1.
Congress of the Confederate States
–
The Confederate States Congress was both the provisional and permanent legislative assembly of the Confederate States that existed from 1861 to 1865. At first, it met as a provisional congress both in Montgomery, Alabama and Richmond, Virginia, following elections held in states, refugee colonies and army camps in November 1861, the 1st Confederate Congress met in four sessions. The elections throughout 1863 in unoccupied territory led to a replacement of former Democrats with many former Whigs. The 2nd Confederate Congress met in two following a intercession during military campaign season beginning November 7,1864 and ending on March 18,1865. There was one vote for each sovereign state and they drafted and approved the Confederate States Constitution on February 8, and elected Jefferson Davis President of the Confederate States on February 9. The Provisional Constitution adopted by the Montgomery delegates established a unicameral Provisional Congress, on February 28,1861, the Provisional Congress adopted the Permanent Confederate Constitution that provided for a bicameral national legislature consisting of a House of Representatives and a Senate. On March 4,1861, the Confederacy adopted its first flag, the Provisional Congress in the Fifth Session reached two of the most far-reaching decisions for the Confederacy, both politically and militarily. Treaties with the five civilized tribes also allowed for their seating non-voting representatives in the Confederate Congress, with the short-lived claim to the far western Arizona Territory, by the end of 1861 the Confederacy had gained the greatest extent of its territorial expansion. After that point, its de facto governance contracted as Union military actions prevailed, in the last of its actions, the Provisional Congress instructed the states in several duties. The Confederate Congresses and the Jefferson Davis administration were the two national civilian administrative bodies for the Confederacy. Elections for the First Confederate States Congress were held on November 6,1861, while Congressional elections in the United States were held in even-numbered years, elections for Confederate Congressman occurred in odd-numbered years. The First Congress met in four sessions in Richmond, in the 105 House seats and 26 Senate seats, altogether 267 men served in the Confederate Congress. About a third had served in the U. S. Congress, only twenty-seven served continuously, including House Speaker Thomas S. Bocock and Senate President pro tem Robert M. T. Hunter of Virginia, William W. Boyce and William Porcher Miles of South Carolina, Benjamin H. Hill of Georgia, there was a rapid turnover in membership, in part to some securing an officer’s commission for military service. Throughout the existence of the Confederate Congress, its sessions were held in secrecy, both U. S Continental and Confederation Congresses had been held in secret, and the U. S. Congress did not open its galleries to newspaper reporters until 1800. Nevertheless, by summer 1862 newspapers such as the Richmond Daily Examiner began objecting to the closed sessions, the first session of the First Congress sat from February 18 to April 21,1862, a total of 63 days. During this time, the states of Missouri, Kentucky and northwest Virginia were occupied by Union forces, after the Battle of Shiloh, Union forces moved into the Tennessee Valley reaching into Alabama. Let every woman have a torch, every child a firebrand to fire everything, on retiring from a city or town, let a desert more terrible than the Sahara welcome the Vandals
Congress of the Confederate States
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State Capitol Richmond, Virginia
Congress of the Confederate States
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Confederate States Congress
2.
Jefferson Davis
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Jefferson Finis Davis was an American politician who was a Democratic U. S. Representative and Senator from Mississippi, the 23rd U. S. Secretary of War, and he took personal charge of the Confederate war plans but was unable to find a strategy to defeat the more populous and industrialized Union. Davis was born in Kentucky to a prosperous farmer, and grew up on his older brother Josephs large cotton plantations in Mississippi. Joseph Davis also secured his appointment to the U. S, after graduating, Jefferson Davis served six years as a lieutenant in the U. S. Army. He fought in the Mexican–American War, as the colonel of a volunteer regiment and he served as the U. S. Secretary of War from 1853 to 1857 under President Franklin Pierce, and as a Democratic U. S. senator from Mississippi. Before the war, he operated a cotton plantation in Mississippi. After the war had ended, he remained a proud apologist for the cause of slavery for which he, although Davis argued against secession in 1858, he believed that each state was sovereign and had an unquestionable right to secede from the Union. Daviss first wife, Sarah Knox Taylor, died of malaria three months of marriage, and he also struggled with recurring bouts of the disease. He was unhealthy for much of his life, at the age of 36, Davis married again, to 18-year-old Varina Howell, a native of Natchez who had been educated in Philadelphia and had some family ties in the North. Only two survived him, and only one married and had children, many historians attribute the Confederacys weaknesses to the poor leadership of President Davis. Historians agree he was a less effective war leader than his Union counterpart Abraham Lincoln. After Davis was captured in 1865, he was accused of treason and he was never tried and was released after two years. While not disgraced, Davis had been displaced in ex-Confederate affection after the war by his leading general, Davis wrote a memoir entitled The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government, which he completed in 1881. By the late 1880s, he began to encourage reconciliation, telling Southerners to be loyal to the Union, ex-Confederates came to appreciate his role in the war, seeing him as a Southern patriot, and he became a hero of the Lost Cause in the post-Reconstruction South. Daviss paternal grandparents each immigrated separately to North America from the region of Snowdonia in North Wales in the early 18th century, the rest of his ancestry was English. After arriving in Philadelphia, Daviss paternal grandfather Evan settled in the colony of Georgia and he married the widow Lydia Emory Williams, who had two sons from a previous marriage. Their son Samuel Emory Davis was born in 1756 and he served in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War, along with his two older half-brothers. In 1783, after the war, he married Jane Cook and she was born in 1759 to William Cook and his wife Sarah Simpson in what is now Christian County, Kentucky
Jefferson Davis
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Jefferson Davis
Jefferson Davis
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Wedding photograph of Jefferson Davis and Varina Howell, 1845
Jefferson Davis
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Jefferson Davis around age 39, c. 1847
Jefferson Davis
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Jefferson Davis is sworn in as President of the Confederate States of America on February 18, 1861, on the steps of the
Alabama State Capitol.
3.
Howell Cobb
–
Thomas Howell Cobb was an American political figure. A southern Democrat, Cobb was a member of the United States House of Representatives. He also served as a Secretary of Treasury under President James Buchanan, Cobb served for two weeks between the foundation of the Confederacy and the election of Jefferson Davis as its first President. This made him, as the Speaker of the Congress, provisional Head of State at this time, born in Jefferson County, Georgia, Cobb was raised in Athens, Georgia, and attended the University of Georgia where he was a member of the Phi Kappa Literary Society. He was of Welsh American ancestry and he was admitted to the bar in 1836 and became solicitor general of the western judicial circuit of Georgia. He married Mary Ann Lamar on May 26,1835 and they would have eleven children, the first in 1838 and the last in 1861. They were John Addison, Zachariah Lamar, Howell, Henry Jackson, Basil Lamar, Mary Ann Lamar, Laura Rootes, Sarah, Andrew Jackson, Elizabeth Craig, and Thomas Reade Rootes. Several did not survive out of childhood, including their last and he was elected as Democrat to the 28th, 29th, 30th and 31st Congresses. He was chairman of the U. S. House Committee on Mileage during the 28th Congress and he sided with President Andrew Jackson on the question of nullification, was an efficient supporter of President James K. On that issue, Cobb was elected governor of Georgia by a large majority, after 63 ballots, Cobb became Speaker of the House on December 22,1850. When Zachary Taylor died on July 9, Vice President Millard Fillmore became President, the president pro tempore of the Senate was not appointed until July 11 when William Rufus de Vane King took that position. In 1851, he left the House to serve as the Governor of Georgia and he published A Scriptural Examination of the Institution of Slavery. He was elected to the 34th Congress and then took the position of Secretary of the Treasury in Buchanans Cabinet and he served for three years, resigning in December 1860. At one time, Cobb was Buchanans choice for his successor, in 1860, Cobb ceased to be a Unionist, and became a leader of the secession movement. He was president of a convention of the states that assembled in Montgomery, Alabama. Under Cobbs guidance, the delegates drafted a constitution for the new Confederacy and he served as President of several sessions of the Confederate Provisional Congress, before resigning to join the military when war erupted. Cobb joined the Confederate army and was named as colonel of the 16th Georgia Infantry and he was appointed a brigadier general on February 13,1862, and assigned command of a brigade in what became the Army of Northern Virginia. Between February and June 1862, he represented the Confederate authorities in negotiations with Union officers for an agreement on the exchange of prisoners of war and his efforts in these discussions contributed to the Dix-Hill Cartel accord reached in July 1862
Howell Cobb
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Howell Cobb
Howell Cobb
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Lucy May Stanton, Howell Cobb, 1912, Collection of the U.S. House of Representatives
Howell Cobb
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Bureau of Engraving and Printing portrait of Cobb as Secretary of the Treasury.
Howell Cobb
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Cobb in his postbellum days
4.
United States House of Representatives
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The United States House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the Senate, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the House are established by Article One of the United States Constitution, since its inception in 1789, all representatives are elected popularly. The total number of voting representatives is fixed by law at 435, the House is charged with the passage of federal legislation, known as bills, which, after concurrence by the Senate, are sent to the President for consideration. The presiding officer is the Speaker of the House, who is elected by the members thereof and is traditionally the leader of the controlling party. He or she and other leaders are chosen by the Democratic Caucus or the Republican Conferences. The House meets in the wing of the United States Capitol. Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress of the Confederation was a body in which each state was equally represented. All states except Rhode Island agreed to send delegates, the issue of how to structure Congress was one of the most divisive among the founders during the Convention. The House is referred to as the house, with the Senate being the upper house. Both houses approval is necessary for the passage of legislation, the Virginia Plan drew the support of delegates from large states such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, as it called for representation based on population. The smaller states, however, favored the New Jersey Plan, the Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states in 1788, but its implementation was set for March 4,1789. The House began work on April 1,1789, when it achieved a quorum for the first time, during the first half of the 19th century, the House was frequently in conflict with the Senate over regionally divisive issues, including slavery. The North was much more populous than the South, and therefore dominated the House of Representatives, However, the North held no such advantage in the Senate, where the equal representation of states prevailed. Regional conflict was most pronounced over the issue of slavery, One example of a provision repeatedly supported by the House but blocked by the Senate was the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in the land gained during the Mexican–American War. Conflict over slavery and other issues persisted until the Civil War, the war culminated in the Souths defeat and in the abolition of slavery. Because all southern senators except Andrew Johnson resigned their seats at the beginning of the war, the years of Reconstruction that followed witnessed large majorities for the Republican Party, which many Americans associated with the Unions victory in the Civil War and the ending of slavery. The Reconstruction period ended in about 1877, the ensuing era, the Democratic and the Republican Party held majorities in the House at various times. The late 19th and early 20th centuries also saw an increase in the power of the Speaker of the House
United States House of Representatives
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United States House of Representatives
United States House of Representatives
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Seal of the House
United States House of Representatives
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Republican
Thomas Brackett Reed, occasionally ridiculed as "Czar Reed", was a U.S. Representative from
Maine, and
Speaker of the House from 1889 to 1891 and from 1895 to 1899.
United States House of Representatives
–
House Speaker
Nancy Pelosi, Majority Leader
Steny Hoyer, and Education and Labor Committee Chairman
George Miller confer with President
Barack Obama at the
Oval Office in 2009.
5.
Robert Ridgway (congressman)
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Robert Ridgway was a nineteenth-century congressman, lawyer and editor from Virginia. Born in Lynchburg, Virginia, Ridgeway attended Emory and Henry College and he studied law and was admitted to the bar, commencing practice in Liberty, Virginia. He was editor of the Bedford Sentinel before he moved to Richmond, Virginia in 1853, at the outbreak of the Civil War, Ridgeway retired to Amherst, Virginia. He was elected a Whig to the United States House of Representatives in 1866 and he was later elected a Conservative to the House in 1869, serving from January 1870 until his death on October 16,1870 in Amherst, Virginia. He was interred in the cemetery in Amherst. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, robert Ridgway at Find a Grave
Robert Ridgway (congressman)
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Robert Ridgway
6.
William Goode (politician)
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William Osborne Goode was a nineteenth-century American politician and lawyer from Virginia. Goode was born to John Chesterfield Goode and Lucy Claiborne Goode at their plantation Inglewood in Mecklenburg County, Goode graduated from the College of William and Mary in 1819. He was admitted to the Virginia bar in 1821 and set up a practice in Boydton. In 1820, while in law school, he married Sarah Bolling Tazewell of Williamsburg and she died July 9,1825, aged 22, after childbirth. In 1829 he married Sarah Maria Massie, Goode served in the Virginia House of Delegates from 1822–23. He was re-elected in 1824 and afterward, expecting to serve through the term ending 1833 and he gave up his seat to make an unsuccessful 1832 run for the United States House of Representatives. During that time, he also was a member of the Virginia Constitutional Convention of 1829, Goode was re-elected to the House of Delegates. He was elected as a Democrat to the United States House of Representatives in 1840 and he was elected again to the Virginia House from 1845–47, and was elected as Speaker. He served as delegate to the second Virginia Constitutional Convention in 1850, Elected back to the US House of Representatives in 1852, he served three terms, from 1853 until his death in 1859. He became chairman of the Committee on the District of Columbia from 1857-58, Goode died in Boydton on July 3,1859. He was buried at his plantation of Wheatland. 1841, Goode was elected to the U. S. House of Representatives with 75% of the vote, defeating Independents Richard H. Baptist and a man identified only as Marshall. 1853, Goode was re-elected to the U. S. House of Representatives with 65. 34% of the vote, defeating Whig Wyatt Cardwell,1855, Goode was re-elected with 61. 27% of the vote, defeating American Littleton Tazewell. 1857, Goode was re-elected with 75. 97% of the vote,1859, Goode was re-elected with 63. 79% of the vote, defeating Independent Democrat Flournoy. A cenotaph was erected in his memory at Congressional Cemetery in Washington, biographical Directory of the United States Congress. Clerk of the House of Delegates, supervising, speakers and Clerks of the Virginia House of Delegates, 1776-2007. Richmond, Virginia, Virginia House of Delegates, Virginia Elections and State Elected Officials Database Biography
William Goode (politician)
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William Osborne Goode
7.
Virginia House of Delegates
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The Virginia House of Delegates is one of two parts in the Virginia General Assembly, the other being the Senate of Virginia. It has 100 members elected for terms of two years, unlike most states, these take place during odd-numbered years. The House is presided over by the Speaker of the House, the Speaker is almost always a member of the majority party and, as Speaker, becomes the most powerful member of the House. The House shares legislative power with the Senate of Virginia, the house of the Virginia General Assembly. The House of Delegates is the successor to the Virginia House of Burgesses. The House is divided into Democratic and Republican caucuses, in addition to the Speaker, there is a majority leader, majority caucus chair, minority leader, minority caucus chair, and the chairs of the several committees of the House. Through the House of Burgesses, the Virginia House of Delegates is considered the oldest continuous legislative body in the New World, originally having 22 members, the House of Burgesses met from 1619 through 1632 in the choir of the church at Jamestown. From 1632 to 1699 the legislative body met at four different state houses in Jamestown, the first state house convened at the home of Colonial Governor Sir John Harvey from 1632 to 1656. The burgesses convened at the state house from 1656 until it was destroyed in 1660. Historians have yet to identify its location. The House has met in Virginias Capitol Building, designed by Thomas Jefferson, the legislative body met from 1788 to 1904 in what is known as today the Old Hall of the House of Delegates or commonly referred to as the Old House Chamber. The Old House Chamber is part of the original Capitol building structure and it measures 76 feet in width and is filled today with furnishings that resemble what the room would have looked like during its time of use. There are many bronze and marble busts of historic Virginians on display in the Old House Chamber, including, George Mason, George Wythe, Patrick Henry, Richard Henry Lee, and Meriwether Lewis. From 1904 to 1906, University of Virginia graduate and architect John K. Peeples designed, the General Assembly members and staff operate from offices in the General Assembly Building, located in Capitol Square. Prior to 1788 the House of Delegates met in the Colonial Capital of Williamsburg, in 1999, Republicans took control of the long-time Democratic House of Delegates for the first time since Reconstruction. The annual salary for delegates is $17,640 per year, each delegate represents roughly 83,000 people. Candidates for office must be at least 21 years of age at the time of the election, residents of the districts they seek to represent, and qualified to vote for General Assembly legislators. The regular session of the General Assembly is 60 days long during even numbered years and 30 days long during odd numbered years, the House has 14 standing committees
Virginia House of Delegates
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Virginia House of Delegates
8.
Buckingham, Virginia
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Buckingham is a census-designated place in and the county seat of Buckingham County, Virginia, United States. The population as of the 2010 Census was 133, the town of Buckingham was established in 1818, and originally named Maysville, before the name was changed to that of the county. The second courthouse, built between 1822 and 1824, was designed by Thomas Jefferson, but burned down in 1869, the current courthouse was completed on the same site in 1873. The Buckingham Courthouse Historic District and Woodside are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, Buckingham County High School is located in Buckingham. The new Buckingham County Middle School is located down the road from the High School, Buckingham Primary School was renovated and became Buckingham Preschool located across the street from the high school. The former middle school and Dillwyn Elementary were expanded and renovated to become Buckingham County Primary, in addition due to the expansion and budget cuts, Gold Hill Elementary in Arvonia/New Canton and Dillwyn Primary Schools were closed. Allens life was the inspiration for the The Butler, Satchidananda Saraswati, also known as Sri Swami Satchidananda, born in Tamil Nadu India, was one of the first spiritual teachers to bring yoga to America. He founded Integral yoga and established its headquarters in Buckingham. He opened the 1969 Woodstock Festival and his contributions in fields of interfaith education, smithsonian magazine article on the original courthouse Buckingham, Virginia at DMOZ
Buckingham, Virginia
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County courthouse in Buckingham
9.
Appomattox County, Virginia
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Appomattox County is a United States county located in the Piedmont region and near the center of the Commonwealth of Virginia. The county is part of the Lynchburg, VA Metropolitan Statistical Area, Appomattox County was created in 1845 from sections of four other Virginia counties. The name of the county comes from the Appomattox River, which rises in the county, the county is historically associated with the surrender of Robert E. Lee at Appomattox Court House, which effectively ended the American Civil War. As of the 2010 census, the population was 14,973 and this was an increase of more than 9 percent from the 13,705 reported in the 2000 census. Appomattox County was formed in 1845 from Buckingham, Prince Edward, Campbell, in 1848, another part from Campbell County was added. It was named for the Appomattox River, which in turn was named for the Appamatuck, the surrender of Lee, which effectively ended the American Civil War, took place at the McLean House, home of Wilmer McLean. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 335 square miles. The population density is 41 people per square mile, there are 5,828 housing units at an average density of 18 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county is 75. 94% White,22. 91% Black or African American,0. 13% Native American,0. 17% Asian,0. 02% Pacific Islander,0. 26% from other races, and 0. 56% from two or more races. 0. 47% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race,21. 30% of all households are made up of individuals and 10. 00% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.55 and the family size is 2.94. In the county, the population is out with 24. 70% under the age of 18,7. 10% from 18 to 24,27. 80% from 25 to 44,25. 60% from 45 to 64. The median age is 39 years, for every 100 females there are 94.80 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 91.10 males, the median income for a household in the county is $36,507, and the median income for a family is $41,563. Males have an income of $31,428 versus $21,367 for females. The per capita income for the county is $18,086,11. 40% of the population and 8. 70% of families are below the poverty line. Out of the population,14. 10% of those under the age of 18 and 21. 50% of those 65. Matt Farris in the Virginia House of Delegates, and Republican Tom Garrett in the U. S. House of Representatives
Appomattox County, Virginia
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The Appomattox County Courthouse in October 2007
Appomattox County, Virginia
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Appomattox County is located in the rolling hills of the piedmont region of Virginia.
10.
Democratic Party (United States)
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The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president
Democratic Party (United States)
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Andrew Jackson was the first Democratic
President of the United States
Democratic Party (United States)
Democratic Party (United States)
–
The three leaders of the Democratic party during the first half of the 20th century: President
Woodrow Wilson (nominated in 1912 and '16) Sec. of State
William J. Bryan (nominated in 1896, 1900 and 1908),
Josephus Daniels,
Breckinridge Long,
William Phillips, and
Franklin D. Roosevelt (nominated for VP in 1920 and for president in 1932, 36,'40 and 44)
Democratic Party (United States)
–
John F. Kennedy,
35th President of the United States (1961–1963)
11.
Alma mater
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Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
Alma mater
–
The Alma Mater statue by
Mario Korbel, at the entrance of the
University of Havana in
Cuba.
Alma mater
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John Legate's Alma Mater for Cambridge in 1600
Alma mater
–
Alma Mater (1929, Lorado Taft),
University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign
12.
Antebellum era
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The concurrent rise in large-scale farming and in plantation slavery has led to studies on the institution of slavery as an economic system. The antebellum, plantation-era South saw large expansions in agriculture while manufacturing growth remained relatively slow and this imbalance of imports and exports has been seen as an economic exploitation of the exporting South where the antebellum economic growth of the North came at the expense of the South. The plantation system can be seen as the system applied to agriculture. The five major commodities of the agricultural economy were cotton, grain, tobacco, sugar. The leading historian of the era was Ulrich Bonnell Phillips who studied slavery not so much as an issue between North and South, but as a social and economic system. He focused on the plantations that dominated the South. Phillips addressed the unprofitability of slave labor and slaverys ill effects on the southern economy, Phillips systematically hunted down and opened plantation and other southern manuscript sources. An example of pioneering work was A Jamaica Slave Plantation. His methods inspired the Phillips school of slavery studies between 1900 and 1950, Phillips argued that large-scale plantation slavery was inefficient and not progressive. It had reached its limits by 1860 or so. In 1910, he argued in The Decadence of the Plantation System that slavery was a relic that persisted because it produced social status, honor. Phillips contended that masters treated slaves relatively well, his views on that issue were later rejected by Kenneth M. Stampp. His conclusions about the decline of slavery were challenged in 1958 by Alfred H. Conrad. In turn, Fogel and Engerman came under attack from other historians of slavery, the actuarial risk, or the potential loss in investment of owning slaves from death, disability, etc. was much greater for small plantation owners. Much of the antebellum South was rural, and in line with the plantation system, the majority of landowners, who had smaller scale plantations, saw a disproportionately small portion in revenues generated by the slavery-driven plantation system. While the two largest classes in the South included land- and slave-owners and slaves, various strata of social classes existed within and between the two. In order to meet conditions where slavery may continue to exist, likewise, in order to remain within the same class, members of the master class must expand their claim on revenues derived from the slave labor surplus. British mercantilist ideology largely explains the rise of the system in the United States
Antebellum era
–
The
Lansdowne portrait by
Gilbert Stuart
Antebellum era
–
John Adams
Antebellum era
–
Alexander Hamilton
13.
United States Congress
–
The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington, D. C, both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment. Members are usually affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party, Congress has 535 voting members,435 Representatives and 100 Senators. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members in addition to its 435 voting members and these members can, however, sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation. Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a single constituency, known as a district. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by using the United States Census results. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, currently, there are 100 senators representing the 50 states. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a term, with terms staggered. The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process—legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers, however, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue-raising bills, the House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before a person can be forcibly removed from office. The term Congress can also refer to a meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years, the current one, the 115th Congress, began on January 3,2017, the Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators, members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played a role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress, Congress reflects us in all our strengths, Congress is the governments most representative body. Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the public policy issues of the day. —Smith, Roberts, and Wielen Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux, most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent
United States Congress
United States Congress
–
United States Congress
United States Congress
–
In 1868, this committee of representatives prosecuted president
Andrew Johnson in his impeachment trial, but the Senate did not convict him.
United States Congress
–
George Washington presiding over the signing of the
United States Constitution.
14.
American Civil War
–
The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
American Civil War
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New Orleans the largest cotton exporting port for New England and Great Britain textile mills, shipping Mississippi River Valley goods from North, South and Border states.
American Civil War
–
Clockwise from top:
Battle of Gettysburg,
Union Captain John Tidball's artillery,
Confederate prisoners,
ironclad USS Atlanta, ruins of
Richmond, Virginia,
Battle of Franklin
American Civil War
–
Sen. Stephen Douglas, author of the
Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854
American Civil War
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Sen. John J. Crittenden, of the 1860
Crittenden Compromise
15.
Thomas Jefferson
–
Thomas Jefferson was an American Founding Father who was the principal author of the Declaration of Independence and later served as the third President of the United States from 1801 to 1809. Previously, he was elected the second Vice President of the United States, Jefferson was primarily of English ancestry, born and educated in colonial Virginia. He graduated from the College of William & Mary and briefly practiced law and he became the United States Minister to France in May 1785, and subsequently the nations first Secretary of State in 1790–1793 under President George Washington. Jefferson and James Madison organized the Democratic-Republican Party to oppose the Federalist Party during the formation of the First Party System, as President, Jefferson pursued the nations shipping and trade interests against Barbary pirates and aggressive British trade policies. He also organized the Louisiana Purchase, almost doubling the countrys territory, as a result of peace negotiations with France, his administration reduced military forces. Jeffersons second term was beset with difficulties at home, including the trial of former Vice President Aaron Burr, American foreign trade was diminished when Jefferson implemented the Embargo Act of 1807, responding to British threats to U. S. shipping. In 1803, Jefferson began a process of Indian tribe removal to the newly organized Louisiana Territory. Jefferson mastered many disciplines, which ranged from surveying and mathematics to horticulture and he was a proven architect in the classical tradition. Jeffersons keen interest in religion and philosophy earned him the presidency of the American Philosophical Society and he shunned organized religion, but was influenced by both Christianity and deism. He was well versed in linguistics and spoke several languages and he founded the University of Virginia after retiring from public office. He was a letter writer and corresponded with many prominent and important people throughout his adult life. His only full-length book is Notes on the State of Virginia, Jefferson owned several plantations which were worked by hundreds of slaves. Most historians now believe that, after the death of his wife in 1782, he had a relationship with his slave Sally Hemings and fathered at least one of her children. Various modern scholars are more critical of Jeffersons private life, pointing out the discrepancy between his ownership of slaves and his political principles, for example. Presidential scholars, however, consistently rank Jefferson among the greatest presidents, Thomas Jefferson was born on April 13,1743, at the family home in Shadwell in the Colony of Virginia, the third of ten children. He was of English and possibly Welsh descent and was born a British subject and his father Peter Jefferson was a planter and surveyor who died when Jefferson was fourteen, his mother was Jane Randolph. Peter Jefferson moved his family to Tuckahoe Plantation in 1745 upon the death of a friend who had named him guardian of his children, the Jeffersons returned to Shadwell in 1752, where Peter died in 1757, his estate was divided between his sons Thomas and Randolph. Thomas inherited approximately 5,000 acres of land, including Monticello and he assumed full authority over his property at age 21
Thomas Jefferson
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Thomas Jefferson
Thomas Jefferson
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Wren Building (rear), College of William & Mary where Jefferson studied
Thomas Jefferson
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House of Burgesses in Williamsburg, Virginia, where Jefferson served 1769–1775
Thomas Jefferson
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Jefferson's home, Monticello
16.
Harry Flood Byrd
–
Harry Flood Byrd, Sr. of Berryville in Clarke County, Virginia, was an American newspaper publisher, and political leader of the Democratic Party in Virginia. He was the leader of the coalition in the United States Senate. He was a descendant of one of the First Families of Virginia and his son Harry F. Byrd, Jr. succeeded him as U. S. Senator. Byrd was a dominant figure in Virginia who reorganized and modernized Virginias government and his political machine dominated Virginia Democratic Party politics for much of the first half of the 20th century. Financial conditions in Virginia during his youth conditioned his thinking on fiscal matters throughout his life and he is best remembered for his austere pay-as-you-go financial policies. Byrd was also known as a racist and avowed white separatist and this policy created a large subset of black students who were denied their education in several Virginia counties. These students, many of whom are alive, are known as the lost generation. Harry Flood Byrd was born in Martinsburg, West Virginia in 1887 and moved with his parents, Eleanor Bolling and Richard Evelyn Byrd, Sr. to Winchester, Virginia the same year. Byrd was a descendant of one of the First Families of Virginia, his ancestors included William Byrd II of Westover Plantation, who established Richmond, Harry Flood Byrd was the brother of famed aviator Richard Evelyn Byrd. Joel Flood served as Commonwealth Attorney of Appomattox County from 1919 to 1932 and he became a long-time Federal Court Judge of the Fifth Judiciary Circuit, serving from 1940 to 1964. Young Harry Byrds father was an apple grower in the Shenandoah Valley. He attended the schools and Shenandoah Valley Academy in Winchester. Harry Byrd never lacked food, but he had no money for luxuries, if a man got into debt, there was small chance of getting out of it. Even worse in Byrds eyes was the dilemma of the state itself, Virginia beginning in 1816 had taken on debt to help finance many internal public improvements through the Virginia Board of Public Works before the Civil War. Some of these improvements, which were primarily canals, turnpikes, others had been made in the former portion of the state that separated to form the new State of West Virginia. For several decades thereafter, Virginia and West Virginia disputed the new share of the Virginia governments debt. The issue was settled in 1915, when the United States Supreme Court ruled that West Virginia owed Virginia $12,393,929.50. West Virginia paid the final installment of this sum in 1939, however, the issue of Virginias public debt was far from resolved during Byrds formative years
Harry Flood Byrd
–
Harry F. Byrd
17.
Robert L. Dabney
–
Robert Lewis Dabney was an American Christian theologian, Southern Presbyterian pastor, Confederate States Army chaplain, and architect. He was also chief of staff and biographer to Stonewall Jackson and his biography of Jackson remains in print today. Dabney and James Henley Thornwell were two of Southern Presbyterianisms most influential scholars and they were both Calvinist, Old School Presbyterians, and social conservatives. Robert Lewis Dabney was born on March 5,1820 and he was the sixth child of Charles Dabney and Elizabeth Randolph Price Dabney. He graduated from Hampden-Sydney College with a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1837 and he graduated from Union Theological Seminary in 1846. He is considered a son of Providence Presbyterian Church. It was at Tinkling Springs that he met Margaret Lavinia Morrison and they were married on March 28,1848. They had six sons together, three of whom died in childhood from diphtheria, in 1883, he was appointed professor of mental and moral philosophy in the University of Texas. By 1894, failing health compelled him to retire from active life, Dabneys designs for the Tinkling Spring Presbyterian Church and for two other churches in Virginia are credited with influencing church architecture in Virginia. He died on January 3,1898 due to complications from an acute illness, lectures on Sacred Rhetoric Syllabus and Notes of the Course of Systematic and Polemic Theology, later republished as Systematic Theology. Discussions, Four volumes of his essays, edited by C. R. Vaughan. New Schaff–Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, london and New York, Funk and Wagnalls. Works by or about Robert Lewis Dabney at Internet Archive Works by Robert Lewis Dabney at Hathi Trust Christ Our Substitute, five Points of Calvinism by R. L. Dabney. From the Seventh Day to the First, Dabneys discussion of the day of the week for the Christian Sabbath. A Defence of Virginia, A Defence of Virginia, DabneyArchive. com, Robert Lewis Dabney in Encyclopedia Virginia
Robert L. Dabney
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Robert Lewis Dabney
Robert L. Dabney
–
College Church at
Hampden–Sydney College, c. 1860, designed by Dabney.
18.
Marengo County, Alabama
–
Marengo County is a county of the U. S. state of Alabama. As of the 2010 census, the population was 21,027, the largest city is Demopolis and the county seat is Linden. It is named in honor of the battlefield of the site of Battle of Marengo near Turin, Italy, where the Napoleon Bonaparte defeated the Austrians on June 14,1800. Marengo County was created by the Alabama Territorial legislature on February 6,1818, the name of the county commemorates Napoleons victory at the Battle of Marengo over the Austrian armies on June 14,1800. This name was chosen in honor of the first European-American settlers, Bonapartists exiled from France after Napoleons downfall and they were trying to develop a Vine and Olive Colony. The county seat was known as the Town of Marengo. Linden is a version of Hohenlinden, scene of the Battle of Hohenlinden. County courthouse fires occurred in 1848 and 1965, but most of the records were in a vault. Situated in Alabamas Black Belt and having a rich soil. The population was majority black, and overwhelmingly enslaved, decades before the American Civil War, in 1860 the population consisted of 24,409 slaves,6761 free whites, and one free person of color, for a total combined population of 31,171. At this time there were 778 plantations and farms in the county, Demopolis was home to the fourth-oldest Jewish congregation in Alabama, Bnai Jeshurun. After the American Civil War, the continued to be based on agriculture. In the transition to free labor, many turned to sharecropping as a way to establish some independence. They did not want to work in owner-controlled field gangs, the population began to diminish rapidly after World War II. People left the farms for manufacturing jobs elsewhere, particularly with the buildup of the defense industry on the West Coast. The movement of blacks out of Mississippi and other parts of the Deep South was considered part of their Great Migration, the former cotton fields were gradually converted to other uses. Some were used for pastures for cattle and horses, others for woodlands for timber, beginning in the 1960s industry began to move into the area, and the work force started to work in paper mills, lumber mills, and chemical plants. Marengo County is situated in the area of the state
Marengo County, Alabama
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Marengo County Courthouse in Linden
Marengo County, Alabama
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Barney's Upper Place, an
I-house in Putnam that was built in 1833.
Marengo County, Alabama
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Gaineswood (built 1843–61), a
National Historic Landmark in Demopolis.
Marengo County, Alabama
–
Dayton Town Hall (built 1858) in Dayton. On the Alabama Register of Landmarks and Heritage.
19.
Prosecutor
–
The prosecutor is the chief legal representative of the prosecution in countries with either the common law adversarial system, or the civil law inquisitorial system. The prosecution is the party responsible for presenting the case in a criminal trial against an individual accused of breaking the law. Prosecutors are typically lawyers who possess a law degree, and are recognized as legal professionals by the court in which they intend to represent society and they usually only become involved in a criminal case once a suspect has been identified and charges need to be filed. They are typically employed by an office of the government, with safeguards in place to such an office can successfully pursue the prosecution of government officials. Often, multiple offices exist in a country, especially those countries with federal governments where sovereignty has been bifurcated or devolved in some way. Since prosecutors are backed by the power of the state, they are subject to special professional responsibility rules in addition to those binding all lawyers. For example, in the United States, Rule 3.8 of the ABA Model Rules of Professional Conduct requires prosecutors to make timely disclosure to the defense of all evidence or information and that tends to negate the guilt of the accused or mitigates the offense. Not all U. S. states adopt the rules, however, U. S. Supreme Court cases. Typical sources of requirements imposed on prosecutors come from appellate court opinions, state or federal court rules. A DPP may be subject to varying degrees of control by the Attorney General, in Australia, the Offices of the Director of Public Prosecutions institute prosecutions for indictable offences on behalf of the Crown. More recent constitutions, such as South Africas, tend to guarantee the independence, in Canada, public prosecutors in most provinces are called Crown Attorney or Crown Counsel. They are generally appointed by the provincial Attorney-General, though Scots law is a mixed system, its civil law jurisdiction indicates its civil law heritage. Here, all prosecutions are carried out by Procurators Fiscal and Advocates Depute on behalf of the Lord Advocate, in very serious cases, a Procurator Fiscal, Advocate Depute or even the Lord Advocate, may take charge of a police investigation. Other remedies are open to a prosecutor in Scotland, including fines and non-court based interventions, such as rehabilitation. All prosecutions are handled within the Crown Office and Procurator Fiscal Service, Procurators fiscal will usually refer cases involving minors to Childrens Hearings, which are not courts of law, but a panel of lay members empowered to act in the interests of the child. In the United States, the director of an office may be known by any of several names depending on the jurisdiction. Prosecutors are most often chosen through local elections, and typically hire other attorneys as deputies or assistants to conduct most of the work of the office. United States Attorneys, appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate, represent the government in federal court
Prosecutor
–
Prosecutors in hearing in court
20.
Buckingham County, Virginia
–
Buckingham County is a rural United States county located in the Commonwealth of Virginia, and containing the geographic center of the state. Buckingham County is part of the Piedmont region of Virginia, Buckingham County was created in 1761 from the southeastern portion of Albemarle County and was predominantly farmland. The county was named in honor of the Duke of Buckingham. Several changes were made to the borders, until the boundaries were established in 1860. As of the 2010 census, the county population was 17,146, the county experienced steady population growth over the preceding forty years. Buckingham is part of the Charlottesville Metropolitan Statistical Area, Buckingham County, lying south of the James River and in the Piedmont at the geographic center of the state, was established on May 1,1761 from the southeastern portion of Albemarle County. The origin of the county name comes from the Duke of Buckingham. Some sources say that the county was named for Archibald Carys estate Buckingham and this is the only Buckingham County in the United States. In 1778 a small area bordering the James River was given to Cumberland County. In 1845, another part was taken from Buckingham to form the northern portion of Appomattox County, a final adjustment of the Appomattox-Buckingham county line was made in 1860, and Buckinghams borders then became fixed in their current form. A fire destroyed the courthouse in 1869, and most of the records of this county were lost. In the nineteenth century the county was settled heavily by people migrating from the Tidewater area. It was devoted chiefly to plantations, worked by enslaved African Americans and these were converted from tobacco cultivation to mixed farming and pulpwood harvesting as the markets changed and the soil became exhausted from tobacco. In the 21st century, large tracts of land are held by such as WestVaco. It is still rural, with areas devoted to recreation such as fishing and hunting. The County is home to families who can trace their ancestry to the colonial history of Virginia. Many families still live on tracts of land that were granted to their ancestors in that period, some of the land grants were originally given to French Huguenots, who resettled from London, England in the southwestern part of the county in the early 1700s. During the American Civil War, General Robert E. Lee’s army marched through the county during his retreat on their way to surrender at Appomattox and they left Appomattox after the surrender and headed for their homes north of here
Buckingham County, Virginia
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Buckingham County Courthouse
Buckingham County, Virginia
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Buckingham County is rural and heavily forested.
21.
Secession
–
Secession is the withdrawal of a group from a larger entity, especially a political entity, but also any organization, union or military alliance. Threats of secession can also be a strategy for achieving more limited goals, theories of secession relate to a fundamental question of political philosophy, the basis of the states authority. Ramet, Rights of Secession by Daniel Kofman, The Very Idea of Secession by Donald Livingston and Secession, Autonomy, in 2007 the University of South Carolina sponsored a conference called Secession As an International Phenomenon which produced a number of papers on the topic. Some theories of secession emphasize a general right of secession for any reason while others emphasize that secession should be considered only to rectify grave injustices, if it can not live in the affections of the people, it must one day perish. Congress possesses many means of preserving it by conciliation, but the sword was not placed in their hand to preserve it by force, former President of the United States Thomas Jefferson, in a letter to William H. If any State in the Union will declare that it prefers separation with the first alternative, to a continuance in union without it, I have no hesitation in saying, let us separate. I would rather the States should withdraw, which are for unlimited commerce and war, economic enfranchisement of an economically oppressed class that is regionally concentrated within the scope of a larger national territory. e. Tax schemes, regulatory policies, economic programs, etc, cultural Secessionism, any group which was previously in a minority has a right to protect and develop its own culture and distinct national identity through seceding into an independent state. Institutional empowerment - The growing inability of empires and ethnic federations to maintain colonies, relative strength - Increasingly powerful secessionist movements are more likely to achieve statehood. Negotiated consent - Home states and the international community increasingly consent to secessionist demands, during the 19th century, the single British colony in eastern mainland Australia, New South Wales was progressively divided up by the British government as new settlements were formed and spread. Victoria in 1851 and Queensland in 1859, however, settlers agitated to divide the colonies throughout the later part of the century, particularly in central Queensland in the 1860s and 1890s, and in North Queensland in the 1870s. Western Australia Secession movements have surfaced several times in Western Australia, the referendum had to be ratified by the British Parliament, which declined to act, on the grounds that it would contravene the Australian Constitution. The Principality of Hutt River claims to have seceded from Australia in 1970, according to a lexicon on nationalist movements across the world, Macau happened to recognise that Principality. Austria successfully seceded from Nazi Germany on April 27,1945 and this took place after seven years of Austria being part of Adolf Hitlers Third Reich due to the Anschluss annexation of Austria into Nazi Germany in March 1938. On August 25,1830, during the reign of William I, soon after, the Belgian Revolt occurred, which resulted in the Belgian secession from the Netherlands. The peace treaty accepted Uruguay independence, reasserted the rule of both nations over their land and some important points like free navigation in the Silver River, three rather disorganized secessionist rebellions happened in Grão-Pará, Bahia and Maranhão, where the people were unhappy with the Empire. The Malê Revolt, in Bahia, was an Islamic slave revolt and these three rebellions were bloodily crushed by the Empire of Brazil. In the attempts the rebels were crushed, the shot and its territory divided
Secession
–
U.S. Vice President
Joe Biden and
Hashim Thaçi with Declaration of Independence of
Kosovo
Secession
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Northern Cyprus
Secession
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September 1999 demonstration for
independence from Indonesia
Secession
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Map showing the shrinking territory of
Gran Colombia from 1824 to 1890 (red line).
Panama separated from Colombia in 1903.
22.
First Confederate Congress
–
Stephens President pro tempore, R. M. T. It was intended that one-third of the Senate would begin new six-year terms with each Congress after the first, preceding the names in the list below are Senate class numbers, which indicate the cycle of their terms. In this Congress, all Senators were newly elected, Senators of Class 1 served a two-year term, expiring at the end of this Congress, requiring a new election for the 1864–1870 term. Class 2 Senators served what was intended to be a four-year term, Class 3 Senators were meant to serve a six-year term, due to expire at the end of the Third Confederate Congress in 1868. As the Confederate Congress lasted less than four years, the distinction between classes 2 and 3 was ultimately academic. The members of the classes were selected by the drawing of lots, William Lowndes Yancey Robert Jemison, Jr. Arkansas 1. Robert Augustus Toombs John Wood Lewis, Sr. Herschel Vespasian Johnson Kentucky 3, Robert Ludwell Yates Peyton Waldo Porter Johnson North Carolina 1. George Davis Edwin Godwin Reade 2, William Theophilus Dortch South Carolina 2. William Ballard Preston Allen Taylor Caperton X, Originally member of the Provisional Confederate Congress The names of members of the House of Representatives are preceded by their district numbers, jabez Lamar Monroe Curry X5. James Baird Dawkins John Marshall Martin 2, Augustus Romaldus Wright X Kentucky 1. John Milton Elliott X Louisiana 1, reuben Davis William Dunbar Holder 3. John Jones McRae Missouri In Confederate law, the people of Missouri were entitled to elect thirteen representatives, the state never implemented the reapportionment and continued to use its existing seven districts. Pending an election, the members of the delegation to the Provisional Congress were assigned to serve in the First Congress. No election was held, so the members served throughout the Congress. Representative-elect John Hyer never took his seat, the district was unrepresented for the entire First Congress, thomas David Smith McDowell X5. Abraham Watkins Venable X South Carolina 1, milledge Luke Bonham William Dunlap Simpson 5. William Waters Boyce X Tennessee 1, John DeWitt Clinton Atkins X10. David Maney Currin X Texas 1, roger Atkinson Pryor X Charles Fenton Collier 5
First Confederate Congress
–
Confederate States Capitol (1865)
23.
Second Confederate Congress
–
Held May 2,1864, through March 18,1865, at the Virginia State Capital in Richmond, Virginia. The term of the Second Congress was due to end on February 18,1866, however, due to the defeat and dissolution of the Confederacy prior to that time, the Congress did not function after the end of its second and final session. 1st Session – May 2,1864 to June 14,1864 2nd Session – November 7,1864 to March 18,1865 President, Alexander H. Stephens President pro tempore, hunter Speaker, Thomas S. Bocock X, served in the Senate of the First Congress. Confederate States Senators were elected by the legislatures, or appointed by state Governors to fill casual vacancies until the legislature elected a new Senator. It was intended that one-third of the Senate would begin new six-year terms with each Congress after the first, preceding the names in the list below are Senate class numbers, which indicate the cycle of their terms. Senators of Class 1 were intended to serve a term, starting with this Congress. Class 2 Senators served what was intended to be a four-year term, Class 3 Senators were meant to serve a six-year term, due to expire in 1868. Charles Burton Mitchel X Augustus Hill Garland Florida 1, Augustus Emmet Maxwell X Georgia 3. Herschel Vespasian Johnson X Kentucky 3, William Emmet Simms X Louisiana 2. John William Clark Watson Missouri 2, george Graham Vest North Carolina 2. William Alexander Graham South Carolina 2, james Lawrence Orr X Tennessee 3. Louis Trezevant Wigfall X Virginia 3, allen Taylor Caperton X The names of members of the House of Representatives are preceded by their district numbers. Congress refused to seat Representative-elect W. R. W. Cobb, an avowed Unionist, Augustus Hill Garland X David Williamson Carroll 4. Thomas Burton Hanly X Florida 1, robert Benjamin Hilton X Georgia 1. John Milton Elliott X Louisiana 1, Benjamin Lewis Hodge Henry Gray 6. John Tillman Lamkin Missouri In Confederate law, the people of Missouri were entitled to elect thirteen representatives, the state never implemented the reapportionment and continued to use its existing seven districts. Robert Anthony Hatcher North Carolina 1, William Nathan Harrell Smith X2. George Washington Logan South Carolina 1, William Waters Boyce X Tennessee 1
Second Confederate Congress
–
Confederate States Capitol (1865)
24.
James A. Seddon
–
James Alexander Seddon was an American lawyer and politician who served two terms as a Representative in the U. S. Congress, as a member of the Democratic Party. He was appointed Confederate States Secretary of War by Jefferson Davis during the American Civil War, born in Falmouth, Stafford County, Virginia, Seddon was a descendant of William Alexander, Earl of Stirling. Due to frail health, Seddon was educated primarily at home and became self-taught as a youth, at the age of twenty-one, he entered the law school of the University of Virginia. After graduation, Seddon settled in Richmond, where he established a law practice. In 1845, he was nominated by the Democratic Party for Congress and was easily elected, two years later, he was renominated, but declined due to platform differences with the party. In 1849, Seddon was reelected to Congress, serving from December 1849 until March 1851, owing to poor health, he declined another nomination at the end of his term and retired to Sabot Hill, his estate on the James River above Richmond. Seddon attended the convention held in Washington, D. C. in 1861. Later in the year, he attended the Provisional Confederate Congress. President Davis named him as the Secretary of War, a post he held until January 1,1865,1845, Seddon was elected to the U. S. House of Representatives with 52. 28% of the vote, defeating Whig John Minor Botts. 1849, Seddon was re-elected with 53. 64% of the vote, media related to James Alexander Seddon at Wikimedia Commons United States Congress. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, James Seddon biography at Spartacus Educational James Seddon biography at the Confederate States War Department
James A. Seddon
–
James Seddon
25.
Robert M. T. Hunter
–
Robert Mercer Taliaferro Hunter was a Virginian lawyer and politician. He was a U. S. Representative, Speaker of the House, during the American Civil War he was Confederate States Secretary of State and then a Confederate Senator. After the war, he served as Treasurer of Virginia, Hunter was born in Loretto, Essex County, Virginia, the son of James Hunter and Maria Hunter. He was a maternal first cousin of both Robert S. Garnett and Richard B and he entered the University of Virginia in his seventeenth year and was one of its first graduates. While he was a student, he became a member of the Jefferson Literary and he then studied law at the Winchester Law School, and in 1830 was admitted to the bar. From 1835 to 1837 he was a member of the Virginia House of Delegates, in 1837, Hunter was elected U. S. Representative as a States Rights Whig and he was re-elected in 1839, and became Speaker of the United States House of Representatives – the youngest person ever to hold that office. He was re-elected again in 1841, but was not chosen Speaker, in 1843 he was defeated for re-election. He then changed parties, becoming a Democrat, in 1845, he was again elected Representative, and in 1846 was elected U. S. Senator, taking office in 1847. He was re-elected in 1852 and 1858, in the Senate, he became chairman of the Committee on Finance in 1850. He is credited with bringing about a reduction of the quantity of silver in the smaller coins and he was the author of the Tariff of 1857 and of the bonded-warehouse system, and was one of the first to advocate civil service reform. In 1853 he declined President Millard Fillmores offer to make him Secretary of State, on seven of the first eight ballots, he was a very distant second to the leader, Stephen A. Douglas, and was third on the remaining 42 ballots. When the convention reconvened in Baltimore, most Southerners withdrew, including Hunter, Hunter did not regard Lincolns election as being of itself a sufficient cause for secession. On January 11,1861, he proposed an elaborate but impracticable scheme for the adjustment of differences between the North and the South, when this and several other efforts to the same end had failed, he quietly urged his own state to pass the ordinance of secession. He was expelled from the Senate for supporting secession, in July 1861, Hunter was appointed Confederate States Secretary of State. He resigned on February 18,1862, having elected a Confederate Senator. He served in the Confederate Senate until the end of the war, as a Confederate Senator, he was often a caustic critic of Confederate President Jefferson Davis. Despite this friction, he was appointed by Davis as one of three sent to attempt peace negotiations in 1865, and met with President Lincoln at the Hampton Roads Conference
Robert M. T. Hunter
–
Robert Hunter
Robert M. T. Hunter
–
Robert Mercer Taliaferro Hunter
Robert M. T. Hunter
–
1864 CSA
$10 banknote depicting R.M.T. Hunter.
Robert M. T. Hunter
–
Hunter in later life
26.
Appomattox Court House National Historical Park
–
The Appomattox Court House National Historical Park is a National Historical Park of original and reconstructed 19th century buildings in Appomattox County, Virginia. The McLean House was the site of the conference. The park was established August 3,1935, the village was made a national monument in 1940 and a national historical park in 1954. It is located three miles east of Appomattox, Virginia, the location of the Appomattox Station and the new Appomattox Court House. It is in the center of the state about 25 miles east of Lynchburg, the antebellum village started out as Clover Hill named after its oldest existing structure, the Clover Hill Tavern. The village was a stop along the Richmond-Lynchburg stage road. The activity in Clover Hill centered around Clover Hill Tavern, the tavern provided lodging to travelers. Fresh horses for the line were also provided at the stop. It was also the site of meetings and so when Appomattox County was established by an Act on February 8,1845. It was parts of Buckingham, Prince Edward, Charlotte, the jurisdiction took its name from the headwaters that emanate there, the Appomattox River. Early Virginians believe the name Appomattox came from an Indian tribe called Apumetec, from about 1842, Hugh Raine basically owned most of the Clover Hill area. He obtained it from his brother John Raine who defaulted on his loans, later, he sold the property to a Colonel Samuel D. McDearmon. Since his acquisition, it became the county seat and he surveyed 30 acres of the hamlet and he designated 2 acres to be used by the new county to build a courthouse and other government buildings. The courthouse was to be built across the Stage Road from the Clover Hill Tavern, the jail was to be built behind the courthouse. McDearmon divided the land surrounding the courthouse into 1-acre lots. He felt that with Clover Hills new status as a county seat he would find professional people ready and his hopes were later dashed in 1854 as the train depot stopped three miles west in Appomattox, Virginia. The American Civil War put the nails in the coffin. The district once known as Clover Hill and later renamed to Appomattox Court House continued to decline as businesses moved to the area of the Appomattox Station, the village contained 30 acres of the original Pattesons Clover Hill Tavern property of some 200 acres
Appomattox Court House National Historical Park
–
Appomattox Court House National Historical Park
Appomattox Court House National Historical Park
–
Panoramic image of the reconstructed parlor of the
McLean House.
Ulysses S. Grant sat at the simple wooden table on the right, while
Robert E. Lee sat at the more ornate marble-topped table on the left.
Appomattox Court House National Historical Park
–
Appomattox Court House with
Union Army soldiers, April 1865
Appomattox Court House National Historical Park
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Tavern, Main Street, Appomattox
27.
Lynchburg, Virginia
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Lynchburg is an independent city in the Commonwealth of Virginia. As of the 2010 census, the population was 75,568, the 2016 census estimates an increase to 80,212. Located in the foothills of the Blue Ridge Mountains along the banks of the James River, Lynchburg was the only major city in Virginia that was not captured by the Union before the end of the American Civil War. Lynchburg is the city of the Metropolitan Statistical Area of Lynchburg. It is the fifth largest MSA in Virginia with a population of 260,320, other nearby cities include Roanoke, Charlottesville, and Danville. Monacan people and other Siouan Tutelo-speaking tribes had lived in the area since at least 1270 and they had driven the Virginia Algonquians eastward. Siouans occupied the area until about 1702, when, weakened by illness, beginning in 1718, certain Iroquois ceded control to the Colony of Virginia, as later did others at the Treaty of Albany in 1721 and Treaty of Lancaster in 1744. First settled in 1757, Lynchburg was named for its founder, while about 17 years old, he started a ferry service at a ford across the James River to carry traffic to and from New London, where his parents had settled. The City of Seven Hills quickly developed along the hills surrounding Lynchs Ferry, in 1786, Virginias General Assembly in 1786 recognized Lynchburg, the settlement by Lynchs Ferry on the James River. The James River Company had been incorporated the year in order to improve the river down to Richmond. Shallow-draft James River bateau provided an easy means of transportation through Lynchburg down to Richmond. Lynchburg became a trading, then commercial, and much later an industrial center. Chief Justice John Marshall, who lived in Richmond, reported on the difficulties and construction problems on the canal. The General Assembly recognized the growth by incorporating Lynchburg as a town in 1805. In between, Lynch built Lynchburgs first bridge across the James River, a structure which replaced his ferry in 1812. A toll turnpike to Salem, Virginia was begun in 1817, Lynch died in 1820 and was buried beside his mother in the graveyard of the South River Friends Meetinghouse, although Quakers soon abandoned the town because of their opposition to slaveholding. Presbyterians restored their meetinghouse as a church, and it is now a historic site, to avoid the many visitors at Monticello, Thomas Jefferson in 1806 built a home near Lynchburg, called Poplar Forest. He often visited the town, noting, Nothing would give me greater pleasure than to be useful to the town of Lynchburg, I consider it as the most interesting spot in the state
Lynchburg, Virginia
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Downtown Lynchburg skyline
Lynchburg, Virginia
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Lynchburg City Hall
Lynchburg, Virginia
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Bank of the James in Lynchburg
Lynchburg, Virginia
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Lynchburg historical marker
28.
Horace Greeley
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Horace Greeley was founder and editor of the New-York Tribune, among the great newspapers of its time. Greeley was born to a family in Amherst, New Hampshire. He was apprenticed to a printer in Vermont and went to New York City in 1831 to seek his fortune and he wrote for or edited several publications and involved himself in Whig Party politics, taking a significant part in William Henry Harrisons successful 1840 presidential campaign. The following year, he founded the Tribune, which became the newspaper in the country through weekly editions sent by mail. Among many other issues, he urged the settlement of the American West, which he saw as a land of opportunity for the young and the unemployed. He popularized the phrase Go West, young man, and grow up with the country, Greeleys alliance with William H. Seward and Thurlow Weed led to him serving three months in the House of Representatives, where he angered many by investigating Congress in his newspaper. In 1854, he helped found and may have named the Republican Party, Republican newspapers across the nation regularly reprinted his editorials. During the Civil War, he mostly supported Lincoln, though urging him to commit to the end of slavery before the President was willing to do so, after Lincolns assassination, he supported the Radical Republicans in opposition to President Andrew Johnson. He broke with Republican president Ulysses Grant because of corruption and Greeleys sense that Reconstruction policies were no longer needed, Greeley was the new Liberal Republican Partys candidate in the 1872 U. S. presidential election. He lost in a landslide, despite having the support of the Democratic Party. He was devastated by the death of his wife, who died five days before the election, Horace Greeley was born on February 3,1811, on a farm about five miles from Amherst, New Hampshire. He could not breathe for the first twenty minutes of his life and he was of English descent, and his forebears included early settlers of Massachusetts and New Hampshire. Greeley was the son of poor farmers Zaccheus and Mary Greeley, Zaccheus was not successful, and moved his family several times, as far west as Pennsylvania. Horace attended the schools, and was a brilliant student. Seeing the boys intelligence, some neighbors offered to pay Horaces way at Phillips Exeter Academy, in 1820, Zaccheuss financial reverses caused him to flee New Hampshire with his family lest he be imprisoned for debt, and settle in Vermont. Even as his father struggled to make a living as a hired hand, in 1822, Horace ran away from home to become a printers apprentice, but was told he was too young. In 1826, at age 15, he was made an apprentice to Amos Bliss, editor of the Northern Spectator. There, he learned the mechanics of a job, and acquired a reputation as the town encyclopedia
Horace Greeley
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An 1872 portrait of Greeley, by J.E. Baker.
Horace Greeley
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Horace Greeley Birthplace in
Amherst, New Hampshire
Horace Greeley
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Early depiction of Greeley's first arrival in New York
Horace Greeley
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Photograph of Greeley by
Mathew Brady, taken between 1844 and 1860
29.
Samuel Tilden
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Samuel Jones Tilden was the 25th Governor of New York and the Democratic candidate for the U. S. Presidency in the election of 1876, winning a popular vote majority. A political reformer, he was a Bourbon Democrat who worked closely with the New York City business community, born and raised in New Lebanon, New York, Tilden came from a family that was well off and well known as a maker of patent medicines. He studied at Yale University and New York University School of Law, a Democrat in politics, he became a skilled practitioner of corporate and railroad law, and also served as New York Citys corporation counsel and a member of the New York State Assembly in the 1840s. During the years prior to the American Civil War, Tilden counseled patience, once the war began, he supported the Union, but was also critical of Abraham Lincolns wartime administration. As chairman of the New York State Democratic Committee after the war, Tilden initially worked well with the partys Tammany Hall faction, after serving again in the state Assembly, Tilden was elected Governor of New York in 1874. In 1876 he was the Democratic nominee for President of the United States and he lost to Republican Rutherford B. Hayes in a disputed election, with Democrats conceding the presidency in part for the Republican promise to end Reconstruction. After losing the presidency, Tilden resumed the practice of law, in addition to managing his banking and he was considered by the Democrats for their presidential nomination in 1880 and 1884, but was not an active candidate. He died at his estate in Yonkers in 1886, and was buried at Cemetery of the Evergreens in New Lebanon. A lifelong bachelor, Tildens worth at his death was over $7 million and his former home in the Gramercy Park Historic District in New York City houses now the National Arts Club. Tilden was born in New Lebanon in New York, the youngest of Elam Tilden and he studied at Yale University, then at New York University School of Law. He was admitted to the bar in 1841, and became a corporate lawyer. His legal practice, combined with shrewd investments, made him rich, Tildens success at money management and investing caused many of his friends, relatives, and political allies, including Martin Van Buren, to allow Tilden to manage their finances. From 1843 to 1844, he served as New York Citys Corporation Counsel and he was a member of the New York State Assembly in 1846, and a delegate to the New York State Constitutional Convention of 1846. He was among the Barnburners who later returned to the Democratic Party rather than joining the anti-slavery Republican Party, in 1855, Tilden was the unsuccessful candidate of the Soft faction for New York State Attorney General. In 1859 he was a candidate for New York City Corporation Counsel. In the years preceding the American Civil War, Tilden favored a conciliatory approach to the slave holding states. Once the war started, Tilden supported the Union, but was critical of Abraham Lincolns strong executive approach to the presidency, after the war, Tilden again favored conciliation and opposed the Radical Republican approach to Reconstruction
Samuel Tilden
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Samuel Tilden in his youth
Samuel Tilden
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Samuel J. Tilden
Samuel Tilden
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Campaign poster for the election of 1876.
Samuel Tilden
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Samuel Jones Tilden
