26 April 1889 in the so-called Wittgenstein Palace at Alleegasse 16, now the Argentinierstrasse, near the Karlskirche. Karl and Poldi had nine children in all, the children were baptized as Catholics, received formal Catholic instruction, and raised in an exceptionally intense environment. The family was at the center of Viennas cultural life, Bruno Walter described the life at the Wittgensteins palace as an atmosphere of humanity. Karl was a patron of the arts, commissioning works by Auguste Rodin and financing the citys exhibition hall and art gallery. Gustav Klimt painted Wittgensteins sister for her portrait, and Johannes Brahms. For Wittgenstein, who highly valued precision and discipline, contemporary music was never considered acceptable at all, music, he said to his friend Drury in 1930, came to a full stop with Brahms, and even in Brahms I can begin to hear the noise of machinery. He also learnt to play the clarinet in his thirties, a fragment of music, composed by Wittgenstein, was discovered in one of his 1931 notebooks, by Michael Nedo, Director of the Wittgenstein Institute in Cambridge. Three of the five brothers would commit suicide
17.
Jean Piaget
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Jean Piaget was a Swiss clinical psychologist known for his pioneering work in child development. Piagets theory of development and epistemological view are together called genetic epistemology. Piaget placed great importance on the education of children, as the Director of the International Bureau of Education, he declared in 1934 that only education is capable of saving our societies from possible collapse, whether violent, or gradual. Piagets theory and research influenced several people and his theory of child development is studied in pre-service education programs. Educators continue to incorporate constructionist-based strategies, Piaget created the International Center for Genetic Epistemology in Geneva in 1955 while on the faculty of the University of Geneva and directed the Center until his death in 1980. The number of collaborations that its founding made possible, and their impact, according to Ernst von Glasersfeld, Jean Piaget was the great pioneer of the constructivist theory of knowing. However, his ideas did not become widely popularized until the 1960s and this then led to the emergence of the study of development as a major sub-discipline in psychology. By the end of the 20th century, Piaget was second only to B. F. Skinner as the most cited psychologist of that era, Piaget was born in Neuchâtel, in the Francophone region of Switzerland. He was the oldest son of Arthur Piaget, a professor of literature at the University of Neuchâtel. Piaget was a child who developed an interest in biology. His early interest in zoology earned him a reputation among those in the field after he had published articles on mollusks by the age of 15. He was educated at the University of Neuchâtel, and studied briefly at the University of Zürich, during this time, he published two philosophical papers that showed the direction of his thinking at the time, but which he later dismissed as adolescent thought. His interest in psychoanalysis, at the time a burgeoning strain of psychology, Piaget moved from Switzerland to Paris, France after his graduation and he taught at the Grange-Aux-Belles Street School for Boys. The school was run by Alfred Binet, the developer of the Binet intelligence Test and it was while he was helping to mark some of these tests that Piaget noticed that young children consistently gave wrong answers to certain questions. Piaget did not focus so much on the fact of the answers being wrong. This led him to the theory that young childrens cognitive processes are different from those of adults. Ultimately, he was to propose a theory of cognitive developmental stages in which individuals exhibit certain common patterns of cognition in each period of development. In 1921, Piaget returned to Switzerland as director of the Rousseau Institute in Geneva, at this time, the institute was directed by Édouard Claparède
18.
Karl Popper
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Sir Karl Raimund Popper CH FBA FRS was an Austrian-British philosopher and professor. He is generally regarded as one of the greatest philosophers of science of the 20th century, in political discourse, he is known for his vigorous defence of liberal democracy and the principles of social criticism that he came to believe made a flourishing open society possible. Karl Popper was born in Vienna in 1902, to upper middle-class parents, karls father Simon Siegmund Carl Popper was a lawyer from Bohemia and a doctor of law at the Vienna University, and mother Jenny Schiff was of Silesian and Hungarian descent. Karl Poppers uncle was the Austrian philosopher Josef Popper-Lynkeus and his father was a bibliophile who had 12, 000–14,000 volumes in his personal library and took an interest in philosophy, the classics, and social and political issues. Popper inherited both the library and the disposition from him, later, he would describe the atmosphere of his upbringing as having been decidedly bookish. Popper left school at the age of 16 and attended lectures in mathematics, physics, philosophy, psychology, in 1919, Popper became attracted by Marxism and subsequently joined the Association of Socialist School Students. He also became a member of the Social Democratic Workers Party of Austria and he worked in street construction for a short amount of time, but was unable to cope with the heavy labour. Continuing to attend university as a guest student, he started an apprenticeship as cabinetmaker and he was dreaming at that time of starting a daycare facility for children, for which he assumed the ability to make furniture might be useful. After that he did service in one of psychoanalyst Alfred Adlers clinics for children. In 1922, he did his matura by way of a second chance education and he completed his examination as an elementary teacher in 1924 and started working at an after-school care club for socially endangered children. In 1925, he went to the newly founded Pädagogisches Institut and continued studying philosophy, around that time he started courting Josefine Anna Henninger, who later became his wife. In 1928, he earned a doctorate in psychology, under the supervision of Karl Bühler and his dissertation was entitled Die Methodenfrage der Denkpsychologie. In 1929, he obtained the authorisation to teach mathematics and physics in secondary school and he married his colleague Josefine Anna Henninger in 1930. Fearing the rise of Nazism and the threat of the Anschluss, he started to use the evenings and he needed to publish one to get some academic position in a country that was safe for people of Jewish descent. However, he ended up not publishing the work, but a condensed version of it with some new material, Logik der Forschung. Here, he criticised psychologism, naturalism, inductionism, and logical positivism, in 1935 and 1936, he took unpaid leave to go to the United Kingdom for a study visit. It was here that he wrote his influential work The Open Society, in Dunedin he met the Professor of Physiology John Carew Eccles and formed a lifelong friendship with him. In 1946, after the Second World War, he moved to the United Kingdom to become reader in logic and scientific method at the London School of Economics, Three years later, in 1949, he was appointed professor of logic and scientific method at the University of London
19.
Norwood Russell Hanson
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Norwood Russell Hanson was an American philosopher of science. His single most central intellectual concern was the comprehension and development of a logic of discovery and he cited optical illusions such as the famous old Parisienne woman, which can be seen in different ways. Hanson drew a distinction between seeing as and seeing that which became a key idea in evolving theories of perception and he wanted to formulate a logic explaining how scientific discoveries take place. He used Charles Sanders Peirces notion of abduction for this, Hansons other books include The Concept of the Positron. Hanson was a defender of the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics. The philosophical issues involved were important elements in Hansons views of perception, Hansons posthumous works include What I Do Not Believe and Other Essays and Constellations and Conjectures. He is also known for the essays What I Do Not Believe and The Agnostics Dilemma, but he goes much further than they, exploring questions about perception and discovery in more detail, and. Tying in the history of science for exemplification and for its own benefit, Hanson was one of the rare thinkers in the tradition of Whewell – a man he much admired – who could really benefit from and yield benefits for both the history and philosophy of science. With Kuhns contribution, Hansons interdisciplinary view became generally accepted, Hanson was born in 1924 in Cortland County, New York. He studied trumpet with the legendary William Vacchiano and played at Carnegie Hall and he enlisted in the United States Coast Guard, later transferring to the United States Marine Corps, where he trained as a fighter pilot, developing a reputation as a hot pilot. He served on the ill-fated USS Franklin in the VMF-452 Skyraiders Squadron, when the Franklin was bombed and nearly destroyed on 19 March 1945, his Corsair was described as the last plane off Big Ben. After flying over 2,000 hours, he returned to civilian life, bill rather than continuing a life in music. He took degrees from the University of Chicago and Columbia University, then proceeded with his new wife Fay to the UK in 1949 and he completed multiple degrees at both Oxford and Cambridge, and stayed in Britain to continue teaching and writing. Hanson left the life of a Cambridge don to return to the U. S, in 1963, Hanson moved to Yale University. He also continued to fly – an AT-6 Texan trainer, and his unusual style and personal history, including his aerobatics over the Yale Bowl and at airshows as The Flying Professor, were noted by a generation of students – including John Kerry. His time at Yale was strained by campus politics, where he was caught in the midst of an infamous 1964-65 fight over Yales tenure policies, Hanson died in 1967, when his Bearcat crashed in dense fog en route to Ithaca, New York. He was survived by wife Fay and children Trevor and Leslie, books Patterns of Discovery, An Inquiry into the Conceptual Foundations of Science. Perception and Discovery, An Introduction to Scientific Inquiry, observation and Explanation, A Guide to Philosophy of Science
20.
Paul Feyerabend
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Paul Karl Feyerabend was an Austrian-born philosopher of science best known for his work as a professor of philosophy at the University of California, Berkeley, where he worked for three decades. At various different points in his life, he lived in England, the United States, New Zealand, Italy, Germany and his major works include Against Method, Science in a Free Society and Farewell to Reason. Feyerabend became famous for his purportedly anarchistic view of science and his rejection of the existence of universal methodological rules and he was an influential figure in the sociology of scientific knowledge. Asteroid Feyerabend is named in his honour, Paul Feyerabend was born in 1924 in Vienna, where he attended primary and high school. In this period he got into the habit of frequent reading, developed an interest in theatre, after graduating from high school in April 1942 he was drafted into the German Arbeitsdienst. After basic training in Pirmasens, Germany, he was assigned to a unit in Quelern en Bas, Feyerabend described the work he did during that period as monotonous, we moved around in the countryside, dug ditches, and filled them up again. After a short leave he joined the army and volunteered for officer school, in his autobiography he writes that he hoped the war would be over by the time he had finished his education as an officer. This turned out not to be the case, from December 1943 on, he served as an officer on the northern part of the Eastern Front, was decorated with an Iron cross, and attained the rank of lieutenant. When the German army started its retreat from the advancing Red Army, one bullet hit him in the spine. As a consequence he needed to walk with a stick for the rest of his life and he spent the rest of the war recovering from his wounds. When the war was over, Feyerabend first got a job in Apolda where he wrote plays. He was influenced by the Marxist playwright Bertolt Brecht and was invited by Brecht to be his assistant at the East Berlin State Opera, Feyerabend took various classes at the Weimar Academy, and returned to Vienna to study history and sociology. He became dissatisfied, however, and soon transferred to physics, where he met Felix Ehrenhaft, Feyerabend changed his course of studies to philosophy and submitted his final thesis on observation sentences. In his autobiography, he described his views during this time as staunchly empiricist. In 1948 he visited the first Alpbach Forum in Alpbach, there Feyerabend first met Karl Popper, who had a positive, as well as negative effect on him. In 1949 he was a member of the Kraft Circle. In 1951, Feyerabend was granted a British Council scholarship to study under Wittgenstein, however, Wittgenstein died before Feyerabend moved to England. Feyerabend then chose Popper as his supervisor instead, and went to study at the London School of Economics in 1952, in his autobiography, Feyerabend explains that during this time, he was influenced by Popper, I had fallen for
21.
Imre Lakatos
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Lakatos was born Imre Lipschitz to a Jewish family in Debrecen, Hungary in 1922. He received a degree in mathematics, physics, and philosophy from the University of Debrecen in 1944, in March 1944 the Germans invaded Hungary and Lakatos along with Éva Révész, his then-girlfriend and subsequent wife, formed soon after that event a Marxist resistance group. In May of that year, the group was joined by Éva Izsák, Lakatos, considering that there was a risk that she would be captured and forced to betray them, decided that her duty to the group was to commit suicide. Subsequently, a member of the group took her to Debrecen, during the occupation, Lakatos avoided Nazi persecution of Jews by changing his name to Imre Molnár. His mother and grandmother died in Auschwitz and he changed his surname once again to Lakatos in honor of Géza Lakatos. After the war, from 1947 he worked as an official in the Hungarian ministry of education. He also continued his education with a PhD at Debrecen University awarded in 1948 and he also studied at the Moscow State University under the supervision of Sofya Yanovskaya in 1949. When he returned, however, he found himself on the side of internal arguments within the Hungarian communist party and was imprisoned on charges of revisionism from 1950 to 1953. More of Lakatos activities in Hungary after World War II have recently become known, after his release, Lakatos returned to academic life, doing mathematical research and translating George Pólyas How to Solve It into Hungarian. Still nominally a communist, his views had shifted markedly. After the Soviet Union invaded Hungary in November 1956, Lakatos fled to Vienna and he received a doctorate in philosophy in 1961 from the University of Cambridge, his thesis advisor was R. B. The book Proofs and Refutations, The Logic of Mathematical Discovery, in 1960 he was appointed to a position in the London School of Economics, where he wrote on the philosophy of mathematics and the philosophy of science. The LSE philosophy of science department at that time included Karl Popper, Joseph Agassi and it was Agassi who first introduced Lakatos to Popper under the rubric of his applying a fallibilist methodology of conjectures and refutations to mathematics in his Cambridge PhD thesis. With co-editor Alan Musgrave, he edited the often cited Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge, published in 1970, the 1965 Colloquium included well-known speakers delivering papers in response to Thomas Kuhns The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Lakatos remained at the London School of Economics until his death in 1974 of a heart attack at the age of just 51. The Lakatos Award was set up by the school in his memory and his last LSE lectures in scientific method in Lent Term 1973 along with parts of his correspondence with his friend and critic Paul Feyerabend have been published in For and Against Method. Lakatos philosophy of mathematics was inspired by both Hegels and Marxs dialectic, by Karl Poppers theory of knowledge, and by the work of mathematician George Pólya. The 1976 book Proofs and Refutations is based on the first three chapters of his four chapter 1961 doctoral thesis Essays in the logic of mathematical discovery
22.
Philip Kitcher
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Born in London, Kitcher spent his early life in Eastbourne, East Sussex, on the South Coast of the United Kingdom. He is married to Patricia Kitcher and she is a well known Kant scholar and philosopher of mind who has been the Mark Van Doren Professor of Humanities at Columbia. Kitcher is best known outside academia for his work examining creationism and his works attempt to connect the questions raised in philosophy of biology and philosophy of mathematics with the central philosophical issues of epistemology, metaphysics, and ethics. He has also published papers on John Stuart Mill, Kant, hIs 2012 book documented his developing interest in John Dewey and a pragmatic approach to philosophical issues. He sees pragmatism as providing a unifying and reconstructive approach to traditional philosophy issues and he had, a year earlier, published a book outlining a naturalistic approach to ethics, The Ethical Project. He has also work on the philosophy of climate change. Kitchers three criteria for good science are,1, unification A science should be unified. Good theories consist of just one problem-solving strategy, or a family of problem-solving strategies. Fecundity A great scientific theory, like Newtons, opens up new areas of research, because a theory presents a new way of looking at the world, it can lead us to ask new questions, and so to embark on new and fruitful lines of inquiry. Typically, a science is incomplete. At any time, it raises more questions than it can currently answer, on the contrary, incompleteness is the mother of fecundity. A good theory should be productive, it should raise new questions, the broad circulation of his views has generated a popular caricature of Kuhns position. According to this popular caricature, scientists working in a field belong to a club, all club members are required to agree on main points of doctrine. Indeed, the price of admission is several years of graduate education, the views of outsiders are ignored. Now I want to emphasize that this is a hopeless caricature, nevertheless, the caricature has become commonly accepted as a faithful representation, thereby lending support to the Creationists claims that their views are arrogantly disregarded. Kitcher currently teaches at Columbia University in the Department of Philosophy where he holds an appointment as the John Dewey Professor of Philosophy, as chair of Columbias Contemporary Civilization program, he also holds the James R. Barker Professorship of Contemporary Civilization. Kitcher is past president of the American Philosophical Association, dietrich at Dartmouth College, and Bruce Glymour at Kansas State University, and C. Kenneth Waters at the University of Calgary and Michael Weisberg at the University of Pennsylvania as undergraduates and his appointments and service have included, Editorial Board, Philosophy of Science, 1985–1994
23.
Physics
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Physics is the natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion and behavior through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. One of the most fundamental disciplines, the main goal of physics is to understand how the universe behaves. Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy, Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the mechanisms of other sciences while opening new avenues of research in areas such as mathematics. Physics also makes significant contributions through advances in new technologies that arise from theoretical breakthroughs, the United Nations named 2005 the World Year of Physics. Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, the stars and planets were often a target of worship, believed to represent their gods. While the explanations for these phenomena were often unscientific and lacking in evidence, according to Asger Aaboe, the origins of Western astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, and all Western efforts in the exact sciences are descended from late Babylonian astronomy. The most notable innovations were in the field of optics and vision, which came from the works of many scientists like Ibn Sahl, Al-Kindi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Farisi and Avicenna. The most notable work was The Book of Optics, written by Ibn Al-Haitham, in which he was not only the first to disprove the ancient Greek idea about vision, but also came up with a new theory. In the book, he was also the first to study the phenomenon of the pinhole camera, many later European scholars and fellow polymaths, from Robert Grosseteste and Leonardo da Vinci to René Descartes, Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton, were in his debt. Indeed, the influence of Ibn al-Haythams Optics ranks alongside that of Newtons work of the same title, the translation of The Book of Optics had a huge impact on Europe. From it, later European scholars were able to build the devices as what Ibn al-Haytham did. From this, such important things as eyeglasses, magnifying glasses, telescopes, Physics became a separate science when early modern Europeans used experimental and quantitative methods to discover what are now considered to be the laws of physics. Newton also developed calculus, the study of change, which provided new mathematical methods for solving physical problems. The discovery of new laws in thermodynamics, chemistry, and electromagnetics resulted from greater research efforts during the Industrial Revolution as energy needs increased, however, inaccuracies in classical mechanics for very small objects and very high velocities led to the development of modern physics in the 20th century. Modern physics began in the early 20th century with the work of Max Planck in quantum theory, both of these theories came about due to inaccuracies in classical mechanics in certain situations. Quantum mechanics would come to be pioneered by Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, from this early work, and work in related fields, the Standard Model of particle physics was derived. Areas of mathematics in general are important to this field, such as the study of probabilities, in many ways, physics stems from ancient Greek philosophy
24.
History of science
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The history of science is the study of the development of science and scientific knowledge, including both the natural sciences and social sciences. Historiography of science, in contrast, studies the methods by which historians study the history of science, the English word scientist is relatively recent—first coined by William Whewell in the 19th century. Previously, people investigating nature called themselves natural philosophers, traditionally, historians of science have defined science sufficiently broadly to include those earlier inquiries. In prehistoric times, advice and knowledge was passed from generation to generation in an oral tradition, for example, the domestication of maize for agriculture has been dated to about 9,000 years ago in southern Mexico, before the development of writing systems. Similarly, archaeological evidence indicates the development of knowledge in preliterate societies. The development of writing enabled knowledge to be stored and communicated across generations with much greater fidelity, many ancient civilizations collected astronomical information in a systematic manner through simple observation. Though they had no knowledge of the physical structure of the planets and stars. Basic facts about human physiology were known in places. Considerable observation of flora and fauna was also performed. Ancient Egypt made significant advances in astronomy, mathematics and medicine and their development of geometry was a necessary outgrowth of surveying to preserve the layout and ownership of farmland, which was flooded annually by the Nile river. The 3-4-5 right triangle and other rules of geometry were used to build structures. Egypt was also a center of research for much of the Mediterranean. However, while Egyptian medicine had some practices, it was not without its ineffective. Medical historians believe that ancient Egyptian pharmacology, for example, was largely ineffective, E. R. Lloyd played a significant role in the development of this methodology. The Ebers papyrus also contains evidence of traditional empiricism, from their beginnings in Sumer around 3500 BC, the Mesopotamian people began to attempt to record some observations of the world with numerical data. But their observations and measurements were taken for purposes other than for elucidating scientific laws. A concrete instance of Pythagoras law was recorded, as early as the 18th century BC, dated 1900 BC, possibly millennia before Pythagoras, but an abstract formulation of the Pythagorean theorem was not. In Babylonian astronomy, records of the motions of the stars, planets, even today, astronomical periods identified by Mesopotamian proto-scientists are still widely used in Western calendars such as the solar year and the lunar month
25.
Science
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Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. The formal sciences are often excluded as they do not depend on empirical observations, disciplines which use science, like engineering and medicine, may also be considered to be applied sciences. However, during the Islamic Golden Age foundations for the method were laid by Ibn al-Haytham in his Book of Optics. In the 17th and 18th centuries, scientists increasingly sought to formulate knowledge in terms of physical laws, over the course of the 19th century, the word science became increasingly associated with the scientific method itself as a disciplined way to study the natural world. It was during this time that scientific disciplines such as biology, chemistry, Science in a broad sense existed before the modern era and in many historical civilizations. Modern science is distinct in its approach and successful in its results, Science in its original sense was a word for a type of knowledge rather than a specialized word for the pursuit of such knowledge. In particular, it was the type of knowledge which people can communicate to each other, for example, knowledge about the working of natural things was gathered long before recorded history and led to the development of complex abstract thought. This is shown by the construction of calendars, techniques for making poisonous plants edible. For this reason, it is claimed these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense and they were mainly speculators or theorists, particularly interested in astronomy. In contrast, trying to use knowledge of nature to imitate nature was seen by scientists as a more appropriate interest for lower class artisans. A clear-cut distinction between formal and empirical science was made by the pre-Socratic philosopher Parmenides, although his work Peri Physeos is a poem, it may be viewed as an epistemological essay on method in natural science. Parmenides ἐὸν may refer to a system or calculus which can describe nature more precisely than natural languages. Physis may be identical to ἐὸν and he criticized the older type of study of physics as too purely speculative and lacking in self-criticism. He was particularly concerned that some of the early physicists treated nature as if it could be assumed that it had no intelligent order, explaining things merely in terms of motion and matter. The study of things had been the realm of mythology and tradition, however. Aristotle later created a less controversial systematic programme of Socratic philosophy which was teleological and he rejected many of the conclusions of earlier scientists. For example, in his physics, the sun goes around the earth, each thing has a formal cause and final cause and a role in the rational cosmic order. Motion and change is described as the actualization of potentials already in things, while the Socratics insisted that philosophy should be used to consider the practical question of the best way to live for a human being, they did not argue for any other types of applied science
26.
Sociology of scientific knowledge
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The sociology of scientific ignorance is complementary to the sociology of scientific knowledge. For comparison, the sociology of knowledge studies the impact of human knowledge, sociologists of scientific knowledge study the development of a scientific field and attempt to identify points of contingency or interpretative flexibility where ambiguities are present. Such variations may be linked to a variety of political, historical, cultural or economic factors, the field emerged in the late 1960s and early 1970s and at first was an almost exclusively British practice. Other early centers for the development of the field were in France, Germany, de Solla Price, Lucy Suchman and Anselm Strauss. Kuhn, but especially from established traditions in cultural anthropology as well as the later Wittgenstein, the weak programme is more of a description of an approach than an organised movement. The term is applied to historians, sociologists and philosophers of science who merely cite sociological factors as being responsible for those beliefs that went wrong, imre Lakatos and Thomas Kuhn might be said to adhere to it. The strong programme is particularly associated with the work of two groups, the Edinburgh School in the 1970s and 80s, and the Bath School in the same period, Edinburgh sociologists and Bath sociologists promoted, respectively, the Strong Programme and Empirical Programme of Relativism. It has made contributions in recent years to a critical analysis of the biosciences. Since Eugene Wigner raised the issue in 1960 and Hilary Putnam made it more rigorous in 1975, proposed solutions point out that the fundamental constituents of mathematical thought, space, form-structure, and number-proportion are also the fundamental constituents of physics. Fundamental contributions to the sociology of knowledge have been made by Sal Restivo. Restivo draws upon the work of such as Oswald Spengler, Raymond L. Wilder and Lesley A. White, as well as contemporary sociologists of knowledge. David Bloor draws upon Ludwig Wittgenstein and other contemporary thinkers and they both claim that mathematical knowledge is socially constructed and has irreducible contingent and historical factors woven into it. More recently Paul Ernest has proposed a social constructivist account of mathematical knowledge, SSK has received criticism from theorists of the Actor-network theory school of science and technology studies. These theorists criticise SSK for sociological reductionism and a human centered universe, SSK, they say, relies too heavily on human actors and social rules and conventions settling scientific controversies. The debate is discussed in an article Epistemological Chicken, Sociology of Scientific Knowledge Category Navigation. <see talk> Department of History and Philosophy of Science, baez, John, The Bogdanoff Affair Bloor, David Knowledge and social imagery. Studies In History and Philosophy of Science Part A Volume 30, Issue 1, March 1999, chu, Dominique, The Science Myth---God, society, the self and what we will never know, ISBN1782790470 Collins, H. M. The seven sexes, A study in the sociology of a phenomenon, or the replication of experiments in physics, Sociology,9, changing order, Replication and induction in scientific practice
27.
Taft School
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The Taft School is a private, coeducational school located in Watertown, Connecticut, United States. Approximately three-quarters of Tafts 596 students live on the schools 226-acre campus, the Taft School was founded in 1890 by Horace Dutton Taft, brother of President William Howard Taft. The original campus was in Pelham Manor, New York, the moved to Watertown two years later. In its 125-year history, Taft has had five headmasters. William R. MacMullen, a 1978 graduate of Taft, has served as headmaster since 2001, the campus is located in Watertown, Connecticut, and is approximately 226 acres in size. It includes The Lady Ivy Kwok Wu Science and Mathematics Center, Pinto Language Lab, Moorhead Academic Center, Hulbert Taft, while exact numbers vary slightly from year to year, a typical student body hails from more than 40 different countries and more than 30 US states. The school community students in 9th through 12th grades, as well as post-graduates. Approximately 34% of Taft students share in more than $7.7 million in financial aid, all awards are based on need only, there are no merit-based scholarships. The student-faculty ratio at Taft is 11-1, three-quarters of the faculty hold advanced degrees. The majority of the Taft faculty live on campus, in private houses surrounding the grounds, or in apartments in the dorms. There are more than 200 academic courses offered at the Taft School, the average class consists of 11 students. 90% of graduates take one or more AP exams with a score of 4 out of a possible 5. Taft is a school of the Global Online Academy. The class of 2014 had mean SAT Reasoning Test scores of 633,653, Tafts athletic teams are known as the Rhinos and their colors are maroon and navy blue. The following sports are offered at Taft, Taft is part of the Hotchkiss-Taft rivalry
28.
Bachelor of Science
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A Bachelor of Science is an undergraduate academic degree awarded for completed courses that generally last three to five years. Whether a student of a subject is awarded a Bachelor of Science degree or a Bachelor of Arts degree can vary between universities. For one example, a degree may be given as a Bachelor of Arts by one university but as a B. Sc. by another. Some liberal arts colleges in the United States offer only the BA, even in the natural sciences, in both instances, there are historical and traditional reasons. Northwestern Universitys School of Communication grants B. Sc. degrees in all of its programs of study, including theater, dance, the first university to admit a student to the degree of Bachelor of Science was the University of London in 1860. Prior to this, science subjects were included in the B. A. bracket, notably in the cases of mathematics, physics, physiology, in Argentina and Chile, most university degrees are given as a license in a field or discipline. For instance, besides the courses, biochemistry and biology require 1–2 years hands-on training either in a clinical laboratory plus a final exam or in a research laboratory plus a thesis defense. The degrees are term licenses in the field of study or profession i. e. biology, nutrition, physical therapy or kinesiology, etc. However, a masters degree requires 2-3 more years of specific training, engineering and medical degrees are also different and are six-year programs of specific classes and training starting immediately after high school. No intermediate degrees count towards the admission examination or even exist, medical degrees are complemented with a 3–4 years of hospital residence plus 1–2 years of specialization training. In Australia, the B. Sc. is generally a three-four year degree, an honours year or a Master of Science is required to progress on to the Doctor of Philosophy. In New Zealand, in cases, the honours degree comprises an additional postgraduate qualification. In South Africa, the B. Sc. is taken three years, while the postgraduate B. Sc. Entails an additional year of study, admission to the honours degree is on the basis of a sufficiently high average in the B. Sc. major, an honours degree is required for M. Sc. Level study, and admission to a doctorate is via the M. Sc, commonly in British Commonwealth countries and Ireland graduands are admitted to the degree of Bachelor of Science after having completed a programme in one or more of the sciences. These programmes may take different lengths of time to complete, note that in British English, no full stops are used in the title, hence BSc, not B. Sc. A Bachelor of Science receives the designation BSc or BS for a major/pass degree, in England, Wales and Northern Ireland an honours degree is typically completed over a three-year period, though there are a few intensified two-year courses. Bachelors degrees were typically completed in two years for most of the twentieth century, in Scotland, where access to university is possible after one less year of secondary education, degree courses have a foundation year making the total course length four years
29.
James Bryant Conant
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James Bryant Conant was an American chemist, a transformative President of Harvard University, and the first U. S. Ambassador to West Germany. Conant obtained a PhD in Chemistry from Harvard in 1916, during World War I he served in the U. S. Army, working on the development of poison gases. He became an assistant professor of chemistry at Harvard in 1919, in 1933, Conant became the President of Harvard University with a reformist agenda that involved dispensing with a number of customs, including class rankings and the requirement for Latin classes. He abolished athletic scholarships, and instituted an up or out policy and his egalitarian vision of education required a diversified student body, and he promoted the adoption of the Scholastic Aptitude Test and co-educational classes. During his presidency, women were admitted to Harvard Medical School, Conant was appointed to the National Defense Research Committee in 1940, becoming its chairman in 1941. In this capacity, he oversaw vital wartime research projects, including the development of rubber, and the Manhattan Project. Truman to use atomic bombs on Japan, while in this position, he would advise the president against starting a development program for the hydrogen bomb. In his later years at Harvard, Conant taught undergraduate courses on the history and philosophy of science, on returning to the United States, he criticized the education system in works such as The American High School Today, Slums and Suburbs and The Education of American Teachers. Between 1965 and 1969, Conant, suffering from a condition, worked on his autobiography. He became increasingly infirm, suffered a series of strokes in 1977, James Bryant Conant was born in Dorchester, Massachusetts, on March 26,1893, the third child and only son of James Scott Conant, a photoengraver, and his wife Jennett Orr née Bryant. Conant was one of 35 boys who passed the admission exam for the Roxbury Latin School in West Roxbury in 1904. He graduated near the top of his class in 1910 and he was also an editor of The Harvard Crimson. He joined the Signet Society and Delta Upsilon, and was initiated as a brother of the Omicron Chapter of Alpha Chi Sigma in 1912 and he graduated Phi Beta Kappa with his Bachelor of Arts in June 1913. He then went to work on his doctorate, which was an unusual double dissertation, the first part, supervised by Richards, concerned The Electrochemical Behavior of Liquid Sodium Amalgams, the second, supervised by Kohler, was A Study of Certain Cyclopropane Derivatives. Harvard awarded Conant his Doctor of Philosophy degree in 1916, in 1915, Conant entered into a business partnership with two other Harvard chemistry graduates, Stanley Pennock and Chauncey Loomis, to form the LPC Laboratories. In 1916, the departure of organic chemist Roger Adams created a vacancy at Harvard that was offered to Conant, since he aspired to an academic career, Conant accepted the offer and returned to Harvard. On November 27,1916, there was an explosion at the plant, Pennock and two other workers were killed and the plant was completely destroyed. One of the causes was Conants faulty test procedures
30.
University of California, Berkeley
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The University of California, Berkeley, is a public research university located in Berkeley, California. In 1960s, UC Berkeley was particularly noted for the Free Speech Movement as well as the Anti-Vietnam War Movement led by its students. S, Department of Energy, and is home to many world-renowned research institutes and organizations including Mathematical Sciences Research Institute and Space Sciences Laboratory. Faculty member J. R. Oppenheimer, the father of the atomic bomb, Lawrence Livermore Lab also discovered or co-discovered six chemical elements. The Academic Ranking of World Universities also ranks the University of California, Berkeley, third in the world overall, in 1866, the private College of California purchased the land comprising the current Berkeley campus. Ten faculty members and almost 40 students made up the new University of California when it opened in Oakland in 1869, billings was a trustee of the College of California and suggested that the college be named in honor of the Anglo-Irish philosopher George Berkeley. In 1870, Henry Durant, the founder of the College of California, with the completion of North and South Halls in 1873, the university relocated to its Berkeley location with 167 male and 22 female students and held its first classes. In 1905, the University Farm was established near Sacramento, ultimately becoming the University of California, by the 1920s, the number of campus buildings had grown substantially, and included twenty structures designed by architect John Galen Howard. Robert Gordon Sproul served as president from 1930 to 1958, by 1942, the American Council on Education ranked UC Berkeley second only to Harvard University in the number of distinguished departments. During World War II, following Glenn Seaborgs then-secret discovery of plutonium, UC Berkeley physics professor J. Robert Oppenheimer was named scientific head of the Manhattan Project in 1942. Along with the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley is now a partner in managing two other labs, Los Alamos National Laboratory and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, originally, military training was compulsory for male undergraduates, and Berkeley housed an armory for that purpose. In 1917, Berkeleys ROTC program was established, and its School of Military Aeronautics trained future pilots, including Jimmy Doolittle, both Robert McNamara and Frederick C. Weyand graduated from UC Berkeleys ROTC program, earning B. A. degrees in 1937 and 1938, in 1926, future fleet admiral Chester W. Nimitz established the first Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps unit at Berkeley. The Board of Regents ended compulsory military training at Berkeley in 1962, during the McCarthy era in 1949, the Board of Regents adopted an anti-communist loyalty oath. A number of faculty members objected and were dismissed, ten years passed before they were reinstated with back pay, in 1952, the University of California became an entity separate from the Berkeley campus. Each campus was given autonomy and its own Chancellor. Then-president Sproul assumed presidency of the entire University of California system, Berkeley gained a reputation for student activism in the 1960s with the Free Speech Movement of 1964 and opposition to the Vietnam War. In the highly publicized Peoples Park protest in 1969, students and the school conflicted over use of a plot of land, then governor of California Ronald Reagan called the Berkeley campus a haven for communist sympathizers, protesters, and sex deviants. Modern students at Berkeley are less active, with a greater percentage of moderates and conservatives
31.
Niels Bohr
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Niels Henrik David Bohr was a Danish physicist who made foundational contributions to understanding atomic structure and quantum theory, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922. Bohr was also a philosopher and a promoter of scientific research, although the Bohr model has been supplanted by other models, its underlying principles remain valid. He conceived the principle of complementarity, that items could be analysed in terms of contradictory properties. The notion of complementarity dominated Bohrs thinking in science and philosophy. Bohr founded the Institute of Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen, now known as the Niels Bohr Institute, Bohr mentored and collaborated with physicists including Hans Kramers, Oskar Klein, George de Hevesy, and Werner Heisenberg. He predicted the existence of a new element, which was named hafnium, after the Latin name for Copenhagen. Later, the element bohrium was named after him, during the 1930s, Bohr helped refugees from Nazism. After Denmark was occupied by the Germans, he had a meeting with Heisenberg. In September 1943, word reached Bohr that he was about to be arrested by the Germans, from there, he was flown to Britain, where he joined the British Tube Alloys nuclear weapons project, and was part of the British mission to the Manhattan Project. After the war, Bohr called for cooperation on nuclear energy. He had a sister, Jenny, and a younger brother Harald. Jenny became a teacher, while Harald became a mathematician and Olympic footballer who played for the Danish national team at the 1908 Summer Olympics in London. Bohr was a footballer as well, and the two brothers played several matches for the Copenhagen-based Akademisk Boldklub, with Bohr as goalkeeper. Bohr was educated at Gammelholm Latin School, starting when he was seven, in 1903, Bohr enrolled as an undergraduate at Copenhagen University. His major was physics, which he studied under Professor Christian Christiansen and he also studied astronomy and mathematics under Professor Thorvald Thiele, and philosophy under Professor Harald Høffding, a friend of his father. This involved measuring the frequency of oscillation of the radius of a water jet, Bohr conducted a series of experiments using his fathers laboratory in the university, the university itself had no physics laboratory. To complete his experiments, he had to make his own glassware and his essay, which he submitted at the last minute, won the prize. He later submitted a version of the paper to the Royal Society in London for publication in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
32.
Princeton University
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Princeton University is a private Ivy League research university in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. The institution moved to Newark in 1747, then to the current site nine years later, Princeton provides undergraduate and graduate instruction in the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, and engineering. The university has ties with the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton Theological Seminary, Princeton has the largest endowment per student in the United States. The university has graduated many notable alumni, two U. S. Presidents,12 U. S. Supreme Court Justices, and numerous living billionaires and foreign heads of state are all counted among Princetons alumni body. New Light Presbyterians founded the College of New Jersey in 1746 in order to train ministers, the college was the educational and religious capital of Scots-Irish America. In 1754, trustees of the College of New Jersey suggested that, in recognition of Governors interest, gov. Jonathan Belcher replied, What a name that would be. In 1756, the moved to Princeton, New Jersey. Its home in Princeton was Nassau Hall, named for the royal House of Orange-Nassau of William III of England, following the untimely deaths of Princetons first five presidents, John Witherspoon became president in 1768 and remained in that office until his death in 1794. During his presidency, Witherspoon shifted the focus from training ministers to preparing a new generation for leadership in the new American nation. To this end, he tightened academic standards and solicited investment in the college, in 1812, the eighth president the College of New Jersey, Ashbel Green, helped establish the Princeton Theological Seminary next door. The plan to extend the theological curriculum met with approval on the part of the authorities at the College of New Jersey. Today, Princeton University and Princeton Theological Seminary maintain separate institutions with ties that include such as cross-registration. Before the construction of Stanhope Hall in 1803, Nassau Hall was the sole building. The cornerstone of the building was laid on September 17,1754, during the summer of 1783, the Continental Congress met in Nassau Hall, making Princeton the countrys capital for four months. The class of 1879 donated twin lion sculptures that flanked the entrance until 1911, Nassau Halls bell rang after the halls construction, however, the fire of 1802 melted it. The bell was then recast and melted again in the fire of 1855, James McCosh took office as the colleges president in 1868 and lifted the institution out of a low period that had been brought about by the American Civil War. McCosh Hall is named in his honor, in 1879, the first thesis for a Doctor of Philosophy Ph. D. was submitted by James F. Williamson, Class of 1877. In 1896, the officially changed its name from the College of New Jersey to Princeton University to honor the town in which it resides
33.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
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The Massachusetts Institute of Technology is a private research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, often cited as one of the worlds most prestigious universities. Researchers worked on computers, radar, and inertial guidance during World War II, post-war defense research contributed to the rapid expansion of the faculty and campus under James Killian. The current 168-acre campus opened in 1916 and extends over 1 mile along the bank of the Charles River basin. The Institute is traditionally known for its research and education in the sciences and engineering, and more recently in biology, economics, linguistics. Air Force and 6 Fields Medalists have been affiliated with MIT, the school has a strong entrepreneurial culture, and the aggregated revenues of companies founded by MIT alumni would rank as the eleventh-largest economy in the world. In 1859, a proposal was submitted to the Massachusetts General Court to use newly filled lands in Back Bay, Boston for a Conservatory of Art and Science, but the proposal failed. A charter for the incorporation of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Rogers, a professor from the University of Virginia, wanted to establish an institution to address rapid scientific and technological advances. The Rogers Plan reflected the German research university model, emphasizing an independent faculty engaged in research, as well as instruction oriented around seminars, two days after the charter was issued, the first battle of the Civil War broke out. After a long delay through the war years, MITs first classes were held in the Mercantile Building in Boston in 1865, in 1863 under the same act, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts founded the Massachusetts Agricultural College, which developed as the University of Massachusetts Amherst. In 1866, the proceeds from sales went toward new buildings in the Back Bay. MIT was informally called Boston Tech, the institute adopted the European polytechnic university model and emphasized laboratory instruction from an early date. Despite chronic financial problems, the institute saw growth in the last two decades of the 19th century under President Francis Amasa Walker. Programs in electrical, chemical, marine, and sanitary engineering were introduced, new buildings were built, the curriculum drifted to a vocational emphasis, with less focus on theoretical science. The fledgling school still suffered from chronic financial shortages which diverted the attention of the MIT leadership, during these Boston Tech years, MIT faculty and alumni rebuffed Harvard University president Charles W. Eliots repeated attempts to merge MIT with Harvard Colleges Lawrence Scientific School. There would be at least six attempts to absorb MIT into Harvard, in its cramped Back Bay location, MIT could not afford to expand its overcrowded facilities, driving a desperate search for a new campus and funding. Eventually the MIT Corporation approved an agreement to merge with Harvard, over the vehement objections of MIT faculty, students. However, a 1917 decision by the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court effectively put an end to the merger scheme, the neoclassical New Technology campus was designed by William W. Bosworth and had been funded largely by anonymous donations from a mysterious Mr. Smith, starting in 1912. In January 1920, the donor was revealed to be the industrialist George Eastman of Rochester, New York, who had invented methods of production and processing
34.
Laurance Rockefeller
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Laurance Spelman Rockefeller was an American philanthropist, businessman, financier, and major conservationist. He was a prominent third-generation member of the Rockefeller family, being the child of John Davison Rockefeller Jr. His siblings were Abby, John III, Nelson, Winthrop, Rockefeller was born in New York City. He graduated from Princeton University and attended Harvard Law School for two years, until he decided he did not want to be a lawyer. On August 22,1934, in Woodstock, VT, Laurance married childhood friend Mary French, whose mother, when brother Nelson attended Dartmouth College, he shared a room with Marys brother. Mary was granddaughter of Frederick H. Billings, a president of Northern Pacific Railway, Laurance and Mary had three daughters and a son. They are Laura Rockefeller Chasin, Marion Rockefeller Weber, Dr. Lucy R. Waletzky and he had eight grandchildren and 12 great-grandchildren. In 1937, he inherited his grandfathers seat on the New York Stock Exchange and he was also a founding trustee of the Rockefeller Family Fund from 1967 to 1977. He was a figure in the pioneering field of venture capital. Rockefellers major interest was in aviation, after the War, he became friendly with Captain Eddie Rickenbacker, Rockefeller had learned to fly, and found Rickenbackers vivid accounts of an approaching boom in commercial air travel to be persuasive. Within a decade after Rockefellers considerable investment, Eastern Airlines had become the most profitable airline to emerge after World War II and he also funded the pivotal post-WWII military contractor McDonnell Aircraft Corp. Rockefeller was a friend and associate of DeWitt Wallace, who with his wife in 1922 co-founded Readers Digest. Wallace, who was a major funder of the familys Colonial Williamsburg and he wanted to ensure that it preserved its patriotic mission of informing and educating the public, along with support for national parks, one of Rockefellers primary interests. Through his resort management company, Rockresorts, Inc, the last of these, the Mauna Kea Beach Hotel, was established in 1965 on the Kohala Coast of the island of Hawaii. Its most noted general manager was Adi Kohler, who wrote the story of the construction of the famous hotel in his book Mr. Mauna Kea published by McKenna Publishing Group. While sailing past Virgin Gorda, Rockefeller spotted an idyllic half-mile crescent bay with what he dubbed wilderness beach, in 1958 planning and land acquisition began for what would become Little Dix Bay. The resort opened in 1964 and on January 18,2014 Little Dix Bay celebrated its 50th anniversary, in 1993, the resort became part of Rosewood Hotels & Resorts but remains true to Rockefellers vision of natural harmony and balance while offering an escape from the ordinary. Rockefeller funded the Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center at a juncture of its early development
35.
Vienna Circle
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In 2015, as part of its 650th anniversary, the University of Vienna organized an exhibition on the Vienna Circle. Ludwig Wittgenstein and Karl Popper were in contact to the Vienna Circle. The philosophical position of the Vienna Circle was called Logical Empiricism and it was influenced by Ernst Mach, David Hilbert, French Conventionalism, Gottlob Frege, Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein and Albert Einstein. The Vienna Circle was pluralistic and committed to the ideals of Enlightenment and it was unified by the aim of making philosophy scientific with the help of modern logic. Its public profile was provided by the Ernst Mach Society through which members of the Vienna Circle sought to popularize their ideas in the context of programmes for education in Vienna. During the era of Austrofascism and after the annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany most members of the Vienna Circle were forced to emigrate, the murder of Schlick in 1936 by a former student put an end to the Vienna Circle in Austria. The Vienna Circles influence on 20th-century philosophy, especially philosophy of science, Hans Hahn, the oldest of the three, was a mathematician. He received his degree in mathematics in 1902, afterwards he studied under the direction of Ludwig Boltzmann in Vienna and David Hilbert, Felix Klein and Hermann Minkowski in Göttingen. In 1905 he received the Habilitation in mathematics and he taught at Innsbruck and Vienna. Otto Neurath studied mathematics, political economy, and history in Vienna, from 1907 to 1914 he taught in Vienna at the Neue Wiener Handelsakademie. Neurath married Olga, Hahns sister, in 1911, Philipp Frank, the youngest of the group, studied physics at Göttingen and Vienna with Ludwig Boltzmann, David Hilbert and Felix Klein. From 1912, he held the chair of physics in the German University in Prague. Their meetings were held in Viennese coffeehouses from 1907 onward, Frank remembered, A number of further authors were discussed in the meetings such as Brentano, Meinong, Helmholtz, Hertz, Husserl, Freud, Russell, Whitehead, Lenin and Frege. Presumably the meetings stopped in 1912, when Frank went to Prague, Hahn left Vienna during World War I and returned in 1921. The formation of the Vienna Circle began with Hahn returning to Vienna in 1921, together with the mathematician Kurt Reidemeister he organized seminars on Ludwig Wittgenstein’s Tractatus logico-philosophicus and on Whitehead and Russell’s Principia Mathematica. Schlick had already published two important works Raum und Zeit in die gegenwärtigen Physik in 1917 and Allgemeine Erkenntnislehre in 1918, immediately after Schlick’s arrival in Vienna, he organized discussions with the mathematicians around Hahn. In 1924 Schlick’s students Friedrich Waismann and Herbert Feigl suggested to their teacher a sort of regular “evening circle”, from winter term 1924 on regular meetings were held at the Institute of Mathematics in Vienna’s Boltzmanngasse 5 on personal invitation by Schlick. These discussions can be seen as the beginning of the Vienna Circle, in addition, the group invited foreign visitors
36.
Falsifiability
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Falsifiability or refutability of a statement, hypothesis, or theory is the inherent possibility that it can be proven false. A statement is called if it is possible to conceive of an observation or an argument which negates the statement in question. In this sense, falsify is synonymous with nullify, meaning to invalidate or shown to be false, thus, the term falsifiability is sometimes synonymous to testability. Some statements, such as It will be raining here in one years, are falsifiable in principle. The concern with falsifiability gained attention by way of philosopher of science Karl Poppers scientific epistemology falsificationism, the classical view of the philosophy of science is that it is the goal of science to prove hypotheses like All swans are white or to induce them from observational data. Popper argued that this would require the inference of a rule from a number of individual cases. However, if one finds one single swan that is not white, Falsificationism thus strives for questioning, for falsification, of hypotheses instead of proving them. For a statement to be questioned using observation, it needs to be at least theoretically possible that it can come into conflict with observation. A key observation of falsificationism is thus that a criterion of demarcation is needed to distinguish those statements that can come into conflict with observation, Popper chose falsifiability as the name of this criterion. My proposal is based upon an asymmetry between verifiability and falsifiability, an asymmetry which results from the form of universal statements. For these are never derivable from singular statements, but can be contradicted by singular statements, Popper stressed that unfalsifiable statements are important in science. Contrary to intuition, unfalsifiable statements can be embedded in —, for example, while all men are mortal is unfalsifiable, it is a logical consequence of the falsifiable theory that every man dies before he reaches the age of 150 years. Similarly, the ancient metaphysical and unfalsifiable idea of the existence of atoms has led to corresponding falsifiable modern theories, Popper invented the notion of metaphysical research programs to name such unfalsifiable ideas. Criticizability, in contrast to falsifiability, and thus rationality, may be comprehensive, though this claim is controversial, even proponents of Poppers philosophy. In work beginning in the 1930s, Popper gave falsifiability a renewed emphasis as a criterion of empirical statements in science, Popper noticed that two types of statements are of particular value to scientists. The first are statements of observations, such as there is a white swan, logicians call these statements singular existential statements, since they assert the existence of some particular thing. They are equivalent to a predicate calculus statement of the form, There exists an x such that x is a swan, the second are statements that categorize all instances of something, such as all swans are white. They are usually parsed in the form, For all x, if x is a swan, Scientific laws are commonly supposed to be of this type
