1.
Thriller film
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Thriller film, also known as suspense film or suspense thriller, is a film genre that falls under the general thriller genre. The thriller films key characteristics are excitement and suspense, the suspense element, found in most films plots, is particularly exploited by the filmmaker in this genre. Tension is created by delaying what the audience sees as inevitable, a strict definition of the thriller film is that the films overarching goal is to build tension in audiences as the film approaches its climax. Tension is built through situations that are menacing or where escape seems impossible, Life is typically threatened in thriller film, such as when the protagonist does not realize entering a dangerous situation. Thriller films characters conflict with other or with an outside force. Thriller films are typically hybridized with other genres, there exist adventure thrillers, science fiction thrillers, Western thrillers, Thriller films also share a close relationship with horror films, both eliciting tension. In plots about crime, thriller films focus less on the criminal or the detective, common themes include terrorism, political conspiracy, pursuit, or romantic triangles leading to murder. Alfred Hitchcocks first thriller was his silent film, The Lodger. His next thriller was Blackmail, his and Britains first sound film and his notable thrillers in the 1930s include The Man Who Knew Too Much and The 39 Steps. 326 —this film would be an inspiration for the future James Bond films, the German film M, directed by Fritz Lang, starred Peter Lorre as a criminal deviant who preys on children. Hitchcock continued his suspense-thrillers, directing Foreign Correspondent, the Oscar-winning Rebecca, Suspicion, Saboteur and Shadow of a Doubt, notable non-Hitchcock films of the 1940s include The Spiral Staircase and Sorry, Wrong Number. In the 1950s, Hitchcock added technicolor to his thrillers, now with exotic locales and he reached the zenith of his career with a succession of classic films such as, Strangers on a Train, Dial M For Murder with Ray Milland, Rear Window and Vertigo. Non-Hitchcock thrillers of the 1950s include The Night of the Hunter —Charles Laughtons only film as director—and Orson Welless crime thriller Touch of Evil, director Michael Powells Peeping Tom featured Carl Boehm as a psychopathic cameraman. After Hitchcocks classic films of the 1950s, he produced Psycho about a lonely, mother-fixated motel owner, J. Lee Thompsons Cape Fear, with Robert Mitchum, had a menacing ex-con seeking revenge. A famous thriller at the time of its release was Wait Until Dark by director Terence Young, john Boormans Deliverance followed the perilous fate of four Southern businessmen during a weekends trip. In Francis Ford Coppolas The Conversation, a bugging-device expert systematically uncovered a covert murder while he himself was being spied upon, Peter Hyams science fiction thriller Capricorn One proposed a government conspiracy to fake the first mission to Mars. His notable films include Sisters, Obsession, which was inspired by Vertigo, Dressed to Kill. Other films include Curtis Hansons The Hand That Rocks the Cradle and Unlawful Entry, detectives/FBI agents hunting down a serial killer was another popular motif in the 90s
2.
Hostage
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A hostage is a person or entity which is held by one of two belligerent parties to the other or seized as security for the carrying out of an agreement, or as a preventive measure against war. A person who seizes one or more hostages is known as a hostage-taker, if the hostages are present voluntarily, then the receiver is known as a host. These obligations would be in the form of signing of a peace treaty and this would eventually influence them culturally and open the way for an amicable political line if they ascended to power after release. This caused the element gīsl = hostage in many old Germanic personal names, the practice was also commonplace in the Imperial Chinese tributary system, especially between the Han and Tang dynasties. The practice continued through the early Middle Ages, the Irish High King Niall of the Nine Hostages got his epithet Noígiallach because, by taking nine petty kings hostage, he had subjected nine other principalities to his power. This practice was adopted in the early period of the British occupation of India. The practice of taking hostages as security for the out of a treaty between civilized states is now obsolete. In France, after the revolution of Prairial, the law of hostages was passed. Relatives of émigrés were taken from disturbed districts and imprisoned, and were liable to execution at any attempt to escape. Sequestration of their property and deportation from France followed on the murder of a republican, four to every such murder, the law only resulted in an increase in the insurrection. Napoleon in 1796 had used similar measures to deal with the insurrection in Lombardy, another case where hostages have been taken in modern warfare has been the subject of much discussion. The measure seems to have been effective, in 1900 during the Second Boer War, by a proclamation issued at Pretoria, Lord Roberts adopted the plan for a similar reason, but shortly afterwards it was abandoned. The Germans also, between the surrender of a town and its occupation, took hostages as security against outbreaks of violence by the inhabitants. It may be noticed, however, that the hostages would suffer should the acts aimed at be performed by the authorized belligerent forces of the enemy, the regulations, however do not allude to the practice of taking hostage. In May 1871, at the close of the Paris Commune and it was an act of maniacal despair, on the defeat at Mont Valrien on the 4 April and the entry of the army into Paris on the 21 May. Taking hostages is today considered a crime or an act of terrorism, the criminal activity is known as kidnapping. An acute situation where hostages are kept in a building or a vehicle that has taken over by armed terrorists or common criminals is often called a hostage crisis. Common Article 3 of the 1949 Geneva Conventions states that the taking of hostages during a conflict is a war crime and shall remain prohibited at any time
3.
Ransom
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In typography, the ransom note effect is the result of using an excessive number of juxtaposed typefaces. Early versions of Macintosh system software, up through System 7, the font was not carried over into later versions of Mac OS. The ransom note effect may occur when a web browser uses different fonts to display parts of a web page in different languages or encodings. To avoid this, web browsers try to use the font for as much of the page as possible
4.
Jean-Paul Laurens
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Jean-Paul Laurens was a French painter and sculptor, and one of the last major exponents of the French Academic style. He was a pupil of Léon Cogniet and Alexandre Bida, strongly anti-clerical and republican, his work was often on historical and religious themes, through which he sought to convey a message of opposition to monarchical and clerical oppression. More recently, however, his work has been re-evaluated as an important and original renewal of history painting and he also provided illustrations for Augustin Thierrys Récits des temps mérovingiens. Two of his sons, Paul Albert Laurens and Jean-Pierre Laurens, fécamp, Éditions des falaises, pp.108 –114 Jean-Paul Laurens 1838 -1921, peintre dhistoire, Catalogue dexposition, Musée dOrsay
5.
Film genre
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A film genre is a motion picture category based on similarities in either the narrative elements or the emotional response to the film. Most theories of film genre are borrowed from literary genre criticism, the basic genres include fiction and documentary, from which subgenres have emerged, such as docufiction and docudrama. Other subgenres include the courtroom and trial-focused drama known as the legal drama, types of fiction which may seem unrelated can also be combined to form hybrid subgenres, such as the melding of horror and comedy in the Evil Dead films. Other popular combinations are the comedy and the action comedy film. Films can also be classified by the setting, theme, topic, mood, format, the setting is the environment where the story and action takes place. The theme or topic refers to the issues or concepts that the film revolves around, the mood is the emotional tone of the film. Format refers to the way the film was shot or the manner of presentation, additional ways of categorizing film genres is by the target audience or by type of production. American film historian Janet Staiger states that the genre of a film can be defined in four ways, the idealist method judges films by predetermined standards. The empirical method identifies the genre of a film by comparing it to a list of films already deemed to fall within a certain genre, the apriori method uses common generic elements which are identified in advance. The social conventions method of identifying the genre of a film is based on the cultural consensus within society. Martin Loop contends that Hollywood films are not pure genres, because most Hollywood movies blend the love-oriented plot of the genre with other genres. Many films cross into multiple genres, recently, film theorist Robert Stam challenged whether genres really exist, or whether they are merely made up by critics. Stam has questioned whether genres really out there in the world or are they really the construction of analysts, as well, he has asked whether there is a. finite taxonomy of genres or are they in principle infinite. And whether genres are. timeless essences ephemeral, time-bound entities, Stam has also asked whether genre analysis should aim at being descriptive or prescriptive. While some genres are based on content, other are borrowed from literature or from other media. Some are performer-based or budget-based, while others are based on status, racial identity, location. Many genres have built-in audiences and corresponding publications that support them, for example, horror films have a well-established fanbase that reads horror magazines such as Fangoria. Films that are difficult to categorize into a genre are often less successful, as such, film genres are also useful in the areas of marketing, film criticism and the analysis of consumption
6.
Suspense
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Suspense is a feeling of pleasurable fascination and excitement mixed with apprehension, tension, and anxiety developed from an unpredictable, mysterious, and rousing source of entertainment. The term most often refers to an audiences perceptions in a dramatic work, Suspense is not exclusive to fiction. It may operate whenever there is a perceived suspended drama or a chain of cause is left in doubt, films having a lot of suspense belong in the thriller genre. In terms of expectations, it may be contrasted with mystery or curiosity. Suspense could however be some small event in a life, such as a child anticipating an answer to a request theyve made, such as. Therefore, suspense may be experienced to different degrees, according to the Greek philosopher Aristotle in his book Poetics, suspense is an important building block of literature. In very broad terms, it consists of having some real danger looming, if there is no hope, the audience will feel despair. The two common outcomes are, the hitting, whereby the audience will feel sorrowful the hopes being realised, whereby the audience will first feel joy. In thrillers, suspense is the key element authors use to leave the reader or viewer hanging, trying to figure out what will happen next, the effect is specially strong when the work ends without actually revealing what happens next in the storyline. Suspense is what gives a person the on-edge feeling, Suspense builds in order to make those final moments, no matter how short, the most memorable. The suspense in a story just keeps the person hooked into reading or watching more until the climax is reached, the tension doesnt have to be in the form of the bad guy stalking the hero. It can be simpler, much less dramatic, but still make the person keep reading or watching. Suspense is about conflict, about the obstacles between the hero and their goal, anxiety Terror Cliffhanger Mystery Plot twist Red herring Adrenaline Baroni, R. Poétique de la discordance narrative, Paris, Seuil, the Nature of Narrative Suspense and the Problem of Rereading, in Suspense. Conceptualizations, Theoretical Analyses, and Empirical Explorations, Mahwah, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Reading for the Plot, Design and Intention in Narrative, Cambridge, Harvard University Press. Gerrig, R. Suspense in the Absence of Uncertainty, Journal of Memory and Language, n°28, production de lintérêt romanesque, Paris & The Hague, Mouton. The Effect of Directed Forgetting on Completed and Interrupted Tasks, presented at the 2nd Annual Student-Faculty Research Celebration at Winona State University, Winona MN. Studies in the retention of interrupted learning activities, Journal of Comparative Psychology, vol n°19, phelan, J. Reading People, Reading Plots, Character, Progression, and the Interpretation of Narrative, Chicago, University of Chicago Press
7.
Surprise (emotion)
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Surprise is a brief mental and physiological state, a startle response experienced by animals and humans as the result of an unexpected event. Surprise can have any valence, that is, it can be neutral/moderate, pleasant, unpleasant, positive, Surprise can occur in varying levels of intensity ranging from very-surprised, which may induce the fight-or-flight response, or little-surprise that elicits a less intense response to the stimuli. Surprise is intimately connected to the idea of acting in accordance with a set of rules, when the rules of reality generating events of daily life separate from the rule-of-thumb expectations, surprise is the outcome. Surprise represents the difference between expectations and reality, the gap between our assumptions and expectations about worldly events and the way that those events actually turn out. This gap can be deemed an important foundation on which new findings are based since surprises can make people aware of their own ignorance, the acknowledgement of ignorance, in turn, can mean a window to new knowledge. Surprise can also occur due to a violation of expectancies, environmental variables that effect the communication of surprise include, proxemics, chronemics, and the nature of the surroundings of the interaction. Interaction variables that influence surprise include, social norms, cultural norms, physiological influences, biological influences, Surprise may occur due to a violation of one, two, or a combination of all three factors. Surprise does not always have to have a negative valence, EVT proposes that expectancys will influence the outcome of the communication as a confirmation, behaviors within the expected range, or violation, behaviors outside the expected range. EVT also postulates that positive interactions will increase the level of attraction of the violator, positive violations would then cause positive surprise, such as a surprise birthday party, and negative violations would cause negative surprise, such as a parking ticket. Positive violations of surprise may enhance credibility, power, attraction, and persuasiveness, where as negative violations of surprise may reduce credibility, power, attraction, Surprise is expressed in the face by the following features, Eyebrows that are raised so they become curved and high. Open eyelids, the lid is raised and the lower lid is drawn down, often exposing the white sclera above. Pupil dilation mydriasis or pupil constriction miosis Dropped jaw so that the lips and teeth are parted, spontaneous, involuntary surprise is often expressed for only a fraction of a second. It may be followed immediately by the emotion of fear, joy or confusion, the intensity of the surprise is associated with how much the jaw drops, but the mouth may not open at all in some cases. The raising of the eyebrows, at least momentarily, is the most distinctive, despite the facial feedback hypothesis, in the case of surprise, some research has shown a strong lack of connection between the facial display of surprise and the actual experience of surprise. This suggests that there are variations in the expression of surprise and it has been suggested that surprise is an envelope term for both the startle response and also disbelief. More recent research shows that rasing of the eyebrows does provide facial feedback to disbelief, pupil dilation and constriction can determine the valence of surprise from the action to the reaction of the individual. Positive valence to surprise is shown through a dilation or expansion of the pupil, but, newer studies show pupil dilation for negative as well as positive stimuli, indicating a general autonomous arousal associated with pupil dilation and not affective valence. These non-verbal cues help to define whether the perceived surprise will have a positive or negative valence, linguistics may play a role in the formulation of surprise
8.
Anticipation
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Anticipation is an emotion involving pleasure, excitement, or anxiety in considering an expected event. Robin Skynner considered anticipation as one of the ways of dealing with real stress. You reduce the stress of some difficult challenge by anticipating what it will be like, there is evidence that the use of mature defenses tended to increase with age. Anticipation is the ingredient in sexual desire. As sex has a cognitive component — the most important element for desire is positive anticipation. One name for pleasurable anticipation is excitement, more generally, anticipation is a central motivating force in everyday life — the normal process of imaginative anticipation of, or speculation about, the future. To enjoy ones life, one needs a belief in Time as a medium to do things in, one needs to be able to suffer the pains and pleasures of anticipation. There are a number of theories explaining anticipation in music, from a global perspective, even given thousands of varying scale types worldwide, there is a universal human sense of satisfaction in the return to that scales tonic. In the context of the topic of Music and emotion, Juslin & Västfjälls BRECVEM model includes, as its seventh element. Technically, anticipation also refers specifically to a type of nonchord tone, note, this section refers to the process of generating the thought or feeling of anticipation in music. For titles of songs with the word Anticipation, see Anticipation, for phenomenological philosopher Edmund Husserl, anticipation is an essential feature of human action. In every action we know the goal in advance in the form of an anticipation that is empty, in the sense of vague. and seek by our action to bring it step by step to concrete realization. Anticipation can be shown in many ways, for example, some seem to smile uncontrollably during this period. It is not uncommon for the brain to be so focused on an event, stage fright is a type of anticipation, stemming from the actor or actress hoping that they perform well. The musical The Rocky Horror Show and subsequent movie are used the phrase in a literal way, since the movie became a Cult film, it has become one of the most iconic and highly quoted lines. Prediction Expectation Hope Optimism Faith Confidence Delayed gratification Anticipation, Getting Ahead of the Curve
9.
Alfred Hitchcock filmography
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Alfred Hitchcock was an English director and filmmaker. His directorial debut was the 1925 release The Pleasure Garden, Hitchcock followed this with The Lodger, A Story of the London Fog, his first commercial and critical success. It featured many of the thematic elements his films would be known for such as an innocent man on the run and it also featured the first of his famous cameo appearances. Two years later he directed Blackmail which was his first sound film, in 1935 Hitchcock directed The 39 Steps. Three years later he directed The Lady Vanishes starring Margaret Lockwood, in 1940 Hitchcock transitioned to Hollywood productions, the first of which was the psychological thriller Rebecca starring Laurence Olivier and Joan Fontaine. He received his first nomination for the Academy Award for Best Director, Hitchcock worked with Fontaine again the following year on the film Suspicion which also starred Cary Grant. In 1943 Hitchcock directed another psychological thriller Shadow of a Doubt which starred Teresa Wright, three years later he reunited with Grant on Notorious which also starred Ingrid Bergman. The film included a three minute intermittent kissing scene between the leads shot specifically to skirt the Motion Picture Production Code which at the time limited such scenes to three seconds, in 1948 Hitchcock directed Rope which starred James Stewart. The film was his first in Technicolor and is remembered for its use of long takes to make the film appear to be a continuous shot. Three years later he directed Strangers on a Train, Hitchcock collaborated with Grace Kelly on three films, Dial M for Murder, Rear Window and To Catch a Thief. For Rear Window, Hitchcock received a nomination for Best Director at the Academy Awards,1955 marked his debut on television as the host of the anthology television series Alfred Hitchcock Presents which he also produced. In 1958 Hitchcock directed the psychological thriller Vertigo starring Stewart and Kim Novak, the film topped the 2012 poll of the British film magazine Sight & Sound of the 50 Greatest Films of All Time and also topped the American Film Institutes Top Ten in the mystery genre. He followed this with the spy thriller North by Northwest which starred Grant, in 1960 he directed Psycho, the biggest commercial success of his career and for which he received his fifth nomination for Best Director at the Academy Awards. Three years later he directed horror film The Birds starring Tippi Hedren, the following year he reunited with Hedren on the film Marnie which also starred Sean Connery. He received two stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame to acknowledge his film and television achievements, in 1980 Hitchcock received a knighthood. List of unproduced Hitchcock projects List of awards and nominations received by Alfred Hitchcock Alfred Hitchcock at the Internet Movie Database
10.
Climax (narrative)
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The climax or turning point of a narrative work is its point of highest tension and drama, or it is the time when the action starts during which the solution is given. The climax of a story is a literary element. e. to construct a dramatization, in the play Hippolytus, by the famous Greek playwright, Euripides, the climax arrives when Phaedra hears Hippolytus react badly because of her love for him. That is the moment that Aphrodites curse is fulfilled. An anticlimax is a situation in a plot in which something which would appear to be difficult to solve is solved through something trivial. Another example could involve the protagonist faced with insurmountable odds and ultimately being killed without accomplishing his goal, dramatic structure Literary element Climax as a rhetorical device
11.
Cover-up
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A cover-up is an attempt, whether successful or not, to conceal evidence of wrongdoing, error, incompetence or other embarrassing information. In a passive cover-up, information is not provided, in an active cover-up. The expression is usually applied to people in positions of authority who abuse power to avoid or silence criticism or to deflect guilt of wrongdoing, perpetrators of a cover-up may be responsible for a misdeed, a breach of trust or duty, or a crime. While the terms are used interchangeably, cover-up involves withholding incriminatory evidence. When a scandal breaks, the discovery of an attempt to cover up is often regarded as more reprehensible than the original deeds. Initially a cover-up may require little effort, it will be carried out by those involved with the misdeed. This may be regarded as approval of that behaviour. It is likely that some cover-ups are successful, although by definition this cannot be confirmed, as it spreads, the cover-up itself creates yet more suspicious circumstances. Cover-ups do not necessarily require the manipulation of facts or circumstances. Arguably the most common form of cover-up is one of non-action and it is the conscious failure to release incriminating information by a third party. Yet, because of the passive cover-up, the misdeed often goes undiscovered, snowjob is an American and Canadian colloquialism for a deception or a cover-up, for example, Helen Gahagan Douglas described the Nixon Administration as the greatest snow job in history. Sometimes an apparently simple and low-risk cover-up grows out of control, compulsive gamblers, who irrationally think that they will bet the embezzled money, win, return the stake, and keep their winnings are an example. They will typically steal more, still intending to repay it with winnings, the case of derivatives trader Nick Leeson is similar. The following list is considered to be a typology since those who engage in cover-ups tend to use many of the methods of hiding the truth. The methods in actual cover-ups tend to follow the order of the list below. The Roman Catholic sex abuse cases of the late 20th and early 21st centuries, roswell UFO incident September 11,2001, terrorist attacks Attack on the U. S
12.
Red herring
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A red herring is something that misleads or distracts from a relevant or important issue. It may be either a logical fallacy or a device that leads readers or audiences towards a false conclusion. A red herring might be used, such as in mystery fiction or as part of rhetorical strategies. The origin of the expression is unknown, the phrase was later borrowed to provide a formal name for the logical fallacy and literary device. As an informal fallacy, the red herring falls into a class of relevance fallacies. Unlike the straw man, which is premised on a distortion of the partys position. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, a red herring may be intentional, or unintentional, the expression is mainly used to assert that an argument is not relevant to the issue being discussed. For example, I think we should make the academic requirements stricter for students, I recommend you support this because we are in a budget crisis, and we do not want our salaries affected. The second sentence, though used to support the first sentence, in fiction and non-fiction a red herring may be intentionally used by the writer to plant a false clue that leads readers or audiences towards a false conclusion. The characters name is a loose Italian translation of red herring, in a literal sense, there is no such fish as a red herring, it refers to a particularly strong kipper, a fish that has been strongly cured in brine and/or heavily smoked. This process makes the fish particularly pungent smelling and, with strong enough brine, turns its flesh reddish. In its literal sense as a strongly cured kipper, the term can be dated to the century, in the poem The Treatise by Walter of Bibbesworth. Prior to 2008, the sense of red herring was thought to originate from a supposed technique of training young scent hounds. There are variations of the story, but according to one version, later, when the dog was being trained to follow the faint odour of a fox or a badger, the trainer would drag a red herring perpendicular to the animals trail to confuse the dog. The dog eventually learned to follow the original scent rather than the stronger scent, another variation of the dog story is given by Robert Hendrickson who says escaping convicts used the pungent fish to throw off hounds in pursuit. Ross researched the origin of the story and found the earliest reference to using herrings for training animals was in a tract on horsemanship published in 1697 by Gerland Langbaine. Langbaine recommended a method of training horses by dragging the carcass of a cat or fox so that the horse would be accustomed to following the chaos of a hunting party and he says if a dead animal is not available, a red herring would do as a substitute. This recommendation was misunderstood by Nicholas Cox, published in the notes of another book around the same time, either way, the herring was not used to distract the hounds or horses from a trail, rather to guide them along it
13.
Cliffhanger
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A cliffhanger is hoped to ensure the audience will return to see how the characters resolve the dilemma. Some serials end with the caveat To Be Continued, in movie serials and television series the following episode sometimes begins with a recap sequence. Cliffhangers were especially popular in 1920s and 1930s serials when movie theaters filled the cultural niche later primarily occupied by television, Cliffhangers are often used in television series, especially soap operas that end each episode on a cliffhanger. Prior to the early 1980s, season-ending cliffhangers were rare on U. S. television, the first such season-ender on U. S. TV was in the comedy send-up of soap operas Soap in 1978. Cliffhangers were rare on American television before 1980, as television networks preferred the flexibility of airing episodes in any order. The phenomenal success of the 1980 Who shot J. R. Cliffhangers are also used to open the possibility of a character being killed off due to the actor not continuing to play the role. The cliffhanger has become a genre staple, the heavily serialized television drama True Blood has become notorious for cliffhangers. Not only do the seasons conclude with cliffhangers, but almost every episode finishes at a cliffhanger directly after or during a dramatic moment. Sometimes a movie, book, or season of a show will end with the defeat of the main villain before a second. Occasionally an element other than a villain is also used to tease at a sequel, back to back film production Bluma Zeigarnik Vincent Fröhlich, Der Cliffhanger und die serielle Narration. Word Detective Mid-Atlantic Nostalgia Convention Cliffhanger Film Showings
14.
Protagonist
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A protagonist is the main character in any story, such as a literary work or drama. The protagonist is at the center of the story, typically makes the key decisions, the protagonist usually affects the main characters circumstances as well, as they are often the primary actor propelling the story forward. If a story contains a subplot, or is a made up of several stories. The word protagonist is used notably in stories and forms of literature and culture that contain stories, in those forms the protagonist may simply be the leading actor, or the principal character in the story. The antagonist will provide obstacles and complications and create conflict that test the protagonist, thus revealing the strengths, the earliest known examples of protagonist are dated back to Ancient Greece. At first dramatic performances involved merely dancing and recitation by the chorus, but then in Poetics, Aristotle describes how a poet named Thespis introduced the idea of having one actor step out and engage in a dialogue with the chorus. This was the invention of tragedy, which occurred about 536 B. C, then the poet Aeschylus, in his plays, introduced a second actor, inventing the idea of dialogue between two characters. Sophocles then wrote plays that required a third actor, euripides play Hippolytus may be considered to have two protagonists. The protagonist of the first half is Phaedra, who dies partway through the play and her stepson, the titular Hippolytus, assumes the dominant role in the second half of the play. In Ibsen’s play The Master Builder, the protagonist is the architect Halvard Solness, the young woman, Hilda Wangel, whose actions lead to the death of Solness, is the antagonist. In Shakespeare’s play Romeo and Juliet, Romeo is the protagonist and he is actively in pursuit of his relationship with Juliet, and the audience is invested in that story. The character of Tybalt opposes Romeo’s desires, he is the antagonist, in Shakespeare’s play Hamlet, Prince Hamlet, who seeks revenge for the murder of his father, is the protagonist. The antagonist would be the character who most opposes Hamlet, Claudius, in the novel The Catcher in the Rye, the character Holden Caulfield is the protagonist. He is the character, and the reader is invested in his story. Sometimes, a work will have a false protagonist, who may seem to be the protagonist, the character Marion in Alfred Hitchcocks film Psycho is an example. A novel that contains a number of narratives may have a number of protagonists, alexander Solzhenitsyns The First Circle, for example, depicts a variety of characters imprisoned and living in a gulag camp. Leo Tolstoys War and Peace, depicts fifteen major characters involved in or affected by a war
15.
Homer
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Homer is the name ascribed by the ancient Greeks to the semi-legendary author of the Iliad and the Odyssey, two epic poems which are the central works of Greek literature. The Odyssey focuses on the home of Odysseus, king of Ithaca. Many accounts of Homers life circulated in classical antiquity, the most widespread being that he was a bard from Ionia. The modern scholarly consensus is that these traditions do not have any historical value, the Homeric question - by whom, when, where and under what circumstances were the Iliad and Odyssey composed - continues to be debated. Broadly speaking, modern scholarly opinion on the authorship question falls into two camps, one group holds that most of the Iliad and the Odyssey is the work of a single poet of genius. The other considers the Homeric poems to be the crystallization of a process of working and re-working by many contributors and it is generally accepted that the poems were composed at some point around the late eighth or early seventh century B. C. Most researchers believe that the poems were transmitted orally. The Homeric epics were the greatest influence on ancient Greek culture and education, to Plato, the chronological period of Homer depends on the meaning to be assigned to the word Homer. Was Homer a single person, an imaginary person representing a group of poets and this information is often called the world of Homer. The Homeric period would in that cover a number of historical periods, especially the Mycenaean Age. Considered word-for-word, the texts as we know them are the product of the scholars of the last three centuries. Each edition of the Iliad or Odyssey is a different, as the editors rely on different manuscripts and fragments. The term accuracy reveals a belief in an original uniform text. The manuscripts of the work currently available date to no earlier than the 10th century. These are at the end of a missing thousand-year chain of copies made as each generation of manuscripts disintegrated or were lost or destroyed and these numerous manuscripts are so similar that a single original can be postulated. The time gap in the chain is bridged by the scholia, or notes, on the existing manuscripts, librarian of the Library of Alexandria, he had noticed a wide divergence in the works attributed to Homer, and was trying to restore a more authentic copy. He had collected several manuscripts, which he named, the Sinopic, the one he selected for correction was the koine, which Murray translates as the Vulgate. Aristarchus was known for his selection of material
16.
Odyssey
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The Odyssey is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is, in part, a sequel to the Iliad, the Odyssey is fundamental to the modern Western canon, and is the second-oldest extant work of Western literature, the Iliad is the oldest. Scholars believe the Odyssey was composed near the end of the 8th century BC, somewhere in Ionia, the poem mainly focuses on the Greek hero Odysseus, king of Ithaca, and his journey home after the fall of Troy. It takes Odysseus ten years to reach Ithaca after the ten-year Trojan War. In his absence, it is assumed Odysseus has died, and his wife Penelope and son Telemachus must deal with a group of suitors, the Mnesteres or Proci. The Odyssey continues to be read in the Homeric Greek and translated into languages around the world. Many scholars believe the poem was composed in an oral tradition by an aoidos, perhaps a rhapsode. The details of the ancient oral performance and the conversion to a written work inspire continual debate among scholars. The Odyssey was written in a dialect of Greek—a literary amalgam of Aeolic Greek, Ionic Greek. Among the most noteworthy elements of the text are its non-linear plot, in the English language as well as many others, the word odyssey has come to refer to an epic voyage. The Odyssey has a lost sequel, the Telegony, which was not written by Homer and it was usually attributed in antiquity to Cinaethon of Sparta. In one source, the Telegony was said to have stolen from Musaeus by either Eugamon or Eugammon of Cyrene. The Odyssey begins ten years after the end of the ten-year Trojan War, and Odysseus has still not returned home from the war. Odysseus protectress, the goddess Athena, requests to Zeus, king of the gods, to finally allow Odysseus to return home when Odysseus enemy, then, disguised as a Taphian chieftain named Mentes, she visits Telemachus to urge him to search for news of his father. He offers her hospitality, they observe the suitors dining rowdily while the bard Phemius performs a poem for them. Penelope objects to Phemius theme, the Return from Troy, because it reminds her of her missing husband and that night Athena, disguised as Telemachus, finds a ship and crew for the true prince. The next morning, Telemachus calls an assembly of citizens of Ithaca to discuss what should be done with the suitors. Accompanied by Athena, he departs for the Greek mainland and the household of Nestor, most venerable of the Greek warriors at Troy, now at home in Pylos
17.
Vladimir Nabokov
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Vladimir Vladimirovich Nabokov was a Russian-American novelist and entomologist. His first nine novels were in Russian, and he achieved prominence after he began writing English prose. He was a finalist for the National Book Award for Fiction seven times, Nabokov was an expert lepidopterist and composer of chess problems. Nabokov was born on 22 April 1899, in Saint Petersburg, b to a wealthy and his father was a leader of the pre-Revolutionary liberal Constitutional Democratic Party and authored numerous books and articles about criminal law and politics. His cousins included the composer Nicolas Nabokov and his paternal grandfather, Dmitry Nabokov, had been Russias Justice Minister in the reign of Alexander II. His paternal grandmother was the Baltic German Baroness Maria von Korff, Vladimir was the familys eldest and favorite child, with four younger siblings, Sergey, Olga, Elena and Kiril. Sergey would be killed in a Nazi concentration camp in 1945, Olga is recalled by Ayn Rand as having been a supporter of constitutional monarchy who had first awakened Rands interest in politics. Nabokov spent his childhood and youth in Saint Petersburg and at the country estate Vyra near Siverskaya and his childhood, which he had called perfect and cosmopolitan, was remarkable in several ways. The family spoke Russian, English, and French in their household and he relates that the first English book his mother read to him was Misunderstood by Florence Montgomery. In fact, much to his fathers chagrin, Nabokov could read. While the family was nominally Orthodox, they felt no religious fervor, Nabokovs adolescence was also the period in which his first serious literary endeavors were made. In 1916, Nabokov had his first collection of published, Stikhi. At the time, Nabokov was attending Tenishev school in Saint Petersburg and they lived at a friends estate and in September 1918 moved to Livadiya, at the time part of the Ukrainian Republic, Nabokovs father became a minister of justice in the Crimean Regional Government. After the withdrawal of the German Army and the defeat of the White Army and they settled briefly in England and Vladimir enrolled in Trinity College, Cambridge, first studying zoology, then Slavic and Romance languages. His examination results on the first part of the Tripos, taken at the end of year, were a starred first. He sat the second part of the exam in his third year, Nabokov feared that he might fail the exam, but his script was marked second-class. His final examination result was second-class, and his BA conferred in 1922, Nabokov later drew on his Cambridge experiences to write several works, including the novels Glory and The Real Life of Sebastian Knight. In 1920, Nabokovs family moved to Berlin, where his set up the émigré newspaper Rul. Nabokov followed them to Berlin two years later, after completing his studies at Cambridge
18.
Cornell University
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Cornell University is an American private Ivy League and land-grant doctoral university located in Ithaca, New York. These ideals, unconventional for the time, are captured in Cornells motto, the university also administers two satellite medical campuses, one in New York City and one in Education City, Qatar. Cornell is one of three private land grant universities in the nation and the one in New York. Of its seven colleges, three are state-supported statutory or contract colleges through the State University of New York system, including its agricultural. Of Cornells graduate schools, only the college is state-supported. As a land grant college, Cornell operates a cooperative extension program in every county of New York. The Cornell University Ithaca Campus comprises 745 acres, but is larger when the Cornell Botanic Gardens are considered. Since its founding, Cornell has been a co-educational, non-sectarian institution where admission has not been restricted by religion or race, the student body consists of more than 14,000 undergraduate and 7,000 graduate students from all 50 American states and more than 120 countries. Cornell University was founded on April 27,1865, the New York State Senate authorized the university as the land grant institution. Senator Ezra Cornell offered his farm in Ithaca, New York, as a site, fellow senator and experienced educator Andrew Dickson White agreed to be the first president. During the next three years, White oversaw the construction of the first two buildings and traveled to attract students and faculty, the university was inaugurated on October 7,1868, and 412 men were enrolled the next day. Cornell developed as an innovative institution, applying its research to its own campus as well as to outreach efforts. For example, in 1883 it was one of the first university campuses to use electricity from a dynamo to light the grounds. Cornell has had active alumni since its earliest classes and it was one of the first universities to include alumni-elected representatives on its Board of Trustees. Today the university has more than 4,000 courses, since 2000, Cornell has been expanding its international programs. In 2004, the university opened the Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar and it has partnerships with institutions in India, Singapore, and the Peoples Republic of China. Former president Jeffrey S. Lehman described the university, with its international profile. On March 9,2004, Cornell and Stanford University laid the cornerstone for a new Bridging the Rift Center to be built, Cornells main campus is on East Hill in Ithaca, New York, overlooking the town and Cayuga Lake
19.
James Patterson
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James Brendan Patterson is an American author. He is largely known for his novels about fictional psychologist Alex Cross, Patterson also wrote the Michael Bennett, Womens Murder Club, Maximum Ride, Daniel X, NYPD Red, and Witch and Wizard series, as well as many stand-alone thrillers, non-fiction and romance novels. His books have more than 300 million copies and he holds the Guinness World Record for being the first person to sell 1 million e-books. In 2016, Patterson topped Forbess list of authors for the third consecutive year. His total earnings over a decade are estimated at approximately $700 million, in November 2015, Patterson received the Literarian Award from the National Book Foundation, which cited him as a passionate campaigner to make books and reading a national priority. Patterson was born on March 22,1947 in Newburgh, New York, the son of Isabelle, a homemaker and teacher, and Charles Patterson, an insurance broker. He graduated summa cum laude with a B. A. in English from Manhattan College, Patterson was a Ph. D. candidate at Vanderbilt, but acquired a job in advertising. He was an executive at J. Walter Thompson. After he retired from advertising in 1996, he devoted his time to writing and his greatest influence, he said later, was probably Evan S. Connells 1959 debut novel Mrs. Bridge. He published his first novel in 1976 called The Thomas Berryman Number, the novels featuring his character Alex Cross, a forensic psychologist formerly of the Washington D. C. Patterson has written 147 novels since 1976 and he has had 114 New York Times bestselling novels, and holds The New York Times record for most #1 New York Times bestsellers by a single author, a total of 67, which is also a Guinness World Record. His novels account for one in 17 of all hardcover novels sold in the United States, in recent years his novels have more copies than those of Stephen King, John Grisham. His books have sold approximately 305 million copies worldwide, in 2008, he replaced Jacqueline Wilson as the most borrowed author in Britains libraries. He retained this position at least until 2013, Pattersons awards include the Edgar Award, the BCA Mystery Guilds Thriller of the Year, the International Thriller of the Year award, and the Childrens Choice Book Award for Author of the Year. He is the first author to have No.1 new titles simultaneously on The New York Times adult and childrens bestsellers lists and he appeared on the Fox TV show The Simpsons and in various episodes of Castle as himself. Of his process, he has stated that he is more proficient at dreaming up plots than crafting sentence after sentence. In September 2009, Patterson signed a deal to write or co-write 11 books for adults and 6 for young adults by the end of 2012, forbes reported the deal was worth at least $150 million, but according to Patterson the estimate was inaccurate. The PageTurner Awards were put on hold in 2008 to focus on Pattersons new initiative, ReadKiddoRead. com, which helps parents, teachers, the social networking site for ReadKiddoRead is hosted by Ning
20.
Pleasure
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Pleasure describes the broad class of mental states that humans and other animals experience as positive, enjoyable, or worth seeking. It includes more specific mental states such as happiness, entertainment, enjoyment, ecstasy, the experience of pleasure is subjective and different individuals will experience different kinds and amounts of pleasure in the same situation. Many pleasurable experiences are associated with satisfying basic biological drives, such as eating, exercise, hygiene, the appreciation of cultural artifacts and activities such as art, music, dancing, and literature is often pleasurable. While all pleasurable stimuli are rewards, some rewards do not evoke pleasure, various compartments within the nucleus accumbens, ventral pallidum, and parabrachial nucleus have been identified as pleasure centers which respond to a variety of pleasurable stimuli. The orbitofrontal cortex and insular cortex likely contain hedonic hotspots as well, the simultaneous activation of every hedonic hotspot within the reward system is believed to be necessary for generating the sensation of an intense euphoria. Pleasure is considered to be one of the dimensions of emotion. It can be described as the positive evaluation that forms the basis for more elaborate evaluations such as agreeable or nice. As such, pleasure is an affect and not an emotion, Pleasure is sometimes subdivided into fundamental pleasures that are closely related to survival and higher-order pleasures. The clinical condition of being unable to experience pleasure from usually enjoyable activities is called anhedonia, an active aversion to obtaining pleasure is called hedonophobia. Pleasure is often regarded as a construct, meaning that the two ends of the spectrum from pleasant to unpleasant are mutually exclusive. This view is e. g. inherent in the model of affect. Yet, some lines of research suggest that people do experience pleasant and unpleasant feelings at the same time, giving rise to so-called mixed feelings. For example, a sweater that has been worn by a celebrity will be desired than an otherwise identical sweater that has not. Paul Bloom describes these phenomena as arising from a form of essentialism, Epicurus and his followers defined the highest pleasure as the absence of suffering and pleasure itself as freedom from pain in the body and freedom from turmoil in the soul. According to Cicero Epicurus also believed that pleasure was the chief good, in the 12th century Razis Treatise of the Self and the Spirit analyzed different types of pleasure, sensuous and intellectual, and explained their relations with one another. He concludes that human needs and desires are endless, and their satisfaction is by definition impossible, the 19th-century German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer understood pleasure as a negative sensation, one that negates the usual existential condition of suffering. Utilitarianism and hedonism are philosophies that advocate increasing to the maximum the amount of pleasure, how Pleasure Works, The New Science of Why We Like What We Like. Draws on neuroscience, philosophy, child-development research, and behavioral economics in a study of our desires, attractions, the pleasure center, Trust Your Animal Instincts
21.
Film director
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A film director is a person who directs the making of a film. Generally, a film director controls a films artistic and dramatic aspects, the director has a key role in choosing the cast members, production design, and the creative aspects of filmmaking. Under European Union law, the director is viewed as the author of the film, the film director gives direction to the cast and crew and creates an overall vision through which a film eventually becomes realized, or noticed. Directors need to be able to mediate differences in creative visions, there are many pathways to becoming a film director. Some film directors started as screenwriters, cinematographers, film editors or actors, other film directors have attended a film school. Some outline a general plotline and let the actors dialogue, while others control every aspect. Some directors also write their own screenplays or collaborate on screenplays with long-standing writing partners, some directors edit or appear in their films, or compose the music score for their films. Film directors create a vision through which a film eventually becomes realized/noticed. Realizing this vision includes overseeing the artistic and technical elements of production, as well as directing the shooting timetable. This entails organizing the crew in such a way as to achieve their vision of the film. This requires skills of leadership, as well as the ability to maintain a singular focus even in the stressful. Moreover, it is necessary to have an eye to frame shots and to give precise feedback to cast and crew, thus. Thus the director ensures that all involved in the film production are working towards an identical vision for the completed film. The set of varying challenges he or she has to tackle has been described as a jigsaw puzzle with egos. It adds to the pressure that the success of a film can influence when, omnipresent are the boundaries of the films budget. Additionally, the director may also have to ensure an intended age rating, thus, the position of film director is widely considered to be a highly stressful and demanding one. It has been said that 20-hour days are not unusual, under European Union law, the film director is considered the author or one of the authors of a film, largely as a result of the influence of auteur theory. Auteur theory is a film criticism concept that holds that a directors film reflects the directors personal creative vision
22.
Hierarchy
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A hierarchy is an arrangement of items in which the items are represented as being above, below, or at the same level as one another. A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally, indirect hierarchical links can extend vertically upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues, each reports to a superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are alternative and complementary to hierarchy. A hierarchy is a system or organization in which people or groups are ranked one above the other according to status or authority, Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, for example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague, degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has a node has). Hierarchies can be categorized based on the degree, the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes, linear and branching, in a linear hierarchy, the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a lineup, note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels, every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a hierarchy is the hierarchy of life. In a branching hierarchy, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more, for many people, the word hierarchy automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes, the broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree. A flat hierarchy is a hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span, therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms which can be decomposed into subatomic particles. An overlapping hierarchy is a hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word both in reference to the hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy
23.
Hope
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Hope is an optimistic attitude of mind that is based on an expectation of positive outcomes related to events and circumstances in ones life or the world at large. As a verb, its definitions include, expect with confidence, among its opposites are dejection, hopelessness and despair. Dr. Barbara L. Fredrickson argues that hope comes into its own when crisis looms, Hopeful people are like the little engine that could, they keep telling themselves I think I can, I think I can. Such positive thinking bears fruit when based on a sense of optimism. Object relations theory sees the analytic transference as motivated in part by an unconscious hope that past conflicts. As specialist in positive psychology, Charles Richard Snyder studied how hope and forgiveness can impact several aspects of such as health, work, education. Snyder postulated that there are three things that make up hopeful thinking, Goals – Approaching life in a goal-oriented way. Pathways – Finding different ways to achieve your goals, agency – Believing that you can instigate change and achieve these goals. In other words, hope was defined as the capability to derive pathways to desired goals. Snyder proposed a Hope Scale which considered that a determination to achieve their goal is their measured hope. Snyder differentiates between adult-measured hope and child-measured hope, the Adult Hope Scale by Snyder contains 12 questions,4 measuring ‘pathways thinking’,4 measuring ‘agency thinking’, and 4 that are simply fillers. Each subject responds to each question using an 8-point scale, fibel and Hale measure hope by combining Snyders Hope Scale with their own Generalized Expectancy for Success Scale to empirically measure hope. Snyder regarded that psychotherapy can help focus attention on ones goals, Hope has the ability to help people heal faster and easier. Individuals who maintain hope, especially when battling illness, significantly enhance their chances of recovery and this is important because numerous people with chronic, physical, or mental illness believe that their condition is stable and that they have little chance of recovery. Shaping people’s beliefs and expectations to be hopeful and optimistic is an essential component of positive psychology. In general, people who possess hope and think optimistically have a sense of well being in addition to the improved health outcomes outlined above. Positive psychologists teach strategies to help boost people’s hope and optimism, of the countless models that examine the importance of hope in an individual’s life, there are two major theories that have gained a significant amount of recognition in the field of psychology. This model reasons that an ability to be hopeful depends on two types of thinking, agency thinking and pathway thinking
24.
Ancient Greek philosophy
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Ancient Greek philosophy arose in the 6th century BC and continued throughout the Hellenistic period and the period in which Ancient Greece was part of the Roman Empire. Philosophy was used to sense out of the world in a non-religious way. It dealt with a variety of subjects, including political philosophy, ethics, metaphysics, ontology, logic, biology, rhetoric. Many philosophers around the world agree that Greek philosophy has influenced much of Western culture since its inception, alfred North Whitehead once noted, The safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato. Clear, unbroken lines of lead from ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophers to Early Islamic philosophy, the European Renaissance. Some claim that Greek philosophy, in turn, was influenced by the wisdom literature. But they taught themselves to reason, Philosophy as we understand it is a Greek creation. Subsequent philosophic tradition was so influenced by Socrates as presented by Plato that it is conventional to refer to philosophy developed prior to Socrates as pre-Socratic philosophy. The periods following this, up to and after the wars of Alexander the Great, are those of classical Greek, the pre-Socratics were primarily concerned with cosmology, ontology and mathematics. They were distinguished from non-philosophers insofar as they rejected mythological explanations in favor of reasoned discourse, Thales of Miletus, regarded by Aristotle as the first philosopher, held that all things arise from water. It is not because he gave a cosmogony that John Burnet calls him the first man of science, according to tradition, Thales was able to predict an eclipse and taught the Egyptians how to measure the height of the pyramids. He began from the observation that the world seems to consist of opposites, therefore, they cannot truly be opposites but rather must both be manifestations of some underlying unity that is neither. This underlying unity could not be any of the classical elements, for example, water is wet, the opposite of dry, while fire is dry, the opposite of wet. Anaximenes in turn held that the arche was air, although John Burnet argues that by this he meant that it was a transparent mist, the aether. Xenophanes was born in Ionia, where the Milesian school was at its most powerful, Burnet says that Xenophanes was not, however, a scientific man, with many of his naturalistic explanations having no further support than that they render the Homeric gods superfluous or foolish. He has been claimed as an influence on Eleatic philosophy, although that is disputed, and a precursor to Epicurus, a representative of a total break between science and religion. Pythagoras lived at roughly the time that Xenophanes did and, in contrast to the latter. Parmenides of Elea cast his philosophy against those who held it is and is not the same, and all travel in opposite directions, —presumably referring to Heraclitus
25.
Aristotle
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Aristotle was an ancient Greek philosopher and scientist born in the city of Stagira, Chalkidice, on the northern periphery of Classical Greece. His father, Nicomachus, died when Aristotle was a child, at seventeen or eighteen years of age, he joined Platos Academy in Athens and remained there until the age of thirty-seven. Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of Philip II of Macedon, teaching Alexander the Great gave Aristotle many opportunities and an abundance of supplies. He established a library in the Lyceum which aided in the production of many of his hundreds of books and he believed all peoples concepts and all of their knowledge was ultimately based on perception. Aristotles views on natural sciences represent the groundwork underlying many of his works, Aristotles views on physical science profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. Their influence extended from Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages into the Renaissance, some of Aristotles zoological observations, such as on the hectocotyl arm of the octopus, were not confirmed or refuted until the 19th century. His works contain the earliest known study of logic, which was incorporated in the late 19th century into modern formal logic. Aristotle was well known among medieval Muslim intellectuals and revered as The First Teacher and his ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics. All aspects of Aristotles philosophy continue to be the object of academic study today. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues – Cicero described his style as a river of gold – it is thought that only around a third of his original output has survived. Aristotle, whose means the best purpose, was born in 384 BC in Stagira, Chalcidice. His father Nicomachus was the physician to King Amyntas of Macedon. Aristotle was orphaned at a young age, although there is little information on Aristotles childhood, he probably spent some time within the Macedonian palace, making his first connections with the Macedonian monarchy. At the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at Platos Academy and he remained there for nearly twenty years before leaving Athens in 348/47 BC. Aristotle then accompanied Xenocrates to the court of his friend Hermias of Atarneus in Asia Minor, there, he traveled with Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos, where together they researched the botany and zoology of the island. Aristotle married Pythias, either Hermiass adoptive daughter or niece and she bore him a daughter, whom they also named Pythias. Soon after Hermias death, Aristotle was invited by Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor to his son Alexander in 343 BC, Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of Macedon. During that time he gave not only to Alexander
26.
Poetics (Aristotle)
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Aristotles Poetics is the earliest surviving work of dramatic theory and first extant philosophical treatise to focus on literary theory in the West. This has been the view for centuries. However, recent work is now challenging whether Aristotle focuses on literary theory per se or whether he focuses instead on dramatic musical theory that only has language as one of the elements, in it, Aristotle offers an account of what he calls poetry. They are similar in the fact that they are all imitations, difference of goodness in the characters. Difference in how the narrative is presented, telling a story or acting it out, in examining its first principles, Aristotle finds two, 1) imitation and 2) genres and other concepts by which that of truth is applied/revealed in the poesis. His analysis of tragedy constitutes the core of the discussion, although Aristotles Poetics is universally acknowledged in the Western critical tradition, almost every detail about his seminal work has aroused divergent opinions. The work was lost to the Western world for a long time and it was available in the Middle Ages and early Renaissance only through a Latin translation of an Arabic version written by Averroes. Aristotles work on aesthetics consists of the Poetics, Politics and Rhetoric, the Poetics is specifically concerned with drama. At some point, Aristotles original work was divided in two, each written on a separate roll of papyrus. Only the first part – that which focuses on tragedy and epic – survive, the lost second part addressed comedy. Some scholars speculate that the Tractatus coislinianus summarises the contents of the lost second book, the table of contents page of the Poetics found in Modern Librarys Basic Works of Aristotle identifies five basic parts within it. Preliminary discourse on tragedy, epic poetry, and comedy, as the forms of imitative poetry. Definition of a tragedy, and the rules for its construction, definition and analysis into qualitative parts. Rules for the construction of a tragedy, Tragic pleasure, or catharsis experienced by fear, the characters must be four things, good, appropriate, realistic, and consistent. Discovery must occur within the plot and it is important for the poet to visualize all of the scenes when creating the plot. The poet should incorporate complication and dénouement within the story, as well as all of the elements of tragedy. The poet must express thought through the words and actions, while paying close attention to diction. Aristotle believed that all of different elements had to be present in order for the poetry to be well-done
27.
Crime film
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Crime films are a genre of film that focus on crime. The stylistic approach to a crime film varies from realistic portrayals of real-life criminal figures, films dealing with crime and its detection are often based on plays rather than novels. Agatha Christies stage play Witness for the Prosecution was adapted for the big screen by director Billy Wilder in 1957, the film starred Marlene Dietrich and Charles Laughton and is a classic example of a courtroom drama. In a courtroom drama, a charge is brought against one of the main characters, another major part is played by the lawyer representing the defendant in court and battling with the public prosecutor. He or she may enlist the services of an investigator to find out what really happened. However, in most cases it is not clear at all whether the accused is guilty of the crime or not—this is how suspense is created. Often, the private investigator storms into the courtroom at the very last minute in order to bring a new and this type of literature lends itself to the literary genre of drama focused more on dialogue and little or no necessity for a shift in scenery. The auditorium of the theatre becomes an extension of the courtroom, in Witness for the Prosecution, Leonard Vole, a young American living in England, is accused of murdering a middle-aged lady he met in the street while shopping. His wife hires the best lawyer available because she is convinced, or rather she knows, another classic courtroom drama is U. S. playwright Reginald Roses Twelve Angry Men, which is set in the jury deliberation room of a New York Court of Law. Eleven members of the jury, aiming at a verdict of guilty. The popularity of TV brought about the emergence of TV series featuring detectives, investigators, special agents, lawyers, in Britain, The Avengers about the adventures of gentleman agent John Steed and his partner, Emma Peel, achieved cult status. In Germany, Derrick became a household word, breaking Bad character Walter White is a methamphetamine drug manufacturer, this offered a different approach whereby the protagonist is the criminal instead of being the detective. Crime films may fall under several different subgenres and these include, Crime comedy - A hybrid of crime and comedy films. Mafia comedy looks at organized crime from a comical standpoint, humor comes from the incompetence of the criminals and/or black comedy. Examples include Analyze This, The Pope of Greenwich Village, Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels, In Bruges, tower Heist and Pain & Gain. Crime drama - A combination of crime and dramatic films, examples include such films as Straight Time and Badlands. Crime thriller - A thriller in which the characters are involved in crime, either in its investigation, as the perpetrator or, less commonly. While some action films could be labelled as such for merely having criminality and thrills, the emphasis in this genre is the drama, examples include Untraceable, Silence of the Lambs, Heat, Seven, Witness, Memories of Murder, The Call, and Running Scared
28.
Heist film
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The heist film is a subgenre of the crime film. It focuses on the planning, execution, and aftermath of a theft, versions with dominant or prominent comic elements are often called caper movies. They could be described as the analogues of caper stories in film history, a typical film includes many plot twists, with the focus on the characters attempts to formulate a plan, carry it out, and escape with the goods. Often a nemesis must be thwarted, who might be either a figure of authority or else a former partner who turned on the group or one of its members, usually a heist film will contain a three-act plot. The second act is the heist itself, with rare exception, the heist will be successful, although some number of unexpected events will occur. The third act is the unraveling of the plot, the characters involved in the heist will be turned against one another or one of the characters will have made arrangements with some outside party, who will interfere. Touchez pas au grisbi and Reservoir Dogs, for example, both take place largely after the heist has occurred, examples of heist films that take place non-linearly, The Killing, Gambit, Reservoir Dogs. Throughout the 1930s, thievery and scams were present in films as Raffles, Outside the Law, The Unholy Garden. Even to contemporary Hollywood, the genre still remains promising, as the remakes of Oceans 11 and The Italian Job show
29.
Revenge
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Revenge is a form of primitive justice usually assumed to be enacted in the absence of the norms of formal law and jurisprudence. Often, revenge is defined as being an action against a person or group in response to a grievance. It is used to right a wrong by going outside of the law and this is because the individual taking revenge feels as though the law will not do justice. Francis Bacon described it as a kind of justice that does. Offend the law putteth the law out of office, primitive justice or retributive justice is often differentiated from more formal and refined forms of justice such as distributive justice and divine judgment. Detractors argue that revenge is simply wrong, of the design as two wrongs make a right. They dont want to lose face, some societies encourage vengeful behavior, which is called feud. These societies usually regard the honor of individuals and groups as of central importance, thus, while protecting of his reputation an avenger feels as if he restores the previous state of dignity and justice. According to Michael Ignatieff, revenge is a profound desire to keep faith with the dead. Thus, honor may become a heritage that passes from generation to generation, whenever it is compromised, the affected family or community members might feel compelled to retaliate against an offender to restore the initial balance of honor that preceded the perceived injury. This cycle of honor might expand by bringing the family members and they still persist in some areas, notably in Albania with its tradition of gjakmarrja or blood feuds. Blood feuds are still practiced in parts of the world, including Kurdish regions of Turkey. Honoring ones family, clan, or lord through the practice of revenge killings and these killings could also involve the relatives of an offender. Today, katakiuchi is most often pursued by means. The motto of Scotland is Nemo me impune lacessit, Latin for Nobody shall provoke/injure me with impunity, the origin of the motto reflects the feudal clan system of ancient Scotland, particularly the Highlands. Modern Western legal systems usually state as their goal the reform or reeducation of a convicted criminal, Sudan has suffered cycles of revenge for many years, for example tribal conflicts in Darfur. South Sudan is torn by conflicts with ethnic cleansing between the Nuer and Dinka peoples, fueled by appetite for revenge. The French diplomat Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord has been credited with the saying, La vengeance est un met que lon doit manger froid and it has been wrongly credited to the novel Les Liaisons dangereuses
30.
Kidnapping
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In criminal law, kidnapping is the abduction or unlawful transportation of a person, usually to hold the person against his or her will. This may be done for ransom, wikipedia. org/wiki/Stockholm_syndrome Kidnapping that does not result in a homicide is an offence that comes with a maximum possible penalty of life imprisonment. A murder that results from kidnapping is classified as 1st-degree, with a sentence of imprisonment that results from conviction. Part 1 allows sentencing kidnappers to maximum imprisonment of 8 years or a fine of the fifth category, part 2 allows maximum imprisonment of 9 years or a fine of the fifth category if there are serious injuries. Part 3 allows maximum imprisonment of 12 years or a fine of the fifth if the victim has been killed. Part 4 allows sentencing people that collaborate with kidnapping, part 1,2 and 3 will apply also to them. Kidnapping is an offence under the law of England and Wales. In R v D, Lord Brandon said, First, the nature of the offence is an attack on, and infringement of and this is the case regardless of the age of the child. A very small child will not have the understanding or intelligence to consent and this means that absence of consent will be a necessary inference from the age of the child. It is a question of fact for the jury whether a child has sufficient understanding. Lord Brandon said, I should not expect a jury to find at all frequently that a child under fourteen had sufficient understanding and intelligence to give its consent. If, on the hand, the child did not consent. Mode of trial Kidnapping is an indictable-only offence, sentence Kidnapping is punishable with imprisonment or fine at the discretion of the court. There is no limit on the fine or the term of imprisonment that may be imposed provided the sentence is not inordinate. The use of force to take and detain will also be regarded as an assault, law in the United States follows from English common law. The fact that a victim may have been taken across state lines brings the crime within the ambit of federal criminal law. Most states recognize different types of kidnapping and punish accordingly, New York bases its definition of first-degree kidnapping on the duration and purpose. There are several deterrents to kidnapping in the United States of America, among these are, The extreme logistical challenges involved in successfully exchanging the money for the return of the victim without being apprehended or surveiled
31.
Mystery film
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Mystery film is a genre of film that revolves around the solution of a problem or a crime. It focuses on the efforts of the detective, private investigator or amateur sleuth to solve the mysterious circumstances of an issue by means of clues, investigation, suspense is often maintained as an important plot element. This can be done through the use of the soundtrack, camera angles, heavy shadows, Alfred Hitchcock used all of these techniques, but would sometimes allow the audience in on a pending threat then draw out the moment for dramatic effect. This genre has ranged from early mystery tales, fictional or literary detective stories, a related film subgenre is spy films. Mystery films mainly focus with solving a crime or a puzzle, the mystery generally revolves around a murder which must then be solved by policemen, private detectives, or amateur sleuths. At times the viewer is presented with information not available to the main character, the central character usually explores the unsolved crime, unmasks the perpetrator, and puts an end to the effects of the villainy. The successful mystery film adheres to one of two types, known as Open and Closed. Mystery novels have proven to be a medium for translation into film. The sleuth often forms a leading character, and the plots can include elements of drama, suspense, character development, uncertainty. The locales of the tale are often of a mundane variety. Successful mystery writers can produce a series of books based on the same sleuth character, until at least the 1980s, women in mystery films have often served a dual role, providing a relationship with the detective and frequently playing the part of woman-in-peril. The women in films are often resourceful individuals, being self-reliant, determined. They can provide the triggers for the events follow, or serve as an element of suspense as helpless victims. The earliest mystery films reach back to the silent era, the first detective film is often cited as Sherlock Holmes Baffled, a very short Mutoscope reel created between 1900 and 1903 by Arthur Marvin. It is the film to feature the character of detective Sherlock Holmes. In France, the popular Nick Carter detective novels inspired the first film serial, Nick Carter and this six-episode series was followed with Nouveaux aventures de Nick Carter in 1909. Louis Feuillade created the highly popular Fantômas serial based on the serial novel about Juve. Later detective serials by Feuillade include The Vampires, Judex, Tih Minh, feuillades films, which combined realism, poetic imagery, and pure fantasy, influenced the American The Perils of Pauline, directors such as René Clair, and Surrealists such as André Breton
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Detective fiction
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Detective fiction is a subgenre of crime fiction and mystery fiction in which an investigator or a detective—either professional or amateur—investigates a crime, often murder. Some scholars have suggested that ancient and religious texts bear similarities to what would later be called detective fiction. In the Old Testament story of Susanna and the Elders, the account told by two breaks down when Daniel cross-examines them. In the play Oedipus Rex by Ancient Greek playwright Sophocles, the character discovers the truth about his origins after questioning various witnesses. The earliest known example of a story was The Three Apples, one of the tales narrated by Scheherazade in the One Thousand. In this story, a fisherman discovers a heavy, locked chest along the Tigris river and he sells it to the Abbasid Caliph, when Harun breaks open the chest, he finds inside it, the dead body of a young woman who has been cut into pieces. Harun then orders his vizier, Jafar ibn Yahya, to solve the crime, suspense is generated through multiple plot twists that occur as the story progresses. This may thus be considered an archetype for detective fiction, the main difference between Jafar and later fictional detectives, such as Sherlock Holmes and Hercule Poirot, is that Jafar has no actual desire to solve the case. The whodunit mystery is solved when the murderer himself confesses his crime and this in turn leads to another assignment in which Jafar has to find the culprit who instigated the murder within three days or else be executed. Gongan fiction （公案小说, literally：case records of a public law court）is the earliest known genre of Chinese detective fiction, some well known stories include the Yuan Dynasty story Circle of Chalk, the Ming Dynasty story collection Bao Gong An and the 18th century Di Gong An story collection. The latter was translated into English as Celebrated Cases of Judge Dee by Dutch sinologist Robert Van Gulik, the hero/detective of these novels is typically a traditional judge or similar official based on historical personages such as Judge Bao or Judge Dee. Although the historical characters may have lived in an earlier period most stories are written in the latter Ming or Qing period, Van Gulik chose Di Gong An to translate because it was in his view closer to the Western tradition and more likely to appeal to non-Chinese readers. One notable fact is that a number of Gong An works may have been lost or destroyed during the Literary Inquisitions and the wars in ancient China. Only little or incomplete case volumes can be found, for example, One of the earliest examples of detective fiction is Voltaires Zadig, which features a main character who performs feats of analysis. Things as They Are, or, The Adventures of Caleb Williams by William Godwin shows the law as protecting the murderer, das Fräulein von Scuderi, an 1819 short story by E. T. A. Auguste Dupin. Poe devised a plot formula thats been successful ever since, give or take a few shifting variables, Poe followed with further Auguste Dupin tales, The Mystery of Marie Rogêt in 1843 and The Purloined Letter in 1845. Poe referred to his stories as tales of ratiocination, early detective stories tended to follow an investigating protagonist from the first scene to the last, making the unraveling a practical rather than emotional matter. The Mystery of Marie Rogêt is particularly interesting because it is a fictionalized account based on Poes theory of what happened to the real-life Mary Cecilia Rogers
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Psychology
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Psychology is the science of behavior and mind, embracing all aspects of conscious and unconscious experience as well as thought. It is a discipline and a social science which seeks to understand individuals and groups by establishing general principles. In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist and can be classified as a social, behavioral, Psychologists explore behavior and mental processes, including perception, cognition, attention, emotion, intelligence, phenomenology, motivation, brain functioning, and personality. This extends to interaction between people, such as relationships, including psychological resilience, family resilience, and other areas. Psychologists of diverse orientations also consider the unconscious mind, Psychologists employ empirical methods to infer causal and correlational relationships between psychosocial variables. Psychology has been described as a hub science, with psychological findings linking to research and perspectives from the sciences, natural sciences, medicine, humanities. By many accounts psychology ultimately aims to benefit society, the majority of psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role, practicing in clinical, counseling, or school settings. Many do scientific research on a range of topics related to mental processes and behavior. The word psychology derives from Greek roots meaning study of the psyche, the Latin word psychologia was first used by the Croatian humanist and Latinist Marko Marulić in his book, Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae in the late 15th century or early 16th century. In 1890, William James defined psychology as the science of mental life and this definition enjoyed widespread currency for decades. Also since James defined it, the more strongly connotes techniques of scientific experimentation. Folk psychology refers to the understanding of people, as contrasted with that of psychology professionals. The ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China, India, historians note that Greek philosophers, including Thales, Plato, and Aristotle, addressed the workings of the mind. As early as the 4th century BC, Greek physician Hippocrates theorized that mental disorders had physical rather than supernatural causes, in China, psychological understanding grew from the philosophical works of Laozi and Confucius, and later from the doctrines of Buddhism. This body of knowledge involves insights drawn from introspection and observation and it frames the universe as a division of, and interaction between, physical reality and mental reality, with an emphasis on purifying the mind in order to increase virtue and power. Chinese scholarship focused on the advanced in the Qing Dynasty with the work of Western-educated Fang Yizhi, Liu Zhi. Distinctions in types of awareness appear in the ancient thought of India, a central idea of the Upanishads is the distinction between a persons transient mundane self and their eternal unchanging soul. Divergent Hindu doctrines, and Buddhism, have challenged this hierarchy of selves, yoga is a range of techniques used in pursuit of this goal
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Serial killer
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Different authorities apply different criteria when designating serial killers, while most set a threshold of three murders, others extend it to four or lessen it to two. The Federal Bureau of Investigation, for example, defines serial killing as a series of two or more murders, committed as separate events, usually, but not always, by one offender acting alone. The murders may be attempted or completed in a fashion. Serial killing is not the same as mass murdering, nor is it spree killing, however, there is ample evidence the term was used in Europe and the U. S. earlier. The German term and concept were coined by the influential Ernst Gennat, psychopathic behavior that is consistent with traits common to some serial killers include sensation seeking, a lack of remorse or guilt, impulsivity, the need for control, and predatory behavior. They were often abused—emotionally, physically and/or sexually—by a family member, a disproportionate number exhibit one, two, or all three of the Macdonald triad of predictors of future violent behavior, Many are fascinated with fire setting. They are involved in activity, especially in children who have not reached sexual maturity. More than 60 percent, or simply a large proportion, wet their beds beyond the age of 12 and they were frequently bullied or socially isolated as children or adolescents. For example, Henry Lee Lucas was ridiculed as a child, kenneth Bianchi was teased as a child because he urinated in his pants, suffered twitching, and as a teenager was ignored by his peers. Some were involved in petty crimes, such as fraud, theft, vandalism, often, they have trouble staying employed and tend to work in menial jobs. The FBI, however, states, Serial murderers often seem normal, have families and/or a steady job, other sources state they often come from unstable families. Studies have suggested that serial killers generally have an average or low-average IQ, although they are often described, a sample of 202 IQs of serial killers had a median IQ of 89. There are exceptions to these criteria, however, for example, Harold Shipman was a successful professional. He was considered a pillar of the community, he even won a professional award for a childrens asthma clinic and was interviewed by Granada Televisions World in Action. Dennis Nilsen was an ex-soldier turned civil servant and trade unionist who had no criminal record when arrested. Neither was known to have exhibited many of the tell-tale signs, vlado Taneski, a crime reporter, was a career journalist who was caught after a series of articles he wrote gave clues that he had murdered people. Russell Williams was a successful and respected career Royal Canadian Air Force Colonel who was convicted of murdering two women, along with fetish burglaries and rapes, Many serial killers have faced similar problems in their childhood development. Family, or lack thereof, is the most prominent part of a childs development because it is what the child can identify with on a regular basis
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Fringe theory
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A fringe theory is an idea or viewpoint which differs from the accepted scholarship in its field. Fringe theories include the models and proposals of fringe science, as well as similar ideas in other areas of scholarship, the term fringe theory is commonly used in a narrower sense as a pejorative, roughly synonymous with pseudo-scholarship. Precise definitions that distinguish between widely held viewpoints, fringe theories, and pseudo-scholarship are difficult to construct because of the demarcation problem, Issues of false equivalence can occur when fringe theories are presented as being equal to widely accepted theories. Fringe theories are ideas which depart significantly from a prevailing or mainstream theory, a fringe theory is neither a majority opinion nor that of a respected minority. The term in general is closer to the understanding of the word theory—a hypothesis, guess. They even exist in fields of study which are themselves outside the mainstream, Fringe theories meet with varying levels of academic acceptance. Financial journalist Alexander Davidson characterized fringe theories as peddled by a band of staunch supporters. Daniel N. Robinson described them as occupying a limbo between the dead end and the ultimately credible productive theory. However, the term is used pejoratively, advocates of fringe theories are dismissed as cranks or crackpots who are out of touch with reality. In this sense, there is overlap with other dismissive labels, such as pseudoarchaeology, pseudohistory. The term is used to describe conspiracy theories. The conspirators are possessed of almost superhuman power and cunning, as described by historian Esther Webman, margaret Wertheim suggested that fringe theories should be treated in a manner similar to outsider art. In 2003 she curated an exhibit at the Santa Monica Museum of Art which was dedicated to the work of fringe physicist Jim Carter, Wertheim wrote that a credentialed physicist. Can generally recognize a fringe theory by sight when it comes in the form of an eccentrically formatted manuscript, however, it is difficult to distinguish between fringe theories and respected minority theories. A workable definition of what constitutes a fringe theory may not actually be possible and this is an aspect of the demarcation problem that occurs within both science and the humanities. Later authors, including Richard Duschl, expanded these categories, under Duschls system, a fringe theory is a mix of legitimate new ideas and pseudoscience, it awaits analysis to determine whether it will pass into the frontier or be rejected entirely. The majority of fringe theories never become part of established scholarship, rejected ideas may help to refine mainstream thought, but most outside theories are simply incorrect and have no wider impact. Nevertheless, some ideas do gradually receive wider acceptance until they are no longer viewed as fringe theories, occasionally such theories even become the mainstream view
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Miscarriage of justice
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A miscarriage of justice primarily is the conviction and punishment of a person for a crime they did not commit. The term can apply to errors in the other direction—errors of impunity. Most criminal justice systems have means to overturn, or quash, a wrongful conviction. In some instances a wrongful conviction is not overturned for several years, or until after the innocent person has been executed, released from custody, miscarriage of justice is sometimes synonymous with wrongful conviction, referring to a conviction reached in an unfair or disputed trial. Wrongful convictions are frequently cited by death penalty opponents as cause to eliminate death penalties to avoid executing innocent persons, in recent years, DNA evidence has been used to clear many people falsely convicted. The Scandinavian languages have a word, the Swedish variant of which is justitiemord, the term exists in several languages and was originally used for cases where the accused was convicted, executed, and later cleared after death. While a miscarriage of justice is a Type I error for falsely identifying culpability, however, the term miscarriage of justice is often used to describe the latter type as well. With capital punishment decreasing, the expression has acquired an extended meaning, the retention of the term murder represents both universal abhorrence against wrongful convictions and awareness of how destructive wrongful convictions are. Also, the term travesty of justice is used for a gross. Show trials, due to their character, often lead to such travesties, where condemned persons are executed promptly after conviction, the most significant effect of a miscarriage of justice is irreversible. Wrongly executed people nevertheless occasionally receive posthumous pardons—which essentially void the conviction—or have their convictions quashed, many death penalty states hold condemned persons for ten or more years before execution, so that any new evidence that might acquit them will have had time to surface. Even when a convicted person is not executed, years in prison can have a substantial, irreversible effect on the person. The risk of miscarriage of justice is also an argument against long sentences, like a life sentence. The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights requires the victims of miscarriage of justice to be compensated, various studies estimate that in the United States, between 2.3 and 5% of all prisoners are innocent. One study estimated that up to 10,000 people may be convicted of serious crimes each year. A2014 study estimated that 4. 1% of inmates awaiting execution on death row in the United States are innocent, if the conviction turns out to be a miscarriage of justice, then one or both of these statements is ultimately deemed to be false. During this time between the miscarriage of justice and its correction, the public holds false beliefs about the occurrence of a crime, the perpetrator of a crime, or both. While the public audience of a miscarriage of justice certainly varies, in cases where a large-scale audience is unknowingly witness to a miscarriage of justice, the news-consuming public may develop false beliefs about the nature of crime itself
