1.
Thunder Bay
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Thunder Bay is a city in, and the seat of, Thunder Bay District, Ontario, Canada. It is the most populous municipality in Northwestern Ontario with a population of 108,359 as of the Canada 2011 Census, European settlement in the region began in the late 17th century with a French fur trading outpost on the banks of the Kaministiquia River. Forestry and manufacturing played important roles in the citys economy and they have declined in recent years, but have been replaced by a knowledge economy based on medical research and education. Thunder Bay is the site of the Thunder Bay Regional Research Institute, the city takes its name from the immense Thunder Bay at the head of Lake Superior, known on 18th-century French maps as Baie du Tonnerre. The city is referred to as the Lakehead, or Canadian Lakehead. European settlement at Thunder Bay began with two French fur trading posts which were subsequently abandoned, in 1803, the Montreal-based North West Company established Fort William as its mid-continent entrepôt. The fort thrived until 1821 when the North West Company merged with the Hudsons Bay Company, by the 1850s, the Province of Canada began to take an interest in its western extremity. Discovery of copper in the Keweenaw Peninsula of Michigan had prompted a demand for mining locations on the Canadian shores of Lake Superior. In 1849, French-speaking Jesuits established the Mission de lImmaculée-Conception on the Kaministiquia to evangelize the Ojibwe, the Province of Canada negotiated the Robinson Treaty in 1850 with the Ojibwa of Lake Superior. As a result, an Indian reserve was set aside for them south of the Kaministiquia River, in 1859–60, the Department of Crown Lands surveyed two townships and the Town Plot of Fort William for European-Canadian settlement. Another settlement developed a few miles to the north of Fort William after construction by the federal Department of Public Works of a road connecting Lake Superior with the Red River Colony, the work was directed by Simon James Dawson. This public works depot or construction headquarters acquired its first name in May 1870 when Colonel Garnet Wolseley named it Prince Arthurs Landing and it was renamed Port Arthur by the Canadian Pacific Railway in May 1883. The arrival of the CPR in 1875 sparked a rivalry between the towns, which did not end until the amalgamation of 1970. Until the 1880s, Port Arthur was a larger and dynamic community. The CPR, in collaboration with the Hudsons Bay Company, preferred east Fort William, provoked by a prolonged tax dispute with Port Arthur and its seizure of a locomotive in 1889, the CPR relocated all its employees and facilities to Fort William. The collapse of silver mining after 1890 undermined the economy of Port Arthur and it had an economic depression, while Fort William thrived. In the era of Sir Wilfrid Laurier, Thunder Bay began a period of growth, based on improved access to markets via the transcontinental railway. The CPR double-tracked its Winnipeg–Thunder Bay line, the Canadian Northern Railway established facilities at Port Arthur
2.
Ontario
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Ontario, one of the 13 provinces and territories of Canada, is located in east-central Canada. It is Canadas most populous province by a margin, accounting for nearly 40 percent of all Canadians. Ontario is fourth-largest in total area when the territories of the Northwest Territories and it is home to the nations capital city, Ottawa, and the nations most populous city, Toronto. There is only about 1 km of land made up of portages including Height of Land Portage on the Minnesota border. Ontario is sometimes divided into two regions, Northern Ontario and Southern Ontario. The great majority of Ontarios population and arable land is located in the south, in contrast, the larger, northern part of Ontario is sparsely populated with cold winters and is heavily forested. The province is named after Lake Ontario, a thought to be derived from Ontarí, io, a Huron word meaning great lake, or possibly skanadario. Ontario has about 250,000 freshwater lakes, the province consists of three main geographical regions, The thinly populated Canadian Shield in the northwestern and central portions, which comprises over half the land area of Ontario. Although this area mostly does not support agriculture, it is rich in minerals and in part covered by the Central and Midwestern Canadian Shield forests, studded with lakes, Northern Ontario is subdivided into two sub-regions, Northwestern Ontario and Northeastern Ontario. The virtually unpopulated Hudson Bay Lowlands in the north and northeast, mainly swampy. Southern Ontario which is further sub-divided into four regions, Central Ontario, Eastern Ontario, Golden Horseshoe, the highest point is Ishpatina Ridge at 693 metres above sea level located in Temagami, Northeastern Ontario. In the south, elevations of over 500 m are surpassed near Collingwood, above the Blue Mountains in the Dundalk Highlands, the Carolinian forest zone covers most of the southwestern region of the province. A well-known geographic feature is Niagara Falls, part of the Niagara Escarpment, the Saint Lawrence Seaway allows navigation to and from the Atlantic Ocean as far inland as Thunder Bay in Northwestern Ontario. Northern Ontario occupies roughly 87 percent of the area of the province. Point Pelee is a peninsula of Lake Erie in southwestern Ontario that is the southernmost extent of Canadas mainland, Pelee Island and Middle Island in Lake Erie extend slightly farther. All are south of 42°N – slightly farther south than the border of California. The climate of Ontario varies by season and location, the effects of these major air masses on temperature and precipitation depend mainly on latitude, proximity to major bodies of water and to a small extent, terrain relief. In general, most of Ontarios climate is classified as humid continental, Ontario has three main climatic regions
3.
Runway
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According to the International Civil Aviation Organization, a runway is a defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing and takeoff of aircraft. Runways may be a surface or a natural surface. Runways are named by a number between 01 and 36, which is generally the magnetic azimuth of the heading in decadegrees. This heading differs from true north by the magnetic declination. A runway numbered 09 points east, runway 18 is south, runway 27 points west, when taking off from or landing on runway 09, a plane would be heading 90°. A runway can normally be used in both directions, and is named for each separately, e. g. runway 33 in one direction is runway 15 when used in the other. The two numbers usually differ by 18, Runway Zero Three Left becomes Runway Two One Right when used in the opposite direction. In some countries, if parallel runways are too close to each other, at large airports with four or more parallel runways some runway identifiers are shifted by 10 degrees to avoid the ambiguity that would result with more than three parallel runways. For example, in Los Angeles, this results in runways 6L, 6R, 7L. At Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport, there are five parallel runways, named 17L, 17C, 17R, 18L, for clarity in radio communications, each digit in the runway name is pronounced individually, runway three six, runway one four, etc. A leading zero, for example in runway zero six or runway zero one left, is included for all ICAO, however, most U. S. civil aviation airports drop the leading zero as required by FAA regulation. This also includes some military airfields such as Cairns Army Airfield and this American anomaly may lead to inconsistencies in conversations between American pilots and controllers in other countries. It is very common in a such as Canada for a controller to clear an incoming American aircraft to, for example, runway 04. In flight simulation programs those of American origin might apply U. S. usage to airports around the world, for example, runway 05 at Halifax will appear on the program as the single digit 5 rather than 05. Runway designations change over time because the magnetic poles slowly drift on the Earths surface, depending on the airport location and how much drift takes place, it may be necessary over time to change the runway designation. As runways are designated with headings rounded to the nearest 10 degrees, for example, if the magnetic heading of a runway is 233 degrees, it would be designated Runway 23. If the magnetic heading changed downwards by 5 degrees to 228, if on the other hand the original magnetic heading was 226, and the heading decreased by only 2 degrees to 224, the runway should become Runway 22. Because the drift itself is slow, runway designation changes are uncommon
4.
Nav Canada
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Nav Canada is a privately run, not-for-profit corporation that owns and operates Canadas civil air navigation system. It was established in accordance with the Civil Air Navigation Services Commercialization Act, the company employs approximately 1,900 air traffic controllers,650 flight service specialists and 700 technologists. As part of the transfer, or privatization, Nav Canada paid the government CA$1.5 billion, Nav Canada, which operates independently of any government funding, is headquartered in Ottawa, Ontario. It is only allowed to be funded by publicly traded debt, Nav Canadas operations consist of various sites across the country. The company is governed by a 15-member board of representing the four stakeholder groups that founded Nav Canada. The four stakeholders elect 10 members as follows, These 10 directors then elect four independent directors and those 14 directors then appoint the president and chief executive officer who becomes the 15th board member. This structure ensures that the interests of individual stakeholders do not predominate, to further ensure that the interests of Nav Canada are served, these board members cannot be active employees or members of airlines, unions, or government. The company was formed on November 1,1996 when the government sold the air navigation services from Transport Canada to the new not-for-profit private entity for CAD$1.5 billion. The company was formed in response to a number of issues with Transport Canadas operation of air traffic control, while TCs safety record and operational staff were rated highly, its infrastructure was old and in need of serious updating at a time of government restraint. This resulted in delays for airlines and costs that were exceeding the airline ticket tax. The climate of government wage freezes resulted in shortages of air traffic controllers that were hard to address within a government department. Having TC as the provider, the regulator and inspector was a conflict of interest. Pressure from the airlines on the government mounted for a solution to the problem that was hurting the air industrys bottom line, the companys revenue is predominately from service fees charged to aircraft operators which amount to about CAD$1. 2B annually. Nav Canada also raises revenues from developing and selling technology and related services to air navigation service providers around the world. It also has some sources of income, such as conducting maintenance work for other ANS providers and rentals from the Nav Centre in Cornwall. In the summer of 2007 the company held $368 million in ABCP which had become illiquid, on 12 January 2009 final Ontario Superior Court of Justice approval was granted to restructure the third party ABCP notes. The company expects that the non-credit related fair value variances from face value on restructured and non-restructured ABCP will be recovered by the time the notes mature in fiscal year 2017. By fiscal year end 2013, the company’s revenues reached $1,231 million, during the period 2005-15 the company held service charge rates steady
5.
Canada Border Services Agency
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The Canada Border Services Agency is a federal agency that is responsible for border enforcement, immigration enforcement and customs services. The Agencys creation was formalized by the Canada Border Services Agency Act, since the September 11 attacks against the United States, Canadas border operations have placed an enhanced emphasis on national security and public safety. The CBSA oversees approximately 1,200 service locations across Canada and it employs over 12,000 public servants, and offers around-the-clock service at 119 land border crossings and thirteen international airports. The Agency oversees operations at three major sea ports and three centres, and operates detention facilities in Laval, Toronto, Kingston and Vancouver. The CBSA operates an Inland Enforcement branch, which tracks down, Inland Enforcement Officers are plain-clothes units, and are armed with the same sidearm pistol as port of entry Border Services Officers. The coat of arms was granted on June 15,2010 and presented by Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II on July 6,2010, also in attendance were Governor General Michaëlle Jean and Prime Minister Stephen Harper. Use of the coat of arms is reserved for special occasions, the Heraldic Badge was approved for use at the same time as the coat of arms. It portrays a gold tressure which symbolizes the agencys security focus, the portcullis represents Her Majesty’s agents responsible for border services. The motto Protectio, Servitium, Integritas, translates “Protection, Service, the badge figures prominently in the television series Border Security, Canadas Front Line. A flag was approved for use on December 20,2012 and it is meant to resemble Canadas Blue Ensign, which was flown on government vessels prior to 1965. Not only has the structure of the organization changed, but the range of duties, substantial changes began before the 2001 terrorist attacks in the US. These new responsibilities led to the implementation of use of force policies, Border Services Officers across Canada started to carry collapsible batons, OC spray and handcuffs. The 2006 Canadian federal budget introduced $101 million to equip CBSA officers with side arms, in August 2006, Prime Minister Stephen Harper announced that arming BSOs would begin in early 2007 and would continue through 2016. Some of the first officers to be armed were those working at the Windsor, Ontario port of entry, arming at the other Ports of Entry across Canada is being conducted systematically with those Ports considered the busiest and/or most dangerous to be completed first. Ports of Entry for all modes now have armed officers, including those at airports, Border Services Officers are equipped with handcuffs, oleoresin capsicum spray, batons, and are currently armed with Beretta PX4 Storm pistols. The arming initiative began in 2007 and officially concluded in 2016, Border Services Officers are trained at the CBSA College, located in Rigaud, Quebec. The attacker was an American man who shot the CBSA officer then killed himself, the CBSA officer, Lori Bowcock, was shot in the neck but she survived. This is the first time since CBSAs inception that an officer was shot on duty, in March 2015, Alain Philippon, a man from Ste-Anne-des-Plaines, Quebec, was referred to secondary inspection after returning from a trip to the Dominican Republic
6.
British Commonwealth Air Training Plan
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Under a parallel agreement, the Joint Air Training Scheme, South Africa trained 33,347 aircrew for the South African Air Force and other Allied air forces. This number was exceeded only by Canada, which trained 131,500 personnel, negotiations regarding joint training, between the four governments concerned, took place in Ottawa during the first few months of the war. On 17 December 1939, they signed the Air Training Agreement – often referred to as the Riverdale Agreement, after the UK representative at the negotiations, the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan was viewed as an incredibly ambitious programme. Under the agreement, air crews received training in various Commonwealth countries before travelling to Canada for advanced courses. Training costs were to be divided between the four governments and these units later became known as Article XV squadrons. Articles XVI and XVII stipulated that the UK government would be responsible for the pay and entitlements of graduates. On 29 April 1940, the first Canadian training course commenced, with 221 recruits, at No.1 Initial Training School RCAF, located initially at the Eglinton Hunt Club. From this intake,39 received their wings as aircrew on 30 September 1940, all of these graduates, however, were retained by the BCATP in Canada, as instructors, staff pilots or in similar flying assignments. The first BCATP personnel sent to the UK were 37 Canadian observers, the first BCATP-trained pilots posted to Europe as a group were 37 RAAF personnel who graduated in November 1941, from No.2 Service Flying Training School, RCAF Uplands, Ottawa. Prior to the inception of the Empire Air Training Scheme, the RAAF trained only about 50 pilots per year, under the Air Training Agreement, Australia undertook to provide 28,000 aircrew over three years, representing 36% of the total number trained by the BCATP. By 1945, more than 37,500 Australian aircrew had been trained in Australia, the first flying course started on 29 April 1940. Keith Chisholm was the first Australian to be trained under EATS, for a period, most RAAF aircrews received advanced training in Canada. During mid-1940, however, some RAAF trainees began to advanced training at RAF facilities in Southern Rhodesia. In addition, a number of Australian personnel were transferred from Europe. Some Article XV squadrons were transferred to RAAF or RAF formations involved in the Pacific War. Nevertheless, a significant proportion of RAAF personnel remained in Europe, by early 1944, the flow of RAAF replacement personnel to Europe had begun to outstrip demand and – following a request by British government – was wound back significantly. Australian involvement was terminated in October 1944. The government agreed in December 1939 to join the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan, operate its bases in Canada, and pick up a large proportion of the costs
7.
Canadian Car and Foundry
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Canadian Car and Foundry also variously known as Canadian Car & Foundry, or more familiarly as Can Car, manufactured buses, railroad rolling stock and later aircraft for the Canadian market. CC&F history goes back to 1897, but the company was established in 1909 from an amalgamation of several companies. Today the remaining factories are part of Bombardier Transportation Canada, buses were produced at Fort William, Ontario and railcars in Montreal and Amherst. Streetcars were manufactured between 1897 and 1913, however the company focused exclusively on rebuilding existing streetcars after 1913, a few years later, CC&F acquired the assets of Pratt & Letchworth, a Brantford, ON, rail car manufacturer. During World War I, CC&F had signed contracts with Russia. An enormous factory was constructed in the Kingsland to assemble, package, on January 11,1917, a fire started in one of the buildings. In four hours, the spread to the approximately 500,000 pieces of 76.2 mm -high explosive shells stored there, causing several explosions. The explosion launched artillery shells and building debris across the area, destroying homes and businesses in the nearby towns of Haskell, Pompton Lakes. The total loss, including the ordnance, was estimated at $16,750,000, by 1939, with war on the horizon, Canadian Car & Foundry and its Chief Engineer, Elsie MacGill, were contracted by the Royal Air Force to produce the Hawker Hurricanes. Refinements introduced by MacGill on the Hurricane included skis and de-icing gear, when the production of the Hurricane was complete in 1943, CC&Fs workforce of 4,500 had built over 1,400 aircraft, about 10% of all Hurricanes built. Following the success of the Hurricane contract, CC&F sought out, eventually,834 Helldivers were produced by CC&F in various versions from SBW-1, SBW-1B, SBW-3, SBW-4E and SBW-5. Some of the Curtiss divebombers were sent directly to the Royal Navy under Lend-Lease arrangements, CC&F also built the North American AT-6 Texan/Harvard under licence, many of the aircraft being supplied to European air forces to train post war military pilots. In 1944, the Canadian Car & Foundry built a new aircraft in its Montreal shops - the Burnelli CBY-3. There were two examples built of a design originally developed by Vincent J. Burnelli. The CBY-3 was never to enter production and was cancelled less than one year later. The work of Canadian women building fighter and bomber aircraft at the plant during the Second World War is documented in the 1999 National Film Board of Canada documentary film Rosies of the North. After the Second World War, the CC&F returned to its roots as a car manufacturer. CC&F built 1,114 trolley buses and a few thousand buses under the name, trolleybus production ended in 1954, Edmonton Transit Systems No
8.
Airport terminal
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An airport terminal is a building at an airport where passengers transfer between ground transportation and the facilities that allow them to board and disembark from aircraft. Within the terminal, passengers purchase tickets, transfer their luggage, the buildings that provide access to the airplanes are typically called concourses. However, the terminal and concourse are sometimes used interchangeably. Smaller airports have one terminal while larger airports have several terminals and/or concourses, at small airports, the single terminal building typically serves all of the functions of a terminal and a concourse. Some larger airports have one terminal that is connected to multiple concourses via walkways, sky-bridges, some larger airports have more than one terminal, each with one or more concourses. Still other larger airports have multiple terminals each of which incorporate the functions of a concourse, due to the rapid rise in popularity of passenger flight, many early terminals were built in the 1930s–1940s and reflected the popular art deco style architecture of the time. One such surviving example from 1940 is the Houston Municipal Airport Terminal, early airport terminals opened directly onto the tarmac, passengers would walk or take a bus to their aircraft. This design is common among smaller airports, and even many larger airports have bus gates to accommodate aircraft beyond the main terminal. A pier design uses a small, narrow building with aircraft parked on both sides, one end connects to a ticketing and baggage claim area. Piers offer high capacity and simplicity of design, but often result in a long distance from the check-in counter to the gate. A satellite terminal is a building detached from other airport buildings, the first airport to use a satellite terminal was London Gatwick Airport. It used a pedestrian tunnel to connect the satellite to the main terminal. This was also the first setup at Los Angeles International Airport, the first airport to use an automatic people mover to connect the main terminal with a satellite was Tampa International Airport, which is the standard today. Other examples include the following, Pariss Charles de Gaulle Airport, Geneva International Airport and London Gatwick Airport have circular satellite terminals, lisbon Internacional Airport has a small rectangular satellite terminal, connect by a free shuttle service. Orlando International Airport and Pittsburgh International Airport have multi-pier satellite terminals, brussels Airports Pier A is connected to the main building via underground tunnels and walkways. Zurich Airports Midfield Terminal is connected to the terminal via an underground Skymetro. At Logan International Airport in Boston, Terminal A has two sections of gates, one of which is a terminal connected by an underground walkway. Denver International Airport, Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport, and Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport have linear satellite terminals connected by central passages, the linear satellite terminals are connected by automatic people movers
9.
Air Canada
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Air Canada is the flag carrier and largest airline of Canada. The airline, founded in 1937, provides scheduled and charter air transport for passengers and it is the worlds eighth-largest passenger airline by fleet size, and is a founding member of the Star Alliance. Air Canadas corporate headquarters are located in Montréal, Quebec, while its largest hub is at Toronto Pearson International Airport, Air Canada had passenger revenues of CA$13.8 billion in 2015. The airlines regional service is Air Canada Express, Canadas national airline originated from the Canadian federal governments 1936 creation of Trans-Canada Airlines, which began operating their first transcontinental flight routes in 1938. In 1965, TCA was renamed Air Canada following government approval, after the deregulation of the Canadian airline market in the 1980s, the airline was privatized in 1988. On 4 January 2000, Air Canada acquired their largest rival, in 2003, the airline filed for bankruptcy protection and in the following year emerged and reorganized under the holding company ACE Aviation Holdings Inc. In 2007,34 million people flew with Air Canada as the celebrated their 70th anniversary. The carriers operating divisions include Air Canada Cargo, Air Canada Express and their subsidiary, Air Canada Vacations, provides vacation packages to over 90 destinations. Together with their partners, the airline operates on average more than 1,530 scheduled flights daily. Air Canadas predecessor, Trans-Canada Airlines, was created by legislation as a subsidiary of Canadian National Railway on 11 April 1937. The newly created Department of Transport under Minister C. D, howe desired an airline under government control to link cities on the Atlantic coast to those on the Pacific coast. Transcontinental routes from Montreal to Vancouver began on 1 April 1939, using 12 Lockheed Model 14 Super Electras, by January 1940, the airline had grown to about 500 employees. Canadian Pacific Airlines suggested in 1942 a merger with TCA, prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King rejected the proposal and introduced legislation regulating TCA as the only airline in Canada allowed to provide transcontinental flights. With the increase in air travel after World War II, CP Air was granted one coast-to-coast flight, with the development of the ReserVec in 1953, TCA became the first airline in the world to use a computer reservation system with remote terminals. This bill failed but it was resubmitted and passed, with the name change taking effect on 1 January 1965. During the 1970s government regulations ensured Air Canadas dominance over domestic regional carriers, short-haul carriers were each restricted to one of five regions, and could not compete directly with Air Canada and CP Air. CP Air was subject to capacity limits on flights. Air Canadas fares were also subject to regulation by the government, in the late 1970s, with reorganization at CNR, Air Canada became an independent Crown corporation
10.
Airbus A319
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The Airbus A319 is a member of the Airbus A320 family of short- to medium-range, narrow-body, commercial passenger twin-engine jet airliners manufactured by Airbus. The A319 carries up to 160 passengers and has a range of 3,700 nmi. Final assembly of the takes place in Hamburg, Germany and Tianjin. The A319 is a variant of the Airbus A320 and entered service in April 1996 with Swissair. The aircraft shares a type rating with all other Airbus A320 family variants. As of 28 February 2017, a total of 1,457 Airbus A319 aircraft have been delivered, in addition, another 21 airliners are on firm order. As of 28 February 2017, EasyJet was the largest operator of the Airbus A319, in December 2010, Airbus announced a new generation of the A320 family, the A320neo. The similarly shortened fuselage A319neo variant offers new, more efficient engines, combined with airframe improvements, the aircraft will deliver fuel savings of up to 15%. The first member of the A320 family was the A320 which was launched in March 1984, the family was extended to include the stretched A321, the shortened A319, and the further shortened A318. The A320 family pioneered the use of digital fly-by-wire flight control systems, as well as side stick controls, the A319 was developed at the request of Steven Udvar-Hazy, the former president and CEO of ILFC according to The New York Times. The A319 design is a shortened fuselage, minimum change derivative of the A320 with its origins in the 130- to 140-seat SA1, the SA1 was shelved as the consortium concentrated on its bigger siblings. After healthy sales of the A320/A321, Airbus re-focused on what was known as the A320M-7. It would provide competition for the 737–300/-700. The shrink was achieved through the removal of four frames fore. Consequently, the number of overwing exits was reduced from four to two, the bulk-cargo door was replaced by an aft container door, which can take in reduced height LD3-45 containers. Minor software changes were made to accommodate the different handling characteristics, power is provided by the CFM56-5A or V2500-A5, derated to 98 kN, with option for 105 kN thrust. With virtually the same capacity as the A320-200, and fewer passengers. The A319s wingspan is longer than the overall length
11.
Boeing 727
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The Boeing 727 is a midsized, narrow-body three-engined jet aircraft built by Boeing Commercial Airplanes from the early 1960s to 1984. It can carry 149 to 189 passengers and later models can fly up to 2,700 nautical miles nonstop, intended for short and medium-length flights, the 727 can use relatively short runways at smaller airports. It has three Pratt & Whitney JT8D engines below the T-tail, one on side of the rear fuselage with a center engine that connects through an S-duct to an inlet at the base of the fin. The 727 is Boeings only trijet aircraft, the 727 followed the 707, a quad-jet airliner, with which it shares its upper fuselage cross-section and cockpit design. The 727-100 first flew in February 1963 and entered service with Eastern Air Lines in February 1964, the 727 became a mainstay of airlines domestic route networks and was also used on short- and medium-range international routes. Passenger, freighter, and convertible versions of the 727 were built, the 727 was heavily produced into the 1970s, the last 727 was completed in 1984. As of July 2016, a total of 64 Boeing 727s were in service with 26 airlines, plus a few more in government. Airport noise regulations have led to 727s being equipped with hush kits, United Airlines requested a four-engine aircraft for its flights to high-altitude airports, especially its hub at Stapleton International Airport in Denver, Colorado. American Airlines, which was operating the four-engined Boeing 707 and Boeing 720, eventually, the three airlines agreed on a trijet design for the new aircraft. In 1959, Lord Douglas, chairman of British European Airways, suggested that Boeing and de Havilland Aircraft Company work together on their trijet designs, the two designs had a similar layout, the 727 being slightly larger. At that time Boeing intended to use three Allison AR963 turbofan engines, license-built versions of the Rolls-Royce RB163 Spey used by the Trident, Boeing and de Havilland each sent engineers to the other companys locations to evaluate each others designs, but Boeing eventually decided against the joint venture. Once Pratt & Whitney agreed to go ahead with development of the JT8D, Eddie Rickenbacker, chairman of the board of Eastern, told Boeing that the airline preferred the JT8D for its 727s. Boeing had not offered the JT8D, as it was about 1,000 lb heavier than the RB163, though more powerful. Boeing reluctantly agreed to offer the JT8D as an option on the 727, with high-lift devices on its wing, the 727 could use shorter runways than most earlier jets. The airliners middle engine at the rear of the fuselage gets air from an inlet ahead of the vertical fin through an S-shaped duct. This S-duct proved to be troublesome in that flow distortion in the duct induced a surge in the engine on the take-off of the first flight of the 727-100. This was fixed by the addition of several large vortex generators in the inside of the first bend of the duct, the 727 was designed for smaller airports, so independence from ground facilities was an important requirement. This led to one of the 727s most distinctive features, the built-in airstair that opens from the underbelly of the fuselage
12.
McDonnell Douglas DC-9
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The McDonnell Douglas DC-9 is a twin-engine, single-aisle jet airliner. It was first manufactured in 1965 with its maiden flight later that year, the DC-9 was designed for frequent, short flights. The final DC-9 was delivered in October 1982, the DC-9-based airliners, MD-80, MD-90 and Boeing 717 later followed in production. With the final deliveries of the 717 in 2006, production of the DC-9/MD-80/90/717 aircraft family ceased after 41 years, during the 1950s Douglas Aircraft studied a short- to medium-range airliner to complement their higher capacity, long range DC-8. A medium-range four-engine Model 2067 was studied but it did not receive enough interest from airlines, in 1960, Douglas signed a two-year contract with Sud Aviation for technical cooperation. Douglas would market and support the Sud Aviation Caravelle and produce a licensed version if airlines ordered large numbers, none were ordered and Douglas returned to its design studies after the cooperation deal expired. In 1962, design studies were underway, the first version seated 63 passengers and had a gross weight of 69,000 lb. This design was changed into what would be initial DC-9 variant, Douglas gave approval to produce the DC-9 on April 8,1963. Unlike the competing but larger Boeing 727 trijet, which used as many 707 components as possible, the DC-9 has two rear-mounted Pratt & Whitney JT8D turbofan engines, relatively small, efficient wings, and a T-tail. The DC-9s takeoff weight was limited to 80,000 lb for a flight crew by Federal Aviation Agency regulations at the time. DC-9 aircraft have five seats across for economy seating, the airplane seats 80 to 135 passengers depending on version and seating arrangement. Accessibility and short field characteristics were called for, turnarounds were simplified by built-in airstairs, including one in the tail, which shortened boarding and deplaning times. The tail-mounted engine design facilitated a clean wing without engine pods, for example, flaps could be longer, unimpeded by pods on the leading edge and engine blast concerns on the trailing edge. This simplified design improved airflow at low speeds and enabled lower takeoff and approach speeds, thus lowering field length requirements, the second advantage of the tail-mounted engines was the reduction in foreign object damage from ingested debris from runways and aprons. With this position, the engines could ingest ice streaming off the wing roots, third, the absence of engines in underslung pods allowed a reduction in ground clearance, making the aircraft more accessible to baggage handlers and passengers. The first DC-9, a model, flew on February 25,1965. The second DC-9 flew a few later, with a test fleet of five aircraft flying by July. This allowed the initial Series 10 to gain airworthiness certification on November 23,1965, the initial Series 10 would be followed by the improved -20, -30, and -40 variants
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