1.
Surgeon
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In medicine, a surgeon is a doctor who performs operations. Surgeons may be physicians, podiatrists, dentists, or veterinarians, the first person to document a surgery was the 6th Century BC Indian physician-surgeon, Sushrutha. He is considered the greatest medieval surgeon to have appeared from the Islamic World and his greatest contribution to medicine is the Kitab al-Tasrif, a thirty-volume encyclopedia of medical practices. He was the first physician to describe an ectopic pregnancy, in Europe, surgery was mostly associated with barber-surgeons who also used their hair-cutting tools to undertake surgical procedures, often at the battlefield and also for their royal paymasters. In 1950, the Royal College of Surgeons of England in London began to offer surgeons a formal status via RCS membership. The distinction of Mr is also used by surgeons in the Republic of Ireland, Australia, Barbados, New Zealand, South Africa, Zimbabwe, in many English-speaking countries the military title of surgeon is applied to any medical practitioner, due to the historical evolution of the term. Some physicians who are general practitioners or specialists in medicine or emergency medicine may perform limited ranges of minor, common. Anesthesia often accompanies surgery, and anesthesiologists and nurse anesthetists may oversee this aspect of surgery, Surgeons assistant, surgical nurses, surgical technologists and operating department practitioners are trained professionals who support surgeons. Sushruta Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi Charles Kelman William Stewart Halsted Alfred Blalock C
2.
Antiquarian
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An antiquarian or antiquary is an aficionado or student of antiquities or things of the past. More specifically, the term is used for those who study history with attention to ancient artifacts, archaeological and historic sites, or historic archives. Today the term is used in a pejorative sense, to refer to an excessively narrow focus on factual historical trivia. The Kaogutu or Illustrated Catalogue of Examined Antiquity compiled by Lü Dalin is one of the oldest known catalogues to systematically describe and classify ancient artifacts which were unearthed. Interests in antiquarian studies of ancient inscriptions and artifacts waned after the Song Dynasty, Books on antiquarian topics covered such subjects as the origin of customs, religious rituals, and political institutions, genealogy, topography and landmarks, and etymology. By contrast, antiquarian works as a form are organized by topic. Major antiquarian Latin writers with surviving works include Varro, Pliny the Elder, Aulus Gellius, the Roman emperor Claudius published antiquarian works, none of which is extant. Some of Ciceros treatises, particularly his work on divination, show strong antiquarian interests, roman-era Greek writers also dealt with antiquarian material, such as Plutarch in his Roman Questions and the Deipnosophistae of Athenaeus. The aim of Latin antiquarian works is to collect a number of possible explanations. The antiquarians are often used as sources by the ancient historians, despite the importance of antiquarian writing in the literature of ancient Rome, some scholars view antiquarianism as emerging only in the Middle Ages. Antiquarianisms wider flowering is more associated with the Renaissance, and with the critical assessment. The development of genealogy as a scientific discipline went hand-in-hand with the development of antiquarianism, genealogical antiquaries recognised the evidential value for their researches of non-textual sources, including seals and church monuments. Many early modern antiquaries were also chorographers, that is to say, they recorded landscapes, in England, some of the most important of these took the form of county histories. They increasingly argued that empirical evidence could be used to refine. Antiquaries had always attracted a degree of ridicule, and since the century the term has tended to be used most commonly in negative or derogatory contexts. Nevertheless, many practising antiquaries continue to claim the title with pride, Antiquary was the usual term in English from the 16th to the mid-18th centuries to describe a person interested in antiquities. From the second half of the 18th century, however, antiquarian began to be used widely as a noun. From the 16th to the 19th centuries, a distinction was perceived to exist between the interests and activities of the antiquary and the historian
3.
Ancient Egypt
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Ancient Egypt was a civilization of ancient Northeastern Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt. It is one of six civilizations to arise independently, Egyptian civilization followed prehistoric Egypt and coalesced around 3150 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh Narmer. In the aftermath of Alexander the Greats death, one of his generals, Ptolemy Soter and this Greek Ptolemaic Kingdom ruled Egypt until 30 BC, when, under Cleopatra, it fell to the Roman Empire and became a Roman province. The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the conditions of the Nile River valley for agriculture, the predictable flooding and controlled irrigation of the fertile valley produced surplus crops, which supported a more dense population, and social development and culture. Its art and architecture were widely copied, and its antiquities carried off to far corners of the world and its monumental ruins have inspired the imaginations of travelers and writers for centuries. The Nile has been the lifeline of its region for much of human history, nomadic modern human hunter-gatherers began living in the Nile valley through the end of the Middle Pleistocene some 120,000 years ago. By the late Paleolithic period, the climate of Northern Africa became increasingly hot and dry. In Predynastic and Early Dynastic times, the Egyptian climate was less arid than it is today. Large regions of Egypt were covered in treed savanna and traversed by herds of grazing ungulates, foliage and fauna were far more prolific in all environs and the Nile region supported large populations of waterfowl. Hunting would have been common for Egyptians, and this is also the period when many animals were first domesticated. The largest of these cultures in upper Egypt was the Badari, which probably originated in the Western Desert, it was known for its high quality ceramics, stone tools. The Badari was followed by the Amratian and Gerzeh cultures, which brought a number of technological improvements, as early as the Naqada I Period, predynastic Egyptians imported obsidian from Ethiopia, used to shape blades and other objects from flakes. In Naqada II times, early evidence exists of contact with the Near East, particularly Canaan, establishing a power center at Hierakonpolis, and later at Abydos, Naqada III leaders expanded their control of Egypt northwards along the Nile. They also traded with Nubia to the south, the oases of the desert to the west. Royal Nubian burials at Qustul produced artifacts bearing the oldest-known examples of Egyptian dynastic symbols, such as the crown of Egypt. They also developed a ceramic glaze known as faience, which was used well into the Roman Period to decorate cups, amulets, and figurines. During the last predynastic phase, the Naqada culture began using written symbols that eventually were developed into a system of hieroglyphs for writing the ancient Egyptian language. The Early Dynastic Period was approximately contemporary to the early Sumerian-Akkadian civilisation of Mesopotamia, the third-century BC Egyptian priest Manetho grouped the long line of pharaohs from Menes to his own time into 30 dynasties, a system still used today
4.
Mummy
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Some authorities restrict the use of the term to bodies deliberately embalmed with chemicals, but the use of the word to cover accidentally desiccated bodies goes back to at least 1615 CE. Mummies of humans and other animals have found on every continent. Over one million animal mummies have been found in Egypt, many of which are cats, in addition to the well-known mummies of ancient Egypt, deliberate mummification was a feature of several ancient cultures in areas of America and Asia with very dry climates. The Spirit Cave mummies of Fallon, Nevada in North America were accurately dated at more than 9,400 years old. Before this discovery, the oldest known deliberate mummy was a child, one of the Chinchorro mummies found in the Camarones Valley, Chile, which dates around 5050 BCE. The oldest known naturally mummified corpse is a severed head dated as 6,000 years old. These substances were defined as mummia, the OED defines a mummy as the body of a human being or animal embalmed as a preparation for burial, citing sources from 1615 CE onward. However, Chambers Cyclopædia and the Victorian zoologist Francis Trevelyan Buckland define a mummy as follows, also applied to the frozen carcase of an animal imbedded in prehistoric snow. Wasps of the genus Aleiodes are known as mummy wasps because they wrap their prey as mummies. While interest in the study of mummies dates as far back as Ptolemaic Greece, prior to this, many rediscovered mummies were sold as curiosities or for use in pseudoscientific novelties such as mummia. The first modern scientific examinations of mummies began in 1901, conducted by professors at the English-language Government School of Medicine in Cairo, Egypt. The first X-ray of a mummy came in 1903, when professors Grafton Elliot Smith, British chemist Alfred Lucas applied chemical analyses to Egyptian mummies during this same period, which returned many results about the types of substances used in embalming. Lucas also made significant contributions to the analysis of Tutankhamun in 1922, pathological study of mummies saw varying levels of popularity throughout the 20th century. In 1992, the First World Congress on Mummy Studies was held in Puerto de la Cruz on Tenerife in the Canary Islands, more than 300 scientists attended the Congress to share nearly 100 years of collected data on mummies. This was not possible prior to the Congress due to the unique, in more recent years, CT scanning has become an invaluable tool in the study of mummification by allowing researchers to digitally unwrap mummies without risking damage to the body. The level of detail in such scans is so intricate that small linens used in areas such as the nostrils can be digitally reconstructed in 3-D. Such modelling has been utilized to perform autopsies on mummies to determine cause of death and lifestyle. Mummies are typically divided into one of two categories, anthropogenic or spontaneous
5.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
6.
Duke of Kent
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The title of Duke of Kent has been created several times in the peerages of Great Britain and the United Kingdom, most recently as a royal dukedom for the fourth son of King George V. Since 1942, the title has held by Prince Edward. A title associated with Kent first appears anciently with the Kingdom of Kent, the Kings of Cantware date back to about 449. After 825, when the Kingdom of Kent was taken over by Egbert, King of Wessex, Kent became a dependency of Wessex and was ruled by sub-kings, usually related to the Wessex rulers. The titular kingship became something like the title, as Aethelwulf, Egberts son. By 860, Kent lost its status as a kingdom, becoming absorbed into Wessex, in the peerage of England the first title of Kent was that of the Earl of Kent. After the death of his father, Godwin the Earl of Wessex, Leofwine and it is possible that Godwin was the first Earl of Kent, since he ruled over that area as well as many others. After Leofwines death at Hastings in 1066, William the Conqueror named his half-brother, Odo of Bayeux, who was also Bishop of Bayeux, however, Odo was twice removed from this title. The first occasion was in 1082, when he was imprisoned and it was not until 1141 that the title returned, this time for William de Ipres, but he was deprived of the title in 1155. In 1227 it was revived for Hubert de Burgh, but became extinct with his death. In 1321, it was revived for Edmund of Woodstock, and through the marriage of Joan Plantagenet to Thomas Holland, the title passed to the Holland family. In 1461 it was revived for William Neville, and then in 1465 for Edmund Grey, the Grey family held the title until Henry Grey died without male heirs. Henry Grey succeeded his father, Anthony Grey, as the 12th Earl of Kent in 1702, in 1706, he was elevated to Marquess of Kent, along with Earl of Harold and Viscount Goderich. In 1710 he was elevated again as Duke of Kent. Henry had one son and five daughters with his first wife, Jemima Crew, by the time of Henrys death in 1740, both of his sons had died, Anthony and George, leaving the Duke of Kent without a male heir. On 23 April 1799 the double dukedom of Kent and Strathearn was given, with the earldom of Dublin, to King George IIIs fourth son, Edward had only one child, a daughter, Princess Alexandrina Victoria. Upon Edwards death in 1820, the dukedom of Kent and Strathearn became extinct, the Duke of Edinburgh had only one son, Prince Alfred, who would have inherited his fathers titles had he not died before his father in 1899. With Prince Alfreds death in 1900, Kents title became extinct, in 1934, Prince George, the fourth son of King George V of the United Kingdom and Queen Mary, was created Duke of Kent, Earl of St Andrews and Baron Downpatrick
7.
Duke of Sussex
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Duke of Sussex was a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was conferred on 27 November 1801 upon Prince Augustus Frederick and he was made Baron Arklow and Earl of Inverness, at the same time, also in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. Prince Augustus Frederick married Lady Augusta Murray at St Georges, Hanover Square, Westminster, in 1793 and then, Lady Cecilia Gore at Great Cumberland Place, both marriages were in contravention of the Royal Marriages Act 1772. The first marriage was annulled and the Princes two children became illegitimate, the second marriage was not annulled but, as a morganatic wife, Lady Cecilia could not be received at court. She was eventually given the title of Duchess of Inverness in her own right by Queen Victoria, since Augustus Frederick had no legitimate issue, his titles became extinct on his death in 1843. Instead, Prince Edward was created Earl of Wessex, and it was announced that he would eventually be created Duke of Edinburgh, a title currently held by his father. There was again speculation that Prince William of Wales might be given the Sussex title on his wedding to Catherine Middleton in April 2011, in the same year, it was reported that Prince Harry had been promised the title. The Prince Augustus Frederick, 1st Duke of Sussex Earl of Sussex
8.
John Coakley Lettsom
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John Coakley Lettsom was an English physician and philanthropist. He was born on Little Jost Van Dyke in the British Virgin Islands, into one of the early Quaker settlements in the territory and his surname is sometimes spelled Lettsome. Lettsom founded the Medical Society of London in 1773, convinced that a membership of physicians, surgeons. His revolutionary idea met with success and the Society has provided a forum for all branches of the profession from its inception to the present. Situated at the heart of Londons medical community at Lettsome House, Chandos Street, near Cavendish Square, as founder, president, and benefactor Lettsom was the mainstay of the Society from 1773 until his death in 1815. John Coakley Lettsom was born into the Quaker community on the island of Little Jost Van Dyke in the British Virgin Islands, John and his brother were the sole survivors of seven sets of male twins, sons of Edward and Mary Lettsom. John alone was sent to England at the age of six to be educated, having completed an apprenticeship to a Yorkshire apothecary, Lettsom came to London in 1766 when, through the influence of Dr Fothergill, he commenced his medical training at St Thomas Hospital. As the only doctor in the islands at that time, he was able to earn a considerable sum, diligence and industry earned him a fortune, enabling him to resume his studies in Europe. John Coakley Lettsom matriculated at the Leyden University 8 June 1769 He received his Medical Doctor degree 20 Juni 1769 and his thesis concerns the natural history of the tea-tree. The title description of his thesis is, Dissertatio inauguralis medica, quam … pro gradu Doctoratus summisque in Medicina Honoribus & Privilegiis, ritè ac legitimè consequendis, eruditorum examini submittit Joannes Coakley Lettsom, Tortola – Americanus. - Lugduni Batavorum, apud Theodorum Haak,1769, Lettsom was also a close friend of Benjamin Franklin and William Thornton. Lettsoms career accelerated with the LRCP and marriage to an heiress, by the age of 30 his reputation as a physician, author, and Fellow of the Royal Society was established. Furthermore, he had founded the General Dispensary in Aldersgate Street, as founder, President and benefactor of the London Medical Society, Lettsom was the mainstay of the society from 1773 until his death in 1815. In 1791 Lettsom won the societys Fothergillian prize for a treatise entitled Diseases of Great Towns and he was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1788. For at least a portion of his years working in London, he lived in Newington Green, there he met the young Mary Wollstonecraft and others intent on social reform. Lettsom is reported to have written himself, I, John Lettsome, Blisters, bleeds. If, after that, they please to die, I, Lettsom was also a noted abolitionist. In 1767 he had returned to the British Virgin Islands after the death of his father, and found himself the owner of a share of his fathers slaves, however, towards the end of his life, something ironic happened
9.
Astley Cooper
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Cooper was born at Brooke Hall in Brooke, Norfolk on 23 August 1768 and baptised at the parish church on 9 September. His father, Dr Samuel Cooper, was a clergyman of the Church of England, at the age of sixteen he was sent to London and placed under Henry Cline, surgeon to St Thomas Hospital. From the first he devoted himself to the study of anatomy, in 1802 he received the Copley Medal for two papers read before the Royal Society of London on the destruction of the tympanic membrane and was elected a Fellow of that society the same year. In the same year he was appointed professor of anatomy to the Royal College of Surgeons and was very popular as a lecturer. In 1817 he performed his famous operation of tying the abdominal aorta for aneurism, about six months afterwards received a baronetcy, which, as he had no son, was to descend to his nephew and adopted son, Astley Cooper. He was subsequently appointed sergeant surgeon to George IV, William IV and he served as president of the Royal College of Surgeons in 1827 and again in 1836, and he was elected a vice-president of the Royal Society in 1830. In 1821, he was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. He died on 12 February 1841 in London, and is interred, by his own desire, in the crypt of the Chapel of Thomas Guy, a statue by Edward Hodges Baily was erected in St Pauls Cathedral. Cooper lived at Gadebridge House in the town of Hemel Hempstead. This led to the citizens of Hemel Hempstead having no railway station in their town, today, Cooper is remembered in the area with a number of local street names, and The Astley Cooper School, formerly Grovehill school, being renamed after him in 1984. The grounds of his home are now a public park. Sir Astleys greatest contribution has probably been in the field of vascular surgery and he was the first to demonstrate experimentally the effects of bilateral ligation of the carotid arteries in dogs and to propose treatment of aneurysms by ligation of the vessel. In 1805 he published in the first volume of Medico-Chirurgical Transactions an account of his attempt to tie the carotid artery for treating an aneurysm in a patient. In 1808 he tried the same with the iliac artery for a femoral aneurysm. Pathology List of pathologists This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Cooper. The life and work of Astley Cooper, digging Up the Dead, Uncovering the Life and Times of an Extraordinary Surgeon. Mansel, Robert E. Sweetland, Helen M. Hughes, Hughes, Mansel & Websters Benign Disorders and Diseases of the Breast. Sir Astley Paston Cooper History of Surgeons from surgeons. org. uk, on the anatomy of the breast,1840
10.
Michael Faraday
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Michael Faraday FRS was an English scientist who contributed to the study of electromagnetism and electrochemistry. His main discoveries include the principles underlying electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism, although Faraday received little formal education, he was one of the most influential scientists in history. It was by his research on the field around a conductor carrying a direct current that Faraday established the basis for the concept of the electromagnetic field in physics. Faraday also established that magnetism could affect rays of light and that there was a relationship between the two phenomena. He similarly discovered the principles of induction and diamagnetism. His inventions of electromagnetic rotary devices formed the foundation of electric motor technology, Faraday ultimately became the first and foremost Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution of Great Britain, a lifetime position. James Clerk Maxwell took the work of Faraday and others and summarized it in a set of equations which is accepted as the basis of all theories of electromagnetic phenomena. The SI unit of capacitance is named in his honour, the farad, albert Einstein kept a picture of Faraday on his study wall, alongside pictures of Isaac Newton and James Clerk Maxwell. Faraday was born in Newington Butts, which is now part of the London Borough of Southwark but was then a part of Surrey. His family was not well off and his father, James, was a member of the Glassite sect of Christianity. James Faraday moved his wife and two children to London during the winter of 1790 from Outhgill in Westmorland, where he had been an apprentice to the village blacksmith, Michael was born in the autumn of that year. The young Michael Faraday, who was the third of four children, at the age of 14 he became an apprentice to George Riebau, a local bookbinder and bookseller in Blandford Street. During his seven-year apprenticeship Faraday read many books, including Isaac Wattss The Improvement of the Mind, at this time he also developed an interest in science, especially in electricity. Faraday was particularly inspired by the book Conversations on Chemistry by Jane Marcet, many of the tickets for these lectures were given to Faraday by William Dance, who was one of the founders of the Royal Philharmonic Society. Faraday subsequently sent Davy a 300-page book based on notes that he had taken during these lectures, davys reply was immediate, kind, and favourable. In 1813, when Davy damaged his eyesight in an accident with nitrogen trichloride, very soon Davy entrusted Faraday with the preparation of nitrogen trichloride samples, and they both were injured in an explosion of this very sensitive substance. In the class-based English society of the time, Faraday was not considered a gentleman, Faraday was forced to fill the role of valet as well as assistant throughout the trip. Davys wife, Jane Apreece, refused to treat Faraday as an equal, the trip did, however, give him access to the scientific elite of Europe and exposed him to a host of stimulating ideas
11.
George Cruikshank
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George Cruikshank was a British caricaturist and book illustrator, praised as the modern Hogarth during his life. His book illustrations for his friend Charles Dickens, and many other authors and his father, Isaac Cruikshank, was one of the leading caricaturists of the late 1790s and Cruikshank started his career as his fathers apprentice and assistant. His older brother, Isaac Robert, also followed in the business as a caricaturist. Cruikshanks early work was caricature, but in 1823, at the age of 31 and he illustrated the first,1823 English translation of Grimms Fairy Tales, published in two volumes as German Popular Stories. On 16 October 1827, he married Mary Ann Walker, two years after her death, on 7 March 1851, he married Eliza Widdison. The two lived at 263 Hampstead Road, North London, upon his death, it was discovered that Cruikshank had fathered 11 illegitimate children with a mistress named Adelaide Attree, his former servant, who lived close to where he lived with his wife. Adelaide was ostensibly married and had taken the married surname Archibold, Cruikshanks early career was renowned for his social caricatures of English life for popular publications. He achieved early success collaborating with William Hone in his political satire The Political House That Jack Built, in the same year he produced the remarkable anti-abolitionist New Union Club. It satirised a dinner party organised by abolitionists with black guests and his first major work was Pierce Egans Life in London. This was followed by The Comic Almanack and Omnibus and he gained notoriety with his political prints that attacked the royal family and leading politicians. In 1820 he received a bribe of £100 for a pledge not to caricature His Majesty in any immoral situation. His work included a personification of England named John Bull who was developed from about 1790 in conjunction with other British satirical artists such as James Gillray, Cruikshank replaced one of his major influences, James Gillray, as Englands most popular satirist. For a generation he delineated Tories, Whigs and Radicals impartially, satirical material came to him from every public event – wars abroad, the enemies of Britain, the frolic, among other qualities, such as the weird and terrible, in which he excelled. For Charles Dickens, Cruikshank illustrated Sketches by Boz, The Mudfog Papers, Cruikshank even acted in Dickenss amateur theatrical company. On 30 December 1871 Cruikshank published a letter in The Times which claimed credit for much of the plot of Oliver Twist, the letter launched a fierce controversy around who created the work. Cruikshank was not the first Dickens illustrator to make such a claim, the friendship between Cruikshank and Dickens soured further when Cruikshank became a fanatical teetotaler in opposition to Dickenss views of moderation. Nightcap and nightdress belonged to a past age and reminded you of Cruickshanks illustrations to the novels of Charles Dickens, in the late 1840s, Cruikshanks focus shifted from book illustration to an obsession with temperance and anti-smoking. Formerly a heavy drinker, he now supported, lectured to, and supplied illustrations for the National Temperance Society, for his efforts he was made vice president of the National Temperance League in 1856
12.
Charles Dickens
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Charles John Huffam Dickens was an English writer and social critic. He created some of the worlds best-known fictional characters and is regarded by many as the greatest novelist of the Victorian era and his works enjoyed unprecedented popularity during his lifetime, and by the twentieth century critics and scholars had recognised him as a literary genius. His novels and short stories enjoy lasting popularity, born in Portsmouth, Dickens left school to work in a factory when his father was incarcerated in a debtors prison. Dickenss literary success began with the 1836 serial publication of The Pickwick Papers, within a few years he had become an international literary celebrity, famous for his humour, satire, and keen observation of character and society. His novels, most published in monthly or weekly instalments, pioneered the publication of narrative fiction. The instalment format allowed Dickens to evaluate his audiences reaction, and he modified his plot. For example, when his wifes chiropodist expressed distress at the way Miss Mowcher in David Copperfield seemed to reflect her disabilities and his plots were carefully constructed, and he often wove elements from topical events into his narratives. Masses of the poor chipped in hapennies to have each new monthly episode read to them, opening up. Dickens was regarded as the literary colossus of his age and his 1843 novella, A Christmas Carol, remains popular and continues to inspire adaptations in every artistic genre. Oliver Twist and Great Expectations are also adapted, and, like many of his novels. His 1859 novel, A Tale of Two Cities, set in London, Dickens has been praised by fellow writers—from Leo Tolstoy to George Orwell and G. K. Chesterton—for his realism, comedy, prose style, unique characterisations, and social criticism. On the other hand, Oscar Wilde, Henry James, and Virginia Woolf complained of a lack of depth, loose writing. The term Dickensian is used to something that is reminiscent of Dickens and his writings. Charles John Huffam Dickens was born on 7 February 1812, at 1 Mile End Terrace, Landport in Portsea Island and his father was a clerk in the Navy Pay Office and was temporarily stationed in the district. He asked Christopher Huffam, rigger to His Majestys Navy, gentleman, Huffam is thought to be the inspiration for Paul Dombey, the owner of a shipping company in Dickenss eponymous Dombey and Son. In January 1815 John Dickens was called back to London, when Charles was four, they relocated to Sheerness, and thence to Chatham, Kent, where he spent his formative years until the age of 11. His early life seems to have been idyllic, though he himself a very small. Charles spent time outdoors but also read voraciously, including the novels of Tobias Smollett and Henry Fielding, as well as Robinson Crusoe
13.
Charing Cross Hospital
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Charing Cross Hospital is an acute general teaching hospital located in Hammersmith, London, United Kingdom. The present hospital was opened in 1973, although it was established in 1818. It is part of Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust and is a hospital of the Imperial College School of Medicine. It is a referral centre for neurosurgery, and is a national centre of excellence for gestational trophoblastic disease. It currently houses the serious injuries centre for West London, in recent times, the hospital has pioneered the clinical use of CT scanning. The hospital is host to the West London Neuroscience Centre, in addition, a day surgery unit, the Riverside Wing, was recently added. The West London Mental Health NHS Trust also has buildings on site, the hospital hosts the largest and oldest gender identity clinic in the country, with 150 operations performed annually. In 1818 Dr. Benjamin Golding established the West London Infirmary and Dispensary at 16 Suffolk Street, the infirmary had been the dream of Dr. Golding, who wanted to establish a place of healing for the poor. The then Duke of York and Albany was asked to become patron, he accepted, following this, the then-Duchess of York and Albany and Duke of Cambridge also became patrons. In 1821, the infirmary was reaching capacity, treating nearly 10000 patients a year, so a new site was found, at 28 Villiers Street, the infirmary had room for twelve beds. Shortly afterwards, a plan was put in place to establish a school alongside the infirmary. In 1829, the Charing Cross Hospital Medical School was recognised by the newly founded University of London though the school had been training doctors since 1822, over the years, the list of benefactors and patrons grew, including many from the Royal Family. In 1827, the name of the Royal West London Infirmary was changed to the more appropriate Charing Cross Hospital, plans were drawn up by architect Mr Decimus Burton in 1830 and a site was found, just off the Strand. On 15 September 1831 the foundation stone was laid by the Duke of Sussex, the first completed ward was named after the daughter of the Duchess of Kent, Princess Victoria, who eventually became Queen Victoria. The principal ward for men was named Golding Ward, after the founder, the hospital itself was completed in January 1834, at a total cost of £20000, and in October of that year, the 22 medical students were transferred from Villiers Street to the new building. The hospital and medical school continued to expand, when Kings College London opened, it needed a medical school and offered Charing Cross a substantial amount of money to train their students. Dr Golding was opposed to the idea and in 1839, after years of negotiation. During those years, the school saw difficult times, and the number of students enrolling plummeted, by 1840, faith in the school had been restored and the number of students increased dramatically, however, Dr. Golding suffered a stroke
14.
Savile Row
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Savile Row is a street in Mayfair, central London. Originally named Savile Street, it was built between 1731 and 1735 as part of the development of the Burlington Estate and it was designed under the influence of Burlingtons interpretation of Palladian architecture, known as Burlingtonian. Henry Flitcroft, under the supervision of Daniel Garrett, appears to have been the main architect – though 1, initially, the street was occupied mainly by military officers and their wives, later William Pitt the Younger and Irish-born playwright and MP, Richard Brinsley Sheridan were residents. Tailors started doing business in the area in the late 18th century, first in Cork Street, about 1790, then by 1803 in Savile Row itself. In 1846, Henry Poole, later credited as the creator of the jacket or tuxedo. The term bespoke as applied to fine tailoring is understood to have originated in Savile Row, Savile Row runs parallel to Regent Street between Conduit Street at the northern end and Vigo Street at the southern. Linking roads include New Burlington Place, New Burlington Street, Boyle Street, the freehold is owned by the Pollen Estate, who work in partnership with Westminster City Council to protect the streets tailoring heritage under the Savile Row SPA. As of August 2014, Norway’s Oil Fund, the world’s largest sovereign wealth fund, had acquired a 57. 8% interest in the Pollen Estate and this includes properties in Mayfair, among which is Savile Row. The first house in what would become Savile Row was a fine House and Ground,1, and occupied by a series of nobles until it was demolished in 1730 in preparation for the laying out of the houses on the east of Savile Row in 1731. Maddoxs land, consisting mainly of fruit and other trees covering what would become Savile Row, jules Verne had Phileas Fogg, his lead character in Around the World in Eighty Days, live at 7 Savile Row – a fashionable address and the former home of Sheridan. It may have been the affluent and influential nature of the residents of Savile Row that first attracted dealers in luxury goods to the area. Tailors started to take premises around Savile Row in the late 18th century, first in Cork Street, about 1790, then by 1803 in Savile Row itself. In 1846, Henry Poole, credited as creator of the jacket or tuxedo. As tailoring moved into the street, the house frontages were altered to bring light into the tailors working area with the addition of glass frontages. The houses have been altered over time, the original Burlingtonian design has been mostly lost. The Royal Geographical Society occupied No, david Livingstone was laid out in state at the societys headquarters, before being buried in Westminster Abbey. Savile Row was extended to Conduit Street in 1937–38, and by 1939 and this police station was damaged in another German bombing raid in September 1940, during which the building opposite, No. 21a, was destroyed, as was No.7 earlier that month and it was demolished in 2009 and replaced by a new mixed-use development designed by Eric Parry, Architects
15.
Prince Augustus Frederick, Duke of Sussex
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Prince Augustus Frederick, Duke of Sussex, KG, KT, GCB, GCH, PRS, FRSA was the 6th son and 9th child of King George III and his consort Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. He was the surviving son of George III who did not pursue an army or navy career. Augustus Frederick was born at Buckingham House, London and he was the 9th child and 6th son of George III and Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. He was christened in the Great Council Chamber at St. Jamess Palace, on 25 February 1773 and his godparents were the Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg, Duke George Augustus of Mecklenburg and Princess Charles of Hesse-Cassel. He was tutored at home before being sent to the University of Göttingen in Germany in the summer of 1786, along with his brothers Prince Ernest, Prince Augustus, who suffered from asthma, did not join his brothers in receiving military training in Hanover. He briefly considered becoming a cleric in the Church of England, in 1805, during the Napoleonic War, he served at home in Britain as Lieutenant-Colonel Commandant of the Loyal North Britons Volunteers regiment. While travelling in Italy, the prince met Lady Augusta Murray, the couple secretly married in Rome on 4 April 1793. The Kings minister of Hanover affairs Ernst zu Münster was sent to Italy to escort him back to London, the couple married again without revealing their full identities at St Georges, Hanover Square, Westminster, on 5 December 1793. Both marriages took place without the knowledge or the consent of the King, in August 1794, the Prerogative Court annulled the princes first marriage on the grounds that it contravened the Royal Marriages Act 1772, not having been approved by the King. However, Prince Augustus Frederick continued to live with Lady Augusta until 1801, when he received a grant of £12,000. Lady Augusta retained custody of their children and received maintenance of £4,000 a year and their two children were named Augustus Frederick dEste and Augusta Emma dEste, both parents being descended from the royal House of Este. In 1806, their mother, Lady Augusta, was given licence to use the surname de Ameland instead of Murray. The King created him Duke of Sussex, Earl of Inverness, and Baron Arklow in the Peerage of the United Kingdom, since he had no legitimate issue, the title became extinct on his death in 1843. In 1815 The Duke became a Patron of the Jews Hospital and Orphan Asylum, Royal patronage continued, with Queen Elizabeth II eventually becoming Norwood’s patron. A known mistress is Mrs. Bugge, on 27 December 1813 the United Grand Lodge of England was constituted at Freemasons Hall, London with Prince Augustus as Grand Master. George Olivers Signs and Symbols Illustrated and Explained in a Course of Twelve Lectures on Freemasonry was dedicated to Prince Augustus Frederick, even allowing for the irregularity of these marriages, this second marriage would not have been bigamous since Lady Augusta DAmeland had died the year before. On the same day, Lady Cecilia assumed by Royal Licence the surname Underwood and she was never titled or recognized as the Duchess of Sussex. However, she was created Duchess of Inverness in her own right in 1840, william IV appointed his younger brother Chief Ranger and Keeper of St. Jamess and Hyde Parks on 29 January 1831, and Queen Victoria appointed her uncle Governor of Windsor Castle in 1842
16.
Davies Gilbert
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Davies Gilbert PRS was a British engineer, author, and politician. He was elected to the Royal Society on 17 November 1791 and he changed his name to Gilbert in 1817. The first child, also Davies by forename, had died within 24 hours of birth in 1766, the Giddy family moved into Penzance, living on Chapel Street in 1775, until Giddys mother Catherine inherited the family home of Tredrea back in St Erth. By 1780 the family returned to St Erth, and Davies was taught by his father, Davies Giddy would later adopt Gilbert as his surname, the maiden name of his wife, the agronomist Mary Ann Gilbert, whom he married at Easter of 1808. Davies was educated first at Penzance Grammar School and then by his father, and by Rev Malachy Hitchins, at the age of 17, at the recommendation of Hitchins, he was sent to Bristol to join the Mathematical Academy of Benjamin Donne where he remained for three years. His sister Philippa simultaneously finished her own schooling with the famous bluestocking Hannah More and he went up to Pembroke College, Oxford in 1786, whence he graduated with a M. A. on 29 June 1789. Davies was High Sheriff of Cornwall from 1792 to 1793 and he served in the House of Commons as Member of Parliament for Helston in Cornwall from 1804 to 1806 and for Bodmin from 1806 to 1832. He noticed and encouraged Humphry Davy and convinced Beddoes that Davy was the man to work in the laboratory at the Institution and his mathematical skills were sought by such early engineering pioneers as Jonathan Hornblower, Richard Trevithick and Thomas Telford. He also had a great interest for the history and culture of Cornwall, for instance, he removed a Celtic cross from near Truro, on the Redruth Road, and took it to a churchyard in his new home of Eastbourne. When asked why he carried off a Cornish Cross and re-erected it in Eastbourne by the Rev, canon Hockin, of Phillack, Mr. Davies replied, It was to show the poor, ignorant folk that there was something bigger in the world than a flint. He assembled and published A Parochial History of Cornwall and collected and published a number of Cornish Carols and he edited for publication a Cornish Language poem about the Passion, Passyon agan Arluth, as Mount Calvary. He was elected to the Society of Antiquaries in 1820, Gilbert was the President of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall from its foundation in 1814 until his death. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts, Davies Gilbert was opposed to mass education during his time in parliament. Besides, if this Bill were to pass law, it would go to burthen the country with a most enormous and incalculable expense. He died in Eastbourne in Sussex on Christmas Eve 1839, on 18 April 1808 he married Mary Ann Gilbert, and in 1816 he took his wifes surname, Gilbert, to perpetuate it. This enabled the couple to inherit the property in Sussex of her uncle, Thomas Gilbert. Three daughters and a son survived him and their son, John Davies Gilbert was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in April 1834 but does not seem to have published any scientific work. Their eldest daughter, Catherine, married John Samuel Enys on 17 April 1834 and she was the mother of the notable New Zealand naturalist, John Davies Enys
17.
Yagan
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Yagan was an Indigenous Australian warrior from the Noongar people. He played a key part in early resistance to British colonial settlement and rule in the area surrounding what is now Perth, the government offered a bounty for Yagans capture, dead or alive, and a young settler, William Keats, subsequently shot and killed him. Yagans execution figures in Aboriginal folklore as a symbol of the unjust and he is considered a hero by the Noongar. After his shooting, settlers removed Yagans head to claim the bounty, later, an official sent it to London, where it was exhibited as an anthropological curiosity and eventually given to a museum in Liverpool. It held the head in storage for more than a century before burying it with other remains in a grave in Liverpool in 1964. Over the years, the Noongar asked for repatriation of the head, the burial site was identified in 1993, officials exhumed the head four years later and repatriated it to Australia. After years of debate within the Noongar community on the final resting place. A member of the Whadjuk Noongar people, Yagan belonged to a tribe of around 60 people whose name, scholars now believe that the Beeliar people may have been a family subgroup of a larger tribe whom Daisy Bates called Beelgar. According to Lyon, the Beeliar people occupied the south of the Swan and Canning rivers. The group had customary land rights over a much larger area than this, extending north as far as Lake Monger. The group also had a degree of freedom to move over their neighbours land, possibly due to kinship. Yagan is thought to have been born around 1795 and his father was Midgegooroo, an elder of the Beeliar people, his mother was presumably one of Midgegooroos two wives. Yagan was probably a Ballaroke in the Noongar classification, according to the historian Neville Green, Yagan had a wife and two children. A report in the Perth Gazette in 1833 gives the names of his children as Naral, age 9, and Willim, age 11, however, most other sources state that the warrior was unmarried and childless. Described as taller than average with an impressive physique, Yagan had a distinctive tribal tattoo on his right shoulder. He was generally acknowledged to be the most physically powerful of his tribe, Yagan would have been about 35 years old in 1829 when British settlers landed in the area and established the Swan River Colony. For the first two years of the colony, relations between settlers and Noongar were generally amicable, as there was competition for resources. The Noongar welcomed the white settlers as Djanga, the spirits of their dead
18.
Alexander Hamilton, 10th Duke of Hamilton
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Alexander Hamilton, 10th Duke of Hamilton, 7th Duke of Brandon KG PC FRS FSA was a Scottish politician and art collector. Born on 3 October 1767 at St. Jamess Square, London, Hamilton was a Whig, and his political career began in 1802, when he became MP for Lancaster. He received the titles at his fathers death in 1819. He was Lord High Steward at King William IVs coronation in 1831 and Queen Victorias coronation in 1838 and he became a Knight of the Garter in 1836. He held the office of Grand Master of the Freemasons between 1820 and 1822 and he held the office of President of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland between 1827 and 1831. He held the office of Trustee of the British Museum between 1834 and 1852 and he married Susan Euphemia Beckford, daughter of William Thomas Beckford and Lady Margaret Gordon, daughter of Charles Gordon, 4th Earl of Aboyne, on 26 April 1810 in London, England. Beckford was the son of a Lord Mayor of London, William Beckford and his wife Maria Hamilton, Hamilton was a well-known dandy of his day. An obituary notice states that timidity and variableness of temperament prevented his rendering much service to, with a great predisposition to over-estimate the importance of ancient birth. He well deserved to be considered the proudest man in England and he also supported Napoleon and commissioned the painting The Emperor Napoleon in His Study at the Tuileries by Jacques-Louis David. He was always dressed in a military laced undress coat, tights and Hessian boots, Lady Stafford in letters to her son mentioned his great Coat, long Queue, and Fingers coverd with gold Rings, and his foreign appearance. According to another obituary, this time in Gentlemans Magazine he had an intense family pride, Hamilton had a strong interest in Ancient Egyptian mummies, and was so impressed with the work of mummy expert Thomas Pettigrew that he arranged for Pettigrew to mummify him after his death. He died on 18 August 1852 at age 84 at 12 Portman Square, London, England and was buried on 4 September 1852 at Hamilton Palace, Hamilton, Scotland. At the same time he had acquired the sarcophagus of Pabasa, in 1842 Hamilton had begun construction of the Hamilton Mausoleum as repository for the overcrowded family vault at the Palace. His collection of paintings, objects, books and manuscripts was sold for £397,562 in July 1882, the manuscripts were purchased by the German government for £80,000. Some were repurchased by the British government and are now in the British Museum, hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by the Duke of Hamilton Portrait The Peerage. com Genealogics. org
19.
Sarcophagus
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A sarcophagus is a box-like funeral receptacle for a corpse, most commonly carved in stone, and usually displayed above ground, though it may also be buried. The word sarcophagus comes from the Greek σάρξ sarx meaning flesh, since lithos is Greek for stone, lithos sarcophagos means, flesh-eating stone. The word also came to refer to a kind of limestone that was thought to decompose the flesh of corpses trapped within it. Sarcophagi were most often designed to remain above ground, in Ancient Egypt, a sarcophagus acted like an outer shell. They are made of clay in shades of brown to pink. Added to the basin-like main sarcophagus is a broad, rectangular frame, often covered with a white slip and then painted. The huge Lycian Tomb of Payava, now in the British Museum, is a tomb monument of about 360 BC designed for an open-air placing. However, there are many important Early Christian sarcophagi from the 3rd to 4th centuries, most Roman examples were designed to be placed against a wall and are decorated on three of the sides only. More plain sarcophagi were placed in crypts, of which the most famous include the Habsburg Imperial Crypt in Vienna. The term tends to be often used to describe Medieval, Renaissance. They continued to be popular into the 1950s, at time the popularity of flat memorials made them obsolete. Nonetheless, a 1952 catalog from the industry still included 8 pages of them, broken down into Georgian and Classical detail, a Gothic and Renaissance adaptation. Shown on the right are sarcophagi from the late 19th century located in Laurel Hill Cemetery in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the one in the back, the Warner Monument created by Alexander Milne Calder, features the spirit or soul of the deceased being released. In Sulawesi, Indonesia, waruga are a form of sarcophagus. Mont Allen, Sarcophagus, in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome, edited by Michael Gagarin, R. R. R. Smith, Sculptured for Eternity, Treasures of Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine Art from Istanbul Archaeological Museum. Ewald, Living with Myths, The Imagery of Roman Sarcophagi, egyptian sarcophagi sarcaphagi in the Istanbul Archaeological Museum Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Sarcophagus
20.
Medicine
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Medicine is the science and practice of the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease. The word medicine is derived from Latin medicus, meaning a physician, Medicine encompasses a variety of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness. Medicine has existed for thousands of years, during most of which it was an art frequently having connections to the religious and philosophical beliefs of local culture. For example, a man would apply herbs and say prayers for healing, or an ancient philosopher. In recent centuries, since the advent of modern science, most medicine has become a combination of art, while stitching technique for sutures is an art learned through practice, the knowledge of what happens at the cellular and molecular level in the tissues being stitched arises through science. Prescientific forms of medicine are now known as medicine and folk medicine. They remain commonly used with or instead of medicine and are thus called alternative medicine. For example, evidence on the effectiveness of acupuncture is variable and inconsistent for any condition, in contrast, treatments outside the bounds of safety and efficacy are termed quackery. Medical availability and clinical practice varies across the world due to differences in culture. In modern clinical practice, physicians personally assess patients in order to diagnose, treat, the doctor-patient relationship typically begins an interaction with an examination of the patients medical history and medical record, followed by a medical interview and a physical examination. Basic diagnostic medical devices are typically used, after examination for signs and interviewing for symptoms, the doctor may order medical tests, take a biopsy, or prescribe pharmaceutical drugs or other therapies. Differential diagnosis methods help to rule out conditions based on the information provided, during the encounter, properly informing the patient of all relevant facts is an important part of the relationship and the development of trust. The medical encounter is then documented in the record, which is a legal document in many jurisdictions. Follow-ups may be shorter but follow the general procedure. The diagnosis and treatment may take only a few minutes or a few weeks depending upon the complexity of the issue, the components of the medical interview and encounter are, Chief complaint, the reason for the current medical visit. They are in the patients own words and are recorded along with the duration of each one, also called chief concern or presenting complaint. History of present illness, the order of events of symptoms. Distinguishable from history of illness, often called past medical history
21.
Brompton Cemetery
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Brompton Cemetery is in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea. It is managed by The Royal Parks, and is one of the Magnificent Seven cemeteries, established by Act of Parliament and erected in 1839, it opened in 1840 and was originally known as the West of London and Westminster Cemetery. Consecrated by Charles Blomfield, the Bishop of London in June 1840, some 35,000 monuments, from simple headstones to substantial mausolea, mark the resting place of more than 205,000 burials. The site includes large plots for family mausolea, and common graves where coffins are piled deep into the earth, there is also a secluded Garden of Remembrance at the northern end, for cremated remains. It is also a haven for nature. It has been awarded a National Lottery grant to carry out essential restoration, Brompton Cemetery is adjacent to West Brompton station in west London, England. The main entrance is at North Lodge, Old Brompton Road in West Brompton, SW5, in the Royal Borough of Kensington, there is another entrance at South Lodge, located on the Fulham Road, SW10 near the junction with Redcliffe Gardens. In 1837 a decision was made to lay out a new ground in Brompton, London. The moving spirit behind the project was the engineer, Stephen Geary, securing the land - some 40 acres - from local landowner, Lord Kensington and the Equitable Gas Light Company, as well as raising the money proved an extended challenge. The cemetery became one of seven large, new cemeteries founded by private companies in the mid-19th century forming a ring around the edge of London, the site, previously market gardens, having been bought with the intervention of John Gunter of Fulham, was 39 acres in area. It was intended to give the feel of a open air cathedral. It is rectangular in shape with the north end pointing to the northwest and it has a central nave which runs from Old Brompton Road towards the central colonnade and chapel. Below the colonnades are catacombs which were conceived as a cheaper alternative burial to having a plot in the grounds of the cemetery. Unfortunately, the catacombs were not a success and only about 500 of the thousands of places in them were sold. The Metropolitan Interments Act 1850 gave the government powers to purchase commercial cemeteries, during World War II the cemetery suffered bomb damage. The cemetery is listed Grade I in the English Heritage Register of Parks and Gardens of Special Historic Interest in England, frederick Richards Leylands is the only Grade II* listed funerary monument. Many nationalities and faiths from across the world are represented in the Cemetery, from 1854 to 1939, Brompton Cemetery became the London Districts Military Cemetery. The Royal Hospital Chelsea purchased a plot in the north west corner where they have a monument in the form of an obelisk, the Brigade of the Guards has its own section south of that
22.
Sidney Lee
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Sir Sidney Lee was an English biographer, writer and critic. Lee was born Solomon Lazarus Lee in 1859 at 12 Keppel Street, Bloomsbury and he was educated at the City of London School and at Balliol College, Oxford, where he graduated in modern history in 1882. In 1883, Lee became assistant-editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, in 1890 he became joint editor, and on the retirement of Sir Leslie Stephen in 1891, succeeded him as editor. Lee wrote over 800 articles in the Dictionary, mainly on Elizabethan authors or statesmen and his sister Elizabeth Lee also contributed. While still at Balliol, Lee had written two articles on Shakespearean questions, which were printed in The Gentlemans Magazine, in 1884, he published a book about Stratford-on-Avon, with illustrations by Edward Hull. Lees article on Shakespeare in the 51st volume of the Dictionary of National Biography formed the basis of his Life of William Shakespeare, Lee received a knighthood in 1911. Between 1913 and 1924, he served as Professor of English Literature, there are personal letters from Lee, including those written during his final illness, in the T. F. Tout Collection of the John Rylands Library in Manchester, John Denham Parsons Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Lee, Sidney. Sidney Lee Dictionary of National Biography, Index and Epitome Works by Sidney Lee at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Sidney Lee at Internet Archive
23.
Dictionary of National Biography
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The Dictionary of National Biography is a standard work of reference on notable figures from British history, published from 1885. The updated Oxford Dictionary of National Biography was published on 23 September 2004 in 60 volumes and he approached Leslie Stephen, then editor of the Cornhill Magazine, owned by Smith, to become editor. Stephen persuaded Smith that the work should focus on subjects from the UK and its present, an early working title was the Biographia Britannica, the name of an earlier eighteenth-century reference work. The first volume of the Dictionary of National Biography appeared on 1 January 1885, in May 1891 Leslie Stephen resigned and Sidney Lee, Stephens assistant editor from the beginning of the project, succeeded him as editor. While much of the dictionary was written in-house, the DNB also relied on external contributors, by 1900, more than 700 individuals had contributed to the work. Successive volumes appeared quarterly with complete punctuality until midsummer 1900, when the series closed with volume 63, the year of publication, the editor and the range of names in each volume is given below. The supplements brought the work up to the death of Queen Victoria on 22 January 1901. The dictionary was transferred from its original publishers, Smith, Elder & Co. to Oxford University Press in 1917, until 1996, Oxford University Press continued to add further supplements featuring articles on subjects who had died during the twentieth century. The supplements published between 1912 and 1996 added about 6,000 lives of people who died in the century to the 29,120 in the 63 volumes of the original DNB. In 1993 a volume containing missing biographies was published and this had an additional 1,000 lives, selected from over 100,000 suggestions. Consequently, the dictionary was becoming less and less useful as a reference work, in 1966, the University of London published a volume of corrections, cumulated from the Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research. There were various versions of the Concise Dictionary of National Biography, the last edition, in three volumes, covered everyone who died before 1986. In the early 1990s Oxford University Press committed itself to overhauling the DNB, the new dictionary would cover British history, broadly defined, up to 31 December 2000. The research project was conceived as a one, with in-house staff co-ordinating the work of nearly 10,000 contributors internationally. Following Matthews death in October 1999, he was succeeded as editor by another Oxford historian, Professor Brian Harrison, in January 2000. The new dictionary, now known as the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, was published on 23 September 2004 in 60 volumes in print at a price of £7500, most UK holders of a current library card can access it online free of charge. In subsequent years, the print edition has been able to be obtained new for a lower price. At publication, the 2004 edition had 50,113 biographical articles covering 54,922 lives, a small permanent staff remain in Oxford to update and extend the coverage of the online edition
24.
Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
25.
National Diet Library
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The National Diet Library is the only national library in Japan. It was established in 1948 for the purpose of assisting members of the National Diet of Japan in researching matters of public policy, the library is similar in purpose and scope to the United States Library of Congress. The National Diet Library consists of two facilities in Tokyo and Kyoto, and several other branch libraries throughout Japan. The Diets power in prewar Japan was limited, and its need for information was correspondingly small, the original Diet libraries never developed either the collections or the services which might have made them vital adjuncts of genuinely responsible legislative activity. Until Japans defeat, moreover, the executive had controlled all political documents, depriving the people and the Diet of access to vital information. The U. S. occupation forces under General Douglas MacArthur deemed reform of the Diet library system to be an important part of the democratization of Japan after its defeat in World War II. In 1946, each house of the Diet formed its own National Diet Library Standing Committee, hani Gorō, a Marxist historian who had been imprisoned during the war for thought crimes and had been elected to the House of Councillors after the war, spearheaded the reform efforts. Hani envisioned the new body as both a citadel of popular sovereignty, and the means of realizing a peaceful revolution, the National Diet Library opened in June 1948 in the present-day State Guest-House with an initial collection of 100,000 volumes. The first Librarian of the Diet Library was the politician Tokujirō Kanamori, the philosopher Masakazu Nakai served as the first Vice Librarian. In 1949, the NDL merged with the National Library and became the national library in Japan. At this time the collection gained a million volumes previously housed in the former National Library in Ueno. In 1961, the NDL opened at its present location in Nagatachō, in 1986, the NDLs Annex was completed to accommodate a combined total of 12 million books and periodicals. The Kansai-kan, which opened in October 2002 in the Kansai Science City, has a collection of 6 million items, in May 2002, the NDL opened a new branch, the International Library of Childrens Literature, in the former building of the Imperial Library in Ueno. This branch contains some 400,000 items of literature from around the world. Though the NDLs original mandate was to be a library for the National Diet. In the fiscal year ending March 2004, for example, the library reported more than 250,000 reference inquiries, in contrast, as Japans national library, the NDL collects copies of all publications published in Japan. The NDL has an extensive collection of some 30 million pages of documents relating to the Occupation of Japan after World War II. This collection include the documents prepared by General Headquarters and the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers, the Far Eastern Commission, the NDL maintains a collection of some 530,000 books and booklets and 2 million microform titles relating to the sciences
26.
National Library of Australia
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In 2012–2013, the National Library collection comprised 6,496,772 items, and an additional 15,506 metres of manuscript material. In 1901, a Commonwealth Parliamentary Library was established to serve the newly formed Federal Parliament of Australia, from its inception the Commonwealth Parliamentary Library was driven to development of a truly national collection. The present library building was opened in 1968, the building was designed by the architectural firm of Bunning and Madden. The foyer is decorated in marble, with windows by Leonard French. In 2012–2013 the Library collection comprised 6,496,772 items, the Librarys collections of Australiana have developed into the nations single most important resource of materials recording the Australian cultural heritage. Australian writers, editors and illustrators are actively sought and well represented—whether published in Australia or overseas, approximately 92. 1% of the Librarys collection has been catalogued and is discoverable through the online catalogue. The Library has digitized over 174,000 items from its collection and, the Library is a world leader in digital preservation techniques, and maintains an Internet-accessible archive of selected Australian websites called the Pandora Archive. A core Australiana collection is that of John A. Ferguson, the Library has particular collection strengths in the performing arts, including dance. The Librarys considerable collections of general overseas and rare materials, as well as world-class Asian. The print collections are further supported by extensive microform holdings, the Library also maintains the National Reserve Braille Collection. The Library has acquired a number of important Western and Asian language scholarly collections from researchers, williams Collection The Asian Collections are searchable via the National Librarys catalogue. The National Library holds a collection of pictures and manuscripts. The manuscript collection contains about 26 million separate items, covering in excess of 10,492 meters of shelf space, the collection relates predominantly to Australia, but there are also important holdings relating to Papua New Guinea, New Zealand and the Pacific. The collection also holds a number of European and Asian manuscript collections or single items have received as part of formed book collections. Examples are the papers of Alfred Deakin, Sir John Latham, Sir Keith Murdoch, Sir Hans Heysen, Sir John Monash, Vance Palmer and Nettie Palmer, A. D. Hope, Manning Clark, David Williamson, W. M. The Library has also acquired the records of many national non-governmental organisations and they include the records of the Federal Secretariats of the Liberal party, the A. L. P, the Democrats, the R. S. L. Finally, the Library holds about 37,000 reels of microfilm of manuscripts and archival records, mostly acquired overseas and predominantly of Australian, the National Librarys Pictures collection focuses on Australian people, places and events, from European exploration of the South Pacific to contemporary events. Art works and photographs are acquired primarily for their informational value, media represented in the collection include photographs, drawings, watercolours, oils, lithographs, engravings, etchings and sculpture/busts
27.
Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
Power, D'Arcy (1896). "Pettigrew, Thomas Joseph". In Lee, Sidney. Dictionary of National Biography. 45. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 108–109.
