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Threshing

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An animal-powered thresher

Threshing is the process of loosening the edible part of grain (or other crop) from the husks and straw to which it is attached. It is the step in grain preparation after reaping and before winnowing, which separates the grain from the chaff. Threshing does not remove the bran from the grain.^[1]

Threshing may be done by beating the grain using a flail on a threshing floor. Another traditional method of threshing is to make donkeys or oxen walk in circles on the grain on a hard surface. A modern version of this in some areas is to spread the grain on the surface of a country road so the grain may be threshed by the wheels of passing vehicles.^[2]

Hand threshing was laborious, with a bushel of wheat taking about an hour;^[3] in the late 18th century, before threshing was mechanized, about one-quarter of agricultural labor was devoted to it.^[4]

Industrialization of threshing began in 1786 with the invention of the threshing machine by Scotsman Andrew Meikle. Today, in developed areas, it is now mostly done by machine, usually by a combine harvester, which harvests, threshes, and winnows the grain while it is still in the field.^[5]^[6]

The cereal may be stored in a barn or silos.

A threshing bee was traditionally a bee in which local people gathered together to pitch in and get the season's threshing done, such bees were sometimes festivals or events within larger harvest festivals. Today the original purpose is largely obsolete, but the festival tradition lives on in some modern examples that commemorate the past and include flea markets, hog wrestling, and dances.^[7]^[8]^[9]

Gallery[edit]

Threshing with hand flails, Great Britain, c. 1750. Image from c. 1875.
Play media

Irreler Bauertradition shows threshing by hand - Roscheider Hof Open Air Museum
Threshing floor, Santorini, Greece
Ludovic Bassarab's La treierat ("Threshing"), showing peasants in Romanian dress around a combine harvester
Play media

Threshing rice by hand (view in Full HD)
A farmer works on his field threshing with yolks in old age
Play media

Threshing with yaks in Astore, Gilgit-Baltistan
Wheat Threshing Demo at Goessel Threshing Days in Goessel, Kansas, 2010.
Play media

Video of a petrol-powered machine threshing rice in Hainan, China
Threshing of paddy by machine, Bangladesh

References[edit]

^ "threshing".
^ M. Partridge, Farm Tools through the Ages (1973)
^ Atack, Jeremy; Passell, Peter (1994). A New Economic View of American History. New York: W.W. Norton and Co. pp. 282–3. ISBN 0-393-96315-2.
^ Clark, Gregory (2007). A Farewell to Alms: A Brief Economic History of the World. Princeton University Press. p. 286. ISBN 978-0-691-12135-2.
^ "Andrew Meikle (1719-1811) engineer and inventor of the threshing machine, the predecessor of the combine harvester". Scottish Engineering Hall of Fame. Retrieved 5 April 2015.
^ "The Threshing Machine -- Separation of Grain from Stalks and Husks".
^ "home".
^ http://www.dufurthreshingbee.org
^ "Welcome to the Donnelly Threshing Bee".

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Grain – Grains are small, hard, dry seeds, with or without attached hulls or fruit layers, harvested for human or animal consumption. Agronomists also call the plants producing such seeds grain crops, the two main types of commercial grain crops are cereals such as wheat and rye, and legumes such as beans and soybeans. Because of the ubiquity of grain as a source, the term grain is often used to describe something small. After being harvested, dry grains are more durable than other foods, such as starchy fruits. Thus, major global commodity markets exist for canola, maize, rice, soybeans, wheat, in botany, grains and cereals are synonymous with caryopses, the fruits of the grass family. In agronomy and commerce, seeds or fruits from other plant families are called if they resemble caryopses. For example, amaranth is sold as grain amaranth, and amaranth products may be described as whole grains, the pre-Hispanic civilizations of the Andes had grain-based food systems but, at the higher elevatio

1. Food grains at a weekly market

2. Cereal grain seeds from left to right: wheat, spelt, barley, oat.

3. Barley

4. Rye grains.

Harvest – Harvesting is the process of gathering a ripe crop from the fields. Reaping is the cutting of grain or pulse for harvest, typically using a scythe, sickle, on smaller farms with minimal mechanization, harvesting is the most labor-intensive activity of the growing season. On large mechanized farms, harvesting utilizes the most expensive and sophisticated farm machinery, the term harvesting in general usage may include immediate postharvest handling, including cleaning, sorting, packing, and cooling. Harvest, a noun, came from the Old English word hærfest, meaning autumn, harvest-time, the harvest came to also mean the activity of reaping, gathering, and storing grain and other grown products during the autumn, and also the grain and other grown products themselves. Harvest was also verbified, To harvest means to reap, gather, people who harvest and equipment that harvests are harvesters, while they do it, they are harvesting. In history, crop failures and subsequent famines have trigger

1. Harvesting agriculture in Volgograd Oblast, Russia

2. Rye harvest on Gotland, Sweden, 1900–1910.

3. Sugar beet harvester. Baden-Wurttemberg, Germany.

4. Vendangeurs Beaumes-de-Venise in Vaucluse, France

Winnowing – Wind winnowing is an agricultural method developed by ancient cultures for separating grain from chaff. It is also used to remove weevils or other pests from stored grain, threshing, the loosening of grain or seeds from the husks and straw, is the step in the chaff-removal process that comes before winnowing. In its simplest form it involves throwing the mixture into the air so that the wind blows away the lighter chaff, techniques included using a winnowing fan or using a tool on a pile of harvested grain. In Callimachus Hymn to Zeus, Adrasteia lays the infant Zeus in a golden líknon, her goat suckles him and he is given honey. In the Odyssey, the dead oracle Teiresias tells Odysseus to walk away from Ithaca with an oar until a wayfarer tells him it is a winnowing fan, and there to build a shrine to Poseidon. In Ancient China the method was improved by mechanisation with the development of the winnowing fan. This was featured in Wang Zhens book the Nong Shu of 1313 AD, ruth 3,2 Now Bo

1. Rice winnowing, Uttarakhand, India

2. Chinese rotary fan winnowing machine, from the Tiangong Kaiwu encyclopedia (1637) by Song Yingxing

3. Le vanneur (The Winnower) by Jean-François Millet, a 19th-century depiction of winnowing by fan

4. Winnowing machine

Chaff – Chaff is the dry, scaly protective casings of the seeds of cereal grain, or similar fine, dry, scaly plant material such as scaly parts of flowers, or finely chopped straw. Chaff is indigestible by humans, but livestock can eat it and in agriculture it is used as livestock fodder, chaff comes from Middle English chaf, from Old English ceaf, related to Old High German cheva, husk. In grasses, the seed is surrounded by thin, dry, scaly bracts. Once it is removed it is referred to as chaff. In wild cereals and in the primitive domesticated einkorn, emmer and spelt wheats, before the grain can be used, the husks must be removed. The process of loosening the chaff from the grain so as to remove it is called threshing – traditionally done by milling or pounding. Separating remaining loose chaff from the grain is called winnowing – traditionally done by repeatedly tossing the grain up into a wind which gradually blows the lighter chaff away. This method typically utilizes a broad, plate-shape

1. Rice chaff

2. Spikelets of a hulled wheat, einkorn

Flail – A flail is an agricultural tool used for threshing, the process of separating grains from their husks. It is usually made from two or more large sticks attached by a chain, one stick is held and swung, causing the other to strike a pile of grain. The precise dimensions and shape of flails were determined by generations of farmers to suit the particular grain they were harvesting, flails for other grains, such as rice or spelt, would have had different dimensions. Flails have generally fallen into disuse in many nations because of the availability of such as combine harvesters that require much less manual labour. As with most agricultural tools, flails were used as weapons by farmers who may have lacked better weapons. The flail is proposed as one of the origins of the two-piece baton known in the Okinawan kobudō weapon system as the nunchaku, the first known use of a flail as a weapon was by farmers under the leadership of Jan Žižka during the Hussite Wars in Bohemia. In ancient Egypt

1. An example of a grain flail

2. Flails used in Britain

3. French peasants threshing with flails around 1270.

Threshing floor – Threshing was originally. to tramp or stamp heavily with the feet. And was later applied to the act of separating out grain by the feet of people or oxen, animal and steam powered threshing machines from the nineteenth century onward made threshing floors obsolete. The outdoor threshing floor was either owned by the village or by a single family. Outdoor threshing floors are located near a farm or farmhouse. They are usually paved with material that may be of various kinds, for example round stone cobbles about the size of a fist, slate, tile, unpaved earthen threshing floors are also sometimes found. The floors usually have a slope, to avoid water standing on them after rain. To overcome possible unevenness, and isolate them from running off after rain so helping to preserve them. The construction was often in a place, to take advantage of soft and steady winds to facilitate the work of winnowing, separating the grain from the chaff. The central bay of a barn was the location of the t

1. A threshing floor on São Jorge

2. A threshing floor in Santorini in Greece

3. Russian women using a hand powered winnowing machine in a barn. Note the board across the doorway to prevent grain from spilling out of the barn, this is the origin of the term threshold. Painting by K.V. Lebedev, The Floor, 1894

4. Threshing and bagging grain in Germany in 1695

Bushel – A bushel is an imperial and US customary unit of weight or mass based upon an earlier measure of dry capacity. The old bushel was equal to 4 pecks or 8 gallons and was used mostly for agricultural products such as wheat, at present, the volume is usually only nominal, with bushels referring to standard quantities of mass instead. Two pecks make a kenning, and four pecks make a bushel, the name bushel is also used to translate similar units in other measurement systems. The name is an anglicization of the Old French boissiel and buissiel and it may further derive from Old French boise, thus meaning little butt. The bushel is a value between the pound and ton or tun that was introduced to England following the Norman Conquest. Norman statutes made the London bushel part of the measure of English wine, ale. In either case, the bushel was reckoned to contain 64 pounds of 12 ounces of 20 pence of 32 grains and these measures were based on the relatively light tower pound and were rarely use

1. Queensland Government Standard Imperial Bushel. Queensland Museum

2. A full bushel is represented by a basket in the lower right.

3. A table of weights from the secretaries of the different states, showing the number of pounds which their laws recognize as a bushel of different articles. c. 1854

Industrialization – As industrial workers incomes rise, markets for consumer goods and services of all kinds tend to expand and provide a further stimulus to industrial investment and economic growth. Later commentators have called this the First Industrial Revolution, the invention of the assembly line gave this phase a boost. Coal mines, steelworks, and textile factories replaced homes as the place of work, by the end of the 20th century, East Asia had become one of the most recently industrialised regions of the world. The BRICS states are undergoing the process of industrialisation, there is considerable literature on the factors facilitating industrial modernisation and enterprise development. The concentration of labour into factories has increased urbanisation and the size of settlements, to serve, workers have to either leave their families or bring them along in order to work in the towns and cities where these industries are found. The family structure changes with industrialisation, the sociolo

1. The effect of Industrialisation shown by rising income levels since 1500. The graph shows the gross domestic product (at purchasing power parity) per capita between 1500 and 1950 in 1990 International dollars for selected nations.

Threshing machine – A threshing machine or thresher is a piece of farm equipment that threshes grain, that is, removes the seeds from the stalks and husks. It does so by beating the plant to make the fall out. Mechanization of this removed a substantial amount of drudgery from farm labor. During the 19th century, threshers and mechanical reapers and reaper-binders gradually became widespread, separate reaper-binders and threshers have largely been replaced by machines that combine all of their functions, that is, combine harvesters or combines. For example, pedal-powered threshers are a low-cost option, and some Amish sects use horse-drawn binders, as the verb thresh is cognate with the verb thrash, the names thrashing machine and thrasher are alternate forms. The Swing Riots in the UK were partly a result of the threshing machine, following years of war, high taxes and low wages, farm labourers finally revolted in 1830. These farm labourers had faced unemployment for a number of years due to the introduc

1. A threshing machine in operation

2. Threshing machine from 1881

3. Open-air museum in Saint-Hubert, Belgium.

4. Threshing of paddy by machine, Bangladesh.

Andrew Meikle – Andrew Meikle was a Scottish mechanical engineer credited with inventing the threshing machine, a device used to remove the outer husks from grains of wheat. He also had a hand in assisting Firbeck in the invention of the Rotherham Plough and this was regarded as one of the key developments of the British Agricultural Revolution in the late 18th century. The invention was made around 1786, although some say he only improved on a design by a Scottish farmer named Leckie. Meikle worked as a millwright at Houston Mill in East Linton, East Lothian and he died at Houston Mill and is buried in East Lintons Prestonkirk Parish Church kirkyard, close to Rennies father, George Rennie, who farmed the nearby Phantassie estate by the River Tyne. In 2011 he was one of seven inductees to the Scottish Engineering Hall of Fame. List of places in East Lothian Phantassie Doocot Gazetteer for Scotland entry for Andrew Meikle

1. Andrew Meikle, A. Reddock, c.1790-1800

Machine – Gary DellAbate, also known as Baba Booey, is an American radio producer, and has been the executive producer of The Howard Stern Show since 1984. His autobiography, They Call Me Baba Booey, was released on November 2,2010, DellAbate was born and raised in Uniondale, New York, on Long Island. He comes from a large Italian-American family and his father, Salvatore DellAbate, was a salesman for Hagen Daz ice cream, while his mother was a food demonstartor at Macys in New York City and Fortunoffs on Long Island. DellAbate attended Adelphi University, receiving the Richard F. Clemo Award his senior year, while interning with Roz Frank, a traffic reporter on WNBC, he came into contact with Howard Stern. DellAbate has worked on The Howard Stern Show since September 4,1984, originally on 66 WNBC, then syndicated through K-Rock in New York City, DellAbate was originally hired for $150 a week, with duties including getting Sterns lunch and scheduling guests for the show. Previously nicknamed Boy

1. Gary Dell'Abate

Combine harvester – The combine harvester, or simply combine, is a machine that harvests grain crops. The name derives from its three separate operations comprising harvesting—reaping, threshing, and winnowing—into a single process. Among the crops harvested with a combine are wheat, oats, rye, barley, corn, sorghum, soybeans, flax, sunflowers, and canola. Combine harvesters are one of the most economically important labour saving inventions, Scottish inventor Patrick Bell invented the reaper in 1826. The combine was invented in the United States by Hiram Moore in 1834, early versions were pulled by horse, mule or ox teams. In 1835, Moore built a version and by 1839. By 1860, combine harvesters with a cutting, or swathe, australian Hugh Victor McKay produced a commercially successful combine harvester in 1885, the Sunshine Harvester. Combines, some of them large, were drawn by mule or horse teams. Later, steam power was used, and George Stockton Berry integrated the combine with an engine using straw to h

1. A Lely open-cab combine.

2. Harvesting oats in a Claas lexion 570 combine with enclosed, air-conditioned cab with rotary thresher and laser-guided hydraulic steering

3. Old Style Harvester found in the Henty, Australia region

4. John Deere Combine 9870 STS with 625D

Communal work – Communal work is a gathering to accomplish a task or to hold a competition. A number of cultures have such gatherings, often for the purpose of holding a competition, such as a bee, or for providing manual labour, such as in a barn raising. Especially in the past major jobs, such as clearing a field of timber or raising a barn and it was often both a social and utilitarian event. Jobs like corn husking or sewing could be done as a group to allow socializing during an otherwise tedious chore, such gatherings often included refreshments and entertainment. Different words have been used to such gatherings. This use of the bee is common in literature describing colonial North America. It was, and continues to be, commonly used in Australia also, uses in literature include, There was a bee to-day for making a road up to the church. — Anne Langton The cellar … was dug by a bee in a single day, sometimes the women would have spinning bees. They would put rolls among their neighbors and on a d

1. A tent is being raised on talkoot for midsummer in Ylimuonio 2005.

2. Members of the community volunteering to move the house to new location.

Festival – A festival is an event ordinarily celebrated by a community and centering on some characteristic aspect of that community and its religion or traditions. It is often marked as a local or national holiday, mela, next to religion and folklore, a significant origin is agricultural. Food is such a resource that many festivals are associated with harvest time. Religious commemoration and thanksgiving for good harvests are blended in events that take place in autumn, such as Halloween in the northern hemisphere, Festivals often serve to fulfill specific communal purposes, especially in regard to commemoration or thanksgiving. The celebrations offer a sense of belonging for religious, social, or geographical groups and they may also provide entertainment, which was particularly important to local communities before the advent of mass-produced entertainment. In Ancient Greece and Rome, festivals such as the Saturnalia were closely associated with social organisation, in modern times, festivals

1. Procession in Honor of Isis depiction of the Egyptian Navigium Isidis festival by Frederick Arthur Bridgman (1902)

2. Village Feast. Facsimile of a woodcut of the Sandrin ou Verd Galant, facetious work end of 16th century (edition of 1609)

3. A Festival at Antwerp, 17th century

4. Country Festival in Swabia

Harvest festival – A harvest festival is an annual celebration that occurs around the time of the main harvest of a given region. Given the differences in climate and crops around the world, harvest festivals can be found at times at different places. Harvest festivals typically feature feasting, both family and public, with foods that are drawn from crops that come to maturity around the time of the festival, in North America, Canada and the US each have their own Thanksgiving celebrations in October and November. In Britain, thanks have been given for successful harvests since pagan times, Harvest festival is traditionally held on the Sunday near or of the Harvest Moon. This is the full Moon that occurs closest to the autumn equinox, in British and English-Caribbean churches, chapels and schools, and some Canadian churches, people bring in produce from the garden, the allotment or farm. The food is distributed among the poor and senior citizens of the local community, or used to raise funds for the chu

1. Agriculture

2. [4], an annual harvest festival in Southern Ontario

3. National Harvest Thanksgiving ceremony in Poland's Jasna Góra Roman Catholic sanctuary in Częstochowa, Poland.

4. Presidential Harvest Festival in Spała, Poland

Flea market – A flea market is a type of bazaar that rents or provides space to people who want to sell or barter merchandise. Used goods, cheap items, collectibles, and antiques are commonly sold, many markets offer fresh produce or baked goods, plants from local farms and vintage clothes. Renters of the flea market tables are called vendors and it may be indoors, as in a warehouse or school gymnasium, or outdoors, as in a field or parking lot or under a tent. Flea markets can be annually or semiannually, others may be conducted monthly, on weekends. Flea market vending is distinguished from street vending in that the market itself, many flea markets have food vendors who sell snacks and drinks to the patrons. Some flea market vendors have been targeted by law enforcement efforts to halt the sale of bootleg movies and music or knockoff brand clothing, toys, electrical goods, accessories, different English-speaking countries use various names for flea markets. In Australian English, they are also ca

1. A vintage travel gear seller at Marché Dauphine, Saint-Ouen, the home to Paris ' flea market

2. The Market NYC, an artists, designers, vintage and an indoor flea market in New York City

3. Flea market in Hietalahdentori, Helsinki, Finland

4. Flea Market in Germany

Pig wrestling – Pig wrestling is a type of game sometimes played at agricultural shows such as state and county fairs, in which contestants, usually children or young adults, try to grab a slippery pig. In the most common version of the game, a team of four members chases a domestic pig around a fenced-off mud pit and attempts to place it in a barrel, in a race against the clock. In some events the pigs are greased with vegetable or mineral oil in order to make catching the pig more difficult, rules vary depending on the venue. Some contests use larger pigs, while others use those that are smaller, some include a single pig, while others use more than one. The pigs are coated with shortening, vegetable oil, lard, contestants chase the pigs around a field or other determined area. Depending on the contest, contestants try to get one or both hands on the pig, tackle and hold the pig down, or drag the pig to a set point. There may be several rounds per contest, the prize for winning is often the pig itse

1. A greased pig contest at the Houston, Indiana Fall Festival in 2004

2. Pig wrestling in Chile.

3. Domestic

Dance – Dance is a performance art form consisting of purposefully selected sequences of human movement. This movement has aesthetic and symbolic value, and is acknowledged as dance by performers and observers within a particular culture, Dance can be categorized and described by its choreography, by its repertoire of movements, or by its historical period or place of origin. Other forms of movement are sometimes said to have a dance-like quality, including martial arts, gymnastics, figure skating, synchronized swimming. Theatrical dance, also called performance or concert dance, is intended primarily as a spectacle and it often tells a story, perhaps using mime, costume and scenery, or else it may simply interpret the musical accompaniment, which is often specially composed. Examples are western ballet and modern dance, Classical Indian dance and Chinese and Japanese song, most classical forms are centred upon dance alone, but performance dance may also appear in opera and other forms of musi

1. Modern dance

2. Members of American jazz dance company Giordano Dance Chicago perform a formal group routine in a concert dance setting

3. Greek bronze statuette of a veiled and masked dancer, 3rd-2nd century BC, Alexandria, Egypt.

4. Ugandan youth dance at a cultural celebration of peace

Roscheider Hof Open Air Museum – The Roscheider Hof Open Air Museum is the open-air museum and Folklore Museum of the Greater SaarLorLux Region. The museum is situated in Konz, Germany, on the Saar and it is a museum for rural cultural history in northwest Rhineland-Palatinate and the German-Luxembourg-Lorraine border region. Unlike many other museums, the Roscheider Hof is not a public or community institution. The museum is financed by fees, entrance charges, subsidies. The founder of the association was Prof. Rolf Robischon, the Roscheider Hof estate is used today as an open-air museum. It consists of buildings, with the core of the site formed by buildings around a rectangular courtyard. The Roscheider Hof was first mentioned in a record dating from 1330, during the 1978 renovations a few parts of a building came to light that could be dated to the early 16th century. For instance, there is a small walled window with late Gothic splays, until the French Revolution in 1794, it was an agricultural estate owned by th

1. Hunsrück village

2. The Green Path, museum meadows and orchards

3. Farmers' and craftsmen's day

Santorini – Santorini, classically Thera, and officially Thira, is an island in the southern Aegean Sea, about 200 km southeast of Greeces mainland. It is the largest island of a small, circular archipelago which bears the name and is the remnant of a volcanic caldera. It forms the southernmost member of the Cyclades group of islands, with an area of approximately 73 km2, the municipality of Santorini includes the inhabited islands of Santorini and Therasia and the uninhabited islands of Nea Kameni, Palaia Kameni, Aspronisi, and Christiana. The total land area is 90.623 km2, Santorini is part of the Thira regional unit. Santorini is essentially what remains after a volcanic eruption that destroyed the earliest settlements on a formerly single island. A giant central, rectangular lagoon, which measures about 12 by 7 km, is surrounded by 300 m high, the main island slopes downward to the Aegean Sea. On the fourth side, the lagoon is separated from the sea by another smaller island called Therasia. T

1. View across collapsed caldera

2. Fira, main town of Santorini

3. Satellite image of Santorini caldera. The large island to the east is Thera, with Aspronisi and Therasia making up the rest of the caldera ring, clockwise. In the centre is the larger Nea Kameni and the smaller Palea Kameni.

4. Volcanic craters at Santorini today

Romanian dress – Romanian dress refers to the traditional clothing worn by Romanians, who live primarily in Romania and Moldova, with smaller communities in Ukraine and Serbia. Today, the vast majority of Romanians wear modern style dress on most occasions, however, they can still be seen in more remote areas, on special occasions, and at ethnographic and folk events. Each historical region has its own variety of costume. Romanian traditional clothing can be classified according to seven traditional regions and these can be further subdivided by ethnographic zones, which may range between 40 and 120, depending on the criteria used. Between 7000 and 3500 BC was founded the belief in the one controlling power of the cosmos, fabrics wore symbols appointed by virtue of faith, thus spinning and weaving became sacred. Therefore, were customary on the dresses the solar circle, the column of the sky, the rhomb, since 3500 BC and until year zero has passed from the sacred weaving to the vestment, the ritual rea

1. Transylvania

3. Oaș Country

4. Banat

Yak

Astore District – Astore is one of the nine districts of the Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. According to the 1998 census of Pakistan the population was 71,666, the Astore valley has an area of 5,092 km² and an altitude of 2600m. Astore is connected to Gilgit which is connected by air with Islamabad and by road with Islamabad/Rawalpindi, Skardu. You can take a flight to Gilgit from the capital of the country and it connects its extremist with the Indian held Kashmir, Northwest connects with Pakistan held Kashmir, in the East it connects with the Skardu, in the West it connects to outskirts of Chilas. According to the Imperial Gazetteer of India, around 1600, Astore valley has a moderate climate during summer, in winter it can snow up to 6 inches in the main valleys and up to 2–3 feet in the mountains. In Mirmalik valley it snows up to 6 feet in February, the main language spoken in the valley is Shina. Urdu, which is the National language of Pakistan, is the second most frequently spoken language. There are

1. Astore District

2. Passes

Gilgit-Baltistan – Gilgit-Baltistan, formerly known as the Northern Areas, is the northernmost administrative territory in Pakistan. Gilgit-Baltistan is part of the Kashmir region that is disputed by India and Pakistan, along with Azad Kashmir, Aksai Chin, the Shaksgam Valley, and Jammu, Ladakh, the territory of present-day Gilgit-Baltistan became a separate administrative unit in 1970 under the name Northern Areas. It was formed by the amalgamation of the former Gilgit Agency, the Baltistan district and several small former princely states, however, scholars state that the real power rests with the governor and not with chief minister or elected assembly. The population of Gilgit-Baltistan wants to be merged into Pakistan as a fifth province. Gilgit-Baltistan covers an area of over 72,971 km² and is highly mountainous and it had an estimated population of 1,800,000 in 2015. Gilgit-Baltistan is home to five of the eight-thousanders and to more than fifty peaks above 7,000 metres, three of the worlds long

1. Clockwise from top: K2, Biafo Glacier, Attabad Lake Hunza, Skardu machulu baltistan, Deosai National Park

2. Map of Gilgit-Baltistan showing its position relative to Azad Kashmir

3. The last Maqpon Raja Ahmed Shah (died in prison in Srinagar by Dogra rulers. around 1845)

4. Satpara Lake, Skardu, in 2002

Goessel, Kansas – Goessel is a city in Marion County, Kansas, United States. It was named after Captain Kurt von Goessel who went down with his ship, as of the 2010 census, the city population was 539. For many millennia, the Great Plains of North America was inhabited by nomadic Native Americans, from the 16th century to 18th century, the Kingdom of France claimed ownership of large parts of North America. In 1762, after the French and Indian War, France secretly ceded New France to Spain, in 1802, Spain returned most of the land to France. In 1803, most of the land for modern day Kansas was acquired by the United States from France as part of the 828,000 square mile Louisiana Purchase for 2.83 cents per acre. In 1854, the Kansas Territory was organized, then in 1861 Kansas became the 34th U. S. state, in 1855, Marion County was established within the Kansas Territory, which included the land for modern day Goessel. The year 1874 saw the first wave of an immigration of German-speaking Russian Mennonite

1. Alexanderwohl Mennonite Church 1 mile north of Goessel (2007)

2. Goessel mural (2015)

3. Wheat Threshing Demo at Goessel Threshing Days (August 7, 2010)

4. Threshing stone near Alexanderwohl Mennonite Church (2011)

Hainan – Hainan is the smallest and southernmost province of the Peoples Republic of China, consisting of various islands in the South China Sea. Hainan Island, separated from Guangdongs Leizhou Peninsula by the Qiongzhou Strait, is the largest island under PRC control and makes up the majority of the province. The province has an area of 33,920 square kilometers, with Hainan Island making up 32,900 square kilometers, there are a total of ten major cities and ten counties in Hainan Province. Haikou on the northern coast of Hainan Island is the capital while Sanya is a well-known tourist destination on the southern coast, the other major cities are Wenchang, Qionghai, Wanning, Wuzhishan, Dongfang, and Danzhou. Chinas controversial claims in the South China Sea, including the Nansha and Xisha Islands, are administered as part of the province. The provincial name derives from its island, Hainan, which is named for its position south of the Qiongzhou Strait. Former names for Hainan Island include Z

1. Hainan

2. Map showing the location of Hainan Province

3. Haikou, the capital of the province as seen looking south from Evergreen Park, a large park located on the north shore of the city

4. Hainanese residents in the countryside

Bangladesh – Bangladesh, officially the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh, is a country in South Asia. It shares land borders with India and Myanmar, Nepal, Bhutan and China are located near Bangladesh but do not share a border with it. The countrys maritime territory in the Bay of Bengal is roughly equal to the size of its land area, Bangladesh is the worlds eighth most populous country. Dhaka is its capital and largest city, followed by Chittagong which has the countrys largest port, Bangladesh forms the largest and eastern part of the Bengal region. Bangladeshis include people of different ethnic groups and religions, Bengalis, who speak the official Bengali, make up 98% of the population. The politically dominant Bengali Muslims make the nation the worlds third largest Muslim-majority country, most of Bangladesh is covered by the Bengal delta, the largest delta on Earth. The country has 700 rivers and 8,046 km of inland waterways, highlands with evergreen forests are found in the northeastern and

1. Mahasthangarh is the oldest archaeological site in Bangladesh. It dates back to 700 BCE and was the ancient capital of the Pundra Kingdom

3. Asia in 323 BC, the Gangaridai Empire in relation to the Nanda Empire, Alexander 's Empire and neighbours

4. The Somapura Mahavihara, once the largest Buddhist vihara in South Asia, built by Emperor Dharmapala of Bengal

Swing Riots – The first threshing machine was destroyed on Saturday night,28 August 1830, and by the third week of October more than 100 threshing machines had been destroyed in East Kent. If captured, the protesters faced charges of arson, robbery, riot, machine breaking and those convicted faced imprisonment, transportation, and possibly execution. In parliament Lord Carnarvon had said that the English labourer was reduced to a plight more abject than that of any race in Europe, with their employers no longer able to feed, the Swing letters were first mentioned by The Times newspaper on 21 October 1830. Early nineteenth-century England was virtually unique among major nations in having no class of landed smallholding peasantry, probably one of the main reasons for the Swing Riots were the Enclosure Acts of rural England. Between 1770 and 1830 about 6 million acres of land were enclosed. The common land had been used for centuries by the poor of the countryside to graze their animals and this land

1. Horse-powered threshing machine

2. Typical 'Swing' letter

3. Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey

4. Lord Melbourne

Threshing-board – A threshing board is an obsolete farm implement used to separate cereals from their straw, that is, to thresh. Should the person need more weight, he need only put some big stones over it, the dimensions of threshing boards varied. In Spain, they could be up to two metres in length and a metre and a half wide. There were also smaller threshing boards, as little about a metre-and-a-half long, the thickness of the slats of the threshing board is some five or six cm. Nonetheless, since threshing boards are nowadays custom made, made to order or made smaller as an adornment or souvenir, the threshing board has been traditionally pulled by mules or by oxen over the grains spread on the threshing floor. As it was moved in circles over the harvest that was spread, the chips or blades cut the straw. The threshed grain was then gathered and set to be cleaned by means of winnowing. In this manner, Pliny refers to the three methods of threshing grain, Beating sheafs of grain against a crushing st

1. Top view of a Spanish threshing board

2. Sweeping the threshing floor in order to pile up the seed

3. Cleaning the seed with a mechanical winnowing machine

4. King David, by Pedro Berruguete

Threshing stone – A threshing stone is a roller-like tool used for the threshing of wheat. The straw was removed from the pile and the remaining grain, by a process called winnowing, the grain was tossed into the air to allow the chaff and dirt to be blown away, leaving only the grain. The threshing stone became the method used to knock the grain from the head because it was less labor-intensive than the use of the traditional threshing flail. In the 1870s, approximately one-third of all Russian Mennonites immigrated to the Great Plains of North America, the immigrants in central Kansas brought the threshing stone technology with them, and contracted stone masons in the Florence, Kansas area to construct stones made of limestone. The threshing stone is a stone with teeth carved into it. Stones made in Kansas were approximately 29 to 30 inches long,23 to 24 inches in diameter, with 7 notches resembling gear teeth, made of limestone, some smaller stones may weigh less than 400 pounds. In 2011, over 90 thr

1. Threshing stone near Goessel, Kansas at Alexanderwohl Mennonite Church. (2010)

2. Cross sections of a threshing stone on a monument in Peabody, Kansas. (2010)

3. 1974 Mennonite Centennial Memorial Monument in Santa Fe Park of Peabody, Kansas. A threshing stone was cut and placed on 4 sides of this monument. (2010)

International Standard Book Number

1. A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an EAN-13 bar code

LIST OF IMAGES

1. Grain – Grains are small, hard, dry seeds, with or without attached hulls or fruit layers, harvested for human or animal consumption. Agronomists also call the plants producing such seeds grain crops, the two main types of commercial grain crops are cereals such as wheat and rye, and legumes such as beans and soybeans. Because of the ubiquity of grain as a source, the term grain is often used to describe something small. After being harvested, dry grains are more durable than other foods, such as starchy fruits. Thus, major global commodity markets exist for canola, maize, rice, soybeans, wheat, in botany, grains and cereals are synonymous with caryopses, the fruits of the grass family. In agronomy and commerce, seeds or fruits from other plant families are called if they resemble caryopses. For example, amaranth is sold as grain amaranth, and amaranth products may be described as whole grains, the pre-Hispanic civilizations of the Andes had grain-based food systems but, at the higher elevations, none of the grains was a cereal. All three grains native to the Andes are broad-leafed plants rather than such as corn, rice. All cereal crops are members of the grass family, cereal grains contain a substantial amount of starch, a carbohydrate that provides dietary energy. As is the case all other whole plant foods, pulses also contain carbohydrate. Vegetable oils provide dietary energy and some essential fatty acids and they are also used as fuel or lubricants. Those who handle grain at grain facilities may encounter numerous occupational hazards, risks include grain entrapment, where workers are submerged in the grain and unable to remove themselves, explosions caused by fine particles of grain dust, and falls

Grain – Food grains at a weekly market
Grain – Cereal grain seeds from left to right: wheat, spelt, barley, oat.
Grain – Barley
Grain – Rye grains.

2. Harvest – Harvesting is the process of gathering a ripe crop from the fields. Reaping is the cutting of grain or pulse for harvest, typically using a scythe, sickle, on smaller farms with minimal mechanization, harvesting is the most labor-intensive activity of the growing season. On large mechanized farms, harvesting utilizes the most expensive and sophisticated farm machinery, the term harvesting in general usage may include immediate postharvest handling, including cleaning, sorting, packing, and cooling. Harvest, a noun, came from the Old English word hærfest, meaning autumn, harvest-time, the harvest came to also mean the activity of reaping, gathering, and storing grain and other grown products during the autumn, and also the grain and other grown products themselves. Harvest was also verbified, To harvest means to reap, gather, people who harvest and equipment that harvests are harvesters, while they do it, they are harvesting. In history, crop failures and subsequent famines have triggered human migration, rural exodus, over years, unsustainable farming of land degrades soil fertility and diminishes crop yield. With a steadily growing population and local overpopulation, even slightly diminishing yields are already the equivalent to a partial harvest failure. Fortunately, fertilizers obviate the need for regeneration in the first place. Harvesting commonly refers to grain and produce, but also has other uses, the term harvest is also used in reference to harvesting grapes for wine. Within the context of irrigation, water harvesting refers to the collection, instead of harvest, the term exploit is also used, as in exploiting fisheries or water resources. Energy harvesting is the process of capturing and storing energy that would otherwise go unexploited, body harvesting, or cadaver harvesting, is the process of collecting and preparing cadavers for anatomical study. In a similar sense, organ harvesting is the removal of tissues or organs from a donor for purposes of transplanting. Harvesting or Domestic Harvesting in Canada refers to hunting, fishing, and plant gathering by First Nations, Métis, for example, in the Gwichin Comprehensive Land Claim Agreement, Harvesting means gathering, hunting, trapping or fishing. Similarly, in the Tlicho Land Claim and Self Government Agreement, Harvesting means, in relation to wildlife, hunting, trapping or fishing and, in relation to plants or trees, combine Harvester Harvest Harvest festival Overharvesting Threshing Winnowing

Harvest – Harvesting agriculture in Volgograd Oblast, Russia
Harvest – Rye harvest on Gotland, Sweden, 1900–1910.
Harvest – Sugar beet harvester. Baden-Wurttemberg, Germany.
Harvest – Vendangeurs Beaumes-de-Venise in Vaucluse, France

3. Winnowing – Wind winnowing is an agricultural method developed by ancient cultures for separating grain from chaff. It is also used to remove weevils or other pests from stored grain, threshing, the loosening of grain or seeds from the husks and straw, is the step in the chaff-removal process that comes before winnowing. In its simplest form it involves throwing the mixture into the air so that the wind blows away the lighter chaff, techniques included using a winnowing fan or using a tool on a pile of harvested grain. In Callimachus Hymn to Zeus, Adrasteia lays the infant Zeus in a golden líknon, her goat suckles him and he is given honey. In the Odyssey, the dead oracle Teiresias tells Odysseus to walk away from Ithaca with an oar until a wayfarer tells him it is a winnowing fan, and there to build a shrine to Poseidon. In Ancient China the method was improved by mechanisation with the development of the winnowing fan. This was featured in Wang Zhens book the Nong Shu of 1313 AD, ruth 3,2 Now Boaz, with whose women you have worked, is a relative of ours. Tonight he will be winnowing barley on the threshing floor, proverbs 20,8 When a king sits on his throne to judge, he winnows out all evil with his eyes. Proverbs 20,26 A wise king winnows out the wicked, isaiah 41,16 You will winnow them, the wind will pick them up, and a gale will blow them away. But you will rejoice in the Lord and glory in the Holy One of Israel, I will bring bereavement and destruction on my people, for they have not changed their ways. Jeremiah 51,2 I will send foreigners to Babylon to winnow her and to devastate her land, in Matthew 3,12, a sentence introduces the separation of wheat and chaff by His winnowing fan is in his hand. In Saxon settlements such as one identified in Northumberland as Bedes Ad Gefrin the buildings were shown by a reconstruction to have opposed entries. In barns a draught created by the use of these opposed doorways was used in winnowing, the technique developed by the Chinese was not adopted in Europe until the 18th century, when winnowing machines used a sail fan. The rotary winnowing fan was exported to Europe, brought there by Dutch sailors between 1700 and 1720, apparently they had obtained them from the Dutch settlement of Batavia in Java, Dutch East Indies. The Swedes imported some from south China at about the same time, until the beginning of the 18th century, no rotary winnowing fans existed in the West. The development of the winnowing barn allowed rice plantations in South Carolina to increase their yields dramatically, in 1737 Andrew Rodger, a farmer on the estate of Cavers in Roxburghshire, developed a winnowing machine for corn, called a Fanner. These were successful and the family sold them throughout Scotland for many years, as the Industrial Revolution, the winnowing process was mechanized by the invention of additional winnowing machines, such as fanning mills. Threshing Rice huller Rice pounder Sieving Winnowing engine machine Winnowing Winnowing machine The dictionary definition of winnowing at Wiktionary

Winnowing – Rice winnowing, Uttarakhand, India
Winnowing – Chinese rotary fan winnowing machine, from the Tiangong Kaiwu encyclopedia (1637) by Song Yingxing
Winnowing – Le vanneur (The Winnower) by Jean-François Millet, a 19th-century depiction of winnowing by fan
Winnowing – Winnowing machine

4. Chaff – Chaff is the dry, scaly protective casings of the seeds of cereal grain, or similar fine, dry, scaly plant material such as scaly parts of flowers, or finely chopped straw. Chaff is indigestible by humans, but livestock can eat it and in agriculture it is used as livestock fodder, chaff comes from Middle English chaf, from Old English ceaf, related to Old High German cheva, husk. In grasses, the seed is surrounded by thin, dry, scaly bracts. Once it is removed it is referred to as chaff. In wild cereals and in the primitive domesticated einkorn, emmer and spelt wheats, before the grain can be used, the husks must be removed. The process of loosening the chaff from the grain so as to remove it is called threshing – traditionally done by milling or pounding. Separating remaining loose chaff from the grain is called winnowing – traditionally done by repeatedly tossing the grain up into a wind which gradually blows the lighter chaff away. This method typically utilizes a broad, plate-shaped basket or similar receptacle to hold, domesticated grains such as durum wheat and common wheat have been bred to have chaff that is easily removed. These varieties are known as free-threshing or naked, chaff should not be confused with bran, which is finer scaly material that is part of the grain itself. Chaff is also made by chopping straw into short lengths. Like grain chaff this is used as feed, and is a way of turning coarse fodder into a form more palatable to livestock. In botany, chaff refers to the thin receptacular bracts of many species in the sunflower family Asteraceae and they are modified scale-like leaves surrounding single florets in the flower-head. Chaff as a product from grain processing leads to a metaphorical use of the term. Compare also the Parable of the Tares, which refers to a mixture of wheat, another example is in Psalm 1,4 of the Bible, which says, The ungodly are not so, but are like the chaff which the wind driveth away. Hungarian engineer László Schremmer has recently discovered that by the use of chaff-based filters it is possible to reduce the content of water to 3 microgram/litre. This is especially important in areas where the water is provided by filtering the water extracted from the underground aquifer. Bran Biomass Combine harvester Rice hulls Rice huller Threshing Threshing machine Winnowing

Chaff – Rice chaff
Chaff – Spikelets of a hulled wheat, einkorn

5. Flail – A flail is an agricultural tool used for threshing, the process of separating grains from their husks. It is usually made from two or more large sticks attached by a chain, one stick is held and swung, causing the other to strike a pile of grain. The precise dimensions and shape of flails were determined by generations of farmers to suit the particular grain they were harvesting, flails for other grains, such as rice or spelt, would have had different dimensions. Flails have generally fallen into disuse in many nations because of the availability of such as combine harvesters that require much less manual labour. As with most agricultural tools, flails were used as weapons by farmers who may have lacked better weapons. The flail is proposed as one of the origins of the two-piece baton known in the Okinawan kobudō weapon system as the nunchaku, the first known use of a flail as a weapon was by farmers under the leadership of Jan Žižka during the Hussite Wars in Bohemia. In ancient Egypt the flail was an associated with the emperor. Media related to Threshing flails at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of Flail at Wiktionary Antique Farm Tools Agriculture in Victorian Times Picture of one kind of rice flail

Flail – An example of a grain flail
Flail – Flails used in Britain
Flail – French peasants threshing with flails around 1270.

6. Threshing floor – Threshing was originally. to tramp or stamp heavily with the feet. And was later applied to the act of separating out grain by the feet of people or oxen, animal and steam powered threshing machines from the nineteenth century onward made threshing floors obsolete. The outdoor threshing floor was either owned by the village or by a single family. Outdoor threshing floors are located near a farm or farmhouse. They are usually paved with material that may be of various kinds, for example round stone cobbles about the size of a fist, slate, tile, unpaved earthen threshing floors are also sometimes found. The floors usually have a slope, to avoid water standing on them after rain. To overcome possible unevenness, and isolate them from running off after rain so helping to preserve them. The construction was often in a place, to take advantage of soft and steady winds to facilitate the work of winnowing, separating the grain from the chaff. The central bay of a barn was the location of the threshing floor. Some large barns have two or even three threshing floors, the floors in barns may be packed dirt, stone, or a tightly fitted wood. Threshing in barns was mostly done by hand with a flail until threshing machines became available in the 19th century, the harvest could be stored in the barn and threshed during the winter. Barns may have a room or a separate granary building may have been used to store the threshed crop. The farm family could use the barn to their advantage in winnowing by standing in a doorway where a slight breeze is magnified by the passing around the building. Some barns had smaller winnowing doors to the rear of the floor to concentrate the breeze even more than the big barn doors. Sheaves of grain would be opened up and the stalks spread across the threshing floor, after this threshing process, the broken stalks and grain were collected and then thrown up into the air with a wooden winnowing fork or a winnowing fan. The chaff would be blown away by the wind, the short straw would fall some distance away. The grain could then be cleansed by sieving. Media related to Threshing floors at Wikimedia Commons

Threshing floor – A threshing floor on São Jorge
Threshing floor – A threshing floor in Santorini in Greece
Threshing floor – Russian women using a hand powered winnowing machine in a barn. Note the board across the doorway to prevent grain from spilling out of the barn, this is the origin of the term threshold. Painting by K.V. Lebedev, The Floor, 1894
Threshing floor – Threshing and bagging grain in Germany in 1695

7. Bushel – A bushel is an imperial and US customary unit of weight or mass based upon an earlier measure of dry capacity. The old bushel was equal to 4 pecks or 8 gallons and was used mostly for agricultural products such as wheat, at present, the volume is usually only nominal, with bushels referring to standard quantities of mass instead. Two pecks make a kenning, and four pecks make a bushel, the name bushel is also used to translate similar units in other measurement systems. The name is an anglicization of the Old French boissiel and buissiel and it may further derive from Old French boise, thus meaning little butt. The bushel is a value between the pound and ton or tun that was introduced to England following the Norman Conquest. Norman statutes made the London bushel part of the measure of English wine, ale. In either case, the bushel was reckoned to contain 64 pounds of 12 ounces of 20 pence of 32 grains and these measures were based on the relatively light tower pound and were rarely used in Scotland, Ireland, or Wales during the Middle Ages. When the Tower system was abolished in the 16th century, the bushel was redefined as 56 avoirdupois pounds. The imperial bushel established by the Weights and Measures Act of 1824 described the bushel as the volume of 80 avoirdupois pounds of distilled water in air at 62 °F or 8 imperial gallons and this is the bushel in some use in the United Kingdom. Thus there is no distinction between liquid and dry measure in the imperial system, the Winchester bushel was the volume of a cylinder 18.5 in in diameter and 8 in high, which gives an irrational number of cubic inches. The modern American or US bushel is a variant of this, rounded to exactly 2150.42 cubic inches and it is also somewhat in use in Canada. Bushels are now most often used as units of mass or weight rather than of volume, the bushels in which grains are bought and sold on commodity markets or at local grain elevators, and for reports of grain production, are all units of weight. This is done by assigning a weight to each commodity that is to be measured in bushels. These bushels depend on the commodities being measured and the moisture content. Some of the common ones are, Oats, USA,32 lb Canada,34 lb Barley,48 lb Malted barley,34 lb Shelled maize at 15. 5% moisture by weight,56 lb Wheat at 13. Government policy in the United States is to phase out units such as the bushel, the German bushel was the Scheffel. The Polish bushel was used as measure of dry capacity and it was divided into 4 quarters and in the early 19th century had a value of 128 litres in Warsaw and 501.116 litres in Kraków. The Spanish bushel was used as a measure of dry capacity and it was roughly equal to 55.5 litres in Castille

Bushel – Queensland Government Standard Imperial Bushel. Queensland Museum
Bushel – A full bushel is represented by a basket in the lower right.
Bushel – A table of weights from the secretaries of the different states, showing the number of pounds which their laws recognize as a bushel of different articles. c. 1854

8. Industrialization – As industrial workers incomes rise, markets for consumer goods and services of all kinds tend to expand and provide a further stimulus to industrial investment and economic growth. Later commentators have called this the First Industrial Revolution, the invention of the assembly line gave this phase a boost. Coal mines, steelworks, and textile factories replaced homes as the place of work, by the end of the 20th century, East Asia had become one of the most recently industrialised regions of the world. The BRICS states are undergoing the process of industrialisation, there is considerable literature on the factors facilitating industrial modernisation and enterprise development. The concentration of labour into factories has increased urbanisation and the size of settlements, to serve, workers have to either leave their families or bring them along in order to work in the towns and cities where these industries are found. The family structure changes with industrialisation, the sociologist Talcott Parsons noted that in pre-industrial societies there is an extended family structure spanning many generations who probably remained in the same location for generations. In industrialised societies the nuclear family, consisting of parents and their growing children. Families and children reaching adulthood are more mobile and tend to relocate to where jobs exist, extended family bonds become more tenuous. Currently the international development community endorses development policies like water purification or primary education and Co-Operation amongst third world communities, the relationships among economic growth, employment, and poverty reduction are complex. Higher productivity is argued to be leading to lower employment, division of labour Newly industrialised country Idea of Progress Chandler Jr. Alfred D. The Visible Hand, The Management Revolution in American Business, belknap Press of Harvard University Press. Hewitt, T. Johnson, H. and Wield, D. industrialisation and Development, Oxford University Press, hobsbawm, Eric, The Age of Revolution. Kemp, Tom Historical Patterns of Industrialisation, Longman, London, ISBN 0-582-09547-6 Kiely, R industrialisation and Development, A comparative analysis, UCL Press, London. The Unbound Prometheus, Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present, Cambridge, New York, Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. Pomeranz, Ken The Great Divergence, China, Europe and the Making of the Modern World Economy by Tilly, industrialization as an Historical Process, European History Online, Mainz, Institute of European History,2010, retrieved,29 February 2011

Industrialization – The effect of Industrialisation shown by rising income levels since 1500. The graph shows the gross domestic product (at purchasing power parity) per capita between 1500 and 1950 in 1990 International dollars for selected nations.

9. Threshing machine – A threshing machine or thresher is a piece of farm equipment that threshes grain, that is, removes the seeds from the stalks and husks. It does so by beating the plant to make the fall out. Mechanization of this removed a substantial amount of drudgery from farm labor. During the 19th century, threshers and mechanical reapers and reaper-binders gradually became widespread, separate reaper-binders and threshers have largely been replaced by machines that combine all of their functions, that is, combine harvesters or combines. For example, pedal-powered threshers are a low-cost option, and some Amish sects use horse-drawn binders, as the verb thresh is cognate with the verb thrash, the names thrashing machine and thrasher are alternate forms. The Swing Riots in the UK were partly a result of the threshing machine, following years of war, high taxes and low wages, farm labourers finally revolted in 1830. These farm labourers had faced unemployment for a number of years due to the introduction of the threshing machine. No longer were thousands of men needed to tend the crops, with fewer jobs, lower wages and no prospects of things improving for these workers the threshing machine was the final straw, the machine was to place them on the brink of starvation. The Swing Rioters smashed threshing machines and threatened farmers who had them, the riots were dealt with very harshly. Nine of the rioters were hanged and a further 450 were transported to Australia, early threshing machines were hand-fed and horse-powered. They were small by todays standards and were about the size of an upright piano, later machines were steam-powered, driven by a portable engine or traction engine. Isaiah Jennings, an inventor, created a small thresher that doesnt harm the straw in the process. In 1834, John Avery and Hiram Abial Pitts devised significant improvements to a machine that automatically threshes and separates grain from chaff, freeing farmers from a slow, Avery and Pitts were granted United States patent #542 on December 29,1837. John Ridley, an Australian inventor, also developed a machine in South Australia in 1843. Where coals are plenty and cheap, steam may be used for working the machine. Steam-powered machines used belts connected to an engine, often both engine and thresher belonged to a contractor who toured the farms of a district. Steam remained a commercial option until the early post-WWII years. Threshing is just one step of the process in getting cereals to the grinding mill, the wheat needs to be grown, cut, stooked, hauled, threshed, de-chaffed, straw baled, and then the grain hauled to a grain elevator

Threshing machine – A threshing machine in operation
Threshing machine – Threshing machine from 1881
Threshing machine – Open-air museum in Saint-Hubert, Belgium.
Threshing machine – Threshing of paddy by machine, Bangladesh.

10. Andrew Meikle – Andrew Meikle was a Scottish mechanical engineer credited with inventing the threshing machine, a device used to remove the outer husks from grains of wheat. He also had a hand in assisting Firbeck in the invention of the Rotherham Plough and this was regarded as one of the key developments of the British Agricultural Revolution in the late 18th century. The invention was made around 1786, although some say he only improved on a design by a Scottish farmer named Leckie. Meikle worked as a millwright at Houston Mill in East Linton, East Lothian and he died at Houston Mill and is buried in East Lintons Prestonkirk Parish Church kirkyard, close to Rennies father, George Rennie, who farmed the nearby Phantassie estate by the River Tyne. In 2011 he was one of seven inductees to the Scottish Engineering Hall of Fame. List of places in East Lothian Phantassie Doocot Gazetteer for Scotland entry for Andrew Meikle

Andrew Meikle – Andrew Meikle, A. Reddock, c.1790-1800

11. Machine – Gary DellAbate, also known as Baba Booey, is an American radio producer, and has been the executive producer of The Howard Stern Show since 1984. His autobiography, They Call Me Baba Booey, was released on November 2,2010, DellAbate was born and raised in Uniondale, New York, on Long Island. He comes from a large Italian-American family and his father, Salvatore DellAbate, was a salesman for Hagen Daz ice cream, while his mother was a food demonstartor at Macys in New York City and Fortunoffs on Long Island. DellAbate attended Adelphi University, receiving the Richard F. Clemo Award his senior year, while interning with Roz Frank, a traffic reporter on WNBC, he came into contact with Howard Stern. DellAbate has worked on The Howard Stern Show since September 4,1984, originally on 66 WNBC, then syndicated through K-Rock in New York City, DellAbate was originally hired for $150 a week, with duties including getting Sterns lunch and scheduling guests for the show. Previously nicknamed Boy Gary, DellAbates Baba Booey moniker originated on The Howard Stern Show on July 26,1990, in the course of discussing a Quick Draw McGraw cel he might purchase, he misstated the name of McGraws sidekick Baba Looey as Baba Booey. Speaking to Howard at the end of the show, DellAbate said, Howard Stern replied, Gary, weve only scratched the surface of this. DellAbate remains Baba Booey to this day, eventually he titled his autobiography They Call Me Baba Booey. DellAbate later recalled that when he watched the cartoon as a child, Quick Draw would often call Baba Looey Baba Boy, Quick Draws drawn-out pronunciation of boy often sounded like booey, which led DellAbate to think that the characters name was actually Baba Booey. Baba Booey as a term has become a mantra for fans of The Howard Stern Show and is used during crank calls to live network television or radio broadcasts. For example, a made to ABC News during the low-speed police chase of O. J. Simpsons Ford Bronco through the streets of Brentwood, Los Angeles, California. Sportscaster Al Michaels explained to anchor Peter Jennings the significance of the phrase, more recently, Freestyle wrestler Jake Herbert yelled Baba Booey as the camera panned over Team USA during the opening ceremony of the 2012 Olympic Games. Beginning in 2013, there have been hundreds of instances on the PGA Tour in which spectators have shouted Baba Booey. as soon as a golfer has completed his swing, DellAbate has been married since 1992 to Mary DellAbate. They have two sons, Lucas and Jackson, after DellAbates brother Steven died of AIDS in January 1991, DellAbate became a supporter of LIFEbeat The Music Industry Fights AIDS and serves as the charitys president. DellAbate wrote a biography titled They Call Me Baba Booey which was a New York Times best seller and it debuted at #6 on the NY Times Best Seller list in November of 2010. In the book DellAbate tells the story of his brothers death from AIDS and he was featured in the May 2007 issue of Sound and Vision magazine where his home theater was profiled. DellAbate is an avid New York Mets fan, and, on May 9,2009 he threw out the ceremonial first pitch at a Mets game, the pitch did not go well, as it landed down the third-base line and hit an umpire. DellAbate is also a fan of the New York Islanders hockey team, DellAbates thoughts and memories of following the Islanders are featured throughout the book, as well as several photos of DellAbate with Islanders players at a Stanley Cup victory parade in 1980

Machine – Gary Dell'Abate
Machine

12. Combine harvester – The combine harvester, or simply combine, is a machine that harvests grain crops. The name derives from its three separate operations comprising harvesting—reaping, threshing, and winnowing—into a single process. Among the crops harvested with a combine are wheat, oats, rye, barley, corn, sorghum, soybeans, flax, sunflowers, and canola. Combine harvesters are one of the most economically important labour saving inventions, Scottish inventor Patrick Bell invented the reaper in 1826. The combine was invented in the United States by Hiram Moore in 1834, early versions were pulled by horse, mule or ox teams. In 1835, Moore built a version and by 1839. By 1860, combine harvesters with a cutting, or swathe, australian Hugh Victor McKay produced a commercially successful combine harvester in 1885, the Sunshine Harvester. Combines, some of them large, were drawn by mule or horse teams. Later, steam power was used, and George Stockton Berry integrated the combine with an engine using straw to heat the boiler. At the turn of the century, horse drawn combines were starting to be used on the American plains. In 1911, the Holt Manufacturing Company of California produced a self-propelled harvester, in Australia in 1923, the patented Sunshine Auto Header was one of the first center-feeding self-propelled harvesters. In 1923 in Kansas, the Baldwin brothers and their Gleaner Manufacturing Company patented a self-propelled harvester that included several other improvements in grain handling. Both the Gleaner and the Sunshine used Fordson engines, early Gleaners used the entire Fordson chassis, in 1929 Alfredo Rotania of Argentina patented a self-propelled harvester. International Harvester started making horse-pulled combines in 1915, at the time horse powered binders and stand alone threshing machines were more common. In the 1920s Case Corporation and John Deere made combines and these were starting to be pulled with a second engine aboard the combine to power its workings. The world economic collapse in the 1930s stopped farm equipment purchases thus people largely retained the older method of harvesting, a few farms did invest and used Caterpillar tractors to move the outfits. Tractor-drawn combines became common after World War II as many began to use tractors. An example was the All-Crop Harvester series and these combines used a shaker to separate the grain from the chaff and straw-walkers to eject the straw while retaining the grain

Combine harvester – A Lely open-cab combine.
Combine harvester – Harvesting oats in a Claas lexion 570 combine with enclosed, air-conditioned cab with rotary thresher and laser-guided hydraulic steering
Combine harvester – Old Style Harvester found in the Henty, Australia region
Combine harvester – John Deere Combine 9870 STS with 625D

13. Communal work – Communal work is a gathering to accomplish a task or to hold a competition. A number of cultures have such gatherings, often for the purpose of holding a competition, such as a bee, or for providing manual labour, such as in a barn raising. Especially in the past major jobs, such as clearing a field of timber or raising a barn and it was often both a social and utilitarian event. Jobs like corn husking or sewing could be done as a group to allow socializing during an otherwise tedious chore, such gatherings often included refreshments and entertainment. Different words have been used to such gatherings. This use of the bee is common in literature describing colonial North America. It was, and continues to be, commonly used in Australia also, uses in literature include, There was a bee to-day for making a road up to the church. — Anne Langton The cellar … was dug by a bee in a single day, sometimes the women would have spinning bees. They would put rolls among their neighbors and on a day they would all bring in their yarn. He never took a salary, had a farm of 80 acres and the church helped him get his wood, — James Slocum I am in a regular quandary, said the mistress of the house, when the meal was about half over. Mr. Van Brunt looked up for an instant, and asked, why, how I am ever going to do to get those apples and sausage-meat done. If I go to doing em myself I shall about get through by spring, why dont you make a bee. said Mr. Van Brunt. Because the word describes people working together in a social group, harambee literally means all pull together in Swahili, and is also the official motto of Kenya and appears on its coat of arms. Naffīr is an Arabic word used in parts of Sudan to describe types of communal work undertakings. Naffīr has been described as including a group recruited through networks, in-laws and village neighbors for some particular purpose. The word may be related to the standard Arabic word nafr which describes a band, party, group or troop, in standard Arabic, a naffīr āmm refers to a general call to arms. Naffīr has also used in a military context in Sudan. For example, the term was used to refer to the an-Naffīr ash-Shaabī or Peoples Militias that operated in the central Nuba Mountains region in the early 1990s, gotong-royong is a conception of sociality familiar to large parts of Indonesia, Singapore, Brunei and Malaysia

Communal work – A tent is being raised on talkoot for midsummer in Ylimuonio 2005.
Communal work – Members of the community volunteering to move the house to new location.

14. Festival – A festival is an event ordinarily celebrated by a community and centering on some characteristic aspect of that community and its religion or traditions. It is often marked as a local or national holiday, mela, next to religion and folklore, a significant origin is agricultural. Food is such a resource that many festivals are associated with harvest time. Religious commemoration and thanksgiving for good harvests are blended in events that take place in autumn, such as Halloween in the northern hemisphere, Festivals often serve to fulfill specific communal purposes, especially in regard to commemoration or thanksgiving. The celebrations offer a sense of belonging for religious, social, or geographical groups and they may also provide entertainment, which was particularly important to local communities before the advent of mass-produced entertainment. In Ancient Greece and Rome, festivals such as the Saturnalia were closely associated with social organisation, in modern times, festivals may be attended by strangers such as tourists, who are attracted to some of the more eccentric or historical ones. The word festival was used as an adjective from the late fourteenth century. In Middle English, a festival dai was a religious holiday and its first recorded used as a noun was in 1589. Feast first came into usage as a noun circa 1200, the term feast is also used in common secular parlance as a synonym for any large or elaborate meal. When used as in the meaning of a festival, most often refers to a religious rather than a film or art festival. In the Philippines and many other former Spanish colonies, the Spanish word fiesta is used to denote a religious feast to honor a patron saint. Many festivals have religious origins and entwine cultural and religious significance in traditional activities, the most important religious festivals such as Christmas, Rosh Hashanah, Diwali, and Eid al-Adha serve to mark out the year. Others, such as harvest festivals, celebrate seasonal change, events of historical significance, such as important military victories or other nation-building events also provide the impetus for a festival. An early example is the established by Ancient Egyptian Pharaoh Rameses III celebrating his victory over the Libyans. In many countries, royal holidays commemorate dynastic events just as agricultural holidays are about harvests, there are numerous types of festivals in the world and most countries celebrate important events or traditions with traditional cultural events and activities. Most culminate in the consumption of specially prepared food and they bring people together, Festivals are also strongly associated with national holidays. Lists of national festivals are published to make participation easier, among many religions, a feast is a set of celebrations in honour of Gods or God. A feast and a festival are historically interchangeable, the Sed festival, for example, celebrated the thirtieth year of an Egyptian pharaohs rule and then every three years after that

Festival – Procession in Honor of Isis depiction of the Egyptian Navigium Isidis festival by Frederick Arthur Bridgman (1902)
Festival – Village Feast. Facsimile of a woodcut of the Sandrin ou Verd Galant, facetious work end of 16th century (edition of 1609)
Festival – A Festival at Antwerp, 17th century
Festival – Country Festival in Swabia

15. Harvest festival – A harvest festival is an annual celebration that occurs around the time of the main harvest of a given region. Given the differences in climate and crops around the world, harvest festivals can be found at times at different places. Harvest festivals typically feature feasting, both family and public, with foods that are drawn from crops that come to maturity around the time of the festival, in North America, Canada and the US each have their own Thanksgiving celebrations in October and November. In Britain, thanks have been given for successful harvests since pagan times, Harvest festival is traditionally held on the Sunday near or of the Harvest Moon. This is the full Moon that occurs closest to the autumn equinox, in British and English-Caribbean churches, chapels and schools, and some Canadian churches, people bring in produce from the garden, the allotment or farm. The food is distributed among the poor and senior citizens of the local community, or used to raise funds for the church. In the United States, many churches also bring in food from the garden or farm in order to celebrate the harvest, the festival is set for a specific day and has become a national holiday known as Thanksgiving which falls on the fourth Thursday in November. Harvest festivals in Asia include the Chinese Mid-Autumn Festival, one of the most widely spread harvest festivals in the world, in Iran Mehrgan was celebrated in an extravagant style at Persepolis. Not only was it the time for harvest, but it was also the time when the taxes were collected, visitors from different parts of the Persian Empire brought gifts for the king all contributing to a lively festival. Harvest is from the Old English word hærfest, meaning Autumn and it then came to refer to the season for reaping and gathering grain and other grown products. The full moon nearest the autumnal equinox is called the Harvest Moon. Therefore, coinciding with ancient tradition, an early harvest festival used to be celebrated at the beginning of the harvest season on 1 August and was called Lammas, meaning loaf Mass. The Latin prayer to hallow the bread is given in the Durham Ritual, farmers made loaves of bread from the fresh wheat crop. These were given to the church as the Communion bread during a special service thanking God for the harvest. By the sixteenth century a number of customs seem to have been established around the gathering of the final harvest. A play by Thomas Nashe, Summers Last Will and Testament, there is a character personifying harvest who comes on stage attended by men dressed as reapers, he refers to himself as their master and ends the scene by begging the audience for a largesse. The scene is inspired by contemporary harvest celebrations, and singing and drinking feature largely. The last verse is repeated in full after the character Harvest remarks to the audience Is your throat cleare to helpe us sing hooky, hooky. a prose work of 1613 refers to the practice as predating the Reformation. Describing the character of a farmer, it says, Early English settlers took the idea of harvest thanksgiving to North America

Harvest festival – Agriculture
Harvest festival – [4], an annual harvest festival in Southern Ontario
Harvest festival – National Harvest Thanksgiving ceremony in Poland's Jasna Góra Roman Catholic sanctuary in Częstochowa, Poland.
Harvest festival – Presidential Harvest Festival in Spała, Poland

16. Flea market – A flea market is a type of bazaar that rents or provides space to people who want to sell or barter merchandise. Used goods, cheap items, collectibles, and antiques are commonly sold, many markets offer fresh produce or baked goods, plants from local farms and vintage clothes. Renters of the flea market tables are called vendors and it may be indoors, as in a warehouse or school gymnasium, or outdoors, as in a field or parking lot or under a tent. Flea markets can be annually or semiannually, others may be conducted monthly, on weekends. Flea market vending is distinguished from street vending in that the market itself, many flea markets have food vendors who sell snacks and drinks to the patrons. Some flea market vendors have been targeted by law enforcement efforts to halt the sale of bootleg movies and music or knockoff brand clothing, toys, electrical goods, accessories, different English-speaking countries use various names for flea markets. In Australian English, they are also called trash and treasure markets, in Philippine English, the word is tianggê from the Nahuatl tianguis via Mexican Spanish, supplanting the indigenous term talipapâ. In India it is known as gurjari or shrukawadi bazaar or even as juna bazaar, in the United Kingdom they are known as car boot sales if the event takes place in a field or car park, as the vendors will sell goods from the boot of their car. If the event is held indoors, such as a school or church hall, then it is known as either a jumble sale, or a bring. In Quebec and France, they are often called Marché aux puces, while in French-speaking areas of Belgium, the name Brocante or vide-grenier is normally used. In Switzerland the Swiss German language term Flomärt, for example for the well-known Bürkliplatz-Flomärt is used, being a variation of the Allemanic word of Flohmarkt, in the predominantly Cuban/Hispanic areas of South Florida, they are called pulgero from pulga, the Spanish word for fleas. While the concept existed in such as what are now India, Bangladesh, and China for millennia. According to one theory, the Fly Market in 18th-century New York City began the association, the Dutch word vlaie was located at Maiden Lane near the East River in Manhattan. The land on which the market stood was originally a marsh with a brook. Another theory maintains that flea market is a common English calque from the French marché aux puces, the first reference to this term appeared in two conflicting stories about a location in Paris in the 1860s which was known as the marché aux puces. The traditional and most-publicised story is in the article What Is a Flea Market

Flea market – A vintage travel gear seller at Marché Dauphine, Saint-Ouen, the home to Paris ' flea market
Flea market – The Market NYC, an artists, designers, vintage and an indoor flea market in New York City
Flea market – Flea market in Hietalahdentori, Helsinki, Finland
Flea market – Flea Market in Germany

17. Pig wrestling – Pig wrestling is a type of game sometimes played at agricultural shows such as state and county fairs, in which contestants, usually children or young adults, try to grab a slippery pig. In the most common version of the game, a team of four members chases a domestic pig around a fenced-off mud pit and attempts to place it in a barrel, in a race against the clock. In some events the pigs are greased with vegetable or mineral oil in order to make catching the pig more difficult, rules vary depending on the venue. Some contests use larger pigs, while others use those that are smaller, some include a single pig, while others use more than one. The pigs are coated with shortening, vegetable oil, lard, contestants chase the pigs around a field or other determined area. Depending on the contest, contestants try to get one or both hands on the pig, tackle and hold the pig down, or drag the pig to a set point. There may be several rounds per contest, the prize for winning is often the pig itself. Children too young to compete in pig wrestling may compete in a pig chase. A more juvenile pig is used for this competition. Concerns have been raised by animal rights organizations that using pigs in this form of entertainment is inhumane, the wrestling may impose undue emotional stress on the pigs, as evidenced by fearful squealing, and causes physical torsional stress on the pigs joints. Some fairs have thus eliminated pig wrestling from their events, in Minnesota, pig wrestling is a misdemeanor. A variant is shown in The Man in the Iron Mask in which a pig dressed to look like a unicorn is released with a valuable gem hung around its neck, the first to capture the pig is allowed to keep the treasure. The television show Family Guy parodies this concept with the Greased-up Deaf Guy, in a 2014 episode of the Discovery Channel series MythBusters, the Build Team investigated the difficulty of catching a greased pig, both with and without technological assistance

Pig wrestling – A greased pig contest at the Houston, Indiana Fall Festival in 2004
Pig wrestling – Pig wrestling in Chile.
Pig wrestling – Domestic

18. Dance – Dance is a performance art form consisting of purposefully selected sequences of human movement. This movement has aesthetic and symbolic value, and is acknowledged as dance by performers and observers within a particular culture, Dance can be categorized and described by its choreography, by its repertoire of movements, or by its historical period or place of origin. Other forms of movement are sometimes said to have a dance-like quality, including martial arts, gymnastics, figure skating, synchronized swimming. Theatrical dance, also called performance or concert dance, is intended primarily as a spectacle and it often tells a story, perhaps using mime, costume and scenery, or else it may simply interpret the musical accompaniment, which is often specially composed. Examples are western ballet and modern dance, Classical Indian dance and Chinese and Japanese song, most classical forms are centred upon dance alone, but performance dance may also appear in opera and other forms of musical theatre. Such dance seldom has any narrative, a group dance and a corps de ballet, a social partner dance and a pas de deux, differ profoundly. Even a solo dance may be solely for the satisfaction of the dancer. On the other hand, some cultures lay down strict rules as to the dances in which, for example. Archeological evidence for early dance includes 9, 000-year-old paintings in India at the Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka and it has been proposed that before the invention of written languages, dance was an important part of the oral and performance methods of passing stories down from generation to generation. The use of dance in trance states and healing rituals is thought to have been another early factor in the social development of dance. References to dance can be found in very early recorded history, Greek dance is referred to by Plato, Aristotle, Plutarch, the Bible and Talmud refer to many events related to dance, and contain over 30 different dance terms. In Chinese pottery as early as the Neolithic period, groups of people are depicted dancing in a line holding hands, Dance is further described in the Lüshi Chunqiu. Primitive dance in ancient China was associated with sorcery and shamanic rituals, during the first millennium BCE in India, many texts were composed which attempted to codify aspects of daily life. Bharata Munis Natyashastra is one of the earlier texts and it mainly deals with drama, in which dance plays an important part in Indian culture. It categorizes dance into four types - secular, ritual, abstract, the text elaborates various hand-gestures and classifies movements of the various limbs, steps and so on. A strong continuous tradition of dance has since continued in India, through to modern times, where it continues to play a role in culture, ritual, and, notably, the Bollywood entertainment industry. Many other contemporary dance forms can likewise be traced back to historical, traditional, ceremonial, Dance is generally, though not exclusively, performed with the accompaniment of music and may or may not be performed in time to such music. Some dance may provide its own audible accompaniment in place of music, many early forms of music and dance were created for each other and are frequently performed together

Dance – Modern dance
Dance – Members of American jazz dance company Giordano Dance Chicago perform a formal group routine in a concert dance setting
Dance – Greek bronze statuette of a veiled and masked dancer, 3rd-2nd century BC, Alexandria, Egypt.
Dance – Ugandan youth dance at a cultural celebration of peace

19. Roscheider Hof Open Air Museum – The Roscheider Hof Open Air Museum is the open-air museum and Folklore Museum of the Greater SaarLorLux Region. The museum is situated in Konz, Germany, on the Saar and it is a museum for rural cultural history in northwest Rhineland-Palatinate and the German-Luxembourg-Lorraine border region. Unlike many other museums, the Roscheider Hof is not a public or community institution. The museum is financed by fees, entrance charges, subsidies. The founder of the association was Prof. Rolf Robischon, the Roscheider Hof estate is used today as an open-air museum. It consists of buildings, with the core of the site formed by buildings around a rectangular courtyard. The Roscheider Hof was first mentioned in a record dating from 1330, during the 1978 renovations a few parts of a building came to light that could be dated to the early 16th century. For instance, there is a small walled window with late Gothic splays, until the French Revolution in 1794, it was an agricultural estate owned by the St. Matthias Benedictine monastery, which still exists today. Valdenaire extended the estate and enlarged the Roscheider Hof buildings with extensive renovations

Roscheider Hof Open Air Museum – Hunsrück village
Roscheider Hof Open Air Museum – The Green Path, museum meadows and orchards
Roscheider Hof Open Air Museum – Farmers' and craftsmen's day
Roscheider Hof Open Air Museum

20. Santorini – Santorini, classically Thera, and officially Thira, is an island in the southern Aegean Sea, about 200 km southeast of Greeces mainland. It is the largest island of a small, circular archipelago which bears the name and is the remnant of a volcanic caldera. It forms the southernmost member of the Cyclades group of islands, with an area of approximately 73 km2, the municipality of Santorini includes the inhabited islands of Santorini and Therasia and the uninhabited islands of Nea Kameni, Palaia Kameni, Aspronisi, and Christiana. The total land area is 90.623 km2, Santorini is part of the Thira regional unit. Santorini is essentially what remains after a volcanic eruption that destroyed the earliest settlements on a formerly single island. A giant central, rectangular lagoon, which measures about 12 by 7 km, is surrounded by 300 m high, the main island slopes downward to the Aegean Sea. On the fourth side, the lagoon is separated from the sea by another smaller island called Therasia. The islands principal port is Athinios, the capital, Fira, clings to the top of the cliff looking down on the lagoon. The volcanic rocks present from the prior eruptions feature olivine, and have a presence of hornblende. It is the most active volcanic centre in the South Aegean Volcanic Arc, the volcanic arc is approximately 500 km long and 20 to 40 km wide. The island is the site of one of the largest volcanic eruptions in recorded history, the Minoan eruption, another popular theory holds that the Thera eruption is the source of the legend of Atlantis. Before then, it was known as Kallístē, Strongýlē, or Thēra, the name Thera was revived in the nineteenth century as the official name of the island and its main city, but the colloquial name Santorini is still in popular use. During the Ottoman Empires domination of the Aegean Sea, the Turkish exonym for the island was Santurin or Santoron, Oia is now called a Κοινότητα, within the municipality of Thera, and it consists of the local subdivisions of Therasia and Oia. The two main sources of wealth in Santorini are agriculture and tourism, in recent years, Santorini has been voted one of the worlds most beautiful islands. Santorini remains the home of a small, but flourishing wine industry, white varieties also include Athiri and Aidani, whereas red varieties include mavrotragano and mandilaria. The Cyclades are part of a complex that is known as the Cycladic Massif. The complex formed during the Miocene and was folded and metamorphosed during the Alpine orogeny around 60 million years ago, Thera is built upon a small, non-volcanic basement that represents the former non-volcanic island, which was approximately 9 by 6 km. The basement rock is composed of metamorphosed limestone and schist

Santorini – View across collapsed caldera
Santorini – Fira, main town of Santorini
Santorini – Satellite image of Santorini caldera. The large island to the east is Thera, with Aspronisi and Therasia making up the rest of the caldera ring, clockwise. In the centre is the larger Nea Kameni and the smaller Palea Kameni.
Santorini – Volcanic craters at Santorini today

21. Romanian dress – Romanian dress refers to the traditional clothing worn by Romanians, who live primarily in Romania and Moldova, with smaller communities in Ukraine and Serbia. Today, the vast majority of Romanians wear modern style dress on most occasions, however, they can still be seen in more remote areas, on special occasions, and at ethnographic and folk events. Each historical region has its own variety of costume. Romanian traditional clothing can be classified according to seven traditional regions and these can be further subdivided by ethnographic zones, which may range between 40 and 120, depending on the criteria used. Between 7000 and 3500 BC was founded the belief in the one controlling power of the cosmos, fabrics wore symbols appointed by virtue of faith, thus spinning and weaving became sacred. Therefore, were customary on the dresses the solar circle, the column of the sky, the rhomb, since 3500 BC and until year zero has passed from the sacred weaving to the vestment, the ritual reaching from the imposing space of the temple to the household hearth. The purpose of the worn by the ancestors was to facilitate dialogue with the unseen forces of the cosmos. Thus, it is possible to talk about a civilization of sacred fabrics. For example, the thread of spun is column-shaped and spirally twisted, also, having different colors is the most useful means for expressing feelings and behaviors. Popular clothes Carpatho-Danubian territory summarizes existential and spiritual dimension of Romanians, but component parts of clothes multiplied, as a result, the autochthonous popular garment is a system of which developed the regional variations, through innovations and contaminations caused by each creator against the prototype schema. The form and ornametics of the contemporary garments preserved a part of the language of signs, thus, the first testimonies about Romanian traditional port are set in stone, on Tropaeum Traiani monument in Adamclisi and Trajans Column in Rome. For example, women portraits carved on Trajans Column after the Dacian wars provide information about their clothing, Dacian women wore shirts rippled at the neck related to the Romanian ie. Sleeves were either long and wide or short, the dress was long to the ground, over which sometimes was attached a wide draped mantle. In the feet they wore leather sandals in summer and fur sandals in winter, portraits of the founders provide important information about the type of material of which were made the pieces of the port and about elements of tailoring, decor and chromatics. Between the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, votive paintings on the walls of churches reserved to countrys rulers, as a result, in the sub-Carpathian areas of Oltenia appear portraits of free peasants, freeholders and yeomen. But representations of peasant port date from the fourteenth century, in Chronicon Pictum Vindobonense are portrayed men in white shirts and trousers. Over they wore shaggy sarici with long sleeves and left on back, in a simple comparative analysis it can be grasped that these elements are always present in the port of remote shepherds. Boyar shirts were of silk, embroidered with gold thread and decorated with pearls, the costume of Oltenia peasant women was composed of cotton shirts sewn with altițe, striped catrințe and bete

Romanian dress – Transylvania
Romanian dress
Romanian dress – Oaș Country
Romanian dress – Banat

22. Astore District – Astore is one of the nine districts of the Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. According to the 1998 census of Pakistan the population was 71,666, the Astore valley has an area of 5,092 km² and an altitude of 2600m. Astore is connected to Gilgit which is connected by air with Islamabad and by road with Islamabad/Rawalpindi, Skardu. You can take a flight to Gilgit from the capital of the country and it connects its extremist with the Indian held Kashmir, Northwest connects with Pakistan held Kashmir, in the East it connects with the Skardu, in the West it connects to outskirts of Chilas. According to the Imperial Gazetteer of India, around 1600, Astore valley has a moderate climate during summer, in winter it can snow up to 6 inches in the main valleys and up to 2–3 feet in the mountains. In Mirmalik valley it snows up to 6 feet in February, the main language spoken in the valley is Shina. Urdu, which is the National language of Pakistan, is the second most frequently spoken language. There are different dialect of Shina spoken in the region. Since Astore has a history of modest tourist traffic in the months, local guides. According to the Alif Ailaan Pakistan District Education Rankings 2015, Astore is ranked 32 out of 148 districts in terms of education. For facilities and infrastructure, the district is ranked 114 out of 148, Astore goreqoot is one of the educational village of Astore where the educational ratio is high up to 99%. It contained village of goreqoot is including 3 beautiful lakes and natural beauty, Gorikot is the beautiful valley in distric Astore and population is almost 2000. Tarzay Tarishing Rupal, Nanga Parbat Eidghah Louze Biyan Bunji Choungrah Chamrote, corit, Having more than 290 families. Goreqoot is one of the biggest village in Astore and it has some sub villages like bazaar yearya peroot domosar hilbich ahmad abad kenaydasy sargaly babay yearyea dagant etc. It is the gateway of Astore, it consists above than 1370 homes, dashkin Douan Khuma eidgah astore main sunter numbardar the house Parishing Lous Khangrool Ramkha Chougam Mushkay Theeng paine Theeng Bala Theeg bala is a small village, the population is 300 people. Landslides and rockfall may be an issue in areas of the Indus Valley. There is a permanent road through Gilgit as well as road access via Deosai Plateau to Skardu. Here you can obtain all types of vehicles and hire jeeps, the most used vehicles are Jeeps and SUVs with a local preference for Pajeros and Landcruisers. Astore lies about the base of Nanga Parbat, the 9th highest peak in the world

Astore District – Astore District
Astore District – Passes

23. Gilgit-Baltistan – Gilgit-Baltistan, formerly known as the Northern Areas, is the northernmost administrative territory in Pakistan. Gilgit-Baltistan is part of the Kashmir region that is disputed by India and Pakistan, along with Azad Kashmir, Aksai Chin, the Shaksgam Valley, and Jammu, Ladakh, the territory of present-day Gilgit-Baltistan became a separate administrative unit in 1970 under the name Northern Areas. It was formed by the amalgamation of the former Gilgit Agency, the Baltistan district and several small former princely states, however, scholars state that the real power rests with the governor and not with chief minister or elected assembly. The population of Gilgit-Baltistan wants to be merged into Pakistan as a fifth province. Gilgit-Baltistan covers an area of over 72,971 km² and is highly mountainous and it had an estimated population of 1,800,000 in 2015. Gilgit-Baltistan is home to five of the eight-thousanders and to more than fifty peaks above 7,000 metres, three of the worlds longest glaciers outside the polar regions are found in Gilgit-Baltistan. Tourism is mostly in trekking and mountaineering, and this industry is growing in importance, the rock carvings found in various places in Gilgit-Baltistan, especially those found in the Passu village of Hunza, suggest a human presence since 2000 BC. Within the next few centuries after human settlement in the Tibetan plateau, this region became inhabited by Tibetans, today Baltistan bears similarity to Ladakh physically and culturally. Dards are found mainly in the western areas and these people are the Shina-speaking peoples of Gilgit, Chilas, Astore and Diamir while in Hunza and in the upper regions Burushaski and Khowar speakers dominate. The Dards find mention in the works of Herodotus, Nearchus, Megasthenes, Pliny, Ptolemy, in the 1st century the people of these regions were followers of the Bon religion while in the 2nd century they followed Buddhism. Between 399 and 414, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Faxian visited Gilgit-Baltistan, between 627 and 645, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Xuanzang travelled through this region. From 644 to 655, Navasurendrādityanandi was King of Palola, in 706/707, Jayamaṅgalavikramādityanandi became king of Palola. It is said that in the year 717, a delegation of a ruler of great Palola, named Su-fu-she-li-ji-li-ni according to the transcription of Chinese characters, in 719, Su-fu-she-li-ji-li-ni, King of Palola, sent a second delegation to the Chinese Imperial court. By at least 719/720, Ladakh was part of the Tibetan Empire, by that time uddhism iwa practiced in Baltistan and Sanskrit was the written language. It is unknown if Baltistan temporarily w sPruled under alolo. at that time 7In 20, thl deegation of Sou-lin-to i che, King of Palola, the Emperor gives the ruler of Cashmere, Tchen-fo-lo-pi-li, the title of King of Cashmere. By 721/722 Baltistan had become part of the Tibetan Empire, during 721-722 the conquest of Little Palola or Bru-zha by the Tibetan army failed. Mo-ching-mang had become the King of Palola by this time which was visited by the Korean Buddhist pilgrim Hyecho between 723-728, in 737/738, Tibetan troops under the leadership of Minister sKyes-bzang ldong-tsab conquered Little Palola. By 747 the Chinese army under the leadership of the ethnic-Korean commander Gao Xianzhi reconquered Palola, Turkic tribes practicing Zoroastrianism arrived in Gilgit during the 7th century, and founded the Trakhan dynasty in Gilgit

Gilgit-Baltistan – Clockwise from top: K2, Biafo Glacier, Attabad Lake Hunza, Skardu machulu baltistan, Deosai National Park
Gilgit-Baltistan – Map of Gilgit-Baltistan showing its position relative to Azad Kashmir
Gilgit-Baltistan – The last Maqpon Raja Ahmed Shah (died in prison in Srinagar by Dogra rulers. around 1845)
Gilgit-Baltistan – Satpara Lake, Skardu, in 2002

24. Goessel, Kansas – Goessel is a city in Marion County, Kansas, United States. It was named after Captain Kurt von Goessel who went down with his ship, as of the 2010 census, the city population was 539. For many millennia, the Great Plains of North America was inhabited by nomadic Native Americans, from the 16th century to 18th century, the Kingdom of France claimed ownership of large parts of North America. In 1762, after the French and Indian War, France secretly ceded New France to Spain, in 1802, Spain returned most of the land to France. In 1803, most of the land for modern day Kansas was acquired by the United States from France as part of the 828,000 square mile Louisiana Purchase for 2.83 cents per acre. In 1854, the Kansas Territory was organized, then in 1861 Kansas became the 34th U. S. state, in 1855, Marion County was established within the Kansas Territory, which included the land for modern day Goessel. The year 1874 saw the first wave of an immigration of German-speaking Russian Mennonite to south-central Kansas, the move was an attempt to preserve religious heritage and freedom after exclusion from military service was rescinded. During the next decade, one-third of Mennonites in Russia moved to North America, in 1874 a large portion of the Russian village of Alexanderwohl immigrated en masse to the United States aboard the ships Teutonia and Cimbria. The Alexanderwohl group split into eight communal villages, the village of Gnadenfeld was located where Goessel now stands. The village lasted for years as a communal village then families moved onto their own larger parcels of land nearby. Several years passed before a trading center developed, the first public structure erected in Goessel was the Mennonite Brethren church in 1890. One of the first businesses was a station in the same year. In 1891, a mercantile store was opened, then in the same year Dr. Peter Richert moved a building that was used as his doctors office. Dr. Richert read the story of Captain Kurt von Goessel, Dr. Richert decided to submit the name Goessel to the U. S. Postal Department, and it was accepted on April 13,1895. In 1910, Goessel was platted and had a population of 100 people, in 1952, Goessel was incorporated and had a population of 260. In 2010, the United States Census reported 248 households and a population of 539, Goessel is home to the Mennonite Heritage Museum, a complex of eight buildings which preserve artifacts from early Mennonite households, farms, schools, churches and the Bethesda Mennonite Hospital. Goessel is located at 38°14′49″N 97°20′53″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 0.35 square miles, all of it land. The county line is 1 mile west of Goessel, the climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters with very cold periods

Goessel, Kansas – Alexanderwohl Mennonite Church 1 mile north of Goessel (2007)
Goessel, Kansas – Goessel mural (2015)
Goessel, Kansas – Wheat Threshing Demo at Goessel Threshing Days (August 7, 2010)
Goessel, Kansas – Threshing stone near Alexanderwohl Mennonite Church (2011)

25. Hainan – Hainan is the smallest and southernmost province of the Peoples Republic of China, consisting of various islands in the South China Sea. Hainan Island, separated from Guangdongs Leizhou Peninsula by the Qiongzhou Strait, is the largest island under PRC control and makes up the majority of the province. The province has an area of 33,920 square kilometers, with Hainan Island making up 32,900 square kilometers, there are a total of ten major cities and ten counties in Hainan Province. Haikou on the northern coast of Hainan Island is the capital while Sanya is a well-known tourist destination on the southern coast, the other major cities are Wenchang, Qionghai, Wanning, Wuzhishan, Dongfang, and Danzhou. Chinas controversial claims in the South China Sea, including the Nansha and Xisha Islands, are administered as part of the province. The provincial name derives from its island, Hainan, which is named for its position south of the Qiongzhou Strait. Former names for Hainan Island include Zhuya, Qiongya, and Qiongzhou, the later two gave rise to the provincial abbreviation 瓊 or 琼. Hainan Island first entered history in 110 BC, when the Han dynasty of China established a military garrison there following the arrival of General Lu Bode. In 46 BC the Han court decided that the conquest was too expensive, around that time, Han Chinese people together with military personnel and officials began to migrate to Hainan Island from the mainland. Among them were the offspring of those who were banished to Hainan for political reasons, most of them arrived in Hainan Island from the southern Chinese provinces of Guangdong, Fujian and Guangxi. Li people are the inhabitants of Hainan. They are believed to be the descendants of the ancient tribes from the mainland, some others live elsewhere on Hainan with other ethnic groups in Danzhou, Wanning, Qionghai, Lingshui and Tunchang. The area inhabited by the Li ethnic group totals 18,700 square kilometers, during the Three Kingdoms Period, Hainan was the Zhuya Commandery under the control of Eastern Wu. At the time of the Song dynasty, Hainan became part of Guangxi, under the Mongol Empire the island became an independent province then in 1370 was placed under the administration of Guangdong by the ruling Ming dynasty. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, large numbers of Han people from Fujian and Guangdong began migrating to Hainan, in the eighteenth century, the Li rebelled against the Qing Empire, which responded by bringing in mercenaries from the Miao regions of Guizhou. Many of the Miao settled on the island and their descendants live in the highlands to this day. During the 17th and 18th centuries, explorers referred to the island as Aynam, in 1906, the revolutionary leader Sun Yat-sen proposed that Hainan should become a separate province although this did not happen until 1988. Hainan was historically part of Guangdong and Guangxi Provinces and as such was the Qiongya Circuit under the 1912 establishment of the Republic of China

Hainan – Hainan
Hainan – Map showing the location of Hainan Province
Hainan – Haikou, the capital of the province as seen looking south from Evergreen Park, a large park located on the north shore of the city
Hainan – Hainanese residents in the countryside

26. Bangladesh – Bangladesh, officially the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh, is a country in South Asia. It shares land borders with India and Myanmar, Nepal, Bhutan and China are located near Bangladesh but do not share a border with it. The countrys maritime territory in the Bay of Bengal is roughly equal to the size of its land area, Bangladesh is the worlds eighth most populous country. Dhaka is its capital and largest city, followed by Chittagong which has the countrys largest port, Bangladesh forms the largest and eastern part of the Bengal region. Bangladeshis include people of different ethnic groups and religions, Bengalis, who speak the official Bengali, make up 98% of the population. The politically dominant Bengali Muslims make the nation the worlds third largest Muslim-majority country, most of Bangladesh is covered by the Bengal delta, the largest delta on Earth. The country has 700 rivers and 8,046 km of inland waterways, highlands with evergreen forests are found in the northeastern and southeastern regions of the country. Bangladesh has many islands and a coral reef and it is home to the Sundarbans, the largest mangrove forest in the world. The countrys biodiversity includes a vast array of plant and wildlife, including critically endangered Bengal tigers, the Greeks and Romans identified the region as Gangaridai, a powerful kingdom of the historical subcontinent, in the 3rd century BCE. Archaeological research has unearthed several ancient cities in Bangladesh, which had trade links for millennia. The Bengal Sultanate and Mughal Bengal transformed the region into a cosmopolitan Islamic imperial power between the 14th and 18th centuries, the region was home to many principalities which had inland naval prowess. It was also a center of the worldwide muslin and silk trade. As part of British India, the region was influenced by the Bengali renaissance, the Partition of British India made East Bengal a part of the Dominion of Pakistan, and was renamed as East Pakistan. The region witnessed the Bengali Language Movement in 1952 and the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971, after independence, a parliamentary republic was established. A presidential government was in place between 1975 and 1990, followed by a return to parliamentary democracy, the country has also been affected by poverty, natural disasters, hunger, dominant party systems and military coups. Bangladesh is a power and a major developing nation. Listed as one of the Next Eleven, it has the 46th largest economy and it is one of the largest textile exporters in the world. Its major trading partners are the European Union, the United States, China, India, Japan, Malaysia, with its strategically vital location between Southern, Eastern and Southeast Asia, Bangladesh is an important promoter of regional connectivity and cooperation

Bangladesh – Mahasthangarh is the oldest archaeological site in Bangladesh. It dates back to 700 BCE and was the ancient capital of the Pundra Kingdom
Bangladesh
Bangladesh – Asia in 323 BC, the Gangaridai Empire in relation to the Nanda Empire, Alexander 's Empire and neighbours
Bangladesh – The Somapura Mahavihara, once the largest Buddhist vihara in South Asia, built by Emperor Dharmapala of Bengal

27. Swing Riots – The first threshing machine was destroyed on Saturday night,28 August 1830, and by the third week of October more than 100 threshing machines had been destroyed in East Kent. If captured, the protesters faced charges of arson, robbery, riot, machine breaking and those convicted faced imprisonment, transportation, and possibly execution. In parliament Lord Carnarvon had said that the English labourer was reduced to a plight more abject than that of any race in Europe, with their employers no longer able to feed, the Swing letters were first mentioned by The Times newspaper on 21 October 1830. Early nineteenth-century England was virtually unique among major nations in having no class of landed smallholding peasantry, probably one of the main reasons for the Swing Riots were the Enclosure Acts of rural England. Between 1770 and 1830 about 6 million acres of land were enclosed. The common land had been used for centuries by the poor of the countryside to graze their animals and this land was now divided up among the large local landowners, leaving the landless farmworkers solely dependent upon working for their richer neighbours for a cash wage. According to social historians John and Barbara Hammond, enclosure was fatal to three classes, the farmer, the cottager and the squatter. Before enclosure the cottager was a labourer with land, after enclosure he was a labourer without land, in contrast to the Hammond’s 1911 analysis of the events, the historian G. E. The modern historians of the Swing riots, Eric Hobsbawm and George Rudé could cite only three of a total of 1,475 incidents as being caused by enclosure. However, this revisionist approach itself has been challenged by more recent historians. In the 1780s workers would be employed at annual hiring fairs, during this period the worker would receive payment in kind and in cash from his employer, would often work at his side, and would commonly share meals at the employers table. As time passed the gulf between farmer and employee widened, workers were hired on stricter cash-only contracts, which ran for increasing shorter periods. First monthly terms became the norm, later contracts were offered for as little as a week, historically the monasteries had taken responsibility for the impotent poor, but after their dissolution in 1536-9, it passed to the parishes. The Act of Settlement in 1662, had confined relief strictly to those who were natives of the parish. The poor law system charged a Parish Rate to landowners and tenants and these payments were minimal, and at times degrading conditions were required for their receipt. As more and more people became dependent on relief, ratepayers rebelled ever more loudly against the costs. Three and a half one gallon bread loaves were considered necessary for a man in Berkshire in 1795, however provision had fallen to just two similar-sized loaves being provided in 1817 Wiltshire. To this mixture was added the burden of the church tithe, originally this had been the churchs right to a tenth of the parish harvest

Swing Riots – Horse-powered threshing machine
Swing Riots – Typical 'Swing' letter
Swing Riots – Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey
Swing Riots – Lord Melbourne

28. Threshing-board – A threshing board is an obsolete farm implement used to separate cereals from their straw, that is, to thresh. Should the person need more weight, he need only put some big stones over it, the dimensions of threshing boards varied. In Spain, they could be up to two metres in length and a metre and a half wide. There were also smaller threshing boards, as little about a metre-and-a-half long, the thickness of the slats of the threshing board is some five or six cm. Nonetheless, since threshing boards are nowadays custom made, made to order or made smaller as an adornment or souvenir, the threshing board has been traditionally pulled by mules or by oxen over the grains spread on the threshing floor. As it was moved in circles over the harvest that was spread, the chips or blades cut the straw. The threshed grain was then gathered and set to be cleaned by means of winnowing. In this manner, Pliny refers to the three methods of threshing grain, Beating sheafs of grain against a crushing stone or a crushing lump of wood. The threshing board is a form of threshing that can still be seen in some regions that practise a marginal agriculture. It is also preserved as an occasional folkloric and ceremonial practice. For threshing with the board, first one brings the baled stalks to the threshing floor. Some are stacked, waiting their turn, and others are untied and placed in a forming a pile of grain that is heated by the sun. Then, the drag the threshing board over the stalks, first going several times around in circles, and then in figure-eights. Sometimes, this work was done with another kind of threshing implement, in this first stage, the straw is detached from the ear, much chaff and dirty dust remains, mixed with the edible grain. Every time that the work of dragging the threshing board is repeated, if too much grain is spread on the ground, it has to be raked and swept in order to make a round mound and, if possible, to remove as much straw as possible. After turning the grain and straw upside down and leaving it to dry during a lunch break, then, they use pitchforks, rakes and brooms to create a mound. The driver rides on the board, both guiding the draft animals and increasing the weight of the threshing board. If the drivers weight is not enough, large stones are put on the board, in recent times, the animals are sometimes replaced with a tractor, because the driver no longer sits on the board, the weight of stones becomes more important

Threshing-board – Top view of a Spanish threshing board
Threshing-board – Sweeping the threshing floor in order to pile up the seed
Threshing-board – Cleaning the seed with a mechanical winnowing machine
Threshing-board – King David, by Pedro Berruguete

29. Threshing stone – A threshing stone is a roller-like tool used for the threshing of wheat. The straw was removed from the pile and the remaining grain, by a process called winnowing, the grain was tossed into the air to allow the chaff and dirt to be blown away, leaving only the grain. The threshing stone became the method used to knock the grain from the head because it was less labor-intensive than the use of the traditional threshing flail. In the 1870s, approximately one-third of all Russian Mennonites immigrated to the Great Plains of North America, the immigrants in central Kansas brought the threshing stone technology with them, and contracted stone masons in the Florence, Kansas area to construct stones made of limestone. The threshing stone is a stone with teeth carved into it. Stones made in Kansas were approximately 29 to 30 inches long,23 to 24 inches in diameter, with 7 notches resembling gear teeth, made of limestone, some smaller stones may weigh less than 400 pounds. In 2011, over 90 threshing stones have been located, numerous stones in Kansas are located at private residences as family historic artifacts. The following is a list of locations where threshing stones may be viewed by the public, museums,3 at Mennonite Heritage and Agricultural Museum in Goessel, Kansas. 3 at Mennonite Settlement Museum in Hillsboro, Kansas,2 at Kauffman Museum at Bethel College in North Newton, Kansas. 2 at Inman Museum in Inman, Kansas,2 at Mennonite Heritage Village in Steinbach, Manitoba, Canada. 1 at Halstead Heritage Museum in Halstead, Kansas,1 at McPherson Museum in McPherson, Kansas. 1 at Kansas Museum of History in Topeka, Kansas,1 at American Historical Society of Germans from Russia in Lincoln, Nebraska. Various,4 at Buhler High School in Buhler, Kansas,2 at Administration Building and Bookstore at Bethel College in North Newton, Kansas. 1 at Alexanderwohl Mennonite Church near Goessel, Kansas,1 in Mennonite Centennial Memorial Monument in Peabody, Kansas. The Thresher is the mascot of Bethel College in North Newton, Kansas. Leave No Threshing Stone Unturned, Glen Ediger,192 pages,2012, top questions about Threshing Stones History, Threshing Stone History Researching Threshing Stones Photos, Threshing Stone photos Inman Museum

Threshing stone – Threshing stone near Goessel, Kansas at Alexanderwohl Mennonite Church. (2010)
Threshing stone – Cross sections of a threshing stone on a monument in Peabody, Kansas. (2010)
Threshing stone – 1974 Mennonite Centennial Memorial Monument in Santa Fe Park of Peabody, Kansas. A threshing stone was cut and placed on 4 sides of this monument. (2010)

Threshing

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