1.
Momo (food)
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Momo is a type of South Asian dumpling, native to Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan and Sikkim. It is similar to Chinese baozi and jiaozi, Mongolian buuz, Japanese gyoza, the dish is of Tibetan origin and since then has spread to other neighboring countries with the influx of Tibetan diaspora. They modified the seasonings of the dish with available ingredients, such as water buffalo, Momo is a type of steamed bun with some form of filling. Momo has become a traditional delicacy in Nepal, Tibet and among Nepalese/Tibetan communities in Bhutan, as well as Sikkim state and it is one of the most popular fast foods in Nepal. Momos have also spread to countries like United States, UK. A simple white-flour-and-water dough is generally preferred to make the outer momo covering, sometimes, a little yeast or baking soda is added to give a more doughy texture to the finished product. Monosodium glutamate is used sometimes to enhance the taste of momo. Traditionally, momo is prepared with ground/minced meat filling, but over the past several years, this has changed and these days, momo is prepared with virtually any combination of ground meat, vegetables, tofu, paneer cheese, soft chhurpi and vegetable and meat combinations. Meat, Different types of fillings are popular in different regions. In Nepal, Tibet, Darjeeling district, Assam, Sikkim and Bhutan, pork, chicken, goat meat, in the Himalayan region of Nepal and Ladakh, India, lamb and yak meat are more common. Minced meat is combined with any or all of the following, onions/shallots, garlic, some people also add finely puréed tomatoes and soy sauce. Vegetables, Finely chopped cabbage, potato or chayote are used as fillings in India, Paneer, Paneer is another recent and popular filling in India. Cheese, Usually fresh cheese or the soft chhurpi is used. This variety is common in India and Eastern Nepal, khoa, Momo filled with milk solids mixed with sugar are popular as dessert in the Kathmandu valley. Mashed potato, Mashed potato is another popular filling in the Kathmandu valley, the dough is rolled into small circular flat pieces. The filling is then enclosed in the circular dough cover either in a pocket or in a half-moon or crescent shape. People prefer meat that has a lot of fat because it produces intensively flavored juicy momos, a little oil is sometimes added to the lean ground/minced meat to keep the filling moist and juicy. The dumplings are cooked by steaming over a soup in a momo-making utensil called mucktoo
2.
Barley
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Barley, a member of the grass family, is a major cereal grain grown in temperate climates globally. It was one of the first cultivated grains, particularly in Eurasia as early as 10,000 years ago, Barley has been used as animal fodder, as a source of fermentable material for beer and certain distilled beverages, and as a component of various health foods. It is used in soups and stews, and in barley bread of various cultures, Barley grains are commonly made into malt in a traditional and ancient method of preparation. In 2014, barley was ranked fourth among grains in quantity produced behind corn, rice, the Old English word for barley was bære, which traces back to Proto-Indo-European and is cognate to the Latin word farina flour. The direct ancestor of modern English barley in Old English was the derived adjective bærlic, the first citation of the form bærlic in the Oxford English Dictionary dates to around 966 CE, in the compound word bærlic-croft. The underived word bære survives in the north of Scotland as bere, the word barn, which originally meant barley-house, is also rooted in these words. Barley is a member of the grass family and it is a self-pollinating, diploid species with 14 chromosomes. The wild ancestor of domesticated barley, Hordeum vulgare subsp, spontaneum, is abundant in grasslands and woodlands throughout the Fertile Crescent area of Western Asia and northeast Africa, and is abundant in disturbed habitats, roadsides and orchards. Outside this region, the barley is less common and is usually found in disturbed habitats. However, in a study of genome-wide diversity markers, Tibet was found to be a center of domestication of cultivated barley. Wild barley has a spike, upon maturity, the spikelets separate. Domesticated barley has nonshattering spikes, making it easier to harvest the mature ears. The nonshattering condition is caused by a mutation in one of two linked genes known as Bt1 and Bt2, many cultivars possess both mutations. The nonshattering condition is recessive, so varieties of barley that exhibit this condition are homozygous for the mutant allele, spikelets are arranged in triplets which alternate along the rachis. In wild barley, only the central spikelet is fertile, while the two are reduced. This condition is retained in certain cultivars known as two-row barleys, a pair of mutations result in fertile lateral spikelets to produce six-row barleys. Recent genetic studies have revealed that a mutation in one gene, two-row barley has a lower protein content than six-row barley, thus a more fermentable sugar content. High-protein barley is best suited for animal feed, Malting barley is usually lower protein which shows more uniform germination, needs shorter steeping, and has less protein in the extract that can make beer cloudy
3.
Field Museum of Natural History
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The Field Museum of Natural History, also known as The Field Museum, is a natural history museum in Chicago, and is one of the largest such museums in the world. Additionally, the Field Museum maintains an exhibition program of traveling shows as well as in-house produced topical exhibitions. The professional staff maintains collections of over 24 million specimens and objects that provide the basis for the scientific research programs. These collections include the range of existing biodiversity, gems, meteorites, fossils, as well as rich anthropological collections. The Field Museum and its collections originated from the 1893 World’s Columbian Exposition, during the period from 1943 to 1966, the museum was known as the Chicago Natural History Museum. In 1921, the Museum moved from its location in Jackson Park to its present site on Chicago Park District property near downtown. By the late 1930s the Field emerged as one of the three museums in the United States, the other two being the American Museum of Natural History and the National Museum of Natural History. The Field Museum is part of Chicago’s lakefront Museum Campus that includes the John G. Shedd Aquarium, in 2015, it became public that an employee had defrauded the museum of $900,000 over a seven-year period to 2014. The Hall of Jades focuses on Chinese jade artifacts spanning 8,000 years, the Underground Adventure gives visitors a bugs-eye look at the world beneath their feet. Visitors can see what insects and soil look like from that size, while learning about the biodiversity of soil, inside Ancient Egypt offers a glimpse into what life was like for ancient Egyptians. Twenty-three human mummies are on display as well as many mummified animals, the exhibit features a tomb that visitors can enter, complete with 5, 000-year-old hieroglyphs. There are also many interactive displays, for children and adults, as well as a shrine to the cat goddess Sekhmet and her kinder, less hostile form. A popular feature of the exhibit is the replica of the chapel in the tomb of Unis-Ankh, evolving Planet follows the history and the evolution of life on Earth over 4 billion years, from the first organism to present-day life. Visitors can see how mass extinctions in Earth’s history helped shape all the organisms, there is also an expanded dinosaur hall, with dinosaurs from every era, as well as interactive displays. The Ancient Americas displays 13,000 years of human ingenuity and achievement in the Western Hemisphere, in this large permanent exhibition visitors can learn the epic story of the peopling of these continents, from the Arctic to the tip of South America. Working Laboratories DNA Discovery Center, Visitors can watch real scientists extract DNA from a variety of organisms, Museum goers can also speak to a live scientist through the glass every day and ask them any questions about DNA. McDonalds Fossil Prep Lab, The public can watch as paleontologists prepare real fossils for study, the Regenstein Pacific Conservation Laboratory,1, 600-square-foot conservation and collections facility. Visitors can watch as conservators work to preserve and study anthropological specimens from all over the world, other exhibitions include sections on Tibet and China, where visitors can view traditional clothing
4.
Tibetan cheese
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Tibetan cheese is a food staple in Tibetan cuisine. Tibetan cheeses include soft cheese curds resembling cottage cheese made from buttermilk called chura loenpa, hard cheese is called chura kampo. Extra hard cheese, made from solidified yogurt, is called chhurpi, another type of cheese called shosha or churul, with a flavor said to resemble Limburger, is made from cream and the skin of milk
5.
Tibet
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Tibet is a region on the Tibetan Plateau in Asia, spanning about 2.4 million km2 and nearly a quarter of Chinas territory. Tibet is the highest region on Earth, with an elevation of 4,900 metres. The highest elevation in Tibet is Mount Everest, Earths highest mountain, the Tibetan Empire emerged in the 7th century, but with the fall of the empire the region soon divided into a variety of territories. The current borders of Tibet were generally established in the 18th century, following the Xinhai Revolution against the Qing dynasty in 1912, Qing soldiers were disarmed and escorted out of Tibet Area. The region subsequently declared its independence in 1913 without recognition by the subsequent Chinese Republican government, later, Lhasa took control of the western part of Xikang, China. There are tensions regarding Tibets political status and dissident groups that are active in exile and it is also said that Tibetan activists in Tibet have been arrested or tortured. The economy of Tibet is dominated by agriculture, though tourism has become a growing industry in recent decades. The dominant religion in Tibet is Tibetan Buddhism, in there is Bön, which is similar to Tibetan Buddhism. Tibetan Buddhism is an influence on the art, music. Tibetan architecture reflects Chinese and Indian influences, staple foods in Tibet are roasted barley, yak meat, and butter tea. The Tibetan name for their land, Bod བོད་, means Tibet or Tibetan Plateau, although it meant the central region around Lhasa. The Standard Tibetan pronunciation of Bod, is transcribed Bhö in Tournadre Phonetic Transcription, Bö in the THL Simplified Phonetic Transcription and Poi in Tibetan pinyin. Tibetan people, language, and culture, regardless of where they are from, are referred to as Zang although the geographical term Xīzàng is often limited to the Tibet Autonomous Region. The term Xīzàng was coined during the Qing dynasty in the reign of the Jiaqing Emperor through the addition of a prefix meaning west to Zang, the best-known medieval Chinese name for Tibet is Tubo. This name first appears in Chinese characters as 土番 in the 7th century, in the Middle Chinese spoken during that period, as reconstructed by William H. Baxter, 土番 was pronounced thux-phjon and 吐蕃 was pronounced thux-pjon. Other pre-modern Chinese names for Tibet include Wusiguo, Wusizang, Tubote, the English word Tibet or Thibet dates back to the 18th century. Historical linguists generally agree that Tibet names in European languages are loanwords from Semitic Ṭībat orTūbātt, itself deriving from Turkic Töbäd, literally, according to Matthew Kapstein, From the perspective of historical linguistics, Tibetan most closely resembles Burmese among the major languages of Asia. More controversial is the theory that the Tibeto-Burman family is part of a larger language family, called Sino-Tibetan
6.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
7.
Nepal
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Nepal, officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal, is a landlocked central Himalayan country in South Asia. Nepal is divided into 7 provinces and 75 districts and 744 local units including 4 metropolises,13 sub-metropolises,246 municipal councils and 481 village and it has a population of 26.4 million and is the 93rd largest country by area. Bordering China in the north and India in the south, east, Nepal does not border Bangladesh, which is located within only 27 km of its southeastern tip. It neither borders Bhutan due to the Indian state of Sikkim being located in between, Nepal has a diverse geography, including fertile plains, subalpine forested hills, and eight of the worlds ten tallest mountains, including Mount Everest, the highest point on Earth. Kathmandu is the capital and largest city. It is a nation with Nepali as the official language. The territory of Nepal has a history since the Neolithic age. The name Nepal is first recorded in texts from the Vedic Age, the era which founded Hinduism, in the middle of the first millennium BCE, Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, was born in southern Nepal. Parts of northern Nepal were intertwined with the culture of Tibet, the Kathmandu Valley in central Nepal became known as Nepal proper because of its complex urban civilization. It was the seat of the prosperous Newar confederacy known as Nepal Mandala, the Himalayan branch of the ancient Silk Road was dominated by the valleys traders. The cosmopolitan region developed distinct traditional art and architecture, by the 18th century, the Gorkha Kingdom achieved the unification of Nepal. The Shah dynasty established the Kingdom of Nepal and later formed an alliance with the British Empire, the country was never colonized but served as a buffer state between Imperial China and Colonial India. In the 20th century, Nepal ended its isolation and forged ties with regional powers. Parliamentary democracy was introduced in 1951, but was suspended by Nepalese monarchs in 1960 and 2005. The Nepalese Civil War resulted in the proclamation of a republic in 2008, modern Nepal is a federal secular parliamentary republic. Nepal is a nation, ranking 144th on the Human Development Index in 2016. The country struggles with the transition from a monarchy to a republic and it also suffers from high levels of hunger and poverty. Despite these challenges, Nepal is making progress, with the government declaring its commitment to elevate the nation from least developed country status by 2022
8.
Goat meat
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Goat meat or goats meat is the meat of the domestic goat. In France, goat meat from adults is often called chevon and cabrito, capretto, cabrito, a word of Spanish and Portuguese origin, refers specifically to young, milk-fed goat. Goat is a staple in Africa, Asia and South/Central America, the cuisines best known for their use of goat include African cuisine, Middle Eastern, North African, Indian, Indonesian, Nepali, Pakistani, Mexican, and Caribbean. Cabrito, or baby goat, is the food of Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico. As of 2011 the number of goats slaughtered in the United States has doubled every 10 years for three decades, rising to one million annually. While in the past goat meat in the West was confined to ethnic markets, it can now be found in a few restaurants and purveyors, especially in cities such as New York. Brady, Texas has held its Annual World Championship BBQ Goat Cook-Off annually since 1973, Goat meat is savory and less sweet than beef but slightly sweeter than lamb. It can be prepared in a variety of ways, such as being stewed, curried, baked, grilled, barbecued, minced, canned, fried, Goat jerky is also another popular variety. In Okinawa, goat meat is served raw in slices as yagisashi. On the Indian subcontinent, the rice dish mutton biryani uses goat meat as an ingredient to produce a rich taste. Curry goat is a common traditional Indo-Caribbean dish, in West Bengal, traditional meat dishes like kosha mangsho and rezala are prepared using meat from a Khashi, a castrated goat with a meat that has richer taste and a milder, less gamey flavour. In Indonesia, goat meat is skewered and grilled as sate kambing, or curried in soups such as sup kambing. There are many dishes, which together include all edible parts of the animal. Bhutun is made from the gut, Rakhti from the blood, Karji-marji from the liver and lungs, sukuti is a kind of jerky, while Sekuwa is made from roasted meat and often eaten with alcoholic beverages. In addition to dishes, goat meat is often eaten as part of momos, thukpa, chow mein. Taas is another popular fried goat meat dish in Nepal, particularly popular in Chitwan district of Nepal, cabrito, a specialty especially common in Latin American cuisines such as Mexican, Peruvian, Brazilian, and Argentine, is usually slow roasted. In Africa, the Chaga people of Tanzania, a goat would be gutted and roasted as whole as part of tradition that spans hundreds of years. The ceremonial goat is the replacement to the Wedding cake used in many weddings around the world
9.
Domestic yak
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The domestic yak is a long-haired domesticated bovid found throughout the Himalaya region of southern Central Asia, the Tibetan Plateau and as far north as Mongolia and Russia. It is descended from the wild yak, the English word yak is a loan originating from Tibetan, གཡག་, Wylie, g. yag. In Tibetan, it only to the male of the species. In English, as in most other languages that have borrowed the word, Yaks belong to the genus Bos and are therefore related to cattle. Mitochondrial DNA analyses to determine the history of yaks have been inconclusive. Except where the wild yak is considered as a subspecies of Bos grunniens, Yaks are heavily built animals with a bulky frame, sturdy legs, and rounded cloven hooves, and extremely dense, long fur that hangs down lower than the belly. While wild yaks are generally dark, blackish to brown, in colouration, domestic yaks can be variable in colour, often having patches of rusty brown. They have small ears and a forehead, with smooth horns that are generally dark in colour. In males, the horns sweep out from the sides of the head, the horns of females are smaller, only 27 to 64 cm in length, and have a more upright shape. Both sexes have a neck with a pronounced hump over the shoulders, although this is larger. Males weigh 350 to 580 kg, females weigh 225 to 255 kg, wild yaks can be substantially heavier, males reaching weights of up to 1,000 kilograms. Both sexes have long hair with a dense woolly undercoat over the chest, flanks. Especially in males, this may form a skirt that can reach the ground. The tail is long and horselike rather than tufted like the tails of cattle or bison, domesticated yaks have a wide range of coat colours, with some individuals being white, grey, brown, roan or piebald. The udder in females and the scrotum in males are small and hairy, Yaks grunt and, unlike cattle, are not known to produce the characteristic bovine lowing sound, which inspired the scientific names of both yak variants, Bos grunniens and Bos mutus. Conversely, yaks do not thrive at lower altitudes, and begin to suffer from heat exhaustion above about 15 °C, further adaptations to the cold include a thick layer of subcutaneous fat, and an almost complete lack of functional sweat glands. Compared with domestic cattle, the rumen of yaks is unusually large and this likely allows them to consume greater quantities of low-quality food at a time, and to ferment it longer so as to extract more nutrients. Yak consume the equivalent of 1% of their body weight daily while cattle require 3% to maintain condition, contrary to popular belief, yak and their manure have little to no detectable odour when maintained appropriately in pastures or paddocks with adequate access to forage and water
10.
Lamb and mutton
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Lamb, hogget, and mutton are the meat of domestic sheep at different ages. A sheep in its first year is called a lamb, the meat of a juvenile sheep older than one year is hogget, outside North America this is also a term for the living animal. The meat of a sheep is mutton, a term only used for the meat. The term mutton is almost always used to refer to meat in the Indian subcontinent. Lamb is the most expensive of the three types, and in recent decades sheep meat is increasingly only retailed as lamb, sometimes stretching the accepted distinctions given above. The stronger-tasting mutton is now hard to find in many areas, in Australia, the term prime lamb is often used to refer to lambs raised for meat. The definitions for lamb, hogget and mutton vary considerably between countries, younger lambs are smaller and more tender. Mutton is meat from a sheep over two old, and has less tender flesh. In general, the darker the colour, the older the animal, baby lamb meat will be pale pink, while regular lamb is pinkish-red. Lamb — a young sheep under 12 months of age which does not have any permanent incisor teeth in wear, hogget — A term for a sheep of either sex having no more than two permanent incisors in wear, or its meat. Still common in farming usage, it is now rare as a domestic or retail term for the meat, Much of the lamb sold in the UK is hogget to an Antipodean farmer. Mutton — a female or castrated male sheep having more than two permanent incisors in wear, under United States law, lamb is defined in terms of mutton, The term lamb means meat, other than mutton, produced from sheep. Under current federal regulations, only the lamb is used, Lamb — ovine animals of any age, including ewes and rams The terms mutton. Nevertheless, the use of lamb in the United States may be confusing. Under the previous definition, lamb meant meat, other than mutton, the term mutton is applied to goat meat in most of these countries, and the goat population has been rising. For example, mutton-curry is always made from goat meat and it is estimated that over one-third of the goat population is slaughtered every year and sold as mutton. The flavour and texture of milk-fed lamb when grilled or roasted is generally thought to be finer than that of older lamb, the areas in northern Spain where this can be found include Asturias, Cantabria, Castile and León, and La Rioja. Milk-fed lambs are prized for Easter in Greece, when they are roasted on a spit
11.
Dumpling
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Dumpling is a broad classification for a dish that consists of small pieces of dough, often wrapped around a filling. The dough can be based on bread, flour, or potatoes and they may be cooked by boiling, frying, simmering, or steaming. Dumplings can be savoury or sweet and can be eaten by themselves, with gravy or sauce, banku and kenkey fit the definition of a dumpling in that they are starchy balls of dough that are steamed. They are formed from fermented cornmeal dough, banku are boiled while kenkey are partly boiled then finished by steaming in banana leaves. Fufu may be described as a dumpling although in actual sense, fufu is made by pounding boiled cassava or yam in a wooden mortar with a wooden pestle. Plantain or cocoyam may be added, there are several other versions of fufu in Africa and the Caribbean. There have been versions of fufu which will fit better into the definition of dumplings. These are mostly common outside Africa where they originate and it is made by steaming cassava and plantain/cocoyam flour into thick starchy balls. Tihlo—prepared from roasted barley flour—originated in the Tigray region of Ethiopia and is now popular in Amhara as well. Souskluitjies are dumplings found in South Africa and they are a steamed sweet dumpling, sometimes made with plain flour and sometimes with the addition of dried fruits or other flavors. They are often served with a syrup flavored with cinnamon or a custard sauce, South Africa has another kind of dumpling known as melkkos. These dumplings are formed by putting milk, one teaspoon at a time, the flour clings to the milk and forms dumplings, which are then boiled in a mixture of milk and butter. They are served hot and sprinkled with cinnamon sugar, several types of dumplings are popular in the United States. Dumplings can be made with eggs, milk, baking powder or even yeast, or just from flour, rolled dumplings are rolled thin and cut into small pieces for cooking, while dropped dumplings are formed into small balls. Chicken and dumplings is a comfort food in the Midwestern and Southern U. S. where dumplings are often used as part of the regionally popular Burgoo stew. The baked dumpling is popular in American cuisine and these sweet dumplings are made by wrapping fruit, frequently a whole tart apple, in pastry, then baking until the pastry is browned and the filling is tender. As an alternative to simply baking them, these dumplings are surrounded by a sauce in the baking dish. Popular flavours for apple dumplings include brown sugar, caramel, or cinnamon sauces, boiled dumplings are made from flour to form a dough
12.
Yogurt
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Yogurt, yoghurt, or yoghourt is a food produced by bacterial fermentation of milk. The bacteria used to make yogurt are known as yogurt cultures, fermentation of lactose by these bacteria produces lactic acid, which acts on milk protein to give yogurt its texture and characteristic tart flavor. Cows milk is available worldwide, and, as such, is the milk most commonly used to make yogurt. Milk from water buffalo, goats, ewes, mares, camels, milk used may be homogenized or not, both types may be used, with substantially different results. In North America, yogurt is plain, sweetened, or sweetened and flavoured with fruit, vanilla, coffee. Yogurt is produced using a culture of Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp, in addition, other lactobacilli and bifidobacteria are also sometimes added during or after culturing yogurt. To produce yogurt, milk is first heated, usually to about 85 °C, after heating, the milk is allowed to cool to about 45 °C. The bacterial culture is mixed in, and a temperature of 45 °C is maintained for four to twelve hours to allow fermentation. The word is derived from Turkish, yoğurt, and is related to the verb yoğurmak, to knead, or to be curdled or coagulated. It may be related to yoğun, meaning thick or dense, the sound ğ was traditionally rendered as gh in transliterations of Turkish from around 1615-1625. In English, there are variations of the spelling of the word, including yogurt. Yogurt is common only in the United States, and Yoghurt mostly used elsewhere, yogourt is often used in Canada, as the spelling is the same in English and French. Analysis of the L. delbrueckii subsp, bulgaricus genome indicates that the bacterium may have originated on the surface of a plant. Milk may have become spontaneously and unintentionally exposed to it through contact with plants, the origins of yogurt are unknown, but it is thought to have been invented in Mesopotamia around 5000 BC. In ancient Indian records, the combination of yogurt and honey is called the food of the gods, Persian traditions hold that Abraham owed his fecundity and longevity to the regular ingestion of yogurt. The cuisine of ancient Greece included a product known as oxygala which is believed to have been a form of yogurt. Galen mentioned that oxygala was consumed with honey, similar to the way thickened Greek yogurt is eaten today, the oldest writings mentioning yogurt are attributed to Pliny the Elder, who remarked that certain barbarous nations knew how to thicken the milk into a substance with an agreeable acidity. The use of yogurt by medieval Turks is recorded in the books Diwan Lughat al-Turk by Mahmud Kashgari, both texts mention the word yogurt in different sections and describe its use by nomadic Turks
13.
Vegetarianism
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Vegetarianism /vɛdʒɪˈtɛəriənɪzəm/ is the practice of abstaining from the consumption of meat, and may also include abstention from by-products of animal slaughter. Vegetarianism may be adopted for various reasons, many people object to eating meat out of respect for sentient life. Such ethical motivations have been codified under various religious beliefs, as well as animal rights advocacy, other motivations for vegetarianism are health-related, political, environmental, cultural, aesthetic, economic, or personal preference. A vegan diet excludes all animal products, including eggs and dairy, some vegans also avoid other animal products such as beeswax, leather or silk clothing, and goose-fat shoe polish. Often, prior to purchase or consumption, vegetarians will scrutinize products for animal-derived ingredients, vegetarians feelings vary with regard to these ingredients. Semi-vegetarian diets consist largely of vegetarian foods but may include fish or poultry, or sometimes other meats and those with diets containing fish or poultry may define meat only as mammalian flesh and may identify with vegetarianism. A pescetarian diet has been described as fish but no other meat, the term vegetarian has been in use since 1839 to refer to what was previously described as a vegetable diet. The word is believed to be a compound of vegetable. The term was popularized with the foundation of the Vegetarian Society in Manchester, the earliest occurrences of the term seem to be related to Alcott House, a school on the north side of Ham Common, London, opened in July 1838 by James Pierrepont Greaves. The earliest record of vegetarianism comes from Indus Valley Civilization as early as the 7th century BCE, in the Indian culture, the diet was closely connected with the attitude of nonviolence towards animals and was promoted by religious groups and philosophers. The ancient Indian work of Tirukkural explicitly and unambiguously emphasizes vegetarianism, chapter 26 of the Tirukkural, through couplets 251 to 260, deals exclusively on vegetarianism or veganism. Among the Hellenes, Egyptians and others, it had medical or ritual purification purposes and those nanny goats, ewes and sows which are with young or giving milk to their young are protected, and so are young ones less than six months old. Cocks are not to be caponized, husks hiding living beings are not to be burnt, one animal is not to be fed to another. —Edicts of Ashoka, Fifth Pillar Following the Christianization of the Roman Empire in late antiquity, vegetarianism practically disappeared from Europe, as it did on other continents, except India. Several orders of monks in medieval Europe restricted or banned the consumption of meat for ascetic reasons and it re-emerged during the Renaissance, becoming more widespread in the 19th and 20th centuries. In 1847, the first Vegetarian Society was founded in the United Kingdom, Germany, the Netherlands, in 1886, the vegetarian colony Nueva Germania was founded in Paraguay, though its vegetarian aspect would prove short-lived. The International Vegetarian Union, an association of the societies, was founded in 1908. In the Western world, the popularity of vegetarianism grew during the century as a result of nutritional, ethical
14.
Tsampa
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Tsampa or Tsamba is a Tibetan and Himalayan Nepalese staple foodstuff, particularly prominent in the central part of the region. It is roasted flour, usually barley flour and sometimes also wheat flour and it is usually mixed with the salty Tibetan butter tea. Tsampa is quite simple to prepare, indeed, it is known as a food and often used by the Sherpas, nomads. While traditional tsampa is prepared with tea, water or beer is used in its place. It may also be prepared as a porridge, andré Migot described its preparation, You leave a little buttered tea in the bottom of your bowl and put a big dollop of tsampa on top of it. The whole operation demands a high degree of dexterity. Until you get these proportions right the end product is apt to turn either a lump of desiccated dough or else a semiliquid paste which sticks to your fingers. Sometimes you lace this preparation with a form of powdered milk and it is believed that tsampa-throwing actually predates Buddhist beliefs in the area and was originally used as an offering to animistic gods to request their protection. The tradition was consequently incorporated into Buddhism as a mark of joy and celebration used at celebratory occasions such as marriages, tsampa-throwing also occurs at most Buddhist funerals, where the action is intended to release the soul of the deceased. Tsampa is used in a number of other ways, mashes of tsampa and cumin are sometimes applied to toothaches or other sore spots. Reflecting its foundational role in Tibetan culture, Tsampa is also the name of a Tibetan typeface, the phrase tsampa-eater was used to promote a unified Tibetan identity. Whereas Tibetans speak various dialects, worship in different sects, and live in different regions, in 1957, the India-based Tibet Mirror addressed a letter to all tsampa-eaters, encouraging them to participate in what would become the 1959 Tibetan Rebellion. Recently, with the rise of the Tibetan diaspora, less emphasis has been placed on tsampa and more emphasis on Tibetan Buddhism in constructing a unified Tibetan identity
15.
Staple food
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The staple food of a specific society may be eaten as often as every day or every meal, and most people live on a diet based on just a small number of staples. Typical examples of staples include tubers and roots, and grains, legumes, such nonperishable foods are the only possible staples during seasons of shortage, such as dry seasons or cold temperate winters, against which times harvests have been stored. During seasons of plenty, wider choices of foods may be available. Most staple plant foods are derived either from cereals such as wheat, barley, rye, maize, or rice, or starchy tubers or root vegetables such as potatoes, yams, taro, arrowroot, other staple foods include pulses, sago, and fruits. Staple foods may contain, sorghum, olive oil, coconut oil. Most staples are plant materials, but in some fishing is the primary source of nutrition. Of the more than 50,000 edible plant species in the world, although there are over 10,000 species in the cereal family, just a few have been widely cultivated over the past 2,000 years. The staple food in different parts of the world is a function of weather patterns, local terrain, farming constraints, acquired tastes, for example, the main energy source staples in the average African diet are cereals, roots and tubers and animal products. In Western Europe the main staples in the diet are animal products, cereals and roots. Regional staples include rye, soybeans, barley, oats and teff, just 15 crop plants provide 90 percent of the worlds food energy intake, with rice, maize and wheat comprising two-thirds of human food consumption. The three are the staples of about 80% of the population, and rice feeds almost half of humanity. Roots and tubers, meanwhile, are important staples for over 1 billion people in the developing world, roots and tubers are high in carbohydrates, calcium and vitamin C but low in protein. Cassava root is a staple food in the developing world. With economic development and free trade, many countries have shifted away from low-nutrient-density staple foods to higher-nutrient-density staples, despite this trend, there is growing recognition of the importance of traditional staple crops in nutrition. Efforts are underway to identify better strains with superior nutrition, disease resistance, some foods like quinoa—a pseudocereal grain that originally came from the Andes—were also staple foods centuries ago. Oca, ulluco and amaranth seed are other foods claimed to be staples in Andean history, pemmican was a staple of the Plains Indians of North America. In 2010, the consumption of speciality grains such as quinoa was very small compared to other staples such as rice, wheat. These grains, once popular but then forgotten, are being reevaluated and reintroduced, most staple food is produced using modern and conventional farming practices
16.
Thukpa
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Thukpa is a Tibetan noodle soup, which originated in the eastern part of Tibet. Amdo thukpa is a famous variant among Tibetan people, the dish became popular in Nepal, Bhutan, and the states of Sikkim, Assam, and Arunachal Pradesh in northeast India. It is also popular in the Ladakh region and the state of Himachal Pradesh, the food is widely available in these regions. The Nepalese version of thukpa contains chili powder, masala, and noodles with gram and pea soup, the most typical Nepali thukpa is found in Sankhuwasabha district. However, that found in Kathmandu Valley is the same as found in Tibet. List of soups List of Tibetan dishes
17.
Chopsticks
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Chopsticks are shaped pairs of equal-length sticks that have been used as the traditional ancient kitchen and eating utensils in virtually all of East Asia for over 6000 years. Chopsticks are smoothed and frequently tapered and are made of bamboo, plastic, wood. They are less commonly made from gold, silver, porcelain, jade, Chopsticks are held in the dominant hand, between the thumb and fingers, and used to pick up pieces of food. The English word chopstick may have derived from Chinese Pidgin English, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, the earliest published use of the word is in the 1699 book Voyages and Descriptions by William Dampier, they are called by the English seamen Chopsticks. The Standard Chinese term for chopsticks is kuàizi, the first character is a semantic-phonetic compound with a phonetic part meaning quick, and a semantic part meaning bamboo. In ancient written Chinese, the character for chopsticks was zhu, although it may have been widely used in ancient spoken Chinese, its use was eventually replaced by the pronunciation for the character kuài, meaning quick. The original character, though used in writing, is rarely used in modern spoken Chinese. It, however, is preserved in Chinese dialects such as Hokkien, for written semantic differentiation between the fast versus chopsticks, a new character was created for chopsticks by adding the bamboo radical to it. In Japanese, chopsticks are called hashi and they are also known as otemoto, a phrase commonly printed on the wrappers of disposable chopsticks. Te means hand and moto means the area under or around something, the preceding o is used for politeness. In Korean, 저 is used in the compound jeotgarak, which is composed of jeo chopsticks, jeo cannot be used alone, but can be found in other compounds such as sujeo, meaning spoon and chopsticks. In Vietnamese, chopsticks are called đũa, which is written as
18.
Himalayas
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The Himalayas, or Himalaya, form a mountain range in Asia separating the plains of the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. The Himalayan range has the Earths highest peaks, including the highest, the Himalayas include over a hundred mountains exceeding 7,200 metres in elevation. By contrast, the highest peak outside Asia – Aconcagua, in the Andes – is 6,961 metres tall. The Himalayas are spread across five countries, Bhutan, India, Nepal, China, the Himalayan range is bordered on the northwest by the Karakoram and Hindu Kush ranges, on the north by the Tibetan Plateau, and on the south by the Indo-Gangetic Plain. Some of the major rivers, the Indus, the Ganges, and the Tsangpo-Brahmaputra, rise in the Himalayas. The Himalayas have profoundly shaped the cultures of South Asia, many Himalayan peaks are sacred in Hinduism and Buddhism. Lifted by the subduction of the Indian tectonic plate under the Eurasian Plate and its western anchor, Nanga Parbat, lies just south of the northernmost bend of Indus river. Its eastern anchor, Namcha Barwa, is just west of the bend of the Tsangpo river. The range varies in width from 400 kilometres in the west to 150 kilometres in the east, the name of the range derives from the Sanskrit Himā-laya, from himá and ā-laya. They are now known as the Himalaya Mountains, usually shortened to the Himalayas, formerly, they were described in the singular as the Himalaya. This was also previously transcribed Himmaleh, as in Emily Dickinsons poetry and Henry David Thoreaus essays. The mountains are known as the Himālaya in Nepali and Hindi, the Himalaya or The Land of Snow in Tibetan, the Hamaleh Mountain Range in Urdu, the flora and fauna of the Himalayas vary with climate, rainfall, altitude, and soils. The climate ranges from tropical at the base of the mountains to permanent ice, the amount of yearly rainfall increases from west to east along the southern front of the range. This diversity of altitude, rainfall and soil conditions combined with the high snow line supports a variety of distinct plant. The extremes of high altitude combined with extreme cold favor extremophile organisms, the unique floral and faunal wealth of the Himalayas is undergoing structural and compositional changes due to climate change. The increase in temperature is shifting various species to higher elevations, the oak forest is being invaded by pine forests in the Garhwal Himalayan region. There are reports of early flowering and fruiting in some species, especially rhododendron, apple. The highest known tree species in the Himalayas is Juniperus tibetica located at 4,900 metres in Southeastern Tibet, the Himalayan range is one of the youngest mountain ranges on the planet and consists mostly of uplifted sedimentary and metamorphic rock
19.
Mustard seed
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Mustard seeds are the small round seeds of various mustard plants. The seeds are usually about 1 to 2 millimetres in diameter and they are important spice in many regional foods and may come from one of three different plants, black mustard, brown Indian mustard, or white mustard. Grinding and mixing the seeds with water, vinegar, or other liquids, an archaic name for the seed is eye of newt. These mustard seeds are known in Hindi, Urdu, and Punjabi as sarson and these are used as a spice in Pakistan, Northern India, Nepal, and Bangladesh. The seeds are usually roasted until they pop and they are also planted to grow saag which are stir-fried and eaten as a vegetable preparation, called sarson ka saag in Urdu and Hindi. In Maharashtra, it is called as mohari, and is used frequently in Marathi recipes, sarson ka tel is used for body massage during extreme winters, as it is assumed to keep the body warm. In Bengali cuisine mustard oil or shorsher tel is the predominant cooking medium, Mustard seeds are also essential ingredients in spicy fish dishes like jhaal and paturi. Mustard seeds generally take three to ten days to germinate if placed under the conditions, which include a cold atmosphere. Mature mustard plants grow into shrubs, Mustard grows well in temperate regions. Major producers of mustard seeds include India, Pakistan, Canada, Nepal, Hungary, Great Britain, brown and black mustard seeds return higher yields than their yellow counterparts. In Pakistan, rapeseed-mustard is the second most important source of oil and it is cultivated over an area of 307,000 hectares with annual production of 233,000 tonnes and contributes about 17% to the domestic production of edible oil. Mustard seeds are a source of oil and protein. The seed has oil as high as 46-48%, and whole seed meal has 43. 6% protein, in the Bible Jesus tells the Parable of the Mustard Seed referring to faith and the Kingdom of God. There, Jesus says that the kingdom of God is like a mustard seed, yet when planted, it grows and becomes the largest of all garden plants, with such big branches that the birds can perch in its shade. This story is recounted referring to faith in Luke 17, 6-10, with reference to the Kingdom of Heaven it is mentioned in Luke 13, 18-19 and Matthew 13, 31-32. This parable referred to having a mustard seed type faith to someone that needs to have just enough faith to believe anything is possible. As Jesus referred to a man that was a lunatic and had many sores on his body. The boys father came to the disciples for healing of his son, Jesus let them to know that all one needs is just a little faith and nothing is impossible
20.
Ladakh
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It is one of the most sparsely populated regions in Jammu and Kashmir and its culture and history are closely related to that of Tibet. Ladakh is renowned for its remote mountain beauty and culture, Aksai Chin is one of the disputed border areas between China and India. It is administered by China as part of Hotan County but is claimed by India as a part of the Ladakh region of the state of Jammu. In 1962, China and India fought a war over Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh. Since 1974, the Government of India has successfully encouraged tourism in Ladakh, since Ladakh is a part of strategically important Jammu and Kashmir, the Indian military maintains a strong presence in the region. The largest town in Ladakh is Leh, followed by Kargil, almost half of Ladakhis are Shia Muslims and the rest are mostly Tibetan Buddhists. In terms of pronunciation, the use of Ladakh, the Persian transliteration of the Tibetan La-dvags, is warranted by the pronunciation of the word in several Tibetan districts. Ladakh in the Farsi transliteration of the Tibetan La-dvags, which means on the borderland of extreme Pakistan, Ladakh has been described as The Mysterious Land of the Mystic Lamas, The Broken Moonland, or The Last Shangri-La for its unique landscape and exquisite culture. One sees no horizon here but only mountain peaks soaring up to 5 to 6 km, in the prehistoric period Ladakh formed a Great Lake. Even at present the region has some of the largest and most beautiful lakes, Pangong and it is a repository of myriad cultural and religious influences from Tibet, Indian subcontinent and Central Asia. Rock carvings found in parts of Ladakh indicate that the area has been inhabited from Neolithic times. Around the 1st century, Ladakh was a part of the Kushana empire, Buddhism spread into western Ladakh from Kashmir in the 2nd century when much of eastern Ladakh and western Tibet was still practising the Bon religion. The 7th century Buddhist traveler Xuanzang describes the region in his accounts, in the 8th century, Ladakh was involved in the clash between Tibetan expansion pressing from the East and Chinese influence exerted from Central Asia through the passes. Suzerainty over Ladakh frequently changed hands between China and Tibet, in 842 Nyima-Gon, a Tibetan royal prince annexed Ladakh for himself after the break-up of the Tibetan empire, and founded a separate Ladakhi dynasty. During this period, Ladakh acquired a predominantly Tibetan population, the dynasty spearheaded the second spreading of Buddhism, importing religious ideas from north-west India, particularly from Kashmir. The first spreading of Buddhism was the one in Tibet proper, according to Rolf Alfred Stein, author of Tibetan Civilization, the area of Zhangzhung was not historically a part of Tibet and was a distinctly foreign territory to the Tibetans. Then further west, The Tibetans encountered a distinctly foreign nation—Shangshung, mt. Kailāśa and Lake Manasarovar formed part of this country, whose language has come down to us through early documents. Though still unidentified, it seems to be Indo-European, geographically the country was certainly open to India, both through Nepal and by way of Kashmir and Ladakh
21.
Sikkim
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Sikkim is a northeastern state of India. It borders China in its north and east, Bhutan in its east, Nepal in its west, Sikkim is also located close to the Siliguri Corridor near Bangladesh. Sikkim is the least populous and second smallest among the Indian states, Sikkims capital and largest city is Gangtok. Almost 25% of the state is covered by the Khangchendzonga National Park, the Kingdom of Sikkim was founded on the Silk Road by the Namgyal dynasty in the 17th century. It was ruled by a Buddhist priest-king known as the Chogyal, once a vassal state of Qing China, it became a princely state of British India in 1890. After the Peoples Republic of China invaded Tibet, Sikkim continued its status with the dominion. It enjoyed the highest literacy rate and per capita income among Himalayan states, in 1975, the Indian military deposed the Sikkimese monarchy. A referendum in 1975 led to Sikkim joining India as its 22nd state, modern Sikkim is a multiethnic and multilingual Indian state. Sikkim has 11 official languages, Nepali, Sikkimese, Lepcha, Tamang, Limbu, Newari, Rai, Gurung, Magar, Sunwar, English is taught in schools and used in government documents. The predominant religions are Hinduism and Vajrayana Buddhism, Sikkims economy is largely dependent on agriculture and tourism, and as of 2014 the state had the third-smallest GDP among Indian states, although it is also among the fastest-growing. Sikkim accounts for the largest share of production in India. It is the most organic farming state in India and it is also among Indias most environmentally conscious states, having banned plastic water bottles and styrofoam products. The most widely accepted theory of the name Sikkim is that it is a combination of two Limbu words, su, which means new, and khyim, which means palace or house. The name is believed to be a reference to the built by the states first ruler. The Tibetan name for Sikkim is Drenjong, which means valley of rice, while the Bhutias call it Beyul Demazong, the Lepcha people, the original inhabitants of Sikkim, called it Nye-mae-el, meaning paradise. In History, Sikkim is known as Indrakil, the garden of the war god Indra, little is known about Sikkims ancient history, beyond the fact that its original inhabitants were the Lepcha. The earliest historical mention of Sikkim is a record of the passage of the Buddhist saint Padmasambhava, also known as Guru Rinpoche, the Guru is reported to have blessed the land, introduced Buddhism, and foretold the era of monarchy that would arrive in Sikkim centuries later. According to legend, Khye Bumsa, a 14th-century prince from the Minyak House in Kham in eastern Tibet, Phuntsog Namgyal was succeeded in 1670 by his son, Tensung Namgyal, who moved the capital from Yuksom to Rabdentse
22.
Arunachal Pradesh
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Arunachal Pradesh /ˌɑːrəˌnɑːtʃəl prəˈdɛʃ/ is one of the twenty-nine states of India. Located in northeast India, it holds the most north-eastern position among the states in the north-east region of India. Arunachal Pradesh borders the states of Assam and Nagaland to the south, Itanagar is the capital of the state. Arunachal Pradesh has territorial disputes with both the PRC and ROC due to its cultural, ethnic and geographic proximity to Tibet. A major part of the state, formerly called the North-East Frontier Agency, is disputed by China as the legality of the Simla Accord is not recognized by it, China claims most of the state as South Tibet. The state is seen to have potential for hydropower development. Arunachal Pradesh, whose name means Land of the Dawn-Lit Mountains in Sanskrit, is known as the Orchid State of India or the Paradise of the Botanists. Geographically, it is the largest among the North-east Indian states commonly known as the Seven Sister States, as in other parts of Northeast India, the people native to the state trace their origins to the Tibeto-Burman people. In recent times, large number of migrants from parts of India and other lands have built extensive economic. No reliable population count of the migrant population exists, and the percentage estimating the actual population accordingly. Arunachal Pradesh has the highest number of languages in the Indian subcontinent, enriched with diverse culture. Neolithic tools found in Arunachal Pradesh indicate that people have living in the Himalayan region for at least eleven thousand years. The history of pre-modern Arunachal Pradesh is unclear, oral histories possessed to this day by many Arunachali tribes of Tibeto-Burman stock are much richer and point unambiguously to a northern origin in modern-day Tibet. Recorded history from an outside perspective only became available in the Ahom, the Monpa and Sherdukpen do keep historical records of the existence of local chiefdoms in the northwest as well. Northwestern parts of this came under the control of the Monpa kingdom of Monyul. This region then came under the control of Tibet and Bhutan. The remaining parts of the state, especially those bordering Myanmar, were under the control of the Sutiya Kings until the Ahom-Sutiya battle in the 16th century, the Ahoms held the areas until the annexation of India by the British in 1858. However, most Arunachali tribes remained in practice largely autonomous up until Indian independence, recent excavations of ruins of Hindu temples such as the 14th century Malinithan at the foot of the Siang hills in West Siang were built during the Sutiya reign
23.
Mustang District
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Mustang District, a part of Province No. 4, is one of the districts of Nepal. The district, with Jomsom as its headquarters, covers an area of 3,573 km² and has a population of 13,452, the district straddles the Himalayas and extends northward onto the Tibetan plateau. Upper Mustang, the former Lo Kingdom comprises the northern two-thirds of the district and this kingdom was a dependency of the Kingdom of Nepal but was abolished by the republican Government of Nepal on October 7,2008. In addition to trekking routes through the Lo Kingdom and along the Annapurna Circuit in lower Mustang, the district is famous for the springs and village of Muktinath, apples, and Marpha brandy. Mustang was a lost kingdom of Tibet and today traditions have survived longer than in Tibet proper following its annexation by China
24.
Tibetan diaspora
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The Tibetan diaspora is a term used to refer to the communities of Tibetan people living outside their original homeland of Tibet. Tibetan emigration has three separate stages, the first stage was in 1959 following the 14th Dalai Lamas escape to Dharamsala in India, in fear of persecution from the Peoples Liberation Army. The second stage occurred in the 1980s, when China opened Tibet to foreigners, the third stage began in 1996 and continues today although with less frequency. Not all emigration from Tibet is permanent, today some parents in Tibet send their children to communities in the diaspora to receive a traditional Tibetan education. The 2009 census registered about 128,000 Tibetans in exile, with the most numerous part of the community living in India, Nepal, however, in 2005 and 2009 there were estimates of up to 150,000 living in exile. The Central Tibetan Administration provides a Green Book - a kind of Tibetan identity certificate - to Tibetan refugees. Based on a CTA survey from 2009,127,935 Tibetans were registered in the diaspora, in India 94,203, in Nepal 13,514, in Bhutan 1,298, and in rest of the world 18,920. However, their number is estimated at up to 150,000, the larger of the other communities are in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Switzerland, Norway, France, Taiwan and Australia. During the 1959 Tibetan uprising, the 14th Dalai Lama and some of his government fled to India, from 1959 to 1960, about 80,000 Tibetans followed the Dalai Lama to India through the Himalayas. Continued flights, estimated in the numbers of 1,000 to 2,500 a year, after the opening of Tibet in the 1980s to trade and tourism, a second wave of Tibetan exodus took place due to increasing political repression. From 1986 to 1996,25,000 Tibetans joined and increased by 18% their exiled community in India and this movement of refugees during this second wave is sometimes referred to as a second exodus. Most of those staying are children to attend Tibetan Childrens Villages school, a 2008 documentary directed by Richard Martini claimed that 3, 000–4,500 Tibetans arrive at Dharamshala every year. Most new immigrants are children who are sent to Tibetan cultural schools, many political activists, including monks, have also crossed over through Nepal to India. Significant cultural gaps exist between recent Tibetan emigrants and Indian-born Tibetans, the more established Tibetans in diaspora reject recent immigrant Tibetans who watch Chinese movies, sing Chinese music, and can speak Mandarin, are also well settled in the Tibetan community. The Dalai Lama encourages to learn languages and can speak many languages himself. The main organisation of the Tibetan diaspora is the Central Tibetan Administration of the 14th Dalai Lama based in the McLeod Ganj suburb of the city of Dharamsala in India, the CTA maintains Tibet Offices in 10 countries. These act as de facto embassies of the CTA offices of culture and information and effectively provide a kind of consular help to Tibetans. They are based in New Delhi, India, New York, USA, Geneva, Switzerland, Tokyo, Japan, London, UK, Canberra, Australia, Paris, France, Moscow, Russia, Pretoria, South Africa, and Taipei, Taiwan
25.
Sichuan cuisine
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Sichuan cuisine, Szechwan cuisine, or Szechuan cuisine is a style of Chinese cuisine originating from Sichuan province in southwestern China. It has bold flavours, particularly the pungency and spiciness resulting from use of garlic and chili peppers. There are many variations within Sichuan province and the Chongqing municipality. It was announced in early 2017 that McDonalds would bring back the promotional Sichuan Mulan McNugget sauce by the end of the year, four sub-styles of Sichuan cuisine include Chongqing, Chengdu, Zigong, and also Buddhist vegetarian style. UNESCO declared Chengdu to be a city of gastronomy in 2011 in order to recognize the sophistication of its cooking, Sichuan in the Middle Ages welcomed Near Eastern crops, such as broad beans, sesame, and walnuts. Since the 16th century, the list of crops in Sichuan has even been lengthened by New World newcomers. The characteristic chili pepper came from Mexico, but probably overland from India or by river from Macao, replacing the spicy peppers of ancient times, other newcomers from the New World included maize, which largely replaced millet, white potatoes introduced by Catholic missions, and sweet potatoes. The population of Sichuan was cut by three quarters in the wars from the Ming to the Qing dynasty. Settlers from nearby Hunan province brought their cooking styles with them, Sichuan is colloquially known as the heavenly country due to its abundance of food and natural resources. One ancient Chinese account declared that the people of Sichuan uphold good flavor, most Sichuan dishes are spicy, although a typical meal includes non-spicy dishes to cool the palate. Sichuan cuisine is composed of seven basic flavours, sour, pungent, hot, sweet, bitter, aromatic, Sichuan food is divided into five different types, sumptuous banquet, ordinary banquet, popularised food, household-style food, and food snacks. Milder versions of Sichuan dishes remain a staple of American Chinese cuisine, the complex topography of Sichuan including mountains, hills, plains, plateaus, and basin has shaped food customs in Sichuan with versatile and distinct ingredients. Abundant rice and vegetables are produced from the fertile Sichuan Basin, whereas a wide variety of herbs, mushrooms, pork is overwhelmingly the major meat. Beef is somewhat common in Sichuan cuisine than it is in other Chinese cuisines. Rabbit meat is much more popular in Sichuan than elsewhere in China. It is estimated that the Sichuan Basin and Chongqing area consume about 70 percent of Chinas rabbit meat consumption, yoghurt, which probably spread from India through Tibet in medieval times, is consumed among the Han Chinese. This is a custom in other parts of the country. The salt produced from Sichuan salt springs and wells, unlike the sea salt, does not contain iodine, Sichuan cuisine often contains food preserved through pickling, salting, and drying
26.
Tibetan people
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The Tibetan people are an ethnic group that is native to Tibet. They number an estimate of 7.8 million, significant Tibetan minorities also live outside of Tibet Autonomous Region in China, and in India, Nepal, and Bhutan. Tibetans speak the Tibetic languages, many varieties of which are mutually unintelligible and they belong to the Tibeto-Burman languages. The traditional, or mythological, explanation of the Tibetan peoples origin is that they are the descendants of the human Pha Trelgen Changchup Sempa and it is thought that most of the Tibeto-Burman-speakers in Southwest China, including the Tibetans, are direct descendants from the ancient Qiang. Most Tibetans practice Tibetan Buddhism, though some observe the indigenous Bön religion, Tibetan Buddhism influences Tibetan art, drama, and architecture, while the harsh geography of Tibet has produced an adaptive culture of Tibetan medicine and cuisine. As of 2014 Census, there are 2.2 million Tibetans living in the Tibet Autonomous Region, the SIL Ethnologue in 2009 documents an additional 189,000 Tibetic speakers living in India,5,280 in Nepal, and 4,800 in Bhutan. There are Tibetan communities in the United States, Australia, Canada, Costa Rica, France, Mexico, Norway, Taiwan, Switzerland, how the current numbers compare to Tibetans historically is a difficult claim. The Central Tibetan Administration claims that the 5.4 million number is a decrease from 6.3 million in 1959 while the Chinese government claims that it is an increase from 2.7 million in 1954. However, the question depends on the definition and extent of Tibet, also, the Tibetan administration did not take a formal census of its territory in the 1950s, the numbers provided by the administration at the time were based on informed guesswork. The Tibetan population growth is attributed by PRC officials to the quality of health. The average life expectancy for Tibetans rose from 35.5 years in 1951 to over 67 years by the end of 2010, infant mortality in China as a whole was officially rated 14 per 1,000 in 2010. Classical Tibetan is a major literary language, particularly for its use in Buddhist literature. Although some of the Qiang peoples of Kham are classified by China as ethnic Tibetans, the Qiangic languages are not Tibetic, Tibetans inherited this adaptation thanks to their denisovan admixture. Nitric oxide causes dilation of blood vessels allowing blood to flow freely to the extremities. This and other advantages in physiological function at high altitudes have been attributed to a mutation in the EPAS1 gene among Tibetans, Tibetans inherited this adaptation thanks to their Denisovan admixture. Modern Tibetan populations are genetically most similar to other modern East Asian populations and they also show genetic affinity for modern Central Asian, then modern Siberian populations. An earlier study in 2010 suggested that the majority of the Tibetan gene pool may have diverged from the Han around 3,000 years ago. However, there are possibilities of much earlier human inhabitation of Tibet, in a 2016 study, the date of divergence between Tibetans and Han Chinese was estimated to have taken place around 15,000 to 9,000 years ago
27.
Chuba
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A chuba is a long sheepskin coat made of thick Tibetan wool worn by many of the nomadic peoples of high altitude in the cold mountains of Tibet. The traditional sherpa clothing is distinctive to solu-khumba, the garment of the sherpas. A chuba is a warm ankle-length robe that is bound around the waist by a long sash and its upper portion becomes a large pocket for everything from money to bowls. In the past, chubas were made from strips of hand-woven woollen cloth, more recently, black or brown dyes have been used. On trading trips to Tibet, people often wore sheep skin chubas, jackets or pants
28.
Derge
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Derge is a town in Dêgê County in Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture in Sichuan, China. It was once the center of the Kingdom of Derge in Kham, historically, Derge, which means land of mercy was one of the three ancient centres of Tibetan culture, along with Lhasa and Xiahe. Derge was formerly the seat of the kings of the kingdom of Derge, the kingdom was an important industrial, religious and political center in Eastern Tibet. In the early 20th century, the fell into political struggle between the final heirs to the throne, Djembel Rinchen and Doje Senkel. The latter, who had enjoyed the backing of the Chinese, the palace of the Derge kings was subsequently converted into a school. It was established during the reign of Derge king Tenpa Tsering, the printing house, run by monks, continues to use its ancient techniques, utilizing no electricity. For example, the roof is used to dry the printed sheets. It has been estimated that the 217,000 blocks stored at Derge comprise 70% of the Tibetan literary heritage, the Derge editions are considered especially high quality, with few typographical errors. The town also contains several historic Tibetan monasteries, notably Palpung Monastery, Gongchen Monastery, Kathok Monastery, Palyul Monastery, Shechen Monastery, official website of Dêgê County Government
29.
Tibetan cuisine
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Tibetan cuisine includes the culinary traditions and practices of Tibet and its peoples, many of whom reside in India and Nepal. It reflects the Tibetan landscape of mountains and plateaus and includes influences from neighbors and it is known for its use of noodles, goat, yak, mutton, dumplings, cheese, butter and soups. Grain, traditionally mostly barley, is the food of Tibetans. Meat and dairy products are an indispensable addition, rice is only cultivated in the lower regions situated in the south of Tibet and is imported mainly. Vegetables and fruits were eaten rarely in Central Tibet until quite recently, nowadays it is possible to grow these crops due to the construction of greenhouses. Following the different vegetative conditions, the Tibetan cuisine has a big variety, Tibetan crops must be able to grow at the high altitudes, although a few areas in Tibet are low enough to grow such crops as rice, oranges, bananas, and lemon. The most important crop in Tibet is barley, flour milled from roasted barley, called tsampa, is the staple food of Tibet, as well as Sha Phaley. Balep is Tibetan bread eaten for breakfast and lunch, there are various other types of balep bread and fried pies. Thukpa is a dinner consisting of vegetables, meat. Tibetan cuisine is served with bamboo chopsticks, in contrast to other Himalayan cuisines. Small soup bowls are used by Tibetans, and the rich are known to have used bowls of gold. Meat dishes are likely to be yak, goat, or mutton, mustard seeds are cultivated in Tibet and therefore features heavily in its cuisine. Yak yoghurt, butter, and cheese are frequently eaten, in larger Tibetan towns and cities many restaurants now serve Sichuan-style Han Chinese food. Western imports and fusion dishes, such as fried yak and chips, are also popular, nevertheless, many small restaurants serving traditional Tibetan dishes persist in both cities and the countryside. Tibetans use pots, pans, cans, steamer pots and boxes in various sizes, Tibetan women carry large wooden containers, which can hold up to 25 liters, to fetch water once a day. Having returned to the house they pour the water into copper cans which are built-in, cooking pots made from iron or brass are used on the stove. Traditionally pans were used rarely but nowadays they become more and more popular, boxes made from wood are used to contain tsampa, butter and cheese. Elaborately woven baskets with matching tops are used to store dried fruits, rice, on travels they also contain dried meat and cheese
30.
Butter tea
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Traditionally, it is made from tea leaves, yak butter, water, and salt, although butter made from cows milk is increasingly used, given its wider availability and lower cost. Drinking butter tea is a part of Tibetan life. Before work, a Tibetan will typically enjoy several bowlfuls of this beverage, since butter is the main ingredient, butter tea provides plenty of caloric energy and is particularly suited to high altitudes. The butter may also help prevent chapped lips, according to the Tibetan custom, butter tea is drunk in separate sips, and after each sip the host refills the bowl to the brim. Thus, the guest never drains his bowl, rather, it is topped up. If the visitor does not wish to drink, the best thing to do is leave the tea untouched until the time comes to leave, in this way etiquette is observed and the host will not be offended. Butter tea is used for eating tsampa by pouring onto it, or dipping the tsampa into it. The concentrate, produced by repeatedly boiling tea leaves, will keep for several days, the tea is then combined with salt and butter in a special tea churn, and churned vigorously before serving hot. Now an electric blender is often used, the history of tea in Tibet dates back to the 7th century during the Tang Dynasty. However, it did not reach its nearly universal status until about the 13th century, the time of the Sakya hierarchy, the highest quality tea is made by boiling the tea leaves in water for half a day, achieving a dark brown color. It is then skimmed, and poured into a cylinder with fresh yak butter, the result is a purplish liquid that is about the thickness of a stew or thick oil. It is then poured into clay tea-pots, or jars, that resemble Japanese teapots, another method is to boil water, and add handfuls of the tea into the water, which is allowed to steep until it turns almost black. Salt is then added, along with a little soda if wanted, the tea is then strained through a horse-hair or reed colander into a wooden butter churn, and a large lump of butter is added. This is then churned until the tea reaches the proper consistency, when a churn is not available, a wooden bowl and rapid stirring will suffice. List of butter dishes List of Tibetan dishes Tibetan cuisine Example of bowls from which Tibetans drink tea and further information on the bowls custom Sherpa Butter Tea
31.
Tibetan Buddhism
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Tibetan Buddhism is the body of Buddhist doctrine and institutions characteristic of Tibet, the regions surrounding the Himalayas and much of Central Asia. It derives from the latest stages of Indian Buddhism and preserves the Tantric status quo of eighth-century India, Tibetan Buddhism aspires to Buddhahood or rainbow body. Religious texts and commentaries comprise the Tibetan Buddhist canon, such that Tibetan is a language of these areas. Among its prominent exponents is the 14th Dalai Lama of Tibet, the number of its adherents is estimated to be between ten and twenty million. Westerners unfamiliar with Tibetan Buddhism initially turned to China for an understanding, there the term used was lamaism to distinguish it from a then traditional Chinese form. The term was taken up by scholars including Hegel, as early as 1822. Insofar as it implies a discontinuity between Indian and Tibetan Buddhism, the term has been discredited, another term, Vajrayāna is occasionally used mistakenly for Tibetan Buddhism. More accurately, it signifies a certain subset of practices included in, not only Tibetan Buddhism, the native Tibetan term for all Buddhism is doctrine of the internalists. There is an association between the religious and the secular the spiritual and the temporal in Tibet. The term for this relationship is chos srid zung brel, in the west the term Indo-Tibetan Buddhism has become current, in acknowledgement of its derivation from the latest stages of Buddhist development in northern India. Tibetan Buddhism comprises the teachings of the three vehicles of Buddhism, the Foundational Vehicle, Mahāyāna, and Vajrayāna, the Mahāyāna goal of spiritual development is to achieve the enlightenment of buddhahood in order to most efficiently help all other sentient beings attain this state. The motivation in it is the mind of enlightenment — an altruistic intention to become enlightened for the sake of all sentient beings. Bodhisattvas are revered beings who have conceived the will and vow to dedicate their lives with bodhicitta for the sake of all beings, Tibetan Buddhism teaches methods for achieving buddhahood more quickly by including the Vajrayāna path in Mahāyāna. Buddhahood is defined as a free of the obstructions to liberation as well as those to omniscience. When one is freed from all mental obscurations, one is said to attain a state of continuous bliss mixed with a simultaneous cognition of emptiness, in this state, all limitations on ones ability to help other living beings are removed. It is said there are countless beings who have attained buddhahood. Buddhas spontaneously, naturally and continuously perform activities to all sentient beings. However it is believed that ones karma could limit the ability of the Buddhas to help them, there is a long history of oral transmission of teachings in Tibetan Buddhism
32.
Karma
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Karma means action, work or deed, it also refers to the spiritual principle of cause and effect where intent and actions of an individual influence the future of that individual. Good intent and good deed contribute to good karma and future happiness, while bad intent and bad deed contribute to bad karma, Karma is closely associated with the idea of rebirth in many schools of Asian religions. In these schools, karma in the present affects ones future in the current life, as well as the nature, with origins in ancient India, karma is a key concept in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, and Taoism. Karma is the deed, work, action, or act, and it is also the object. Halbfass explains karma by contrasting it with another Sanskrit word kriya, a good action creates good karma, as does good intent. A bad action creates bad karma, as does bad intent, Karma, also refers to a conceptual principle that originated in India, often descriptively called the principle of karma, sometimes as the karma theory or the law of karma. In the context of theory, karma is complex and difficult to define, other Indologists include in the definition of karma theory that which explains the present circumstances of an individual with reference to his or her actions in past. The law of karma operates independent of any deity or any process of divine judgment, Buddhism and Jainism have their own karma precepts. Thus karma has not one, but multiple definitions and different meanings and it is a concept whose meaning, importance and scope varies between Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and other traditions that originated in India, and various schools in each of these traditions. OFlaherty claims that, furthermore, there is a debate regarding whether karma is a theory, a model, a paradigm. Karma theory as a concept, across different Indian religious traditions, shares common themes, causality, ethicization. A common theme to theories of karma is its principle of causality, one of the earliest association of karma to causality occurs in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad of Hinduism. For example, at 4.4. 5-6, it states, The relationship of karma to causality is a motif in all schools of Hindu, Jain. Disinterested actions, or unintentional actions do not have the positive or negative karmic effect, as interested. Another causality characteristic, shared by Karmic theories, is that like deeds lead to like effects, thus good karma produces good effect on the actor, while bad karma produces bad effect. This effect may be material, moral or emotional — that is, the effect of karma need not be immediate, the effect of karma can be later in ones current life, and in some schools it extends to future lives. The consequence or effects of karma can be described in two forms, phalas and samskaras. A phala is the visible or invisible effect that is typically immediate or within the current life, the theory of karma is often presented in the context of samskaras
33.
Khata
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A khata is a traditional ceremonial scarf in tengrism and Tibetan Buddhism. It originated in Tibetan culture and is common in cultures and countries where Tibetan Buddhism is practiced and it is usually made of silk. Tibetan khatas are usually white, symbolising the pure heart of the giver, Tibetan, Nepali, and Bhutanese khatas feature the ashtamangala. There are also special multi-colored khatas, mongolian khatas are usually blue, symbolizing the sky. In Mongolia, khatas are also tied to ovoos, stupas, or special trees
34.
Chhaang
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Chhaang or chang is a Nepalese and Tibetan alcoholic beverage also popular in parts of the eastern Himalayas and Newar communities. Chhaang is consumed by ethnically Nepalese and Tibetan people and, to a degree, by the neighboring nations of India. It is usually drunk at room temperature in summer, but is often served piping-hot in brass bowls or wooden mugs when the weather is colder, Chhaang is a relative of beer. Barley, millet or rice grains are used to brew the drink, semi-fermented seeds of millet are served, stuffed in a barrel of bamboo called a dhungro. Boiling water is poured in and sipped through a narrow-bore bamboo tube called a pipsing. When the boiled barley has cooled, some yeast or dried barm is added, the barm consists of flour and, in Balti, often has ginger and aconite added to it. After fermentation is complete, water is added to the brew and is ready for consumption. In Lahaul the glum is pressed out by hand instead of by filtering, yielding a rather cloudy drink, the residue of malt can be pressed through a strainer and then mixed with water or milk and used in baking bread or cakes. Near Mt. Everest of Nepal, chhaang is made by passing hot water through fermenting barley, and is then served in a large pot and drunk through a wooden straw. In Nepal, this beverage is called tongba by the Limbus of Nepal, unlike chhang or tongba, jand is served in large mugs. These alcoholic beverages are generated using a starter called murcha. Murcha itself is prepared by using yeast and mold flora of wild herbs in cereal flours, alcohol content is quite low, but it produces an intense feeling of warmth and well-being, ideal for enduring the temperatures which go well below freezing in winter. The plant name Aconite may refer to two plant genera in the family Ranunculaceae, namely Aconitum and Eranthis, although Eranthis is known usually as Winter Aconite. The plants used in the brewing of Chhaang in Baltistan and Ladakh are, however, almost certainly referable to Aconitum species, Aconitum species are amongst the most virulently poisonous plants known, containing a variety of extremely toxic alkaloids, including aconitine and pseudaconitine. Nevertheless, numerous fatalities have occurred resulting from such medicinal use e. g and it reputedly has many healing properties for conditions like the common cold, fevers, allergic rhinitis, and alcoholism among others. According to legend, chhaang is also popular with the Yeti, or Himalayan Snowmen, drinking and making offerings of chhaang are part of many pan-Tibetan social and religious occasions, including settling disputes, welcoming guests, and wooing. Raksi - Nepalese and Tibetan distilled alcoholic beverage, Tibetan beer Tongba List of Indian beverages List of Tibetan dishes Recipe
35.
Butter churn
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A butter churn is a device used to convert cream into butter. This is done through a process, frequently via a pole inserted through the lid of the churn. The agitation of the cream, caused by the motion of the device. The membranes that surround the fats are broken down, subsequently forming clumps known as butter grains and these butter grains, during the process of churning, fuse with each other and form larger fat globules. Air bubbles are introduced into these fat globules via the continued action of the churn. The butter grains become more dense as fat globules attach to them while the air is forced out of the mixture and this process creates a liquid known as buttermilk. With constant churning, the fat globules eventually form solid butter, the buttermilk is then drained off and the butter is squeezed to eliminate excess liquid and to form it into a solid mass. The word “butter” is believed to be derived from the Greek word bou-tyron, the word churn is from the Old English ċyrin, to churn. This is probably derived from the Old English cyrnel, kernel, the butter churn gave its name to the milk churn, early examples of which were based on butter churns. The milk churn is not, however, used for the act of churning, evidence for the use of butter dates back as early as 2000 BC, and there is mention of it in biblical works. The butter churn itself may have existed as early as the 6th century AD, in the European tradition, the butter churn was primarily a device used by women, and the churning of butter was an essential responsibility along with other household chores. Some theorists believe this is how the creation process was discovered. Some cultures still use a similar to this, whereby a bag is filled with milk, tied to a stick. This type of churn is known as an ‘up and down’ churn, churning tub, plunger churn, plumping churn, knocker churn, plump-kirn. The staff used in the churn is known as the dash, dasher-staff, churn-staff, churning-stick, plunger, plumper, another prominent type of churn was the paddle churn, which was a container that contained a paddle, which was operated by a handle. The paddle churned the butter inside the container when the handle was turned, the barrel churn was also used extensively. This type of churn was a barrel turned onto its side with a crank attached, the crank either turned a paddle device inside the churn, as in the paddle churn, or turned the whole barrel, whose action converted the milk to butter. The barrel churn was one of the innovations of 18th century Europe
36.
Nomad
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A nomad is a member of a community of people who live in different locations, moving from one place to another. Among the various ways nomads relate to their environment, one can distinguish the hunter-gatherer, as of 1995, there were an estimated 30–40 million nomads in the world. Nomadic hunting and gathering, following seasonally available wild plants and game, is by far the oldest human subsistence method, pastoralists raise herds, driving them, or moving with them, in patterns that normally avoid depleting pastures beyond their ability to recover. Nomadism is also a lifestyle adapted to regions such as steppe, tundra, or ice and sand. For example, many groups in the tundra are reindeer herders and are semi-nomadic and these nomads sometimes adapt the use of high technology such as solar photovoltaics to reduce their dependence on diesel fuel. These groups are known as peripatetic nomads, a nomad is a person with no settled home, moving from place to place as a way of obtaining food, finding pasture for livestock, or otherwise making a living. The word Nomad comes from a Greek word that one who wanders for pasture. Most nomadic groups follow an annual or seasonal pattern of movements and settlements. Nomadic peoples traditionally travel by animal or canoe or on foot, today, some nomads travel by motor vehicle. Most nomads live in tents or other portable shelters, Nomads keep moving for different reasons. Nomadic foragers move in search of game, edible plants, the Australian Aborigines, Negritos of Southeast Asia, and San of Africa, for example, traditionally move from camp to camp to hunt and to gather wild plants. Some tribes of the Americas followed this way of life, Pastoral nomads make their living raising livestock, such as camels, cattle, goats, horses, sheep, or yaks. These nomads travel to find more camels, goats, and sheep through the deserts of Arabia, the Fulani and their cattle travel through the grasslands of Niger in western Africa. Some nomadic peoples, especially herders, may move to raid settled communities or avoid enemies. Nomadic craftworkers and merchants travel to find and serve customers and they include the Lohar blacksmiths of India, the Romani traders, and the Irish Travellers. Most nomads travel in groups of families called bands or tribes and these groups are based on kinship and marriage ties or on formal agreements of cooperation. A council of adult males makes most of the decisions, though some tribes have chiefs, in the case of Mongolian nomads, a family moves twice a year. These two movements would generally occur during the summer and winter, the winter location is usually located near mountains in a valley and most families already have their fixed winter locations
37.
Jiaozi
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Jiaozi / are a kind of Chinese dumpling, commonly eaten in China and other parts of East Asia. They are one of the foods eaten during the Chinese New Year. Though considered part of Chinese cuisine, jiaozi are popular in parts of Asia. Jiaozi typically consist of a ground meat and/or vegetable filling wrapped into a thinly rolled piece of dough, in China, there are several different folk stories explaining the origin of jiaozi and its name. Traditionally, jiaozi were thought to be invented during the era of the Eastern Han by Zhang Zhongjing who was a practitioner of traditional Chinese medicine. Jiaozi were originally referred to as tender ears because they were used to treat frostbitten ears, Zhang Zhongjing was on his way home during wintertime, when he found many common people had frostbitten ears, because they did not have warm clothes and sufficient food. He treated these people by stewing lamb, peppers, and some warming medicines in a pot, chopped them. He boiled these dumplings and gave them with the broth to his patients, in order to celebrate the New Year as well as recovering from frostbitten ears, people imitated Zhangs recipe to make Jiaoer. Other theories suggest that jiaozi may have derived from dumplings in Western Asia, in the Western Han dynasty jiaozi were called Jiaozi. During the Three Kingdoms period, the book Guang Ya written by Zhang Yi mentions jiaozi, yan Zitui during the Northern Qi dynasty wrote, Today the jiaozi, shaped like a crescent moon, is a common food in the world. Six Dynasties Turfan tombs contained dumplings, later in the Tang Dynasty, jiaozi become more popular, called Bian Shi. Chinese archaeologists have found a bowl of jiaozi in the Tang Dynasty tombs in Turpan, 7th or 8th Century dumplings and wontons were found in Turfan. Jiaozi may also be named because they are horn-shaped, many families eat these at midnight on Chinese New Years Eve. Some cooks will even hide a clean coin inside a jiaozi for the lucky to find, nowadays, jiaozi are eaten year-round, and can be eaten for breakfast, lunch or dinner. They can be served as an appetizer, a side dish, in China, sometimes jiaozi is served as a last course during restaurant meals. As a breakfast dish, jiaozi are prepared alongside xiaolongbao at inexpensive roadside restaurants, typically, they are served in small steamers containing ten pieces each. Although mainly serving jiaozi to breakfast customers, these small restaurants keep them hot on steamers, Jiaozi are always served with a soy sauce-based dipping sauce that may include vinegar, garlic, ginger, rice wine, hot sauce, and sesame oil. Chinese dumplings may be divided into types depending on how they are cooked, Boiled dumplings Steamed dumplings Pan fried dumplings
38.
Flatbread
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A flatbread is a bread made with flour, water and salt, and then thoroughly rolled into flattened dough. Many flatbreads are unleavened—made without yeast—although some are leavened, such as pita bread. There are many other ingredients that flatbreads may contain, such as curry powder, diced jalapeños, chili powder. Olive oil or sesame oil may be added as well, Flatbreads can range from one millimeter to a few centimeters thick. It is folded and layered round flat bread, phulka, made from whole wheat flour, water and salt. It is like a variety of Puri. Green onion pancake, made with oil and minced scallions Paratha Khanom buang, high-Profile Flatbreads - Say Goodbye to Insipid White Bread When Tortillas and Flatbreads Come to Town. Flatbreads Old World, Meets New Flatbreads from All Over the World-Including Tortillas, Arepas and Naan-Are the Newest Hot Ticket in Both Retail and Foodservice Products. Storied Breads, With a Continuing Focus on Food Origin, Flatbreads Offer Manufacturers a Way to Tempt Consumers with Authentic Products Celebrating the Oldest-Known Bread Traditions, glycaemic Index of Indian Flatbreads Prepared Using Whole Wheat Flour and Atta Mix-Added Whole Wheat Flour. Flat-Out in Love with Flatbread Here Are 5 Reasons Foodservice Is Smitten with Flatbreads, FOOD MANAGEMENT -NEW YORK THEN CLEVELAND OH-. Flatbreads and Flavors, A Bakers Atlas, textural Characteristics of Bagels and Ethnic Flatbreads. San Leandro, Calif, Bristol Pub,1994, savory Baking from the Mediterranean, Focaccias, Flatbreads, Rusks, Tarts, and Other Breads. Kahlon, Talwinder Singh, and Mei-Chen Maggie Chiu, glycaemic, Insulin and Ghrelin Responses to Traditional South Asian Flatbreads in Diabetic and Healthy Subjects. Reinhold, John G. Bahram Faraji, Parichehr Abadi, an Extended Study of the Effect of Iranian Village and Urban Flatbreads on the Mineral Balances of Two Men Before and After Supplementation with Vitamin D†. Ecology of Food and Nutrition
39.
Tingmo
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Tingmo is a steamed bread in Tibetan cuisine. It is sometimes described as a bun that is similar to Chinese flower rolls. It does not contain any kind of filling, a tingmo with some type of filling, like beef or chicken, is called a momo. List of steamed foods List of Tibetan dishes Tingmo Tibetan steamed bread More than Just Curry Tingmo making video on YouTube
40.
Baozi
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In its bun-like aspect it is very similar to the traditional Chinese mantou. It can be filled with meat and/or vegetarian fillings, two types are found in most parts of China and Indonesia, Dàbāo, measuring about 10 cm across, served individually, and usually purchased for take-away. The other type, Xiǎobāo, measure approximately 5 cm wide, and are most commonly eaten in restaurants, each order consists of a steamer containing between three and ten pieces. According to legend, they were invented by the Chinese scholar, an alternate theory is that Mongols brought the form to China in the Yuan Dynasty from the Turkic court. In many Chinese cultures, these buns are a popular food, while they can be eaten at any meal, baozi are often eaten for breakfast. They are also popular as a snack or meal. The dish has become common place throughout various regions of South East Asia due to longstanding Chinese immigration. Due to the history of Chinese overseas diaspora in Malaysia. A particularly Malay form of the baozi is filled with potato curry, some variants have a quail egg in the middle, in addition to the curry. Due to the Muslim beliefs of most Malays, these buns are halal, one can find Malay stalls selling the buns by the roadside, at pasar malams, highway rest stops, and pasar Ramadans. Similarly, in Indonesia the dish has been adopted into Indonesian cuisine through the integration of Chinese culture and it has been adopted through the Hokkien name of Bakpao. Excluding existing meat filling, local variants include, chocolate, sweet potato, in the Philippines, their version of Baozi is called Siopao brought by Chinese immigrants prior to Spanish colonialism. A Filipino siopao filing contains Meatball, Philippine adobo, flaked tuna and pork, a similar concept is also present in Thailand as they are called salapao
41.
Thenthuk
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Thenthuk or hand pulled noodle soup, is a very common noodle soup in Tibetan cuisine, especially in Amdo, Tibet where it is served as dinner and sometimes lunch. The main ingredients are wheat flour dough, mixed vegetables and some pieces of mutton or yak meat, vegetable thenthuk is a common modern day option too. Making the soup consists of mixing the flour, kneading the dough, chopping the vegetables and meat, start working with the dough when you are sure that everything boiling in the soup is well cooked. Shaping the dough and flattening it and then pulling and cutting it off, all at the same time, as soon as you are finished with the dough, the noodle soup is ready to cool down and be served. The Nepalese version of Thukpa contains chili powder, masalas, and noodles with gram and pea soup which gives it a hot, the most typical Nepali thukpa is found in Sankhuwasabha district. However, the found in Kathmandu Valley is the same as that found in Tibet due to immigrant Tibetan refugees. List of soups List of Tibetan dishes
42.
Soup
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Soup is a primarily liquid food, generally served warm or hot, that is made by combining ingredients such as meat and vegetables with stock, juice, water, or another liquid. Hot soups are additionally characterized by boiling solid ingredients in liquids in a pot until the flavors are extracted, traditionally, soups are classified into two main groups, clear soups and thick soups. The established French classifications of clear soups are bouillon and consommé, other ingredients commonly used to thicken soups and broths include egg, rice, lentils, flour, and grains, many popular soups also include carrots and potatoes. Soups are similar to stews, and in some there may not be a clear distinction between the two, however, soups generally have more liquid than stews. Evidence of the existence of soup can be found as far back as about 20,000 BC, boiling was not a common cooking technique until the invention of waterproof containers. Animal hides and watertight baskets of bark or reeds were used before this, to boil the water hot rocks were used. This method was used to cook acorns and other plants. The word soup comes from French soupe, which comes through Vulgar Latin suppa from a Germanic source, from which comes the word sop. In 1765, a Parisian entrepreneur opened a shop specializing in such soups and this prompted the use of the modern word restaurant for the eating establishments. A1772 cookbook, The Frugal Housewife, contained a chapter on the topic. English cooking dominated early colonial cooking, but as new immigrants arrived from other countries, in particular, German immigrants living in Pennsylvania were famous for their potato soups. In 1794, Jean Baptiste Gilbert Payplat dis Julien, a refugee from the French Revolution, opened an establishment in Boston called The Restorator. The first American cooking pamphlet dedicated to soup recipes was written in 1882 by Emma Ewing, Soups, portable soup was devised in the 18th century by boiling seasoned meat until a thick, resinous syrup was left that could be dried and stored for months at a time. Commercial soup became popular with the invention of canning in the 19th century, doctor John T. Dorrance, a chemist with the Campbell Soup Company, invented condensed soup in 1897. Today, Campbells Tomato, Cream of Mushroom, and Chicken Noodle Soup are three of the most popular soups in America, americans consume approximately 2.5 billion bowls of these three soups alone each year. Canned soup can be condensed, in case it is prepared by adding water, or it can be ready-to-eat. Canned soup can be prepared by heating in a pan, on the stovetop or in the microwave, such soups can be used as a base for homemade soups, with the consumer adding anything from a few vegetables to eggs, meat, cream or pasta. Condensing soup allows soup to be packaged into a smaller can, the soup is usually doubled in volume by adding a can full of water or milk
43.
Blood sausage
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Blood sausages are sausages filled with blood that are cooked or dried and mixed with a filler until they are thick enough to solidify when cooled. Pig, cattle, sheep, duck, and goat blood can be used, in Europe and the Americas, typical fillers include meat, fat, suet, bread, cornmeal, onion, chestnuts, barley, and oatmeal. In Spain, Portugal, and Asia, northern-climate cereals are often replaced by rice, in Kenya fillers include fresh minced goat or beef, fat, and red onions. Black pudding is the native British version of blood sausage and it is generally made from pork blood and a relatively high proportion of oatmeal. It can be cold, as it is cooked in production. It is often served sliced and fried or grilled as part of a full breakfast. Black pudding is now part of the cuisine of New Zealand. Stornoway Black Pudding produced on the Isle of Lewis, Scotland, is one of the most renowned varieties and has been granted Protected Geographical Indicator of Origin status, the similar white pudding is a further important feature of the traditional Northumbrian, Scottish, Irish and Newfoundland breakfast. Black and white pudding, as well as a variant, red pudding, is served battered in some chip shops in England, Scotland and Ireland as an alternative to fish. While blood sausage in English is understood in Britain, the term is applied only to foreign usage, the most common variant of German Blutwurst is made from pork rind, pork blood and regionally different fillers such as barley. Though already cooked and ready to eat it is served warm. In the Rhineland, where it is traditionally made from horse meat. In particular in Cologne, the traditional Himmel und Erde combines apple sauce, mashed potatoes, in Berlin, hot Blutwurst mixed together with liverwurst and potatoes is called Tote Oma. Other German variants are Zungenwurst, which is Blutwurst mixed with pieces of pickled ox tongue, a variety of Blutwurst, the Rotwurst from Thuringia has geographical indication protection under EU law, with PGI status. Kartoffelwurst is a post-World War II variety popular in the Palatinate, in Austria it is often prepared in a dish known as Blunzngröstl, which consists of pan-fried potatoes and blood sausage. This is usually served with grated horseradish. In France, boudin is traditionally prepared in charcuteries, shops that prepare mainly pork products, but also smoked and dried sausages, pâtés. It is usually called boudin noir and is made with cream with apples or onions as a filler
44.
Dalai Lama
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The Dalai Lama /ˈdɑːlaɪ ˈlɑːmə/, /ˌdælaɪ ˈlɑːmə/ is a monk of the Gelug or Yellow Hat school of Tibetan Buddhism, the newest of the schools of Tibetan Buddhism founded by Je Tsongkhapa. The Dalai Lama title was created by Altan Khan in 1578, the 14th and current Dalai Lama is Tenzin Gyatso. The Dalai Lama has always been an important figure of the Gelug tradition, although finding dominance in Central Tibet, the Dalai Lama has been an important figure beyond sectarian boundaries. The Dalai Lama figure is important for many reasons, since the time of the Fifth Dalai Lama his personage has always been a symbol of unification of the state of Tibet, where he has represented Buddhist values and traditions. The Dalai Lama is considered to be the successor in a line of tulkus who are believed to be incarnations of Avalokiteśvara, the name is a combination of the Mongolic word dalai meaning ocean and the Tibetan word བླ་མ་ meaning guru, teacher, mentor. The Tibetan word lama corresponds to the better known Sanskrit word guru, special Features of the Gelug Tradition. This government also enjoyed the patronage and protection of firstly Mongol kings of the Khoshut and Dzungar Khanates and this is according to The Book of Kadam, the main text of the Kadampa school, to which the First Dalai Lama, Gendun Drup, first belonged. In fact, this text is said to have ‘laid the foundation’ for the Tibetans later identification of the Dalai Lamas as incarnations of Avalokiteśvara and it traces the legend of the bodhisattva’s incarnations as early Tibetan kings and emperors such as Songsten Gampo and later as Dromtönpa. This lineage has been extrapolated by Tibetans up to and including the Dalai Lamas, thus, according to such sources, an informal line of succession of the present Dalai Lamas as incarnations of Avalokiteśvara stretches back much further than Gendun Drub. First, Tsongkhapa established three great monasteries around Lhasa in the province of Ü before he died in 1419, the 1st Dalai Lama soon became Abbot of the greatest one, Drepung, and developed a large popular power base in Ü. He later extended this to cover Tsang, where he constructed a great monastery, Tashi Lhunpo. The 2nd studied there before returning to Lhasa, where he became Abbot of Drepung, having reactivated the 1sts large popular followings in Tsang and Ü, the 2nd then moved on to southern Tibet and gathered more followers there who helped him construct a new monastery, Chokorgyel. He also established the method by which later Dalai Lama incarnations would be discovered through visions at the oracle lake, the 3rd built on his predecessors fame by becoming Abbot of the two great monasteries of Drepung and Sera. Thus most of Mongolia was added to the Dalai Lamas sphere of influence, after being given the Mongolian name Dalai, he returned to Tibet to found the great monasteries of Lithang in Kham, eastern Tibet and Kumbum in Amdo, north-eastern Tibet. The 4th was then born in Mongolia as the grandson of Altan Khan. Finally, in fulfilment of Avalokiteśvaras master plan, the 5th in the succession used the vast popular power base of devoted followers built up by his four predecessors, overall, they have played a monumental role in Asian literary, philosophical and religious history. Gendun Drup was the name of the monk who came to be known as the First Dalai Lama. Tsongkhapa largely modelled his new, reformed Gelugpa school on the Kadampa tradition, therefore, although Gendun Drup grew to be a very important Gelugpa lama, after he died in 1474 there was no question of any search being made to identify his incarnation
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