1.
Thomas More
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Sir Thomas More, venerated by Roman Catholics as Saint Thomas More, was an English lawyer, social philosopher, author, statesman and noted Renaissance humanist. He was also a councillor to Henry VIII, and Lord High Chancellor of England from October 1529 to 16 May 1532 and he also wrote Utopia, published in 1516, about the political system of an imaginary ideal island nation. More opposed the Protestant Reformation, in particular the theology of Martin Luther, More also opposed the Kings separation from the Catholic Church, refusing to acknowledge Henry as Supreme Head of the Church of England and the annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. After refusing to take the Oath of Supremacy, he was convicted of treason, of his execution, he was reported to have said, I die the Kings good servant, but Gods first. Pope Pius XI canonised More in 1935 as a martyr, Pope John Paul II in 2000 declared him the heavenly Patron of Statesmen and Politicians. Since 1980, the Church of England has remembered More liturgically as a Reformation martyr, the Soviet Union honoured him for the Communist attitude toward property rights expressed in Utopia. From 1490 to 1492, More served John Morton, the Archbishop of Canterbury and Lord Chancellor of England, Morton enthusiastically supported the New Learning, and thought highly of the young More. Believing that More had great potential, Morton nominated him for a place at the University of Oxford, More began his studies at Oxford in 1492, and received a classical education. Studying under Thomas Linacre and William Grocyn, he became proficient in both Latin and Greek, More left Oxford after only two years—at his fathers insistence—to begin legal training in London at New Inn, one of the Inns of Chancery. In 1496, More became a student at Lincolns Inn, one of the Inns of Court, where he remained until 1502, according to his friend, theologian Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam, More once seriously contemplated abandoning his legal career to become a monk. Between 1503 and 1504 More lived near the Carthusian monastery outside the walls of London, although he deeply admired their piety, More ultimately decided to remain a layman, standing for election to Parliament in 1504 and marrying the following year. In spite of his choice to pursue a career, More continued ascetic practices for the rest of his life, such as wearing a hair shirt next to his skin. A tradition of the Third Order of Saint Francis honours More as a member of that Order on their calendar of saints, More married Jane Colt in 1505. She was five years younger than her husband, quiet and good-natured, Erasmus reported that More wanted to give his young wife a better education than she had previously received at home, and tutored her in music and literature. The couple had four children before Jane died in 1511, Margaret, Elizabeth, Cicely, going against friends advice and common custom, within thirty days More had married one of the many eligible women among his wide circle of friends. He certainly expected a mother to care of his little children and, as the view of his time considered marriage as an economic union, he chose a rich widow. More was not viewed as being in haste to remarry for the gratification of sexual pleasure, as Alice was older than he, and their marriage was possibly not consummated. The speed of the marriage was so unusual that More had to get a dispensation of the banns, Alice More lacked Janes docility, Mores friend Andrew Ammonius derided Alice as a hook-nosed harpy
2.
Dublin
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Dublin is the capital and largest city of Ireland. Dublin is in the province of Leinster on Irelands east coast, the city has an urban area population of 1,345,402. The population of the Greater Dublin Area, as of 2016, was 1,904,806 people, founded as a Viking settlement, the Kingdom of Dublin became Irelands principal city following the Norman invasion. The city expanded rapidly from the 17th century and was briefly the second largest city in the British Empire before the Acts of Union in 1800, following the partition of Ireland in 1922, Dublin became the capital of the Irish Free State, later renamed Ireland. Dublin is administered by a City Council, the city is listed by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network as a global city, with a ranking of Alpha-, which places it amongst the top thirty cities in the world. It is a historical and contemporary centre for education, the arts, administration, economy, the name Dublin comes from the Irish word Dubhlinn, early Classical Irish Dubhlind/Duibhlind, dubh /d̪uβ/, alt. /d̪uw/, alt /d̪u, / meaning black, dark, and lind /lʲiɲ pool and this tidal pool was located where the River Poddle entered the Liffey, on the site of the castle gardens at the rear of Dublin Castle. In Modern Irish the name is Duibhlinn, and Irish rhymes from Dublin County show that in Dublin Leinster Irish it was pronounced Duílinn /d̪ˠi, other localities in Ireland also bear the name Duibhlinn, variously anglicized as Devlin, Divlin and Difflin. Historically, scribes using the Gaelic script wrote bh with a dot over the b and those without knowledge of Irish omitted the dot, spelling the name as Dublin. Variations on the name are found in traditionally Irish-speaking areas of Scotland, such as An Linne Dhubh. It is now thought that the Viking settlement was preceded by a Christian ecclesiastical settlement known as Duibhlinn, beginning in the 9th and 10th century, there were two settlements where the modern city stands. Baile Átha Cliath, meaning town of the ford, is the common name for the city in modern Irish. Áth Cliath is a name referring to a fording point of the River Liffey near Father Mathew Bridge. Baile Átha Cliath was an early Christian monastery, believed to have been in the area of Aungier Street, there are other towns of the same name, such as Àth Cliath in East Ayrshire, Scotland, which is Anglicised as Hurlford. Although the area of Dublin Bay has been inhabited by humans since prehistoric times and he called the settlement Eblana polis. It is now thought that the Viking settlement was preceded by a Christian ecclesiastical settlement known as Duibhlinn, beginning in the 9th and 10th century, there were two settlements where the modern city stands. The subsequent Scandinavian settlement centred on the River Poddle, a tributary of the Liffey in an area now known as Wood Quay, the Dubhlinn was a small lake used to moor ships, the Poddle connected the lake with the Liffey. This lake was covered during the early 18th century as the city grew, the Dubhlinn lay where the Castle Garden is now located, opposite the Chester Beatty Library in Dublin Castle
3.
Bromham, Wiltshire
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Bromham is a village and civil parish in Wiltshire, England. The village is 3 1⁄2 miles northwest of Devizes and the distance east of Melksham. Besides the main village of Bromham, the parish includes six other settlements, St Edith’s Marsh, Westbrook, Hawkstreet, Netherstreet, Roughmoor and these are sub-villages and hamlets all within 2 miles of the main village centre, thus greater Bromham is geographically extensive. Its stands one and a half north of the Kennet and Avon Canal and one and three-quarters of a mile south of the Roman road leading to Bath. In Anglo-Saxon times the manor was held, in the reign of Edward the Confessor, under the Normans there were two manors covering Bromham. Bromham Hall, later called Bromham House, the house of Bromham Roches, stood to the east of the Devizes Road, it was burnt by Royalist troops in May 1645. The small village of Chittoe is about 1 mile north of Bromham, the Church of England parish church of Saint Nicholas, in the centre of the village, is from the 13th century and is a Grade I listed building. The church has fragments of its 12th century predecessor, and was extended in the 14th and 15th centuries, the tall spire is from the 15th. Towards the end of century a ornate south chapel was added by Sir Roger Tocotes and Sir Richard Beauchamp. In the 16th and 17th centuries several members of the Bayntun family were buried or commemorated in the chapel, the churchyard has the grave of Irish poet Thomas Moore, who had long resided at Sloperton Cottage, north of Bromham. Bromham Methodist Church was built in 1799, on Church Hill below the parish church, as of 2016 the church is still in use. A Baptist chapel was built at Bromham in 1873, replacing a building of 1828. The chapel closed during the Second World War and is now a private house, primitive Methodists built a chapel in the centre of Chittoe in 1840. A schoolroom was added at the rear of the chapel in 1914, as of 2016 the chapel is still in use and is served by the minister of Melksham United Church. The Church of St Mary, Chittoe, was erected in 1845, previously the hamlet had been a detached part of the parish of Bishops Cannings and villagers had to travel there for marriages and burials, using a trackway called the Burying Road. For burials this requirement was relaxed at the end of the 18th century, in the 1980s the church and vicarage at Chittoe were converted to private residences. The parish has three Grade II* listed houses, Battle House, named for the manor of Bromham Battle, held by Battle Abbey, is partly 15th century, largely rebuilt c. 1760, it was the home of the historian Sir William Napier between 1826 and 1831, Spye Arch, at the top of Bowden Hill, once served as gatehouse to Spye Park, a seat of the Bayntun family
4.
The Last Rose of Summer
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The Last Rose of Summer is a poem by the Irish poet Thomas Moore. He wrote it in 1805, while staying at Jenkinstown Park in County Kilkenny, Ireland, the poem and the tune together were published in December 1813 in volume 5 of Thomas Moores A Selection of Irish Melodies. The original piano accompaniment was written by John Andrew Stevenson, several other followed in the 19th and 20th century. Tis the last rose of summer, Left blooming alone, All her lovely companions Are faded and gone, No flower of her kindred, No rosebud is nigh, To reflect back her blushes, ill not leave thee, thou lone one. To pine on the stem, Since the lovely are sleeping, Go, Thus kindly I scatter, Thy leaves oer the bed, Where thy mates of the garden Lie scentless and dead. So soon may I follow, When friendships decay, And from Loves shining circle The gems drop away, when true hearts lie withered, And fond ones are flown, Oh. Who would inhabit This bleak world alone, the following is an incomplete selection of theme and variations created during the 19th and 20th centuries. 100, for string quartet, double bass, piano Friedrich Kalkbrenner,50, for piano Charles Bochsa, Fantaisie et variations sur un air favori irlandais, for harp Mauro Giuliani, No.2 of Six Airs irlandois nationales variés op. 125, for guitar Ignaz Moscheles, The Recollections of Ireland op,69, for piano and orchestra Felix Mendelssohn, Fantasia on The Last Rose of Summer op. 15, for piano Jean-Louis Tulou, Souvenir anglais op,51, for 2 flutes and piano Friedrich Kuhlau, Variations on an Irish Folksong op. 105, for flute and piano Kaspar Kummer, Des Sommers letzte Rose, no.6 in,57, for 2 flutes Henri Herz, The Last Rose of Summer op. 159, for piano William Vincent Wallace, The Last Rose of Summer Friedrich von Flotow, aria Letzte Rose in the opera Martha Charles Mayer, La Dernière rose. Fantaisie variée, for piano Mikhail Glinka, Theme ecossais varie based on the Irish tune The Last Rose of Summer, for piano Joseph Joachim Raff,46, for piano August Neithardt, Des Sommers letzte Rose op.141 no. 3, for mixed choir Brinley Richards, The Last Rose of Summer op,45, for piano Charles Oberthür, Fantaisie brillante, on motives of Flotows Martha, introducing the air The Last Rose of Summer op. 116, for harp Sigismond Thalberg, The Last Rose of Summer,73, for piano Henri Vieuxtemps, No.5 of Bouquet Americain op. Mélodie irlandaise, fantaisie, for violin and piano Charles Gounod, The Last Rose of Summer, for mixed choir Sydney Smith,173, for piano Félix Godefroid, La Dernière rose dété. 4, Moores Irish Melodies In Japan, the melody is known as the song Niwa-no-Chigusa. The poem was adapted by Tadashi Satomi and published as part of Songs for the Elementary School in 1884 by the Educational Ministry, judas Priest recorded a song entitled Last Rose of Summer on their 1977 album Sin After Sin
5.
Irish people
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The Irish people are a nation and ethnic group native to the island of Ireland, who share a common Irish ancestry, identity and culture. Ireland has been inhabited for about 9,000 years according to archaeological studies, for most of Irelands recorded history, the Irish have been primarily a Gaelic people. Today, Ireland is made up of the Republic of Ireland, the people of Northern Ireland hold various national identities, including Irish, Northern Irish, British, or some combination thereof. The Irish have their own customs, language, music, dance, sports, cuisine, although Irish was their main language in the past, today the huge majority of Irish people speak English as their first language. Historically, the Irish nation was made up of kin groups or clans, there have been many notable Irish people throughout history. After Irelands conversion to Christianity, Irish missionaries and scholars exerted great influence on Western Europe, the 6th-century Irish monk and missionary Columbanus is regarded as one of the fathers of Europe, followed by saints Cillian and Fergal. The scientist Robert Boyle is considered the father of chemistry, famous Irish writers include Oscar Wilde, W. B. Yeats, George Bernard Shaw, Bram Stoker and James Joyce, notable Irish explorers include Brendan the Navigator, Robert McClure, Ernest Shackleton and Tom Crean. By some accounts, the first European child born in North America had Irish descent on both sides, many presidents of the United States have had some Irish ancestry. The population of Ireland is about 6.3 million, but it is estimated that 50 to 80 million people around the world have Irish forebears, historically, emigration from Ireland has been the result of conflict, famine and economic issues. People of Irish descent are mainly in English-speaking countries, especially the United Kingdom. There are also significant numbers in Argentina, Mexico and New Zealand, the United States has the most people of Irish descent, while in Australia those of Irish descent are a higher percentage of the population than in any other country. Many Icelanders have Irish and Scottish Gaelic forebears, in its summary of their article Who were the Celts. The National Museum Wales notes It is possible that genetic studies of ancient. However, early studies have, so far, tended to produce implausible conclusions from very small numbers of people and using outdated assumptions about linguistics, nineteenth century anthropology studied the physical characteristics of Irish people in minute detail. During the past 10,000 years of inhabitation, Ireland has witnessed some different peoples arrive on its shores, the ancient peoples of Ireland—such as the creators of the Céide Fields and Newgrange—are almost unknown. Neither their languages nor terms they used to describe themselves have survived, as late as the middle centuries of the 1st millennium the inhabitants of Ireland did not appear to have a collective name for themselves. Ireland itself was known by a number of different names, including Banba, Fódla, Ériu by the islanders, Iouerne and Hiverne to the Greeks, other Latin names for people from Ireland in Classic and Mediaeval sources include Attacotti and Gael
6.
Entertainer
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Entertainment is a form of activity that holds the attention and interest of an audience, or gives pleasure and delight. It can be an idea or a task, but is likely to be one of the activities or events that have developed over thousands of years specifically for the purpose of keeping an audiences attention. Although peoples attention is held by different things, because individuals have different preferences in entertainment, most forms are recognisable, the process has been accelerated in modern times by an entertainment industry that records and sells entertainment products. This may be the case in the forms of ceremony, celebration, religious festival. Hence, there is the possibility that what appears as entertainment may also be a means of achieving insight or intellectual growth, an important aspect of entertainment is the audience, which turns a private recreation or leisure activity into entertainment. Entertainment can be public or private, involving formal, scripted performance, as in the case of theatre or concerts, or unscripted and spontaneous, most forms of entertainment have persisted over many centuries, evolving due to changes in culture, technology, and fashion. Films and video games, for example, although they use media, continue to tell stories, present drama. Festivals devoted to music, film, or dance allow audiences to be entertained over a number of consecutive days, some activities that were once considered entertaining, particularly public punishments, have been removed from the public arena. In the same way, other necessary skills, such as cooking, have developed into performances among professionals, staged as global competitions, what is entertainment for one group or individual may be regarded as work by another. The familiar forms of entertainment have the capacity to cross over different media and have demonstrated a seemingly unlimited potential for creative remix and this has ensured the continuity and longevity of many themes, images, and structures. Entertainment can be distinguished from other such as education and marketing even though they have learned how to use the appeal of entertainment to achieve their different goals. The importance and impact of entertainment is recognised by scholars and its increasing sophistication has influenced practices in other such as museology. Psychologists say the function of entertainment is the attainment of gratification. No other results or measurable benefit are usually expected from it and this is in contrast to education and marketing. However, the distinctions become blurred when education seeks to be more entertaining, such mixtures are often known by the neologisms edutainment or infotainment. The psychology of entertainment as well as of learning has been applied to all these fields, some education-entertainment is a serious attempt to combine the best features of the two. Some people are entertained by others pain or the idea of their unhappiness, an entertainment might go beyond gratification and produce some insight in its audience when it skillfully considers universal philosophical questions such as, What is the meaning of life. What does it mean to be human, what is the right thing to do
7.
Lord Byron
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George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron, FRS, commonly known simply as Lord Byron, was a British poet, peer, politician, and a leading figure in the Romantic movement. Among his best-known works are the narrative poems, Don Juan and Childe Harolds Pilgrimage. Byron is regarded as one of the greatest British poets and remains widely read and influential and he travelled extensively across Europe, especially in Italy, where he lived for seven years with the struggling poet Percy Bysshe Shelley. Later in his life, Byron joined the Greek War of Independence fighting the Ottoman Empire. He died in 1824 at the age of 36 from a fever contracted while in Missolonghi, ethel Colburn Mayne states that George Gordon Byron was born on 22 January 1788 in a house on 24 Holles Street in London. However, Robert Charles Dallas in his Recollections states that Byron was born in Dover and he was the son of Captain John Mad Jack Byron and his second wife, the former Catherine Gordon, a descendant of Cardinal Beaton and heiress of the Gight estate in Aberdeenshire, Scotland. Byrons father had seduced the married Marchioness of Carmarthen and, after she divorced her husband. His treatment of her was described as brutal and vicious, in order to claim his second wifes estate in Scotland, Byrons father took the additional surname Gordon, becoming John Byron Gordon, and he was occasionally styled John Byron Gordon of Gight. Byron himself used this surname for a time and was registered at school in Aberdeen as George Byron Gordon, at the age of 10, he inherited the English Barony of Byron of Rochdale, becoming Lord Byron, and eventually dropped the double surname. Byrons paternal grandparents were Vice-Admiral the Hon. John Foulweather Jack Byron, vice Admiral John Byron had circumnavigated the globe, and was the younger brother of the 5th Baron Byron, known as the Wicked Lord. He was christened, at St Marylebone Parish Church, George Gordon Byron after his maternal grandfather George Gordon of Gight, a descendant of James I of Scotland, Mad Jack Byron married his second wife for the same reason that he married his first, her fortune. In a move to avoid his creditors, Catherine accompanied her husband to France in 1786. He was born on 22 January in lodgings at Holles Street in London, Catherine moved back to Aberdeenshire in 1790, where Byron spent his childhood. His father soon joined them in their lodgings in Queen Street, Catherine regularly experienced mood swings and bouts of melancholy, which could be partly explained by her husbands continuing to borrow money from her. As a result, she fell even further into debt to support his demands and it was one of these importunate loans that allowed him to travel to Valenciennes, France, where he died in 1791. When Byrons great-uncle, the wicked Lord Byron, died on 21 May 1798, described as a woman without judgment or self-command, Catherine either spoiled and indulged her son or vexed him with her capricious stubbornness. Her drinking disgusted him, and he often mocked her for being short and corpulent and she once retaliated and, in a fit of temper, referred to him as a lame brat. Langley-Moore questions the Galt claim that she over-indulged in alcohol, upon the death of Byrons mother-in-law Judith Noel, the Hon
8.
John O'Keeffe (Irish writer)
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John OKeeffe was an Irish actor and dramatist. He wrote a number of farces, amusing dramatic pieces and librettos for pasticcio operas, among these are Tony Lumpkin in Town, Love in a Camp, and Omai, an account of the voyages of the Tahitian explorer Omai, and Wild Oats. OKeeffe was born in Dublin in 1747 to Roman Catholic parents and was educated by the Jesuits and his father was from Kings County and his mother from County Wexford. After showing a talent for drawing he studied art at an Academy in Dublin, after a two-year trip to London, where he became an admirer of David Garrick, he settled on a career as an actor and playwright. OKeeffe wrote his first play The She Gallant when he was twenty, in Cork, in late September 1774, OKeeffe was married to Mary Heaphy, daughter of Tottenham Heaphy, the manager of the Theatre Royal there. The marriage ended badly and Mary was denied access to their two children, John Tottenham OKeeffe and Adelaide OKeeffe. In 1777, OKeeffe moved to London, the following year he wrote Tony Lumpkin in Town, a sequel to Oliver Goldsmiths She Stoops to Conquer, and sent it to the manager of the Haymarket Theatre. The play was produced, and OKeeffe regularly wrote for the Haymarket thereafter. In 1782 OKeeffe had his two children sent abroad to France to deny access to them by their mother and his son did well but his daughter suffered in convent schools. Between 1782 and 1796, OKeeffe wrote around 28 plays and librettos for comic operas, the Poor Soldier, a comic opera with libretto by OKeeffe and music by William Shield, was a farce about the lives of British soldiers returning home after the American War of Independence. OKeeffe also wrote The Son-in-Law, Agreeable Surprise which includes the lyrical poem Amo, Amas, OKeeffe had problems with his eyes ever since he had fallen into the River Liffey in his youth. From the mid-1770s, OKeeffe increasingly lost his sight, and from 1781 his plays had to be dictated by him, in spite of this he was a prolific writer and was the most produced playwright in London in the last quarter of the 18th century. OKeeffe contributed many Irish folksongs to the scores by Samuel Arnold and Shield such as I am a Friar of Orders Grey. For many of songs, the comic operas are the earliest source. From 1788 his adolescent daughter Adelaide wrote for him and she was his amanuensis and eventual carer until he died. She also took work and became a writer in her own right, in 1800, a benefit performance was staged for him at Covent Garden. In 1826, OKeeffe wrote his memoirs, which covered his life experiences, the memoirs were dictated to his daughter Adelaide who oversaw their publication. However, much of the information in his memoir is not accurate, in time Adelaide would write her memories of him
9.
William Shield
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William Shield was an English composer, violinist and violist who was born in Swalwell near Gateshead, the son of William Shield and his wife, Mary, née Cash. He became a noted violinist in Newcastles subscription concerts before moving to Scarborough to lead a theatre orchestra, in 1772, he was appointed by Felice Giardini to play violin in the opera at Covent Garden, and from 1773 he was principal violist there. On 21 February 1776 he was in Durham, where he attended the meeting of the masonic lodge at the Marquis of Granby tavern. The lodge Minutes indicate that he was by this date already a member of the St. Johns lodge in Newcastle and he later also became a member of the Sunderland Phoenix lodge. Details of the frequency of Shields attendance at these north-east lodges is not yet clear, Shield also worked as a composer for Covent Garden and, in that capacity, he met Joseph Haydn. In 1817, he was appointed Master of the Kings Musick, like Haydn, not to mention several other composers of his time, Shield was a great plunderer of folk tunes. Shields compositions include a number of operas and other stage works. These included one on Robin Hood, as well as instrumental music and it was intended to be used as a light afterpiece to a more serious work sung in Italian. Such works were common at the time, although Rosina is the one that has survived in the form of a complete score. At least to that degree, it may be regarded as one of the ancestors of the musical, William Shield died on Sunday 25 January 1829 at his house at 31, Berners Street, London. His will left his goods and a glowing testimonial to my beloved partner, Ann. Victorian chroniclers skirted round the problem, but when the will was proved on 6 March 1829 the estate was claimed by, Ann Stokes, alias Shield, Spinster, belonging to Marleybone. ”His favourite violin was given to King George IV, who insisted that the full value be given to Ann. Within six months she also sold his library of music, Shield is buried in the same grave as Johann Peter Salomon in the floor of the south cloisters of Westminster Abbey. Surprisingly, it seems no marker of any kind was put in place at the time to show where he lay, there was quite a search made near the centenary of his death and eventually a small marble tablet was put as near the grave as could be ascertained. John Mad Jack Fuller commissioned sculptor Peter Rouw, of Portland Lane, London, dr Ireland, Dean of the Abbey, is said to have refused permission for the tablet to be installed as he took objection to the word gentleman being used in its text. Fuller subsequently had the tablet installed at his church, St Thomas à Becket, Brightling. It is presumed that the words, “buried in Westminster Abbey” were inserted, DDD is an abbreviation for the Latin Dat, Dicat, Dedicat which can be translated to “ Gives, Devotes and Dedicates”. A memorial cross was erected to honour Shield in 1891 at Whickham Church, near it is the oldest Shield grave
10.
Grafton Street
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Grafton Street is one of the two principal shopping streets in Dublin city centre, the other being Henry Street. It runs from Saint Stephens Green in the south to College Green in the north, the street was named after Henry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Grafton, the illegitimate son of Charles II of England who owned land in the area. The street was developed from an existing country lane by the Dawson family in 1708. After OConnell Bridge was built to span the River Liffey, Grafton Street turned from a residential street into a busy cross-city route. The north end of Grafton Street is most notable for the eighteenth-century Trinity College Provosts House, a life-size bronze statue of Phil Lynott was unveiled on Harry Street, off Grafton Street near the Stephens Green end, on 19 August 2005. Bewleys Oriental Café, a Grafton Street institution since its opening in 1927, announced at the end of October 2004 that it would be closing before Christmas, along with its Westmoreland Street café. Following a campaign by many, including the then Mayor of Dublin, Catherine Byrne, the café on Grafton Street, buskers, including musicians, poets and mime artists commonly perform to the shopping crowds on Grafton Street. This was portrayed in the scene of the 2006 film Once, starring Glen Hansard of The Frames. The pedestrianisation of Grafton Street was first trialed in 1971 but prolonged delays meant that this wasnt made permanent, objections came from councillors and small business owners, who alleged that pedestrianisation would lead to an increase in petty crime and antisocial behaviour. The North end of the street, between Nassau Street and College Green is not pedestrianised, american singer-songwriter Nanci Griffith wrote and recorded a song called On Grafton Street. Bagatelle, an Irish rock band in the 1970s refer to Grafton Street in their song Summer in Dublin, And young people walking down Grafton Street, everyone looking so well. Noel Purcell made the song Dublin Saunter well known, it includes the line Grafton Streets a wonderland and this song is a tribute to Didos deceased father, who was Irish. Grafton Street is mentioned several times in James Joyces Dubliners and in A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man is the scene of the meeting between Stephen and Emma, Grafton Street is mentioned in Ed Sheerans song Galway Girl on his 2017 album ÷. List of streets and squares in Dublin Media related to Grafton Street at Wikimedia Commons Web site GraftonStreet. ie
11.
Trinity College, Dublin
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Trinity College is the sole constituent college of the University of Dublin, a research university in Ireland. It is one of the seven ancient universities of Britain and Ireland, originally it was established outside the city walls of Dublin in the buildings of the dissolved Augustinian Priory of All Hallows. Trinity College was set up in part to consolidate the rule of the Tudor monarchy in Ireland, although Catholics and Dissenters had been permitted to enter as early as 1793, certain restrictions on their membership of the college remained until 1873. From 1871 to 1970, the Catholic Church in Ireland forbade its adherents from attending Trinity College without permission, women were first admitted to the college as full members in January 1904. Trinity College is now surrounded by Dublin and is located on College Green, the college proper occupies 190,000 m2, with many of its buildings ranged around large quadrangles and two playing fields. Academically, it is divided into three faculties comprising 25 schools, offering degree and diploma courses at undergraduate and postgraduate levels. The Library of Trinity College is a deposit library for Ireland. The first University of Dublin was created by the Pope in 1311, following this, and some debate about a new university at St. The first Provost of the College was the Archbishop of Dublin, Adam Loftus, two years after foundation, a few Fellows and students began to work in the new College, which then lay around one small square. During the eighteenth century Trinity College was seen as the university of the Protestant Ascendancy, Parliament, meeting on the other side of College Green, made generous grants for building. The first building of this period was the Old Library building, begun in 1712, followed by the Printing House, during the second half of the century Parliament Square slowly emerged. The great building drive was completed in the nineteenth century by Botany Bay. In December 1845 Denis Caulfield Heron was the subject of a hearing at Trinity College, Heron had previously been examined and, on merit, declared a scholar of the college but had not been allowed to take up his place due to his Catholic religion. Heron appealed to the Courts which issued a writ of mandamus requiring the case to be adjudicated by the Archbishop of Dublin, the decision of Richard Whately and John George de la Poer Beresford was that Heron would remain excluded from Scholarship. This decision confirmed that the position remained that persons who were not Anglicans could not be elected to Scholarship, Fellowship or be made a Professor. However within less than three decades of this all disabilities imposed on Catholics were repealed as in 1873, all tests were abolished. Prior to 1956 it was the responsibility of the local Bishop, the nineteenth century was also marked by important developments in the professional schools. The Law School was reorganised after the middle of the century, the Engineering School was established in 1842 and was one of the first of its kind in Ireland and Britain
12.
Lawyer
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A lawyer is a person who practices law, as an advocate, barrister, attorney, counselor or solicitor or chartered legal executive. The role of the lawyer varies greatly across legal jurisdictions, in practice, legal jurisdictions exercise their right to determine who is recognized as being a lawyer. As a result, the meaning of the lawyer may vary from place to place. In Australia, the lawyer is used to refer to both barristers and solicitors. In Canada, the word lawyer refers to individuals who have been called to the bar or. Common law lawyers in Canada are formally and properly called barristers and solicitors, however, in Quebec, civil law advocates often call themselves attorney and sometimes barrister and solicitor in English. The Legal Services Act 2007 defines the activities that may only be performed by a person who is entitled to do so pursuant to the Act. Lawyer is not a protected title, in India, the term lawyer is often colloquially used, but the official term is advocate as prescribed under the Advocates Act,1961. In Scotland, the word refers to a more specific group of legally trained people. It specifically includes advocates and solicitors, in a generic sense, it may also include judges and law-trained support staff. In the United States, the term refers to attorneys who may practice law. It is never used to refer to patent agents or paralegals, in fact, there are regulatory restrictions on non-lawyers like paralegals practicing law. Other nations tend to have terms for the analogous concept. In most countries, particularly civil law countries, there has been a tradition of giving many legal tasks to a variety of civil law notaries, clerks, and scriveners. Several countries that originally had two or more legal professions have since fused or united their professions into a type of lawyer. Most countries in this category are common law countries, though France, in countries with fused professions, a lawyer is usually permitted to carry out all or nearly all the responsibilities listed below. Arguing a clients case before a judge or jury in a court of law is the province of the barrister in England. However, the boundary between barristers and solicitors has evolved, in England today, the barrister monopoly covers only appellate courts, and barristers must compete directly with solicitors in many trial courts
13.
French Revolution
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Through the Revolutionary Wars, it unleashed a wave of global conflicts that extended from the Caribbean to the Middle East. Historians widely regard the Revolution as one of the most important events in human history, the causes of the French Revolution are complex and are still debated among historians. Following the Seven Years War and the American Revolutionary War, the French government was deeply in debt, Years of bad harvests leading up to the Revolution also inflamed popular resentment of the privileges enjoyed by the clergy and the aristocracy. Demands for change were formulated in terms of Enlightenment ideals and contributed to the convocation of the Estates-General in May 1789, a central event of the first stage, in August 1789, was the abolition of feudalism and the old rules and privileges left over from the Ancien Régime. The next few years featured political struggles between various liberal assemblies and right-wing supporters of the intent on thwarting major reforms. The Republic was proclaimed in September 1792 after the French victory at Valmy, in a momentous event that led to international condemnation, Louis XVI was executed in January 1793. External threats closely shaped the course of the Revolution, internally, popular agitation radicalised the Revolution significantly, culminating in the rise of Maximilien Robespierre and the Jacobins. Large numbers of civilians were executed by revolutionary tribunals during the Terror, after the Thermidorian Reaction, an executive council known as the Directory assumed control of the French state in 1795. The rule of the Directory was characterised by suspended elections, debt repudiations, financial instability, persecutions against the Catholic clergy, dogged by charges of corruption, the Directory collapsed in a coup led by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799. The modern era has unfolded in the shadow of the French Revolution, almost all future revolutionary movements looked back to the Revolution as their predecessor. The values and institutions of the Revolution dominate French politics to this day, the French Revolution differed from other revolutions in being not merely national, for it aimed at benefiting all humanity. Globally, the Revolution accelerated the rise of republics and democracies and it became the focal point for the development of all modern political ideologies, leading to the spread of liberalism, radicalism, nationalism, socialism, feminism, and secularism, among many others. The Revolution also witnessed the birth of total war by organising the resources of France, historians have pointed to many events and factors within the Ancien Régime that led to the Revolution. Over the course of the 18th century, there emerged what the philosopher Jürgen Habermas called the idea of the sphere in France. A perfect example would be the Palace of Versailles which was meant to overwhelm the senses of the visitor and convince one of the greatness of the French state and Louis XIV. Starting in the early 18th century saw the appearance of the sphere which was critical in that both sides were active. In France, the emergence of the public sphere outside of the control of the saw the shift from Versailles to Paris as the cultural capital of France. In the 1750s, during the querelle des bouffons over the question of the quality of Italian vs, in 1782, Louis-Sébastien Mercier wrote, The word court no longer inspires awe amongst us as in the time of Louis XIV
14.
Robert Emmet
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Robert Emmet was an Irish nationalist and Republican, orator and rebel leader. After leading a rebellion against British rule in 1803 he was captured then tried and executed for high treason against the British king. He came from a wealthy Anglo-Irish Protestant family who sympathised with Irish Catholics, the Emmet family also sympathised with the rebel colonists in the American Revolution. While Emmets efforts to rebel against British rule failed, his actions and he was born at 109 St. Stephens Green, in Dublin on 4 March 1778. He was the youngest son of Dr Robert Emmet, a court physician, the Emmets were financially comfortable, with a house at St Stephens Green and a country residence near Milltown. One of his brothers was the nationalist Thomas Addis Emmet, a close friend of Theobald Wolfe Tone. Emmet attended Oswalds school, in Doppings-court, off Golden-lane, Emmet entered Trinity College, Dublin in October 1793, at the age of fifteen. In December 1797 he joined the College Historical Society, a debating society, while he was at college, his brother Thomas and some of his friends became involved in political activism. Robert became secretary of a secret United Irish Committee in college and that same year he fled to France to avoid the many British arrests of nationalists that were taking place in Ireland. While in France, Emmet garnered the support of Napoleon, who had promised to support when the upcoming revolution started. After the 1798 rising, Emmet was involved in reorganising the defeated United Irish Society, in April 1799 a warrant was issued for his arrest. He escaped and soon travelled to the continent in the hope of securing French military aid. His efforts were unsuccessful, as Napoleon was concentrating his efforts on invading England, Emmet returned to Ireland in October 1802. In March the following year, he began preparations for another uprising, after his return to Ireland, Emmet began to prepare a new rebellion, with fellow revolutionaries Thomas Russell and James Hope. He began to manufacture weapons and explosives at a number of premises in Dublin, unlike in 1798, the revolutionaries concealed their preparations, but a premature explosion at one of Emmets arms depots killed a man. Emmet was forced to advance the date of the rising before the authorities suspicions were aroused, Emmet was unable to secure the help of Michael Dwyers Wicklow rebels. Many rebels from Kildare turned back due to the scarcity of firearms they had been promised, about 10,000 copies were printed of a proclamation in the name of the Provisional Government, which influenced the 1916 Proclamation, most were destroyed by the authorities. Emmet wore a uniform of a coat with white facings, white breeches, top-boots
15.
Society of United Irishmen
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The Society of United Irishmen was founded as a liberal political organisation in 18th century Ireland that initially sought Parliamentary reform. However, it evolved into a revolutionary organisation, inspired by the American Revolution. It launched the Irish Rebellion of 1798 with the objective of ending British monarchical rule over Ireland and founding a sovereign, backing them up was the Irish Volunteers movement, which had widespread Protestant support. Whilst they had limited success such as the establishment of Grattans Parliament, when the parliamentary reform movement collapsed in 1784, it left radicals without a political cause. By the mid-1780s, radicalism in Ireland was taking a new, bolder form, typified by the letters penned by William Drennan which were published in the Belfast Newsletter and in pamphlets. Also in 1789 the Whig party was founded in Ireland and soon it became an alliance of radicals, reform-minded parliamentarians, by 1791 this alliance however was already fracturing, and several rival Whig clubs were set up by people such as Napper Tandy in Dublin and Belfast. Another grouping was an organisation of eleven people headed by Samuel Neilson. A couple of months later the Belfast Volunteer company gathered to celebrate the anniversary of the fall of the Bastille. It was intended that a new society was to be announced during the celebrations which William Drennan. Drennan refused due to the notice of the request and suggested that a Theobald Wolfe Tone be asked. Tones reformist radicalism had advanced beyond that of the Whigs, the first resolution was for the denouncing of the continuing interference of the British establishment in Irish affairs. The second was for the reform of the Irish parliament. The last resolution called for a union of religious faiths in Ireland to abolish the differences that had long divided Irishmen and this last proposal however was quietly dropped by the Belfast Volunteers to ensure unanimity for the proposals amongst the people. That October, Tone was invited to a debate on the creation of a new society by a group of people including Neilson, here he found that his resolutions were now found a few months later to be too tame. A new set of resolutions were drafted and agreed to on 14 October, which the Belfast branch of the Society of United Irishmen adopted on 18 October, and the Dublin branch on 9 November. The main problem they identified for Ireland was the issue of national sovereignty, two were Anglicans and the rest Presbyterian, most of whom were involved in the linen trade in Belfast. After forming, the Society named chandler Samuel McTier as its first President, the popularity of the society continued to grow throughout Ulster especially amongst the Presbyterians. In 1795 the United Irishmen linked up with the Defenders, a Catholic agrarian secret society, the movement quickly developed a strategy of spreading its ideals by means of pamphlets, leaflets, newspapers, ballads, catechisms and travelling emissaries
16.
Irish Rebellion of 1798
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The Irish Rebellion of 1798, also known as the United Irishmen Rebellion, was an uprising against British rule in Ireland lasting from May to September 1798. The United Irishmen, a revolutionary group influenced by the ideas of the American. It governed through a form of institutionalised sectarianism codified in the Penal Laws which discriminated against both the majority Irish Catholic population and non-Anglican Protestants. As in England, the majority of Protestants, as well as all Catholics, were barred from voting because they did not pass a property threshold. When France joined the Americans in support of their Revolutionary War, many thousands joined the Irish Volunteers. In 1782 they used their powerful position to force the Crown to grant the landed Ascendancy self-rule. The Irish Patriot Party, led by Henry Grattan, pushed for greater enfranchisement, in 1793 parliament passed laws allowing Catholics with some property to vote, but they could neither be elected nor appointed as state officials. The prospect of reform inspired a group of Protestant liberals in Belfast to found the Society of United Irishmen in 1791. The organisation crossed the divide with a membership comprising Roman Catholics, Presbyterians, Methodists, other Protestant dissenters groups. The Society openly put forward policies of democratic reforms and Catholic emancipation. The outbreak of war with France earlier in 1793, following the execution of Louis XVI, forced the Society underground and toward armed insurrection with French aid. The avowed intent of the United Irishmen was to break the connection with England and it linked up with Catholic agrarian resistance groups, known as the Defenders, who had started raiding houses for arms in early 1793. To augment their strength, the United Irish leadership decided to seek military help from the French revolutionary government. Theobald Wolfe Tone, leader of the United Irishmen, travelled in exile from the United States to France to press the case for intervention, the despairing Wolfe Tone remarked, England has had its luckiest escape since the Armada. The French fleet was forced to return home and the army intended to spearhead the invasion of Ireland split up and was sent to fight in other theatres of the French Revolutionary Wars. The Establishment responded to widespread disorder by launching a counter-campaign of martial law from 2 March 1798, in May 1797 the military in Belfast also violently suppressed the newspaper of the United Irishmen, the Northern Star. Brigadier-General C. E. Knox wrote to General Lake, I have arranged, to increase the animosity between the Orangemen and the United Irishmen, or liberty men as they call themselves. Upon that animosity depends the safety of the counties of the North
17.
Edward Bunting
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Edward Bunting was an Irish musician and folk music collector. Bunting was born in County Armagh, Ireland, at the age of seven he was sent to study music at Drogheda and at eleven he was apprenticed to William Ware, organist at St. Annes church in Belfast and lived with the family of Henry Joy McCracken. At nineteen he was engaged to music from oral-tradition harpists at the Belfast Harp Festival in 1792. One proof of this is that some published by him were in keys that could not have been played by the harpists. His notes on the harpists, how they played and the terminology used is however invaluable. Bunting organised a festival in 1813 and wrote to the Belfast Charitable Society, based at Clifton House. This was granted and the proceeds of the festival were donated to the Charitable Society to help the poor of Belfast, Bunting went on a number of collecting tours between 1792 and 1807, and was the first to transcribe music in the field as played by the musicians. He realised the importance of the Irish words to the songs, Bunting, who lived in Belfast with the McCrackens until his marriage in 1819, moved to Dublin where he held the post of organist at St. Georges Church. He died in Dublin on 21 December 1843 and is buried at the Cemetery of Mount Jerome, Buntings papers were lost for many years, but were rediscovered in 1907 and currently reside in the library of Queens University of Belfast. Donal O Sullivan has restored the original words to the airs that Bunting published without the words, the Chieftains 1993 album The Celtic Harp is a tribute to Edward Bunting. Bunting published The Ancient Music of Ireland in three volumes, the first volume, published in 1796, contained 66 tunes which he had notated at the Belfast Harp Festival. The second volume was published in 1809, in 1840 Bunting issued his third collection of The Ancient Music of Ireland, complete with 151 tunes. A Dissertation on the Irish Harp and Harpers, Including an Account of the Old Melodies of Ireland of about ninety pages is also included. With this final volume Bunting hoped to promote the antiquity not only of the Irish music he had collected and he also wished to provide the remaining airs of the collection arranged in true harp style. This document begins with the defence of the value of studying Irish music of antiquity. Bunting claims that music passes through the ages unchanged, making it therefore just as good an indicator of the culture of the ancients as the study of civil and military antiquities. According to Bunting, because the words that accompanied melodies changed from county to county, next, Bunting discusses the 1792 Harpers Festival. The Belfast Festival attracted eleven Harpers in total, ten from Ireland, Bunting was contracted to notate the tunes played at this festival in an effort to preserve the ancient tradition, which was seen to be quickly fading
18.
Grocery store
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A grocery store is a retail store that primarily sells food. A grocer is a seller of food. Grocery stores often offer non-perishable food that is packaged in cans, bottles and boxes, with also having fresh produce, butchers, delis. Large grocery stores that stock significant amounts of products, such as clothing. Some large supermarkets also include a pharmacy, and customer service, redemption, in the United States, Canada, and United Kingdom, supermarkets and convenience stores are sometimes described as grocery businesses, or simply grocers. Some grocery stores form the centerpiece of a complex that includes other facilities, such as gas stations. This setup is especially common in the United Kingdom, with chains such as Tesco. Some groceries specialize in the foods of a nationality or culture, such as Italian, Polish. These stores are known as ethnic markets and may serve as gathering places for immigrants. In many cases, the range of products carried by larger supermarkets has reduced the need for such speciality stores. The variety and availability of food is no longer restricted by the diversity of locally grown food or the limitations of the growing season. Beginning as early as the 14th century, a grocer was a dealer in dry goods such as spices, peppers, sugar. These items were bought in bulk, hence the term grocer from the French grossier meaning wholesaler, as increasing numbers of staple foodstuffs became available in cans and other less-perishable packaging, the trade expanded its province. Today, grocers deal in a range of staple food-stuffs including such perishables as meats, produce. These trading posts evolved into larger retail businesses known as general stores and these facilities generally dealt only in dry goods such as flour, dry beans, baking soda, and canned foods. Many rural areas still contain general stores that sell goods ranging from cigars to imported napkins, traditionally, general stores have offered credit to their customers, a system of payment that works on trust rather than modern credit cards. This allowed farm families to buy staples until their harvest could be sold, the first self-service grocery store, Piggly Wiggly, was opened in 1916 in Memphis, Tennessee by Clarence Saunders, an inventor and entrepreneur. The early supermarkets began as chains of grocers shops, a small grocery store may also compete by locating in a mixed commercial-residential area close to, and convenient for, its customers
19.
County Kerry
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County Kerry is a county in Ireland. It is located in the South-West Region and is part of the province of Munster. It is named after the Ciarraige who lived in part of the present county, Kerry County Council is the local authority for the county and Tralee serves as the county town. The population of the county was 147,554 in 2016, Kerry is the fifth-largest of the 32 counties of Ireland by area and the 15th-largest by population. It is the second-largest of Munsters six counties by area, uniquely, it is bordered by only two other counties, County Limerick to the east and County Cork to the south-east. The diocesan see is Killarney, which is one of Irelands most famous tourist destinations, the Lakes of Killarney, an area of outstanding natural beauty are located in Killarney National Park. The tip of the Dingle Peninsula is the most westerly point of Ireland, there are nine historic baronies in the county. While baronies continue to be officially defined units, they are no longer used for administrative purposes. Their official status is illustrated by Placenames Orders made since 2003, the county is bounded on the west by the Atlantic Ocean and on the north by the River Shannon. Just off the coast are a number of islands, including the Blasket Islands, Valentia Island, skellig Michael is a World Heritage Site, famous for the medieval monastery clinging to the islands cliffs. The county contains the extreme west point of Ireland, Dunmore Head on the Dingle Peninsula, or including islands, Tearaght Island, the most westerly inhabited area of Ireland is Dún Chaoin, on the Dingle Peninsula. The River Feale, the River Laune and the Roughty River flow through Kerry, the North Atlantic Current, part of the Gulf Stream, flows north past Kerry and the west coast of Ireland, resulting in milder temperatures than would otherwise be expected at the 52 North latitude. This means that plants such as the strawberry tree and tree ferns, not normally found in northern Europe. Because of the area and the prevailing southwesterly winds, Kerry is among the regions with the highest rainfall in Ireland. Owing to its location, there has been a reporting station on Valentia for many centuries. The Irish record for rainfall in one day is 243.5 mm, in 1986 the remnants of Hurricane Charley crossed over Kerry as an extratropical storm causing extensive rainfall, flooding and damage. Kerry means the people of Ciar which was the name of the tribe who lived in part of the present county. The legendary founder of the tribe was Ciar, son of Fergus mac Róich, in Old Irish Ciar meant black or dark brown, and the word continues in use in modern Irish as an adjective describing a dark complexion
20.
Gaeltacht
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Gaeltacht is an Irish-language word used to denote any primarily Irish-speaking region. The boundaries of the Gaeltacht have included a percentage of resident English-speakers since British colonisation. It is now recognised that the Gaeltacht is threatened by serious language decline, research published in 2015 showed that of the 155 electoral divisions in the Gaeltacht, only 21 are communities where Irish is spoken on a daily basis by 67% or more of the population. 67% is regarded by some academics as a point for language survival. In 1926 the official Gaeltacht came into being after the report of the first Gaeltacht Commission Coimisiún na Gaeltachta, the exact boundaries were not defined. The quota at the time was 25%+ Irish-speaking, although in many cases Gaeltacht status was accorded to areas that were weaker than this. The Irish Free State recognised that there were Irish-speaking or semi-Irish-speaking districts in 15 of its 26 counties, in the 1950s another Gaeltacht Commission concluded that the Gaeltacht boundaries were ill-defined. It recommended that the Gaeltacht status admittance of an area be based solely on the strength of the language there, the Gaeltacht districts were initially defined precisely in the 1950s, excluding many areas which had witnessed a decline in the language. This left Gaeltacht areas in seven of the states 26 counties and this would threaten the future of the Gaeltacht. Parents felt that the educational system cancelled their efforts to pass on Irish as a language to their children. The study added that a significant number of Gaeltacht schools had switched to teaching through English, in 2002 the third Coimisiún na Gaeltachta stated in its report that the erosion of Irish in the Gaeltacht was now such that it was only a matter of time before the Gaeltacht disappeared. In some areas Irish had already ceased to be a community language, even in the strongest Gaeltacht areas, current patterns of bilingualism were leading to the dominance of English. Policies implemented by the State and voluntary groups were having no effect, a new language reinforcement strategy was required, one that had the confidence of the community itself. The Commission recommended, among other things, that the boundaries of the official Gaeltacht should be redrawn. It also recommended a comprehensive study to assess the vitality of the Irish language in the remaining Gaeltacht districts. The study was undertaken by Acadamh na hOllscolaíochta Gaeilge, and on 1 November 2007 Staidéar Cuimsitheach Teangeolaíoch ar Úsáid na Gaeilge sa Ghaeltacht appeared, in response to this situation, the government introduced the Gaeltacht Bill 2012. Its stated aim was to provide for a new definition of based on language criteria. This status could only be revoked if the area failed to prepare a language plan, the Bill was also criticised for placing all responsibility for the maintenance of Irish on voluntary organisations, with no increase in resources
21.
Wexford
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Wexford is the county town of County Wexford, Ireland. Wexford lies on the side of Wexford Harbour, the estuary of the River Slaney near the southeastern corner of the island of Ireland. The town is linked to Dublin by the M11/N11 National Primary Route, and it has a population of 19,913 according to the 2011 census. The town was founded by the Vikings in about 800 AD and they named it Veisafjǫrðr, meaning inlet of the mud flats, and the name has changed only slightly into its present form. Veisa in modern Norwegian means Way, so Veisafjǫrðr could have meant inlet of the way or Way Fjord. The resulting loch was thus named Loch Garman, for about three hundred years it was a Viking town, a city state, largely independent and owing only token dues to the Irish kings of Leinster. However, in May 1169 Wexford was besieged by Dermot MacMurrough, King of Leinster and his Norman ally, the Norse inhabitants resisted fiercely, until the Bishop of Ferns persuaded them to accept a settlement with Dermot. Wexford was an Old English settlement in the Middle Ages, an old dialect of English, known as Yola, was spoken uniquely in Wexford up until the 19th century. The Yola name for Wexford was Weiseforthe, following the Crusades, the Knights Templar had a presence in Wexford. Up to the present, their name is perpetuated in the old Knights Templars chapel yard of St. Johns Cemetery, County Wexford produced strong support for Confederate Ireland during the 1640s. A fleet of Confederate privateers was based in Wexford town, consisting of sailors from Flanders and their vessels raided English Parliamentarian shipping, giving some of the proceeds to the Confederate government in Kilkenny. As a result, the town was sacked by the English Parliamentarians during the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland in 1649, many of its inhabitants were killed and much of the town was burned. In 1659 Solomon Richards was appointed Governor, but he was dismissed and imprisoned following the Restoration the next year, County Wexford was the centre of the 1798 rebellion against British rule. Redmond Square, near the station, commemorates the elder John Edward Redmond who was Liberal MP for the city of Wexford. The inscription reads, My heart is with the city of Wexford, nothing can extinguish that love but the cold soil of the grave. His nephew William Archer Redmond sat as an MP in Isaac Butts Home Rule Party from 1872 until 1880, Willie Redmond sat as an MP for Wexford from 1883 until 1885. The younger John Redmond, was a follower of Charles Stewart Parnell. He is interred in the Redmond family vault, at the old Knights Templars chapel yard of St. Johns Cemetery, Upper St. Johns Street
22.
Francis Rawdon-Hastings, 1st Marquess of Hastings
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He had also served with British forces for years during the American Revolutionary War and in 1794 during the French Revolutionary Wars. He took the additional surname Hastings in 1790 in compliance with the will of his uncle, Francis Hastings. Hastings was born at Moira, County Down, the son of John Rawdon, 1st Earl of Moira and Elizabeth Hastings and he grew up there and in Dublin, Ireland. He joined the British Army on 7 August 1771 as an ensign in the 15th Foot and he was at Harrow School and matriculated at University College, Oxford, but dropped out. He became friends there with Banastre Tarleton, with his uncle Lord Huntington, he went on the Grand Tour. On 20 October 1773, he was promoted to lieutenant in the 5th Foot and he returned to England to join his regiment, and sailed for America on 7 May 1774. In May 1789 he acted as the Duke of Yorks second in his duel with Lieut. -Colonel Lennox on Wimbledon Common, Rawdon was posted at Boston as a Lieutenant in the 5th Regiment of Foots Grenadier company, which was then under the command of Captain Francis Marsden. He first saw action at the Battles of Lexington and Concord, serving with the grenadiers, he participated in the second assault against Breeds Hill, and the third assault against the redoubt. As his superior, a Captain George Harris, was wounded beside him, he took command of his company, John Burgoyne noted in dispatches, Lord Rawdon has this day stamped his fame for life. He also was wounded during the assault and he was promoted Captain, and given a company in the 63rd Foot. After having recognized him, it is said that it was Lieutenant Lord Rawdon killed the American general Joseph Warren, Lord Rawdon is depicted in John Trumbulls famous painting, The Death of General Warren at the Battle of Bunker Hill. Rawdon is in the far background holding the British ensign, during the Boston winter quarters, Rawdon made his stage debut, delivering a prologue for Aaron Hills tragedy, Zara, which had been written by John Burgoyne. He returned with him to New York, on 4 August, he dined with General Clinton, Admiral Lord Howe, Lord Cornwallis, General Vaughan, and others. During the Battle of Long Island, he was at headquarters with Clinton, on 15 September, Rawdon led his men at Kips Bay, an amphibious landing on Manhattan island. The next day, he led his troops in support of the Light Infantry that attacked Harlem Heights until the Americans withdrew and he participated at the landings at Pells Point. The British pressed the Americans to White Plains, where on 1 November the Americans withdrew from their entrenchments, on 8 December Rawdon landed with Clinton at Rhode Island, securing the ports for the British Navy. On 13 January 1777, with Clinton, he departed for London, during a ball at Lord George Germains, he met Lafayette, who was visiting London. Returning to America in July, while Howe went to his Philadelphia campaign and he participated in the battles of the New York Highlands, where on 7 October, Fort Constitution was captured
23.
Public administration
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Public administration is the implementation of government policy and also an academic discipline that studies this implementation and prepares civil servants for working in the public service. As a field of inquiry with a diverse scope its fundamental goal, is to advance management and policies so that government can function. Public administrators are public servants working in departments and agencies. In the US, civil servants and academics such as Woodrow Wilson promoted American civil service reform in the 1880s, however, until the mid-20th century and the dissemination of the German sociologist Max Webers theory of bureaucracy there was not much interest in a theory of public administration. In 1947 Paul H. Appleby defined public administration as public leadership of public affairs directly responsible for executive action. In a democracy, it has to do with such leadership and executive action in terms that respect and contribute to the dignity, the worth, and the potentials of the citizen. One year later, Gordon Clapp, then Chairman of the Tennessee Valley Authority defined public administration as a public instrument whereby democratic society may be completely realized. This implies that it must relate itself to concepts of justice, liberty, and fuller economic opportunity for human beings and is concerned with people, with ideas. The key term product refers to items that are constructed or produced such as prisons, roads, laws, schools. As implementors, public managers engage these products and they participate in the doing and making of the living democracy. A living democracy is an environment that is changing, organic, imperfect, inconsistent, more recently scholars claim that public administration has no generally accepted definition, because the scope of the subject is so great and so debatable that it is easier to explain than define. Public administration is a field of study and an occupation, scholar Donald Kettl is among those who view public administration as a subfield within political science. The moral purpose of administration, implicit in its acceptance of its role, is the maximisation of the opportunities of the public to satisfy its wants. The North American Industry Classification System definition of the Public Administration sector states that public administration, dating back to Antiquity, Pharaohs, kings and emperors have required pages, treasurers, and tax collectors to administer the practical business of government. Prior to the 19th century, staffing of most public administrations was rife with nepotism, favoritism, and political patronage, Public administrators have long been the eyes and ears of rulers. In medieval times, the abilities to read and write, add, as the European Imperialist age progressed and the militarily powers extended their hold over other continents and people, the need for a sophisticated public administration grew. Far in advance of the rest of the world until almost the end of the eighteenth century, the eighteenth-century noble, King Frederick William I of Prussia, created professorates in Cameralism in an effort to train a new class of public administrators. The universities of Frankfurt an der Oder and University of Halle were Prussian institutions emphasizing economic and social disciplines, johann Heinrich Gottlob Justi was the most well-known professor of Cameralism
24.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
25.
Middle Temple
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It is located in the wider Temple area of London, near the Royal Courts of Justice, and within the City of London. In the 13th century, the Inns of Court originated as hostels and schools for student lawyers, the Middle Temple is the western part of The Temple, the headquarters of the Knights Templar until they were dissolved in 1312. The Temple Church still stands as a church of the Inner. Most of the Inn is occupied by offices, known as chambers. One of the Middle Temples main functions now is to provide education, Middle Temple Hall is at the heart of the Inn, and the Inns student members are required to attend a minimum of 12 qualifying sessions there. Qualifying sessions, formerly known as dinners, combine collegiate and educational elements and will combine an dinner or reception with lectures, debates, mooting. Middle Temple Hall is also a venue for banqueting, weddings, receptions. In recent years, it has become a much-used film location—the cobbled streets, historic buildings, william Shakespeares Twelfth Night received its first recorded performance here, at the feast Candlemas in 1602. Middle Temple Library possesses Emery Molyneuxs terrestrial and celestial globes, which are of particular historical cartographical value, Middle Temple is also one of the few remaining liberties, an old name for a geographic division. It is an independent extra-parochial area, historically not governed by the City of London Corporation, the Middle Temples functions as a local council are set out in the Temples Order 1971. It geographically falls within the boundaries and liberties of the City, some of the Inns buildings lie just outside the liberty of the Middle Temple and the Citys boundary, and are actually situated in the City of Westminster. Quadrant House was acquired by the Middle Temple in 1999 and after five years of conversion is now a barristers chambers and this lies outside the liberty but is within the City of London. List of members of Middle Temple Outer Temple Pump Court Middle Temple website
26.
River Avoca
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The Avoca is a river in County Wicklow, Ireland. It is contained completely within the county, the Avoca starts life as two rivers, the Avonmore and the Avonbeg. These join together at a called the Meeting of the Waters in the Vale of Avoca, which is considered a local beauty spot. The village of Avoca is situated on the river, the Avoca flows into the Irish Sea at Arklow where it widens into a large estuary, giving Arklow its Irish language name an t-Inbhear Mór. The catchment area of the Avoca is 652 km2, the long term average flow rate of the Avoca is 20. Oboka more likely refers to the Liffey, the valley of the Avoca has a large copper mine, and further downstream was the NET fertilizer factory. These are said to have contributed greatly to pollution in the reaches of the river. Rivers of Ireland Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Avoca, Vale of
27.
George IV of the United Kingdom
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George IV was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and of Hanover following the death of his father, George III, on 29 January 1820, until his own death ten years later. From 1811 until his accession, he served as Prince Regent during his fathers mental illness. George IV led an extravagant lifestyle that contributed to the fashions of the Regency era and he was a patron of new forms of leisure, style and taste. He commissioned John Nash to build the Royal Pavilion in Brighton and remodel Buckingham Palace and he even forbade Caroline to attend his coronation and asked the government to introduce the unpopular Pains and Penalties Bill in a desperate, unsuccessful attempt to divorce her. For most of Georges regency and reign, Lord Liverpool controlled the government as Prime Minister and his ministers found his behaviour selfish, unreliable and irresponsible. At all times he was much under the influence of favourites, taxpayers were angry at his wasteful spending at a time when Britons were fighting in the Napoleonic Wars. He did not provide leadership in time of crisis, nor act as a role model for his people. Liverpools government presided over Britains ultimate victory, negotiated the peace settlement, after Liverpools retirement, George was forced to accept Catholic emancipation despite opposing it. His only child, Princess Charlotte, died before him in 1817 and so he was succeeded by his younger brother, George was born at St Jamess Palace, London, on 12 August 1762, the first child of King George III of the United Kingdom and Queen Charlotte. As the eldest son of a British sovereign, he automatically became Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay at birth, he was created Prince of Wales, on 18 September of the same year, he was baptised by Thomas Secker, Archbishop of Canterbury. His godparents were the Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, the Duke of Cumberland, George was a talented student, and quickly learned to speak French, German and Italian, in addition to his native English. He was a witty conversationalist, drunk or sober, and showed good, the Prince of Wales turned 21 in 1783, and obtained a grant of £60,000 from Parliament and an annual income of £50,000 from his father. It was far too little for his needs – the stables alone cost £31,000 a year and he then established his residence in Carlton House, where he lived a profligate life. Animosity developed between the prince and his father, who desired more frugal behaviour on the part of the heir apparent, the King, a political conservative, was also alienated by the princes adherence to Charles James Fox and other radically inclined politicians. Soon after he reached the age of 21, the prince became infatuated with Maria Fitzherbert and she was a commoner, six years his elder, twice widowed, and a Roman Catholic. Despite her complete unsuitability, the prince was determined to marry her, nevertheless, the couple went through a marriage ceremony on 15 December 1785 at her house in Park Street, Mayfair. Legally the union was void, as the Kings consent was not granted, however, Fitzherbert believed that she was the princes canonical and true wife, holding the law of the Church to be superior to the law of the State. For political reasons, the union remained secret and Fitzherbert promised not to reveal it, the prince was plunged into debt by his exorbitant lifestyle
28.
Donington Hall
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Donington Hall is a house and residential 1, 100-acre estate in Castle Donington, North West Leicestershire, located close to the city of Derby. The hall served as the headquarters for the airline British Midland International until it was merged into British Airways on 28 October 2012 and it is now the headquarters of the Norton Motorcycle Company. The house was built from c 1790 for Francis Rawdon-Hastings, 2nd Earl of Moira, in a fanciful Gothic manner by the plasterer, from 1902 Donington was the property of the Gillies Shields family. The hall was requisitioned at the start of World War I by the British government, while interned at Donington Hall in 1915, the German naval pilot Gunther Plüschow made the only successful escape from Britain in either World War. The circuit at Donington Park was closed in 1939 due to World War II, with the whole estate needing extensive renovations after the war, the family rented the estate out as farm land. They retained the Hall, which after the Soviet Army ensured a Communist regime in Hungary, became a camp for those who came to the East Midlands. ”In 1971, Tom Wheatcroft bought part of the estate, including the famous pre-war racing circuit. In 1976, British Midland Airways purchased the hall from the Shields family, British Midland Airways moved to Donington Hall in 1982. The airline was rebranded as British Midland International, and in 2007 employed 800 workers at Donington Hall. In 2012 International Airlines Group announced it may lay off up to 1,200 BMI employees, then in March 2013 the Norton Motorcycle Company bought Donington Hall from International Airlines Group. Norton makes the bikes from a building called Hastings House. In 2016 Nortons chief executive Stuart Garner bought the property to Donington Hall. The purchase expanded his hospitality business which he also runs, the combined properties feature 80 acres of grounds, which are boarded by an ancient deer park and the River Trent
29.
Leicestershire
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Leicestershire is a landlocked county in the English Midlands. The border with most of Warwickshire is Watling Street, the county has a population of just under 1 million with over half the population living in Leicesters built-up area. Leicestershire was recorded in the Domesday Book in four wapentakes, Guthlaxton, Framland, Goscote and these later became hundreds, with the division of Goscote into West Goscote and East Goscote, and the addition of Sparkenhoe hundred. In 1087, the first recorded use of the name was as Laegrecastrescir, Leicestershires external boundaries have changed little since the Domesday Survey. These actions were reversed on 1 April 1997, when Rutland, Rutland became a distinct Ceremonial County once again, although it continues to be policed by Leicestershire Constabulary. The symbol of the county council, Leicestershire County Cricket Club, Leicestershire is considered to be the birthplace of fox hunting as it is known today. Hugo Meynell, who lived in Quorn, is known as the father of fox hunting, Melton Mowbray and Market Harborough have associations with fox hunting, as has neighbouring Rutland. A large part of the north-west of the county, around Coalville, the highest point of the county is Bardon Hill at 278 metres, which is also a Marilyn. The lowest point is about 24. 8m, north of Bottesford where the River Devon leaves Leicestershire, the population of Leicestershire is 609,578 people. The county covers an area of 2,084 km2 and its largest population centre is the city of Leicester, followed by the town of Loughborough. Other large towns include Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Coalville, Hinckley, Market Harborough, Melton Mowbray, Oadby, Wigston, some of the larger of villages are, Burbage Birstall, Broughton Astley, Castle Donington, Kibworth Beauchamp, Great Glen, Ibstock, Countesthorpe and Kegworth. One of the most rapidly expanding villages is Anstey, which has seen a large number of development schemes. The United Kingdom Census 2001 showed a resident population for Leicester of 279,921. Approximately 62,000 were aged under 16,199,000 were aged 16–74,76. 9% of Leicesters population claim they have been born in the UK, according to the 2001 UK Census. Mid-year estimates for 2006 indicate that the population of the City of Leicester stood at 289,700 making Leicester the most populous city in East Midlands, the population density is 3, 814/km2 and for every 100 females, there were 92.9 males. Of those aged 16–74 in Leicester,38. 5% had no academic qualifications,23. 0% of Leicesters residents were born outside of the United Kingdom, more than double than the English average of 9. 2%. Engineering has long been an important part of the economy of Leicestershire, John Taylor Bellfounders continues a history of bellfounding in Loughborough since the 14th century. In 1881 John Taylors cast the largest bell in Britain, Great Paul, snibston Discovery Park is built on one of three coal mines that operated in Coalville from the 1820s until 1986
30.
Charles Edward Horn
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Charles Edward Horn was an English composer and singer. He was born in St Martin-in-the-Fields, London, to Charles Frederick Horn and his wife and he was the eldest of their seven children. His father taught him music, he took music lessons briefly in 1808 from singer Venanzio Rauzzini in Bath. Horn made his debut on 26 June 1809 with a performance in the comic opera Up All Night, or the Smugglers Cave at Lyceum Theatre. Horn continued singing, including a turn in 1814 as Seraskier in Stephen Storaces The Siege of Belgrade. He achieved prominence with his portrayal of Caspar in the English version of Carl Maria von Webers Der Freischütz in 1824, Horn began composing music soon after his stage debut, writing glees and operas. He helped compose music for Thomas Moores comic opera M. P. or the Blue Stocking, the latter became a subject of controversy after Thomas Attwood accused him of plagiarizing the song. Horn was acquitted in court, however, according to one account, he helped his case by personally singing his version, in 1827, Horn sailed to New York City, where he made a successful American debut. In addition to giving singing performances, he staged works by Storace, Weber, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, and Gioachino Rossini. He briefly returned to London for a few years, overseeing the debut of his Honest Frauds and serving as director of the Olympic Theatre from 1831 to 1832. There, he became the director of Park Theatre, producing and directing performances of his own works. His oratorio The Remission of Sin may be the first oratorio composed in the United States, after losing his voice due to illness in 1835, he started giving singing lessons. Two years later, he entered into a partnership and opened a music store on Broadway. In 1842, he helped found the New York Philharmonic Society, after visiting England for a few years in the 1840s, he returned to the United States in 1847, settling in Boston. There, he was elected director of the Handel and Haydn Society and he married twice, first to a Miss Rae, and in 1838 to Maria Horton and had one son, Charles, who became a tenor. Horn, Charles Edward, Charles Edward Horns Memoirs of his Father and Himself, free scores by Charles Edward Horn in the Choral Public Domain Library
31.
Admiralty
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The new Admiralty Board meets only twice a year, and the day-to-day running of the Royal Navy is controlled by a Navy Board. It is common for the authorities now in charge of the Royal Navy to be referred to as simply The Admiralty. The title of Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom was vested in the monarch from 1964 to 2011, the title was awarded to Philip, Duke of Edinburgh by Queen Elizabeth II on his 90th birthday. There also continues to be a Vice-Admiral of the United Kingdom, the office of Admiral of England was created around 1400 although there had already been Admirals of the Northern and Western Seas. In 1546, King Henry VIII established the Council of the Marine, later to become the Navy Board, operational control of the Royal Navy remained the responsibility of the Lord High Admiral, who was one of the nine Great Officers of State. In 1628, Charles I put the office of Lord High Admiral into commission, the office of Lord High Admiral passed a number of times in and out of commission until 1709 after which the office was almost permanently in commission. In 1831, the first Navy Board was abolished as a separate entity, in 1964, the Admiralty along with the War Office and the Air Ministry as separate departments of state were abolished, and re-emerged under one single new Ministry of Defence. Within the expanded Ministry of Defence are the new Admiralty Board which has a separate Navy Board responsible for the running of the Royal Navy. The Army Board and the Air Force Board, each headed by the Secretary of State for Defence, the Board of Admiralty consisted of a number of Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty. The Lords Commissioners were always a mixture of admirals, known as Naval Lords or Sea Lords and Civil Lords, the quorum of the Board was two commissioners and a secretary. The president of the Board was known as the First Lord of the Admiralty, after 1806, the First Lord of the Admiralty was always a civilian while the professional head of the navy came to be known as the First Sea Lord. The first real concerted effort to organise the Admiralty was started by Henry VIII. Between 1860 and 1908 there was no study of strategy and of staff work conducted within the naval service. All the navys talent flowed to the great technical universitys and it was perceived by officials within the Admiralty at this time that the running of war was quite a simple matter for any flag officer who required no formal training. The new War Staff had hardly found its feet and it struggled with the opposition to its existence by senior officers they were categorically opposed to a staff. The deficiencies of the system within this department of state could be seen in the conduct of the Dardanelles campaign, there was no mechanisms in place to answer the big strategic questions in 1914 a Trade Division was created. In 1916, Sir John Jellicoe came to the Admiralty, he organized the staff as following, Chief of War Staff, Operations, Intelligence, Signal Section, Mobilization, Trade. This for the first time gave the naval staff direct representation on the Board, the would direct all operations and movements of the fleet, while the would be responsible for mercantile movements and anti-submarine operations
32.
Bermuda
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Bermuda is a British Overseas Territory in the North Atlantic Ocean. It is approximately 1,070 km east-southeast of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina,1,236 km south of Cape Sable Island, Nova Scotia, Bermuda is an associate member of Caribbean Community. The first person known to have reached Bermuda was the Spanish sea captain Juan de Bermúdez in 1503 and he claimed the islands for the Spanish Empire. Bermúdez never landed on the islands, but made two visits to the archipelago, of which he created a recognisable map, shipwrecked Portuguese mariners are now thought to have been responsible for the 1543 inscription on Portuguese Rock. Subsequent Spanish or other European parties are believed to have released pigs there, the island was administered as an extension of Virginia by the Company until 1614. Its spin-off, the Somers Isles Company, took over in 1615, at that time, the companys charter was revoked, and the English Crown took over administration. The islands became a British colony following the 1707 unification of the parliaments of Scotland and England, after 1949, when Newfoundland became part of Canada, Bermuda became the oldest remaining British Overseas Territory. Since the return of Hong Kong to China in 1997, it is the most populous Territory and its first capital, St. Georges, was established in 1612 and is the oldest continuously inhabited English town in the New World. Bermudas economy is based on insurance and reinsurance, and tourism. Bermuda had one of the worlds highest GDP per capita for most of the 20th century, recently, its economic status has been affected by the global recession. The island is in the belt and prone to severe weather. However, it is protected from the full force of a hurricane by the coral reef that surrounds the island. It is 898 nautical miles northeast of Miami, Florida, and 667 nautical miles from Cape Sable Island, in Nova Scotia, Canada. The islands lie due east of Fripp Island, South Carolina, west-northwest of Cape Verde, southeast of New York City, New York, north-northwest of Brazil and north of San Juan, Puerto Rico. The archipelago is formed by points on the rim of the caldera of a submarine volcano that forms a seamount. The volcano is one part of a range that was formed as part of the process that formed the floor of the Atlantic. It has 103 km of coastline, the two incorporated municipalities in Bermuda are the City of Hamilton and the Town of St George. Bermuda is divided into nine parishes, which have some localities called villages, such as Flatts Village, although usually referred to in the singular, the territory consists of 181 islands, with a total area of 53.3 square kilometres
33.
Prize (law)
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Prize /praɪz/ is a term used in admiralty law to refer to equipment, vehicles, vessels, and cargo captured during armed conflict. The most common use of prize in this sense is the capture of an enemy ship, in the past, the capturing force would commonly be allotted a share of the worth of the captured prize. Nations often granted letters of marque that would entitle private parties to capture enemy property, usually ships. At the outset, prize taking was all smash and grab like breaking a window, but by the fifteenth century a body of guiding rules. Grotiuss seminal treatise on international law published in 1604 called De Iure Praedae Commentarius was an advocates brief justifying Dutch seizures of Spanish, grotius defends the practice of taking prizes as not merely traditional or customary but just. Prize law fully developed between the Seven Years War of 1756–63 and the American Civil War of 1861–65 and this period largely coincides with the last century of fighting sail and includes the Napoleonic Wars, the American and French Revolutions, and Americas Quasi-War with France of the late 1790s. Fortunes in prize money were to be made at sea as vividly depicted in the novels of C. S. Forester, during the American Revolution the combined American naval and privateering prizes totaled nearly $24 million, in the War of 1812, $45 million. Prize cases were among the most complex of the time, as the disposition of vast sums turned on the fluid Law of Nations, and difficult questions of jurisdiction and precedent. One of the earliest U. S. cases for instance, a captured American privateer captain, 20-year-old Gideon Olmsted, shipped aboard the British sloop Active in Jamaica as an ordinary hand in an effort to get home. Olmsted organized a mutiny and commandeered the sloop, but as Olmsteds mutineers sailed their prize to America, a Pennsylvania privateer took the Active. Olmsted and the disputed ownership of the prize, and in November 1778 a Philadelphia prize court jury came to a split verdict awarding each a share. But Pennsylvania authorities refused to enforce the decision, asserting the Continental Congress could not intrude on a prize court jury verdict. Olmsted doggedly pursued the case for decades until he won, in a U. S, when a privateer or naval vessel spotted a tempting vessel—whatever flag she flew or often enough flying none at all—they gave chase. Sailing under false colors was a ruse, both for predator and prey. The convention was a vessel must hoist her true colors before firing the first shot, firing under a false flag could cost dearly in prize court proceedings, even result in restitution to the captured vessels owner. Officers restrained the crew to prevent pillaging defeated adversaries, or pilfering the cargo known as breaking bulk. That is, instead of destroying her on the spot as was their prerogative, on land this would be extortion and the promise to pay unenforceable in court, but at sea it was accepted practice and the IOUs negotiable instruments. While on her mission as a ship she was immune to recapture so long as she proceeded directly on her errand, promptly returned
34.
Norfolk, Virginia
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Norfolk is an independent city in the Commonwealth of Virginia, United States. At the 2010 census, the population was 242,803, in 2015, Norfolk is located at the core of the Hampton Roads metropolitan area, named for the large natural harbor of the same name located at the mouth of Chesapeake Bay. It is one of nine cities and seven counties that constitute the Hampton Roads metro area, officially known as the Virginia Beach-Norfolk-Newport News, the city is bordered to the west by the Elizabeth River and to the north by the Chesapeake Bay. It also shares borders with the independent cities of Chesapeake to its south. Norfolk is one of the oldest cities in Hampton Roads, and is considered to be the historic, urban, financial, the city has a long history as a strategic military and transportation point. The largest Navy base in the world, Naval Station Norfolk, is located in Norfolk along with one of NATOs two Strategic Command headquarters. As the city is bordered by multiple bodies of water, Norfolk has many miles of riverfront and bayfront property, including beaches on the Chesapeake Bay. It is linked to its neighbors by a network of Interstate highways, bridges, tunnels. In 1619, the Governor of the Virginia Colony, Sir George Yeardley incorporated four jurisdictions, termed citties and these formed the basis for colonial representative government in the newly minted House of Burgesses. What would become Norfolk was put under the Elizabeth Cittie incorporation, in 1634 King Charles I reorganized the colony into a system of shires. The former Elizabeth Cittie became Elizabeth City Shire, after persuading 105 people to settle in the colony, Adam Thoroughgood was granted a large land holding, through the head rights system, along the Lynnhaven River in 1636. When the South Hampton Roads portion of the shire was separated, one year later, it was split into two counties, Upper Norfolk and Lower Norfolk, chiefly on Thoroughgoods recommendation. This area of Virginia became known as the place of entrepreneurs, the House of Burgesses established the Towne of Lower Norfolk County in 1680. In 1691, a final county subdivision took place when Lower Norfolk County split to form Norfolk County, in 1730, a tobacco inspection site was located here. By 1775, Norfolk developed into what contemporary observers argued was the most prosperous city in Virginia and it was an important port for exporting goods to the British Isles and beyond. In part because of its merchants numerous trading ties with other parts of the British Empire, after fleeing the colonial capital of Williamsburg, Lord Dunmore, the Royal Governor of Virginia, tried to reestablish control of the colony from Norfolk. Dunmore secured small victories at Norfolk but was forced into exile by the American rebels and his departure brought an end to more than 168 years of British colonial rule in Virginia. On New Years Day,1776, Lord Dunmores fleet of three ships shelled the city of Norfolk for more than eight hours, the damage from the shells and fires started by the British and spread by the patriots destroyed over 800 buildings, almost two-thirds of the city
35.
Poet laureate
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A poet laureate is a poet officially appointed by a government or conferring institution, who is often expected to compose poems for special events and occasions. The Italians Albertino Mussato and Francesco Petrarca were the first to be crowned poets laureate after the classical age, in Britain, the term dates from the appointment of Bernard André by Henry VII of England. In modern times, the title may also be conferred by an organization such as the Poetry Foundation, over a dozen national governments continue the poet laureate tradition. In ancient Greece, the laurel was used to form a crown or wreath of honour for poets and heroes. This custom, first revived in Padua for Albertino Mussato, was followed by Petrarchs own crowning ceremony in the hall of the medieval senatorial palazzo on the Campidoglio on 8 April 1341. As the concept of the laureate has spread, the term laureate has come in English to signify recognition for preeminence or superlative achievement. As a royal degree in rhetoric, poet laureate was awarded at European universities in the Middle Ages, the term might also refer to the holder of such a degree, which recognized skill in rhetoric, grammar and language. The Canadian Parliamentary Poet Laureate is appointed as an officer of the Library of Parliament, the position alternates between an English and French speaking laureate. Candidates must be able to write in both English and French, have a publication history displaying literary excellence and have written work reflecting Canada. The first laureate was George Bowering, in 2002, in 2004, the title was transferred to Pauline Michel, in 2006 to John Steffler until December 3,2008, to Pierre DesRuisseaux on April 28,2009, and to Fred Wah in December 2011. Michel Pleau was installed in January,2014, Poets Laureate of Dominican Republic include, Pedro Mir. Poets Laureate of Ethiopia include, Tsegaye Gabre-Medhin, Poets Laureate of Nazi Germany include, Hanns Johst from 1935 to 1946. Sripada Krishnamurty Sastry was the first poet laureate of Andhra Pradesh, kannadasan was the poet laureate of Tamil Nadu at the time of his death. Malek o-Shoarā Bahār was the laureate of Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar. He was born in Mashhad in 1884 and was a figure among the modernists. The closest equivalent is the title Saoi held by up to seven members at a time of Aosdána, a body of those engaged in fine arts, literature. Poets awarded the title include Máire Mhac an tSaoi, Anthony Cronin, the unofficial Poet Laureate of Netherlands is Ester Naomi Perquin as Dichter des Vaderlands. The previous laureate was Anne Vegter, gerrit Komrij was the first Dichter des Vaderlands
36.
Grand Tour
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The custom flourished from about 1660, until the advent of large-scale rail transport in the 1840s, and was associated with a standard itinerary. It served as a rite of passage. With nearly unlimited funds, aristocratic connections and months to roam, they commissioned paintings, perfected their language skills, in addition, it provided the only opportunity to view specific works of art, and possibly the only chance to hear certain music. A Grand Tour could last from months to several years. It was commonly undertaken in the company of a Cicerone, a guide or tutor. The legacy of the Grand Tour lives on to the day and is still evident in works of travel. In essence, the Grand Tour was neither a scholars pilgrimage nor a one, though a pleasurable stay in Venice. Catholic Grand Tourists followed the routes as Protestant Whigs. Pompeo Batoni made a career of painting English milordi posed with graceful ease among Roman antiquities, many continued on to Naples, where they viewed Herculaneum and Pompeii, but few ventured far into southern Italy or Malta, and fewer still to Greece, still under Turkish rule. Rome for many centuries had been the goal of pilgrims, especially during Jubilee when they visited the Seven Pilgrim Churches of Rome. This is partly because he asked Inigo Jones, not yet established as an architect but already known as a traveller and masque designer. Larger numbers of tourists began their tours after the Peace of Münster in 1648, lasselss introduction listed four areas in which travel furnished an accomplished, consummate Traveller, the intellectual, the social, the ethical, and the political. The idea of travelling for the sake of curiosity and learning was an idea in the 17th century. Thus, one could use up the environment, taking from it all it offers, travel, therefore, was necessary for one to develop the mind and expand knowledge of the world. Consciously adapted for intellectual self-improvement, Gibbon was revisiting the Continent on a larger and more liberal plan, the typical 18th-century sentiment was that of the studious observer travelling through foreign lands reporting his findings on human nature for those unfortunate enough to have stayed home. Recounting ones observations to society at large to increase its welfare was considered an obligation, the Grand Tour offered a liberal education, and the opportunity to acquire things otherwise unavailable at home, lending an air of accomplishment and prestige to the traveller. The trappings of the Grand Tour, especially portraits of the traveller painted in iconic continental settings, became the obligatory emblems of worldliness, gravitas, the less well-off could return with an album of Piranesi etchings. The perhaps in Gibbons opening remark cast a shadow over his resounding statement
37.
Democratic-Republican Party
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The new party controlled the presidency and Congress, as well as most states, from 1801 to 1825, during the First Party System. It began in 1791 as one faction in Congress, and included many politicians who had opposed to the new constitution. They called themselves Republicans after their ideology Republicanism and they distrusted the Federalist commitment to republicanism. The party splintered in 1824 into the Jacksonian movement and the short-lived National Republican Party, the term Democratic-Republican is used especially by modern political scientists for the first Republican Party. It is also known as the Jeffersonian Republicans, historians typically use the title Republican Party. An Anti-Administration faction met secretly in the capital to oppose Hamiltons financial programs. Jefferson denounced the programs as leading to monarchy and subversive of republicanism, Jefferson needed to have a nationwide party to challenge the Federalists, which Hamilton was building up with allies in major cities. Foreign affairs took a role in 1794–95 as the Republicans vigorously opposed the Jay Treaty with Britain. Republicans saw France as more democratic after its revolution, while Britain represented the hated monarchy, the party denounced many of Hamiltons measures as unconstitutional, especially the national bank. The party was strongest in the South and weakest in the Northeast and it demanded states rights as expressed by the Principles of 1798 articulated in the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions that would allow states to nullify a federal law. Above all, the party stood for the primacy of the yeoman farmers, Republicans were deeply committed to the principles of republicanism, which they feared were threatened by the supposed monarchical tendencies of the Hamiltonian Federalists. The party came to power in 1801 with the election of Jefferson in the 1800 presidential election, the Federalists—too elitist to appeal to most people—faded away, and totally collapsed after 1815. The Republicans dominated the First Party System, despite internal divisions, the party selected its presidential candidates in a caucus of members of Congress. They included Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and James Monroe, by 1824, the caucus system had practically collapsed. After 1800, the party dominated Congress and most state governments outside New England, by 1824, the party was split four ways and lacked a center, as the First Party System collapsed. The emergence of the Second Party System in the 1830s realigned the old factions, one remnant followed Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren into the new Democratic Party by 1828. Another remnant led by John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay formed the National Republicans in 1828, the precise date of founding is disputed, but 1791 is a reasonable estimate, some time by 1792 is certain. The elections of 1792 were the first ones to be contested on anything resembling a partisan basis, in most states the congressional elections were recognized, as Jefferson strategist John Beckley put it, as a struggle between the Treasury department and the republican interest
38.
Thomas Jefferson
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Thomas Jefferson was an American Founding Father who was the principal author of the Declaration of Independence and later served as the third President of the United States from 1801 to 1809. Previously, he was elected the second Vice President of the United States, Jefferson was primarily of English ancestry, born and educated in colonial Virginia. He graduated from the College of William & Mary and briefly practiced law and he became the United States Minister to France in May 1785, and subsequently the nations first Secretary of State in 1790–1793 under President George Washington. Jefferson and James Madison organized the Democratic-Republican Party to oppose the Federalist Party during the formation of the First Party System, as President, Jefferson pursued the nations shipping and trade interests against Barbary pirates and aggressive British trade policies. He also organized the Louisiana Purchase, almost doubling the countrys territory, as a result of peace negotiations with France, his administration reduced military forces. Jeffersons second term was beset with difficulties at home, including the trial of former Vice President Aaron Burr, American foreign trade was diminished when Jefferson implemented the Embargo Act of 1807, responding to British threats to U. S. shipping. In 1803, Jefferson began a process of Indian tribe removal to the newly organized Louisiana Territory. Jefferson mastered many disciplines, which ranged from surveying and mathematics to horticulture and he was a proven architect in the classical tradition. Jeffersons keen interest in religion and philosophy earned him the presidency of the American Philosophical Society and he shunned organized religion, but was influenced by both Christianity and deism. He was well versed in linguistics and spoke several languages and he founded the University of Virginia after retiring from public office. He was a letter writer and corresponded with many prominent and important people throughout his adult life. His only full-length book is Notes on the State of Virginia, Jefferson owned several plantations which were worked by hundreds of slaves. Most historians now believe that, after the death of his wife in 1782, he had a relationship with his slave Sally Hemings and fathered at least one of her children. Various modern scholars are more critical of Jeffersons private life, pointing out the discrepancy between his ownership of slaves and his political principles, for example. Presidential scholars, however, consistently rank Jefferson among the greatest presidents, Thomas Jefferson was born on April 13,1743, at the family home in Shadwell in the Colony of Virginia, the third of ten children. He was of English and possibly Welsh descent and was born a British subject and his father Peter Jefferson was a planter and surveyor who died when Jefferson was fourteen, his mother was Jane Randolph. Peter Jefferson moved his family to Tuckahoe Plantation in 1745 upon the death of a friend who had named him guardian of his children, the Jeffersons returned to Shadwell in 1752, where Peter died in 1757, his estate was divided between his sons Thomas and Randolph. Thomas inherited approximately 5,000 acres of land, including Monticello and he assumed full authority over his property at age 21
39.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
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Philadelphia
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In 1682, William Penn, an English Quaker, founded the city to serve as capital of the Pennsylvania Colony. Philadelphia was one of the capitals in the Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, Philadelphia became an industrial center. It became a destination for African-Americans in the Great Migration. The areas many universities and colleges make Philadelphia a top international study destination, as the city has evolved into an educational, with a gross domestic product of $388 billion, Philadelphia ranks ninth among world cities and fourth in the nation. Philadelphia is the center of activity in Pennsylvania and is home to seven Fortune 1000 companies. The Philadelphia skyline is growing, with a market of almost 81,900 commercial properties in 2016 including several prominent skyscrapers. The city is known for its arts, culture, and rich history, Philadelphia has more outdoor sculptures and murals than any other American city. Fairmount Park, when combined with the adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park in the watershed, is one of the largest contiguous urban park areas in the United States. The 67 National Historic Landmarks in the city helped account for the $10 billion generated by tourism, Philadelphia is the only World Heritage City in the United States. Before Europeans arrived, the Philadelphia area was home to the Lenape Indians in the village of Shackamaxon, the Lenape are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government. They are also called Delaware Indians and their territory was along the Delaware River watershed, western Long Island. Most Lenape were pushed out of their Delaware homeland during the 18th century by expanding European colonies, Lenape communities were weakened by newly introduced diseases, mainly smallpox, and violent conflict with Europeans. Iroquois people occasionally fought the Lenape, surviving Lenape moved west into the upper Ohio River basin. The American Revolutionary War and United States independence pushed them further west, in the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the US state of Oklahoma, with communities living also in Wisconsin, Ontario. The Dutch considered the entire Delaware River valley to be part of their New Netherland colony, in 1638, Swedish settlers led by renegade Dutch established the colony of New Sweden at Fort Christina and quickly spread out in the valley. In 1644, New Sweden supported the Susquehannocks in their defeat of the English colony of Maryland
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Niagara Falls
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They form the southern end of the Niagara Gorge. From largest to smallest, the three waterfalls are the Horseshoe Falls, the American Falls and the Bridal Veil Falls, the Horseshoe Falls lies on the border of the United States and Canada with the American Falls entirely on the American side, separated by Goat Island. The smaller Bridal Veil Falls are also on the American side, the international boundary line was originally drawn through Horseshoe Falls in 1819, but the boundary has long been in dispute due to natural erosion and construction. Located on the Niagara River, which drains Lake Erie into Lake Ontario, Horseshoe Falls is the most powerful waterfall in North America, as measured by vertical height and flow rate. The falls are 17 miles north-northwest of Buffalo, New York, while not exceptionally high, the Niagara Falls are very wide. More than six cubic feet of water falls over the crest line every minute in high flow. The Niagara Falls are famed both for their beauty and as a source of hydroelectric power. Balancing recreational, commercial, and industrial uses has been a challenge for the stewards of the falls since the 19th century. The Horseshoe Falls drop about 188 feet, while the height of the American Falls varies between 70 and 100 feet because of the presence of giant boulders at its base. The larger Horseshoe Falls are about 2,600 feet wide, the distance between the American extremity of the Niagara Falls and the Canadian extremity is 3,409 feet. The volume of water approaching the falls during peak season may sometimes be as much as 225,000 cubic feet per second. The average annual rate is 85,000 cubic feet per second. Since the flow is a function of the Lake Erie water elevation. This is accomplished by employing a weir – the International Control Dam – with movable gates upstream from the Horseshoe Falls. The falls flow is further halved at night, and, during the low tourist season in the winter, water diversion is regulated by the 1950 Niagara Treaty and is administered by the International Niagara Board of Control. The current rate of erosion is approximately 1 foot per year and it is estimated that 50,000 years from now, even at this reduced rate of erosion, the remaining 20 miles to Lake Erie will have been undermined and the falls will cease to exist. The features that became Niagara Falls were created by the Wisconsin glaciation about 10,000 years ago, the same forces also created the North American Great Lakes and the Niagara River. All were dug by an ice sheet that drove through the area, deepening some river channels to form lakes
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Montreal
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Montreal, officially Montréal, is the most populous municipality in the Canadian province of Quebec and the 2nd-most populous in Canada as a whole. Originally called Ville-Marie, or City of Mary, it is believed to be named after Mount Royal, the city has a distinct four-season continental climate, with warm-to-hot summers and cold, snowy winters. In 2016, Montreal had a population of 1,704,694, Montreals metropolitan area had a population of 4,098,927 and a population of 1,958,257 in the urban agglomeration, with all of the municipalities on the Island of Montreal included. Legally a French-speaking city,60. 5% of Montrealers speak French at home,21. 2% speak English and 19. 8% speak neither, Montreal is one of the most bilingual cities in Quebec and Canada, with 56% of the population able to speak both official languages. Montreal is the second-largest primarily French-speaking city in the world after Paris, historically the commercial capital of Canada, it was surpassed in population and economic strength by Toronto in the 1970s. It remains an important centre of commerce, aerospace, finance, pharmaceuticals, technology, design, education, culture, tourism, gaming, film, Montreal was also named a UNESCO City of Design. In 2009, Montreal was named North Americas leading host city for international events, according to the 2009 preliminary rankings of the International Congress. According to the 2015 Global Liveability Ranking by the Economist Intelligence Unit, in the 2017 edition of their Best Student Cities ranking, Quacquarelli Symonds ranked Montreal as the worlds best city to study abroad. Also, Montreal has 11 universities with 170,000 students enrolled, the Greater Montréal region has the highest number of university students per capita among all metropolitan areas in North America. It is the only Canadian city to have held the Summer Olympics, currently, the city hosts the Canadian Grand Prix of Formula One, the Montreal International Jazz Festival and the Just for Laughs festival. In 2012, Montreal was ranked as a Beta+ world city, in Kanien’kéha, or Mohawk language, the island is called Tiohtià, ke Tsi or Ka-wé-no-te. In Anishinaabemowin, or Ojibwe language, the land is called Mooniyaang, though the city was first named by French colonizers Ville Marie, or City of Mary, its current name comes from Mount Royal, the triple-peaked hill in the heart of the city. The most popular theory is that the name derives from Mont Réal, Cartiers 1535 diary entry, naming the mountain, according to the Commission de toponymie du Québec and the Geographical Names Board of Canada, Canadian place names have only one official form. Thus, Montreal is officially spelled with an accent over the e in both English and French. In practice, this is limited to governmental uses. English-speaking Montrealers, including English-language media, regularly omit the accent when writing in English, archaeological evidence demonstrates that First Nations native people occupied the island of Montreal as early as 4,000 years ago. By the year AD1000, they had started to cultivate maize, within a few hundred years, they had built fortified villages. Archeologists have found evidence of their habitation there and at locations in the valley since at least the 14th century
Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Thomas Moore". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "