1.
T-shirt
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A T-shirt is a style of unisex fabric shirt, named after the T shape of the body and sleeves. It is normally associated with short sleeves, a round neck line known as a crew neck, T-shirts are generally made of a light, inexpensive fabric, and are easy to clean. Typically made of textile in a stockinette, or jersey. The majority of versions have a body made from a continuously woven tube, on a circular loom. The manufacture of T-shirts has become automated, and may include fabric cutting by laser or water jet. The T-shirt evolved from undergarments used in the 19th century, a V-neck T-shirt has a V-shaped neckline, as opposed to the round neckline of the more common crew neck shirt. The T-shirt evolved from undergarments used in the 19th century, first, the one-piece union suit underwear was cut into separate top and bottom garments, with the top long enough to tuck under the waistband of the bottoms. With and without buttons, they were adopted by miners and stevedores during the late 19th century as a convenient covering for hot environments. As slip-on garments without buttons, the earliest T-shirt dates back to sometime between the 1898 Spanish–American War and 1913, when the U. S. Navy began issuing them as undergarments and these were a crew-necked, short-sleeved, white cotton undershirt to be worn under a uniform. It became common for sailors and Marines in work parties, the early submarines and they soon became popular as a bottom layer of clothing for workers in various industries, including agriculture. The T-shirt was easily fitted, easily cleaned, and inexpensive, boys shirts were made in various colors and patterns. The word T-shirt became part of American English by the 1920s, following World War II, it became common to see veterans wearing their uniform trousers with their T-shirts as casual clothing. The shirts became more popular in the 1950s after Marlon Brando wore one in A Streetcar Named Desire, finally achieving status as fashionable, stand-alone. Often boys wore them while doing chores and playing outside, eventually opening up the idea of wearing them as general-purpose casual clothing, Printed T-shirts were in limited use by 1942 when an Air Corps Gunnery School T-shirt appeared on the cover of Life magazine. In the 1960s, printed T-shirts gained popularity for self-expression as well for advertisements, protests, current versions are available in many different designs and fabrics, and styles include crew-neck and V-neck shirts. T-shirts are among the most worn garments of clothing used today, T-shirts are especially popular with branding for companies or merchandise, as they are inexpensive to make and purchase. T-shirts were originally worn as undershirts, but are now worn frequently as the piece of clothing on the top half of the body, other than possibly a brassiere or, rarely. T-shirts have also become a medium for self-expression and advertising, with any combination of words, art
2.
Resist dyeing
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Resist dyeing is a term for a number of traditional methods of dyeing textiles with patterns. Methods are used to resist or prevent the dye from reaching all the cloth, thereby creating a pattern, the most common forms use wax, some type of paste made from starch or mud, or a mechanical resist that manipulates the cloth such as tying or stitching. Another form of resist involves using an agent in a specific type of dye that will repel another type of dye printed over the top. The best-known varieties today include tie-dye and batik, wax or paste, melted wax or some form of paste is applied to cloth before being dipped in dye. Wherever the wax has seeped through the fabric, the dye will not penetrate, sometimes several colors are used, with a series of dyeing, drying and waxing steps. The wax may also be applied to another piece of cloth to make a stencil, which is placed over the cloth, and dye applied to the assembly. Paper stencils may also be used, another type of resist printing, the same method is used in art in printmaking, in one form of screenprinting. Mechanical, the cloth is tied, stitched, or clamped using clothespegs or wooden blocks to areas of the fabric. Chemical, a textile printing method, commonly achieved using two different classes of fiber reactive dyes, one of which must be of the vinyl sulfone type. A chemical-resisting agent is combined with dye Type A, and printed using the screenprint method, a second dye, Type B, is then printed overtop. The resist agent in Type A chemically prevents Type B from reacting with the fabric, resist dyeing has been very widely used in Eurasia and Africa since ancient times. The first discoveries of pieces of linen was from Egypt and date from the fourth century, cloth, used for mummy wrappings, was coated with wax, scratched with a sharp stylus, and dyed with a mixture of blood and ashes. After dyeing the cloth was washed in hot water to remove the wax, in Asia, this technique was practiced in China during the Tang dynasty, in India and Japan in the Nara period. In Africa it was practiced by the Yoruba tribe in Nigeria, Soninke. Indonesia and Malaysia - Ikat, where only the warp or weft is dyed, India Africa - Adire Modern West - Tie-dye Japan - Shibori Japan- Katagami and Bingata with stencils China - about 500 AD the jia xie method for dyeing using wood blocks was invented. An upper and a block is made, with carved out compartments opening to the back. The cloth, usually folded a number of times, is inserted and clamped between the two blocks, by unplugging the different compartments and filling them with dyes of different colours, a multi-coloured pattern can be printed over quite a large area of folded cloth. Ukraine, Russia and Poland - Pysanka, with wax for eggs at Easter Woodblock printing Byzantine dress
3.
Resist
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Often the resist is then removed. For example in the resist dyeing of textiles, wax or a substance is added to places where the dye is not wanted. The wax will resist the dye, and after it is removed there will be a pattern in two colours, batik, shibori and tie-dye are among many styles of resist dyeing. Wax or grease can also be used as a resist in pottery, to some areas free from a ceramic glaze. Song dynasty Jizhou ware used paper cut-outs and leaves as resists or stencils under glaze to create patterns, other uses of resists in pottery work with slip or paints, and a whole range of modern materials used as resists. A range of techniques can be used in watercolour and other forms of painting. While these artistic techniques stretch back centuries, a range of new applications of the resist principle have recently developed in microelectronics, an example is resists in semiconductor fabrication, using photoresists in photolithography. Etching processes use a resist, though in these typically the whole object is covered in the resist, which is then selectively removed from some parts. This is the case when a resist is used to prepare the copper substrate for champlevé enamels, where parts of the field are etched into hollows to be filled with powdered glass, which is then melted. In chemical milling, as forms of industrial etching are called, the resist may be referred to as the maskant. A fixed resist pre-shaped with the pattern is called a stencil. The Oxford English Dictionary does not record the word resist in this sense before the 1830s, resists were also used to etch steel from the mid 19th-century
4.
Procion
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Procion is a brand of fibre reactive dyes. They are commonly used in tie dye and other textile crafts and they are dichlorotriazine dyes and were originally made by Imperial Chemical Industries. The brand name is now owned by Dystar, but, since the patent on the dyes has expired, Procion MX are a class of cold reactive dyes. Procion H-E and H-EXL are hot water dyes Procion P and SP are designed for textile printing PROCION MX DYES, Procion MX codes What other brand names are Procion MX type dyes sold under
5.
Reactive dye
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In a reactive dye a chromophore contains a substituent that reacts with the substrate. Reactive dyes have good fastness properties owing to the bonding that occurs during dyeing, reactive dyes are most commonly used in dyeing of cellulose like cotton or flax, but also wool is dyeable with reactive dyes. Reactive dyeing is the most important method for the coloration of cellulosic fibres, reactive dyes can also be applied on wool and nylon, in the latter case they are applied under weakly acidic conditions. Reactive dyes have a low utilization degree compared to other types of dyestuff, since the group also bonds to water. Reactive dyes had been tested in the late 1800s involving both adding functionalized dyes to the substrate and then activating the substrate first followed by fixation of the dye, the first commercial success was described in the early 1950s. Rattee and Stephens at Imperial Chemical Industries popularlized the chlorotriazines as linkers between the substrate and the chromophore, trichlorotriazines remain a popular platform for reactive dyes. An alternative fixation process that is more dominant commercially is the vinylsulfonyl group, like the chlorotriazines, this functional group adds to the hydroxyl groups of cellulose. The most popular version of this technology is Remazol, the dye is first attached to the ethylsulfonyl group. Reactive dyes are categorized by functional group, dyestuffs with only one functional group sometimes have a low degree of fixation. To overcome this deficiency, dyestuffs containing two different reactive groups were developed and these dyestuffs containing two groups are also known as bifunctional dyestuffs although some still refer to the original combination. Some contain two monochlorotriazines, others have a combination of the triazines and one vinyl sulfone group), bifunctional dyes can be more tolerant to temperature deviations. Other bifunctionals have been created, some with fastness or only fixation degree in mind, carbene dyes For more info Fundamental Chemistry of reactive dyes
6.
Sodium carbonate
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Sodium carbonate, Na2CO3, is the water-soluble sodium salt of carbonic acid. It most commonly occurs as a crystalline decahydrate, which readily effloresces to form a white powder, pure sodium carbonate is a white, odorless powder that is hygroscopic. It has a strongly alkaline taste, and forms a basic solution in water. Sodium carbonate is known domestically for its everyday use as a water softener. Historically it was extracted from the ashes of plants growing in soils, such as vegetation from the Middle East, kelp from Scotland. Because the ashes of these plants were noticeably different from ashes of timber. It is synthetically produced in quantities from salt and limestone by a method known as the Solvay process. The manufacture of glass is one of the most important uses of sodium carbonate, Sodium carbonate acts as a flux for silica, lowering the melting point of the mixture to something achievable without special materials. This soda glass is mildly water-soluble, so some calcium carbonate is added to the mixture to make the glass produced insoluble. This type of glass is known as soda lime glass, soda for the sodium carbonate, soda lime glass has been the most common form of glass for centuries. Sodium carbonate is used as a relatively strong base in various settings. For example, it is used as a pH regulator to maintain stable alkaline conditions necessary for the action of the majority of film developing agents. It acts as an alkali because when dissolved in water, it dissociates into the acid, carbonic acid. This gives sodium carbonate in solution the ability to attack such as aluminium with the release of hydrogen gas. It is an additive in swimming pools used to raise the ph which can be lowered by chlorine tablets. In cooking, it is used in place of sodium hydroxide for lyeing, especially with German pretzels. These dishes are treated with a solution of a substance to change the pH of the surface of the food. In chemistry, it is used as an electrolyte
7.
PH
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In chemistry, pH is a numeric scale used to specify the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. It is approximately the negative of the base 10 logarithm of the concentration, measured in units of moles per liter. More precisely it is the negative of the logarithm to base 10 of the activity of the hydrogen ion, solutions with a pH less than 7 are acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic. Pure water is neutral, at pH7, being neither an acid nor a base, contrary to popular belief, the pH value can be less than 0 or greater than 14 for very strong acids and bases respectively. The pH scale is traceable to a set of standard solutions whose pH is established by international agreement, the pH of aqueous solutions can be measured with a glass electrode and a pH meter, or an indicator. In the first papers, the notation had the H as a subscript to the p, as so. The exact meaning of the p in pH is disputed, but according to the Carlsberg Foundation and it has also been suggested that the p stands for the German Potenz, others refer to French puissance. Another suggestion is that the p stands for the Latin terms pondus hydrogenii, potentia hydrogenii and it is also suggested that Sørensen used the letters p and q simply to label the test solution and the reference solution. Currently in chemistry, the p stands for decimal cologarithm of, PH is defined as the decimal logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion activity, aH+, in a solution. P H = − log 10 = log 10 For example and this definition was adopted because ion-selective electrodes, which are used to measure pH, respond to activity. For H+ number of electrons transferred is one and it follows that electrode potential is proportional to pH when pH is defined in terms of activity. The reference electrode may be a silver chloride electrode or a calomel electrode, the hydrogen-ion selective electrode is a standard hydrogen electrode. Reference electrode | concentrated solution of KCl || test solution | H2 | Pt Firstly, the cell is filled with a solution of hydrogen ion activity. Then the emf, EX, of the cell containing the solution of unknown pH is measured. PH = pH + E S − E X z The difference between the two measured emf values is proportional to pH and this method of calibration avoids the need to know the standard electrode potential. The proportionality constant, 1/z is ideally equal to 12.303 R T / F the Nernstian slope, to apply this process in practice, a glass electrode is used rather than the cumbersome hydrogen electrode. A combined glass electrode has a reference electrode. It is calibrated against buffer solutions of hydrogen ion activity
8.
Animal fiber
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Animal fibers are natural fibers that consist largely of particular proteins. Instances are silk, hair/fur and feathers, the animal fibers used most commonly both in the manufacturing world as well as by the hand spinners are wool from domestic sheep and silk. Also very popular are alpaca fiber and mohair from Angora goats, unusual fibers such as Angora wool from rabbits and Chiengora from dogs also exist, but are rarely used for mass production. Not all animal fibers have the properties, and even within a species the fiber is not consistent. Merino is a soft, fine wool, while Cotswold is coarser. This comparison can be continued on the level, comparing the diameter. With animal fibers, and natural fibers in general, the individual fibers look different and this provides an easy way to differentiate between natural and synthetic fibers under a microscope. Silk is a protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The best-known type of silk is obtained from cocoons made by the larvae of the silkworm Bombyx mori reared in captivity, rearing of silks is called sericulture. Degummed fibers from B. mori are 5-10 μm in diameter, the shimmering appearance for which silk is prized comes from the fibers triangular prism-like cross-sectional structure which allows silk cloth to refract incoming light at different angles. The length of the silk depends on how it has been prepared. Since the cocoon is made of one strand, if the cocoon is unwound carefully the fibers can be very long, spider silk is the strongest natural fiber known. The strongest dragline silk is five times stronger than steel and three times tougher than Kevlar and it is also highly elastic, the silk of the ogre-faced spider can be stretched six times its original length without damage. As of 2005, there is no material in production that can match spider silk. Genetically engineered goats have been raised to produce silk in their milk at a cost of around $1,500 per gram. Alpaca fiber is that of an alpaca and it is warmer than sheeps wool and lighter in weight. It is soft, fine, glossy, and luxurious, the thickness of quality fiber is between 12-29 micrometers. Most alpaca fiber is white, but it comes in various shades of brown
9.
Nylon
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Nylon is a generic designation for a family of synthetic polymers, more specifically aliphatic or semi-aromatic polyamides. They can be melt-processed into fibers, films or shapes, the first example of nylon was produced on February 28,1935, by Wallace Carothers at DuPonts research facility at the DuPont Experimental Station. Nylon polymers have significant commercial applications in fibers, in shapes. Nylon is made of repeating units linked by bonds and is a type of polyamide and is frequently referred to as such. Nylon was the first commercially successful synthetic thermoplastic polymer, commercially, nylon polymer is made by reacting monomers which are either lactams, acid/amines or stoichiometric mixtures of diamines and diacids. Mixtures of these can be polymerized together to make copolymers, Nylon polymers can be mixed with a wide variety of additives to achieve many different property variations. Nylon was invented accidentally by Julian W. Hill, a chemist for DuPont under Wallace Carotherss supervision and it was only given this name at the 1939 New York Worlds Fair. The patents were owned by DuPont, Nylon was intended to be a synthetic replacement for silk and substituted for it in many different products after silk became scarce during World War II. It replaced silk in military applications such as parachutes and flak vests, after initial commercialization of nylon as a fiber, applications in the form of shapes and films were also developed. The main market for nylon shapes now is in auto components, in 1940, John W. Eckelberry of DuPont stated that the letters nyl were arbitrary and the on was copied from the suffixes of other fibers such as cotton and rayon. A later publication by DuPont explained that the name was intended to be No-Run. Since the products were not really run-proof, the vowels were swapped to produce nuron, for clarity in pronunciation, the i was changed to y. Most nylons are made from the reaction of an acid with a diamine or a lactam or amino acid with itself. In the first case, the structure is so-called ABAB similar to polyesters and polyurethanes, in the second case, the repeating unit corresponds to the single monomer. It is difficult to get the proportions exactly correct, and deviations can lead to termination at molecular weights less than a desirable 10,000 daltons. To overcome this problem, a crystalline, solid nylon salt can be formed at room temperature, using an exact 1,1 ratio of the acid, the salt is crystallized to purify it and obtain the desired precise stoichiometry. Heated to 285 °C, the salt reacts to form nylon polymer with the production of water, Wallace Carothers at DuPont patented nylon 66, but overlooked the possibility to use lactams. That synthetic route was developed by Paul Schlack at IG Farben, leading to nylon 6, the peptide bond within the caprolactam is broken with the exposed active groups on each side being incorporated into two new bonds as the monomer becomes part of the polymer backbone
10.
Acid dye
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An acid dye is a dye which is a salt of a sulfuric, carboxylic or phenolic organic acid. The salts are often sodium or ammonium salts, Acid dyes are typically soluble in water and possess affinity for amphoteric fibers while lacking direct dyes affinity for cellulose fibers. When dyeing, ionic bonding with fiber cationic sites accounts for fixation of colored anions in the dyed material, acids are added to dyeing baths to increase the number of protonated amino-groups in fibers. Some acid dyes are used as food colorants, in the laboratory, home, or art studio, the acid used in the dye-bath is often vinegar or citric acid. The uptake rate of the dye is controlled with the use of sodium chloride, in textiles, acid dyes are effective on protein fibers, i. e. animal hair fibers like wool, alpaca and mohair. They are also effective on silk and they are effective in dyeing the synthetic fiber nylon, but of minimum interest in dyeing any other synthetic fibers. In staining during microscopic examination for diagnosis or research, acid dyes are used to color basic tissue proteins, in contrast, basic dyes are used to stain cell nuclei and some other acidic components of tissues. Acid dyes are generally divided into three classes depend on fastness requirements, level dyeing properties and economy. The classes overlap and generally depend on type of fiber to be colored as well as the process used, Acid dyes affix to fibers by hydrogen bonding, Van der Waals forces and ionic bonding. They are normally sold as the Sodium salt, therefore they are in solution anionic, animal protein fibers and synthetic nylon fibers contain many cationic sites. Therefore, there is an attraction of anionic dye molecule to a site on the fiber. The strength of bond is related to the tendency of the dye to remain dissolved in water over fixation to the fiber. The chemistry of acid dyes is quite complex, dyes are normally very large aromatic molecules consisting of many linked rings. Acid dyes usually have a sulfo or carboxy group on the molecule making them soluble in water, water is the medium in which dyeing takes place. Many blue dyes have this structure as their basic shape, the structure predominates in the leveling class of acid dye. Triphenylmethane related, Acid dyes having structures related to triphenylmethane predominate in the class of dye. There are many yellow and green dyes commercially applied to fibers that are related to triphenylmethane, equalizing/leveling acid dyes, Highest level dyeing properties. Relatively small molecule therefore high migration before fixation, low wet fastness therefore normally not suited for apparel fabric
11.
Acid
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An acid is a molecule or ion capable of donating a hydron, or, alternatively, capable of forming a covalent bond with an electron pair. The first category of acids is the donors or Brønsted acids. In the special case of solutions, proton donors form the hydronium ion H3O+ and are known as Arrhenius acids. Brønsted and Lowry generalized the Arrhenius theory to include non-aqueous solvents, acids form aqueous solutions with a sour taste, can turn blue litmus red, and react with bases and certain metals to form salts. The word acid is derived from the Latin acidus/acēre meaning sour, an aqueous solution of an acid has a pH less than 7 and is colloquially also referred to as acid, while the strict definition refers only to the solute. A lower pH means a higher acidity, and thus a higher concentration of hydrogen ions in the solution. Chemicals or substances having the property of an acid are said to be acidic, common aqueous acids include hydrochloric acid, acetic acid, sulfuric acid, and citric acid. As these examples show, acids can be solutions or pure substances, strong acids and some concentrated weak acids are corrosive, but there are exceptions such as carboranes and boric acid. The second category of acids are Lewis acids, which form a covalent bond with an electron pair, however, hydrogen chloride, acetic acid, and most other Brønsted-Lowry acids cannot form a covalent bond with an electron pair and are therefore not Lewis acids. Conversely, many Lewis acids are not Arrhenius or Brønsted-Lowry acids, in modern terminology, an acid is implicitly a Brønsted acid and not a Lewis acid, since chemists almost always refer to a Lewis acid explicitly as a Lewis acid. Modern definitions are concerned with the chemical reactions common to all acids. Most acids encountered in life are aqueous solutions, or can be dissolved in water, so the Arrhenius. The Brønsted-Lowry definition is the most widely used definition, unless otherwise specified, hydronium ions are acids according to all three definitions. Interestingly, although alcohols and amines can be Brønsted-Lowry acids, they can function as Lewis bases due to the lone pairs of electrons on their oxygen and nitrogen atoms. The Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius attributed the properties of acidity to hydrogen ions or protons in 1884, an Arrhenius acid is a substance that, when added to water, increases the concentration of H+ ions in the water. Thus, an Arrhenius acid can also be described as a substance that increases the concentration of ions when added to water. Examples include molecular substances such as HCl and acetic acid, an Arrhenius base, on the other hand, is a substance which increases the concentration of hydroxide ions when dissolved in water. Thus, an Arrhenius acid could also be said to be one that decreases hydroxide concentration, in an acidic solution, the concentration of hydronium ions is greater than 10−7 moles per liter
12.
Ionic bonding
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Ionic bonding is a type of chemical bond that involves the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions, and is the primary interaction occurring in ionic compounds. The ions are atoms that have gained one or more electrons and this transfer of electrons is known as electrovalence in contrast to covalence. In the simplest case, the cation is an atom and the anion is a nonmetal atom. In simpler words, a bond is the transfer of electrons from a metal to a non-metal in order for both atoms to obtain a full valence shell. Bonds with partially ionic and partially covalent character are called polar covalent bonds, Ionic compounds conduct electricity when molten or in solution, typically as a solid. Ionic compounds generally have a melting point, depending on the charge of the ions they consist of. The higher the charges the stronger the forces and the higher the melting point. They also tend to be soluble in water, here, the opposite trend roughly holds, the weaker the cohesive forces, the greater the solubility. Atoms that have an almost full or almost empty valence shell tend to be very reactive, atoms that are strongly electronegative often have only one or two empty orbitals in their valence shell, and frequently bond with other molecules or gain electrons to form anions. Atoms that are weakly electronegative have relatively few valence electrons that can easily be shared with atoms that are strongly electronegative, as a result, weakly electronegative atoms tend to distort their electrons cloud and form cations. Ionic bonding can result from a reaction when atoms of an element, whose ionization energy is low. In doing so, cations are formed, the atom of another element, whose electron affinity is positive, then accepts the electron, again to attain a stable electron configuration, and after accepting electron the atom becomes an anion. Typically, the electron configuration is one of the noble gases for elements in the s-block and the p-block. The electrostatic attraction between the anions and cations leads to the formation of a solid with a lattice in which the ions are stacked in an alternating fashion. In such a lattice, it is not possible to distinguish discrete molecular units. However, the ions themselves can be complex and form molecular ions like the acetate anion or the ammonium cation, for example, common table salt is sodium chloride. When sodium and chlorine are combined, the sodium atoms each lose an electron, forming cations, and these ions are then attracted to each other in a 1,1 ratio to form sodium chloride. For compounds that are transitional to the alloys and possess mixed ionic and metallic bonding, many sulfides, e. g. do form non-stoichiometric compounds
13.
Vat dye
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Vat dyes are a class of dyes that are classified as such because of the method by which they are applied. Vat dyeing is a process refers to dyeing that takes place in a bucket or vat. Almost any dye, including dyes, direct dyes, and acid dyes. Cotton, wool, and other fibers can be all dyed with vat dyes, the original vat dye is indigo, once obtained from plants but now produced synthetically. Although almost all dyeing can be done in a vat, the term vat dye is used to describe a class of dyes that are applied to cellulosic fibre using a redox reaction as described below. Because of the use of soda, and the very high pH of the dye bath in the dyeing process. Wool is soluble in caustic soda solutions and it is possible to dye wool at room temperatures with indigo and other low substantive vat dyes using soda ash as the alkali source with very little strength loss. Vat red 10, vat violet 13 and vat orange 1 can be applied in this manner as well, vat dyes characteristically require a reducing agent to solubilize them. The most common reducing agent is sodium dithionite, which converts the dye to its form that is soluble. Once attached to the fabric, the dye is then oxidized to the insoluble state which is intensely colored. The dye is only in its reduced form. The fiber is immersed repeatedly in this oxygen-free dyebath, then exposed to the air, for these reasons, vat dyes are less suitable than fiber-reactive dyes for amateur use. Indigo is an example of this dye class, it changes from yellow, in the dyebath, not all vat dyeing is done with vat dyes. The vat dyes have high color fastness, which is uncommon in other dye classes, on the other hand, vat dyes tend to have poor rubbing fastness, but this can be mitigated with special treatments to the fabric. Indigo is subject to major crocking unless it is applied carefully and this means use a weaker dyebath, and dipping many times, rather than a single strong dipping. Inkodye is a type of vat dye that uses light rather than oxygen to fix the dye and these dyes, which are chemically similar to vat dyes, are developed by light instead of being applied in an oxygen-free bath and being developed in the fabric by exposure to oxygen. Inkodyes are true dyes, not fabric paints, a dye itself attaches to the fabric, fabric paint includes a glue-like binder, which imparts a stiffer feeling to the fabric. Many vat dyes are derivatives of indigo dye, for example, vat blue 2 and 3 are halogenated or methylated derivatives and so are several violets
14.
Indigo
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Indigo is a deep and rich color close to the color wheel blue, as well as to some variants of ultramarine. The color indigo is named after the indigo dye derived from the plant Indigofera tinctoria, the first known recorded use of indigo as a color name in English was in 1289. Species of Indigofera were cultivated in Peru, India, East Asia, the earliest direct evidence for the use of indigo dates to around 4000 BCE and comes from Huaca Prieta, in contemporary Peru. Pliny mentions India as the source of the dye, imported in small quantities via the Silk Road, the Greek term for the dye was Ἰνδικὸν φάρμακον, which, adopted to Latin as indicum and via Portuguese gave rise to the modern word indigo. El Salvador has lately been the biggest producer of indigo, Indigo was actually a plant that got its name because it came from the Indus Valley, discovered some 5,000 years ago, where it was called nila, meaning dark blue. And by the 7th Century BC, people starting using the plant as a dye — the Mesopotamians were even carving out recipes for making indigo dye onto clay tablets for record-keeping. By 1289, knowledge of the dye made its way to Europe, but it wasn’t until 1640 when demand started to pick up for indigo. Spanish explorers discovered an American species of Indigo and began to cultivate the product in Guatemala, the English and French subsequently began to encourage indigo cultivation in their colonies in the West Indies. Indigo dye could be made from two different types of plants — the indigo plant, which produced the best results, the British were producing indigo with woad, a plant that yielded a lesser quality dye, but a plant they could grow. They even tried to hold their monopoly on indigo dye by managing to ban the indigo plant for years, but eventually the British began to focus on tea and other crops — and meanwhile, the French started to get their fair share of the market. The French had gone to war with Britain, so the British could hardly rely on the French for this precious blue dye, consequently, the British had to turn to their colonies in America. It was Eliza Lucas from South Carolina who figured out how to grow the indigo plant, the same indigo dye is contained in the woad plant, Isatis tinctoria, for a long time the main source of blue dye in Europe. Woad was replaced by true indigo as trade routes opened up, the Early Modern English word indigo referred to the dye, and not to the color itself, and indigo is not traditionally part of the basic color-naming system. Modern sources place indigo in the spectrum between 420 and 450 nanometers, which lies on the side of color wheel blue. However, the correspondence of this definition with colors of actual indigo dyes is disputed, isaac Newton introduced indigo as one of the seven base colors of his work. In a pivotal experiment in the history of optics, the young Newton shone a narrow beam of sunlight through a prism to produce a band of colors on the wall. He linked the seven prismatic colors to the seven notes of a major scale, as shown in his color wheel, with orange. Indigo is therefore counted as one of the colors of the rainbow
15.
Organic redox reaction
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Organic reductions or organic oxidations or organic redox reactions are redox reactions that take place with organic compounds. Instead the relevant criterion for organic oxidation is gain of oxygen and/or loss of hydrogen Simple functional groups can be arranged in order of increasing oxidation state, the oxidation numbers are only an approximation, When methane is oxidized to carbon dioxide its oxidation number changes from −4 to +4. Classical reductions include alkene reduction to alkanes and classical oxidations include oxidation of alcohols to aldehydes, in oxidations electrons are removed and the electron density of a molecule is reduced. In reductions electron density increases when electrons are added to the molecule and this terminology is always centered on the organic compound. For example, it is usual to refer to the reduction of a ketone by lithium aluminium hydride, many oxidations involve removal of hydrogen atoms from the organic molecule, and the reverse, reduction adds hydrogens to an organic molecule. Many reactions classified as reductions also appear in other classes, for instance conversion of the ketone to an alcohol by lithium aluminium hydride can be considered a reduction but the hydride is also a good nucleophile in nucleophilic substitution. Many redox reactions in chemistry have coupling reaction reaction mechanism involving free radical intermediates. True organic redox chemistry can be found in organic synthesis or electrosynthesis. Examples of organic reactions that can place in an electrochemical cell are the Kolbe electrolysis. In disproportionation reactions the reactant is both oxidised and reduced in the chemical reaction forming two separate compounds. Asymmetric catalytic reductions and asymmetric catalytic oxidations are important in asymmetric synthesis, most oxidations are conducted with air or oxygen. These oxidation include routes to chemical compounds, remediation of pollutants, oxidation by nitroxide radicals Fremys salt or TEMPO Several reaction mechanisms exist for organic reductions, Direct electron transfers
16.
Lye
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A lye is a liquid metal hydroxide obtained by leaching ashes, or a strong alkali which is highly soluble in water producing caustic basic solutions. Lye is commonly an alternative name of sodium hydroxide or historically potassium hydroxide, today, lye is commercially manufactured using a membrane cell chloralkali process. It is one of the industrial chemicals with worldwide annual production of 45 million tons in 1998. It is supplied in various such as flakes, pellets, microbeads. In the United States, food-grade lye must meet the requirements outlined in the Food Chemicals Codex, as prescribed by the U. S. Food, lower grades of lye which are unsuitable for use in food preparation are commonly used as drain de-cloggers and oven cleaners. Lye in the form of sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide is used in making soap. Sodium hydroxide is used to make solid soap, while potassium hydroxide is used to make liquid soap. Potassium hydroxide soaps are softer and more easily dissolved in water than sodium hydroxide soaps, sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide are not interchangeable in either the proportions required or the properties produced in making soaps. The cold process method is used to make soap from lye. The lye is mixed with water, and then base oils, butters, the gradual chemical reaction between the lye and the fats eventually produces a solid soap. Hot process soap making also uses lye as the main ingredient, lye is added to water, cooled for a few minutes and then added to oils and butters. The lye is then cooked over a period of time, typically in a slow cooker and this method is much quicker than cold process, as it takes several weeks to complete. The ancient use of lye for soap-making and as a detergent is the origin of the English word, deriving from Proto-Germanic *laugo and ultimately from the Proto-Indo-European root *leue-, to wash. Relatives in other Germanic languages, besides their words for lye, include the Scandinavian languages words for Saturday, lyes are also valued for their cleaning effects. Sodium hydroxide is commonly the major constituent in commercial and industrial cleaners and clogged drain openers. Lyes decompose greases via alkaline ester hydrolysis, yielding water-soluble residues that are removed by rinsing. Sodium or potassium hydroxide can be used to digest tissues of animal carcasses or deceased humans, sodium hydroxide is frequently used in the process of decomposing roadkill dumped in landfills by animal disposal contractors. Due to its low cost and availability, it has used to dispose of corpses by criminals
17.
Potassium hydroxide
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Potassium hydroxide is an inorganic compound with the formula KOH, and is commonly called caustic potash. Along with sodium hydroxide, this solid is a prototypical strong base. It has many industrial and niche applications, most of which exploit its corrosive nature, an estimated 700,000 to 800,000 tonnes were produced in 2005. Approximately 100 times more NaOH than KOH is produced annually, KOH is noteworthy as the precursor to most soft and liquid soaps as well as numerous potassium-containing chemicals. Potassium hydroxide can be found in form by reacting sodium hydroxide with impure potassium. It is usually sold as translucent pellets, which will become tacky in air because KOH is hygroscopic, consequently, KOH typically contains varying amounts of water. Its dissolution in water is strongly exothermic, concentrated aqueous solutions are sometimes called potassium lyes. Even at high temperatures, solid KOH does not dehydrate readily, potassium hydroxide solutions with concentrations of approximately 0.5 to 2. 0% are irritating when coming into contact with the skin, while concentrations higher than 2% are corrosive. At higher temperatures, solid KOH crystallizes in the NaCl crystal structure, the OH group is either rapidly or randomly disordered so that the OH− group is effectively a spherical anion of radius 1.53 Å. At room temperature, the OH− groups are ordered and the environment about the K+ centers is distorted, with K+—OH− distances ranging from 2.69 to 3.15 Å, depending on the orientation of the OH group. KOH forms a series of crystalline hydrates, namely the monohydrate KOH·H 2O, the dihydrate KOH·2 H 2O, approximately 121 g of KOH will dissolve in 100 mL of water at room temperature compared with 100 g of NaOH in the same volume. Lower molecular weight alcohols such as methanol, ethanol, and propanols are also excellent solvents, because of its high affinity for water, KOH serves as a desiccant in the laboratory. It is often used to dry basic solvents, especially amines and pyridines, like NaOH, KOH exhibits high thermal stability. Because of its stability and relatively low melting point, it is often melt-cast as pellets or rods, forms that have low surface area. KOH is highly basic, forming strongly alkaline solutions in water and other polar solvents and these solutions are capable of deprotonating many acids, even weak ones. In analytical chemistry, titrations using solutions of KOH are used to assay acids, KOH, like NaOH, serves as a source of OH−, a highly nucleophilic anion that attacks polar bonds in both inorganic and organic materials. In perhaps its most well-known reaction, aqueous KOH saponifies esters, KOH + RCO2R → RCO2K + ROH When R is a long chain and this reaction is manifested by the greasy feel that KOH gives when touched — fats on the skin are rapidly converted to soap and glycerol. Molten KOH is used to displace halides and other leaving groups, the reaction is especially useful for aromatic reagents to give the corresponding phenols
18.
Sodium hydrosulfite
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Sodium dithionite is a white crystalline powder with a weak sulfurous odor. It is the salt of dithionous acid. Although it is stable under most conditions, it will decompose in hot water, in one anhydrous form, the dithionite ion has C2 geometry, almost eclipsed with a 16° O-S-S-O torsional angle. In the dihydrated form, the anion has a shorter S-S bond length. The weak S-S bond causes the dithionite anion to dissociate into the − radical anion in aqueous solution and it is also observed that 35S undergoes rapid exchange between S2O42− and SO2 in neutral or acidic solution, consistent with the weak S-S bond in the anion. Sodium dithionite is stable when dry, but is oxidized by air when in solution. Anhydrous is a crystal with slightly sulfuric odor. It is soluble in water and slightly soluble in ethanol, dihydrate is a columnar crystal, and it is so unstable that it easily dehydrates to anhydrous and is easily oxidized by oxygen in the air. Anhydrous gradually decomposes to sodium sulfate and sulfur dioxide above 90 °C in the air, in absence of air, it decomposes quickly above 150 °C to sodium sulfite, sodium thiosulfate, sulfur dioxide and trace amount of sulfur. Powdered anhydrous sodium dithionite with an amount of water may ignite in air by the heat of decomposition. In absence of air, it decomposes slowly. An aqueous solution of sodium dithionite is acidic and decomposes to sodium thiosulfate, the reaction rate increases with increasing temperature. In addition, the rate is higher under stronger acidity,2 Na2S2O4 + H2O → Na2S2O3 +2 NaHSO3 In presence of oxygen, it decomposes to sodium bisulfate and sodium bisulfite. Na2S2O4 + O2 + H2O → NaHSO4 + NaHSO3 Sodium bisulfate and sodium bisulfite decrease the pH, sulfur dioxide is formed under strongly acidic conditions. 2 H2S2O4 →3 SO2 + S +2 H2O3 H2S2O4 →5 SO2 + H2S +2 H2O On the other hand, alkali solution is stable and it has strong reducing properties and decomposes to sulfurous acid and sulfide. Some ketones are also reduced under similar conditions and this compound is a water-soluble salt, and can be used as a reducing agent in aqueous solutions. The reduction properties of sodium dithionite also eliminate excess dye, residual oxide, Sodium dithionite can also be used for water treatment, gas purification, cleaning, and stripping. It can also be used in processes as a sulfonating agent or a sodium ion source
19.
Thiourea dioxide
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Thiourea dioxide or thiox is an organosulfur compound that is used in the textile industry. It functions as a reducing agent, thiourea dioxide is not a dioxide, but instead is a derivative of a sulfinic acid (RS, hence the alternative name formamidine sulfinic acid. Thiourea dioxide is prepared by the oxidation of thiourea with hydrogen peroxide, 2CS + 2H2O2 → CSO2H + 2H2O The mechanism of the oxidation has been examined. An aqueous solution of thiourea dioxide has a pH about 6.5 at which thiourea dioxide is hydrolyzed to urea and it has been found that at pH values of less than 2, thiourea and hydrogen peroxide react to form a disulfide species. It is therefore convenient to keep the pH between 3 and 5 and the temperature below 10 °C and it can also be prepared by oxidation of thiourea with chlorine dioxide. The quality of the product can be assessed by titration with indigo, thiourea dioxide is used in reductive bleaching in textiles. Thiourea dioxide has also used for the reduction of aromatic nitroaldehydes and nitroketones to nitroalcohols. The structure of thiourea dioxide is related to that for thiourea, the N2CS core is approximately planar, but the sulfur is pyramidal. Selected bond lengths, S-C =1.85, C-N =1.31, and S-O =1.49 Å
20.
Redox
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Redox is a chemical reaction in which the oxidation states of atoms are changed. Any such reaction involves both a process and a complementary oxidation process, two key concepts involved with electron transfer processes. Redox reactions include all chemical reactions in which atoms have their oxidation state changed, in general, the chemical species from which the electron is stripped is said to have been oxidized, while the chemical species to which the electron is added is said to have been reduced. It can be explained in terms, Oxidation is the loss of electrons or an increase in oxidation state by a molecule, atom. Reduction is the gain of electrons or a decrease in state by a molecule, atom. As an example, during the combustion of wood, oxygen from the air is reduced, the reaction can occur relatively slowly, as in the case of rust, or more quickly, as in the case of fire. Redox is a portmanteau of reduction and oxidation, the word oxidation originally implied reaction with oxygen to form an oxide, since dioxygen was historically the first recognized oxidizing agent. Later, the term was expanded to encompass oxygen-like substances that accomplished parallel chemical reactions, ultimately, the meaning was generalized to include all processes involving loss of electrons. The word reduction originally referred to the loss in weight upon heating a metallic ore such as an oxide to extract the metal. In other words, ore was reduced to metal, antoine Lavoisier showed that this loss of weight was due to the loss of oxygen as a gas. Later, scientists realized that the atom gains electrons in this process. The meaning of reduction then became generalized to all processes involving gain of electrons. Even though reduction seems counter-intuitive when speaking of the gain of electrons, it help to think of reduction as the loss of oxygen. Since electrons are charged, it is also helpful to think of this as reduction in electrical charge. The electrochemist John Bockris has used the words electronation and deelectronation to describe reduction and oxidation processes respectively when they occur at electrodes and these words are analogous to protonation and deprotonation, but they have not been widely adopted by chemists. The term hydrogenation could be used instead of reduction, since hydrogen is the agent in a large number of reactions. But, unlike oxidation, which has been generalized beyond its root element, the word redox was first used in 1928. The processes of oxidation and reduction occur simultaneously and cannot happen independently of one another, the oxidation alone and the reduction alone are each called a half-reaction, because two half-reactions always occur together to form a whole reaction
21.
Sodium bisulfite
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Sodium bisulfite is a chemical compound with the chemical formula NaHSO3. Sodium bisulfite is an additive with E number E222. This salt of bisulfite can be prepared by bubbling sulfur dioxide in a solution of carbonate in water. Sodium bisulfite in contact with chlorine bleach will generate heat and form sodium bisulfate, Sodium bisulfite can be prepared by bubbling excess sulfur dioxide through a solution of suitable base, such as sodium hydroxide or sodium bicarbonate. SO2 + NaOH → NaHSO3 SO2 + NaHCO3 → NaHSO3 + CO2 Sodium bisulfite is a weakly acidic species with a pKa of 6.97, NaHSO3 + HCl → NaCl + H2O + SO2 In organic chemistry sodium bisulfite has several uses. It forms an adduct with aldehyde groups and with certain cyclic ketones to a sulfonic acid. This reaction has limited synthetic value but it is used in purification procedures, contaminated aldehydes in a solution precipitate as the bisulfite adduct which can be isolated by filtration. The reverse reaction takes place in presence of a such as sodium bicarbonate or sodium hydroxide. Examples of such procedures are described for benzaldehyde, 2-tetralone, citral, the other main use of sodium bisulfite is as a mild reducing agent in organic synthesis in particular in purification procedures. It can efficiently remove traces or excess amounts of chlorine, bromine, iodine, hypochlorite salts, osmate esters, chromium trioxide and potassium permanganate. A third use of sodium bisulfite is as an agent in purification procedures because it can reduce strongly coloured oxidizing agents, conjugated alkenes. Sodium bisulfite is also the key ingredient in the Bucherer reaction, in this reaction an aromatic hydroxyl group is replaced by an aromatic amine group and vice versa because it is a reversible reaction. The first step in this reaction is a reaction of sodium bisulfite to an aromatic double bond. The Bucherer carbazole synthesis is an organic reaction that uses sodium bisulfite as a reagent. In fruit canning, sodium bisulfite is used to prevent browning, in the case of wine making, sodium bisulfite releases sulfur dioxide gas when added to water or products containing water. The sulfur dioxide kills yeasts, fungi, and bacteria in the grape juice before fermentation, when the sulfur dioxide levels have subsided, fresh yeast is added for fermentation. The sulfur dioxide reacts with oxidation by-products and prevents them from causing further deterioration. Sodium bisulfite is added to leafy green vegetables in salad bars and elsewhere, to preserve apparent freshness
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Pre-Columbian era
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For this reason the alternative terms of Precontact Americas, Pre-Colonial Americas or Prehistoric Americas are also in use. In areas of Latin America the term used is Pre-Hispanic. Other civilizations were contemporary with the period and were described in European historical accounts of the time. A few, such as the Maya civilization, had their own written records, because many Christian Europeans of the time viewed such texts as heretical, men like Diego de Landa destroyed many texts in pyres, even while seeking to preserve native histories. Only a few documents have survived in their original languages, while others were transcribed or dictated into Spanish, giving modern historians glimpses of ancient culture. Indigenous American cultures continue to evolve after the pre-Columbian era, many of these peoples and their descendants continue traditional practices, while evolving and adapting new cultural practices and technologies into their lives. Now, the study of pre-Columbian cultures is most often based on scientific. Asian nomads are thought to have entered the Americas via the Bering Land Bridge, now the Bering Strait, genetic evidence found in Amerindians maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA supports the theory of multiple genetic populations migrating from Asia. Over the course of millennia, Paleo-Indians spread throughout North and South America, exactly when the first group of people migrated into the Americas is the subject of much debate. One of the earliest identifiable cultures was the Clovis culture, with sites dating from some 13,000 years ago, however, older sites dating back to 20,000 years ago have been claimed. Some genetic studies estimate the colonization of the Americas dates from between 40,000 and 13,000 years ago, the chronology of migration models is currently divided into two general approaches. The first is the short chronology theory with the first movement beyond Alaska into the New World occurring no earlier than 14, 000–17,000 years ago, followed by successive waves of immigrants. The second belief is the long chronology theory, which proposes that the first group of people entered the hemisphere at an earlier date, possibly 50. In that case, the Eskimo peoples would have arrived separately and at a later date, probably no more than 2,000 years ago. The North American climate was unstable as the ice age receded and it finally stabilized by about 10,000 years ago, climatic conditions were then very similar to todays. Within this timeframe, roughly pertaining to the Archaic Period, numerous archaeological cultures have been identified, the unstable climate led to widespread migration, with early Paleo-Indians soon spreading throughout the Americas, diversifying into many hundreds of culturally distinct tribes. The paleo-indians were hunter-gatherers, likely characterized by small, mobile bands consisting of approximately 20 to 50 members of an extended family and these groups moved from place to place as preferred resources were depleted and new supplies were sought. During much of the Paleo-Indian period, bands are thought to have subsisted primarily through hunting now-extinct giant land animals such as mastodon, Paleo-Indian groups carried a variety of tools
23.
Shibori
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Shibori is a Japanese manual resist dyeing technique, which produces patterns on fabric. In Japan, the earliest known example of cloth dyed with a shibori technique dates from the 8th century, until the 20th century, not many fabrics and dyes were in widespread use in Japan. The main fabrics were silk and hemp, and later cotton, the main dye was indigo and, to a lesser extent, madder and purple root. Shibori and other arts, such as tsutsugaki, were applied to all of these fabrics. There are a number of ways one can bind, stitch, fold, twist, or compress cloth for shibori. Each method is used to achieve a result, but each method is also used to work in harmony with the type of cloth used. Therefore, the used in shibori depends not only on the desired pattern. Also, different techniques can be used in conjunction with one another to achieve even more elaborate results, kanoko shibori is what is commonly thought of in the West as tie-dye. It involves binding certain sections of the cloth to achieve the desired pattern, traditional shibori requires the use of thread for binding. The pattern achieved depends on how tightly the cloth is bound, if random sections of the cloth are bound, the result will be a pattern of random circles. If the cloth is first folded then bound, the resulting circles will be in a pattern depending on the fold used, miura shibori is also known as looped binding. It involves taking a hooked needle and plucking sections of the cloth, then a thread is looped around each section twice. The thread is not knotted, tension is the thing that holds the sections in place. The resulting dyed cloth is a water-like design, because no knot is used, miura shibori is very easy to bind and unbind. Therefore, this technique is often used. Kumo shibori is a pleated and bound resist and this technique involves pleating sections of the cloth very finely and evenly. Then the cloth is bound in very close sections, the result is a very specific spider-like design. This specific design requires very precise technique, a simple running stitch is used on the cloth then pulled tight to gather the cloth
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Japan
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Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly China, followed by periods of isolation, from the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a period of isolation in the early 17th century. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the country has the worlds third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the worlds fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the worlds fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer, although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the worlds eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a country with a very high standard of living. Its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, in ancient China, Japan was called Wo 倭. It was mentioned in the third century Chinese historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms in the section for the Wei kingdom, Wa became disliked because it has the connotation of the character 矮, meaning dwarf. The 倭 kanji has been replaced with the homophone Wa, meaning harmony, the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nippon or Nihon and literally means the origin of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, at the start of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan introduced their country as Nihon
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India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
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Bandhani
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Bandhani is a type of tie-dye textile decorated by plucking the cloth with the fingernails into many tiny bindings that form a figurative design. The term bandhani is derived from the Sanskrit word banda, today most Bandhini making centers are situated in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Sindh, Punjab region and in Tamil Nadu where its known as Sungudi. Earliest evidence of Bandhani dates back to Indus Valley Civilization where dyeing was done as early as 4000 B. C. The earliest example of the most pervasive type of Bandhani dots can be seen in the 6th century paintings depicting the life of Buddha found on the wall of Cave 1 at Ajanta. Bandhani is also known as Bandhej, Bandhni, Piliya, and Chungidi in Tamil, other tying techniques include Mothra, Ekdali and Shikari depending on the manner in which the cloth is tied. The final products are known with various names including Khombi, Ghar Chola, Patori, the main colour used in Bandhana are yellow, red, blue, green and black. The main colours used in Bandhana are natural, as Bandhani is a tie and dye process, dying is done by hand and hence best colours and combinations are possible in Bandhanis. The Bandhani work has been carried out by the Khatri community of Kutchh. A meter length of cloth can have thousands of tiny knots known as Bheendi in the local language and these knots form a design once opened after dyeing in bright colours. Traditionally, the products can be classified into khombhi, Ghar Chola, Chandrakhani, Shikari, Chowkidaar, Ambadaal. Ahmedabad in India is known for Bandhanis, Bandhani work is also done in Rajasthan state but having different types of colours and designs than the Kutch and Saurashtra of Gujarat. Establishments of varying sizes in the entire Kutch belt in Gujarat produce many varieties of Bandhani and this Bandhani style is called as the Kutchi Bandhani, which is also practised in the Sourasthra region of Gujarat. Bandhani tying is often a trade, and the women of these families work at home to tie patterns. Mandavi, Bhuj, Anjar, Jamnagar, Morbi, Rajkot, Deesa are some of the towns in Gujarat. The city of Jamnagar, located in the Gulf of Kutch, dyeing process of Bandhani is carried out extensively in this city, as the water of this area is known to give a particular brightness to colors, specifically reds and maroons. In Bandhani, different colours convey different meanings, people believe that wearing Red brings good luck to a newly weds life. Earliest evidence of Bandhani dates back to Indus Valley Civilization suggest that dyeing was done as early as 4000 B. C. The earliest example of the most pervasive type of Bandhani dots can be seen in the 6th century paintings depicting the life of Buddha found on the wall of Cave I at Ajanta
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Rajasthan
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Rajasthan is Indias largest state by area. Elsewhere it is bordered by the other Indian states, Punjab to the north, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh to the northeast, Madhya Pradesh to the southeast, and Gujarat to the southwest. Rajasthan is also home to two national reserves, the Ranthambore National Park in Sawai Madhopur and Sariska Tiger Reserve in Alwar. The state was formed on 30 March 1949 when Rajputana – the name adopted by the British Raj for its dependencies in the region – was merged into the Dominion of India. Its capital and largest city is Jaipur, also known as Pink City, other important cities are Jodhpur, Udaipur, Bikaner, Kota and Ajmer. Parts of what is now Rajasthan were partly part of the Vedic Civilisation, kalibangan, in Hanumangarh district, was a major provincial capital of the Indus Valley Civilization. Matsya Kingdom of the Vedic civilisation of India, is said to roughly corresponded to the state of Jaipur in Rajasthan. The capital of Matsya was at Viratanagar, which is said to have named after its founder king Virata. Bhargava identifies the two districts of Jhunjhunu and Sikar and parts of Jaipur district along with Haryana districts of Mahendragarh, bhargava also locates the present day Sahibi River as the Vedic Drishadwati River, which along with Saraswati River formed the borders of the Vedic state of Brahmavarta. Manu and Bhrigu narrated the Manusmriti to a congregation of seers in this area only, the Indo-Scythians invaded the area of Ujjain and established the Saka era, marking the beginning of the long-lived Saka Western Satraps state. Gurjars ruled for many dynasties in this part of the country, up to the tenth century almost the whole of North India, acknowledged the supremacy of the Gurjars with their seat of power at Kannauj. The Gurjar Pratihar Empire acted as a barrier for Arab invaders from the 8th to the 11th century, the chief accomplishment of the Gurjara Pratihara empire lies in its successful resistance to foreign invasions from the west, starting in the days of Junaid. Majumdar says that this was acknowledged by the Arab writers. He further notes that historians of India have wondered at the progress of Muslim invaders in India. Traditionally the Rajputs, Jats, Meenas, REBARI, Gurjars, Bhils, Rajpurohit, Charans, Yadavs, Bishnois, Sermals, PhulMali, all these tribes suffered great difficulties in protecting their culture and the land. Millions of them were killed trying to protect their land, a number of Gurjars had been exterminated in Bhinmal and Ajmer areas fighting with the invaders. Meenas were rulers of Bundi, Hadoti and the Dhundhar region, hem Chandra Vikramaditya, the Hindu Emperor, was born in the village of Machheri in Alwar District in 1501. Hem Chandra was killed in the battlefield at Second Battle of Panipat fighting against Mughals on 5 November 1556, maharana Pratap of Mewar resisted Akbar in the famous Battle of Haldighati and later operated from hilly areas of his kingdom
28.
Ikat
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Ikat, or ikkat, is a dyeing technique used to pattern textiles that employs resist dyeing on the yarns prior to dyeing and weaving the fabric. In ikat the resist is formed by binding individual yarns or bundles of yarns with a tight wrapping applied in the desired pattern, the bindings may then be altered to create a new pattern and the yarns dyed again with another colour. This process may be repeated multiple times to produce elaborate, multicolored patterns, when the dyeing is finished all the bindings are removed and the yarns are woven into cloth. In other resist-dyeing techniques such as tie-dye and batik the resist is applied to the woven cloth, because the surface design is created in the yarns rather than on the finished cloth, in ikat both fabric faces are patterned. A characteristic of ikat textiles is an apparent blurriness to the design, the blurriness is a result of the extreme difficulty the weaver has lining up the dyed yarns so that the pattern comes out perfectly in the finished cloth. The blurriness can be reduced by using yarns or by the skill of the craftsperson. Ikats with little blurriness, multiple colours and complicated patterns are more difficult to create, however, the blurriness that is so characteristic of ikat is often prized by textile collectors. Ikat is produced in traditional textile centres around the world, from India to Central Asia, Southeast Asia, Japan, Africa. Double ikats—in which both the warp and weft yarns are tied and dyed before being woven into a single textile—are relatively rare because of the skilled labour required to produce them. They are produced in Okinawa islands of Japan, the village of Tenganan in Indonesia, in warp ikat it is only the warp yarns that are dyed using the ikat technique. The weft yarns are dyed a solid colour, the ikat pattern is clearly visible in the warp yarns wound onto the loom even before the weft is woven in. Warp ikat is, amongst others, produced in Indonesia, more specifically in Kalimantan, Sulawesi, in weft ikat it is the weaving or weft yarn that carries the dyed patterns. Therefore, the pattern appears as the weaving proceeds. Weft ikats are much slower to weave than warp ikat because the weft yarns must be adjusted after each passing of the shuttle to maintain the clarity of the design. Double Ikat is a technique in both warp and the weft are resist-dyed prior to weaving. Obviously it is the most difficult to make and the most expensive, double ikat is only produced in three countries, India, Japan and Indonesia. The double ikat made in Patan, Gujarat in India is the most complicated, called patola, it is made using fine silk yarns and many colours. It may be patterned with a motif that is repeated many times across the length of a six-meter sari
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Warp and weft
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In weaving, the weft is the term for the thread or yarn which is drawn through, inserted over-and-under, the lengthwise warp yarns that are held in tension on a frame or loom to create cloth. Warp is the lengthwise or longitudinal thread in a roll, while weft is the transverse thread, a single thread of the weft, crossing the warp, is called a pick. Each individual warp thread in a fabric is called an end or end. The weft is a thread or yarn usually made of spun fibre, the original fibres used were wool, flax or cotton. Today, man-made fibres are used in weaving. Because the weft does not have to be stretched on a loom in the way that the warp is, the weft is threaded through the warp using a shuttle, air jets or rapier grippers. Hand looms were the original weavers tool, with the shuttle being threaded through alternately raised warps by hand, inventions during the 18th century spurred the Industrial Revolution, with the picking stick and the flying shuttle speeding up production of cloth. The power loom patented by Edmund Cartwright in 1785 allowed sixty picks per minute, a useful way of remembering which is warp and which is weft is, one of them goes from weft to wight. The words woof and weft derive ultimately from the Old English word wefan, Warp means that which is thrown away. Very simple looms use a warp, in which a single. Because the warp is held under tension during the entire process of weaving and warp yarn must be strong, yarn for warp ends is usually spun. Traditional fibres for warping are wool, linen, alpaca, with the improvements in spinning technology during the Industrial Revolution, it became possible to make cotton yarn of sufficient strength to be used as the warp in mechanized weaving. Later, artificial or man-made fibres such as nylon or rayon were employed, while most people are familiar with weft-faced weavings, it is possible to create warp-faced weavings using densely arranged warp threads. In warp-faced weavings, the design for the textile is in the warp, warp-faced weavings are defined by length-wise stripes and vertical designs due to the limitations of color placement. The expression woof and warp is used metaphorically as one might similarly use fabric, e. g. the warp. The expression is used as a metaphor for the structure on which something is built. Warp or woof are also found in the Bible in the discussion of mildews found in cloth materials in Leviticus 13. Weft is also a term for temporary hair extensions
30.
Thailand
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Thailand, officially the Kingdom of Thailand, formerly known as Siam, is a country at the centre of the Indochinese peninsula in Southeast Asia. With a total area of approximately 513,000 km2, Thailand is the worlds 51st-largest country and it is the 20th-most-populous country in the world, with around 66 million people. The capital and largest city is Bangkok, Thailand is a constitutional monarchy and has switched between parliamentary democracy and military junta for decades, the latest coup being in May 2014 by the National Council for Peace and Order. Its capital and most populous city is Bangkok and its maritime boundaries include Vietnam in the Gulf of Thailand to the southeast, and Indonesia and India on the Andaman Sea to the southwest. The Thai economy is the worlds 20th largest by GDP at PPP and it became a newly industrialised country and a major exporter in the 1990s. Manufacturing, agriculture, and tourism are leading sectors of the economy and it is considered a middle power in the region and around the world. The country has always been called Mueang Thai by its citizens, by outsiders prior to 1949, it was usually known by the exonym Siam. The word Siam has been identified with the Sanskrit Śyāma, the names Shan and A-hom seem to be variants of the same word. The word Śyâma is possibly not its origin, but a learned, another theory is the name derives from Chinese, Ayutthaya emerged as a dominant centre in the late fourteenth century. The Chinese called this region Xian, which the Portuguese converted into Siam, the signature of King Mongkut reads SPPM Mongkut King of the Siamese, giving the name Siam official status until 24 June 1939 when it was changed to Thailand. Thailand was renamed Siam from 1945 to 11 May 1949, after which it reverted to Thailand. According to George Cœdès, the word Thai means free man in the Thai language, ratcha Anachak Thai means kingdom of Thailand or kingdom of Thai. Etymologically, its components are, ratcha, -ana- -chak, the Thai National Anthem, written by Luang Saranupraphan during the extremely patriotic 1930s, refers to the Thai nation as, prathet Thai. The first line of the anthem is, prathet thai ruam lueat nuea chat chuea thai, Thailand is the unity of Thai flesh. There is evidence of habitation in Thailand that has been dated at 40,000 years before the present. Similar to other regions in Southeast Asia, Thailand was heavily influenced by the culture and religions of India, Thailand in its earliest days was under the rule of the Khmer Empire, which had strong Hindu roots, and the influence among Thais remains even today. Voretzsch believes that Buddhism must have been flowing into Siam from India in the time of the Indian Emperor Ashoka of the Maurya Empire, later Thailand was influenced by the south Indian Pallava dynasty and north Indian Gupta Empire. The Menam Basin was originally populated by the Mons, and the location of Dvaravati in the 7th century, the History of the Yuan mentions an embassy from the kingdom of Sukhothai in 1282
31.
Laos
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Present day Laos traces its historic and cultural identity to the kingdom of Lan Xang Hom Khao, which existed for four centuries as one of the largest kingdoms in Southeast Asia. Due to Lan Xangs central geographical location in Southeast Asia, the kingdom was able to become a hub for overland trade. After a period of conflict, Lan Xang broke off into three separate kingdoms— Luang Phabang, Vientiane and Champasak. In 1893, it became a French protectorate, with the three territories uniting to form what is now known as the country of Laos and it briefly gained independence in 1945 after Japanese occupation, but returned to French rule until it was granted autonomy in 1949. Laos became independent in 1953, with a monarchy under Sisavang Vong. Shortly after independence, a civil war ended the monarchy. Laos is a one-party socialist republic and it espouses Marxism and is governed by the Lao Peoples Revolutionary Party, in which the party leadership is dominated by military figures. The Socialist Republic of Vietnam and the Vietnam Peoples Army continue to have significant influence in Laos, other large cities include Luang Prabang, Savannakhet, and Pakse. Laos is a country with the politically and culturally dominant Lao people making up approximately 60 percent of the population. Mon-Khmer groups, the Hmong, and other hill tribes, accounting for 40 percent of the population, live in the foothills. It is a member of the Asia-Pacific Trade Agreement, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, East Asia Summit, Laos applied for membership of the World Trade Organization in 1997, on 2 February 2013, it was granted full membership. According to the anti-corruption non-governmental organisation Transparency International, Laos remains one of the most corrupt countries in the world and this has deterred foreign investment and created major problems with the rule of law, including the nations ability to enforce contract and business regulation. This has contributed to a third of the population of Laos currently living below the poverty line. Laos has an economy, with one of the lowest annual incomes in the world. In 2014, the country ranked 141st on the Human Development Index, according to the Global Hunger Index, Laos ranks as the 29th hungriest nation in the world out of the list of the 52 nations with the worst hunger situation. Laos has also had a human rights record. In the Lao language, the name is Muang Lao or Pathet Lao. Stone artefacts including Hoabinhian types have been found at sites dating to the Late Pleistocene in northern Laos, archaeological evidence suggests agriculturist society developed during the 4th millennium BC
32.
Sangha
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Sangha is a word in Pali and Sanskrit meaning association, assembly, company or community and most commonly refers in Buddhism to the monastic community of bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. These communities are referred to as the bhikkhu-sangha or bhikkhuni-sangha. As a separate category, those who have attained any of the four stages of enlightenment, according to the Theravada school, the term sangha does not refer to the community of sāvakas nor the community of Buddhists as a whole. In a glossary of Buddhist terms, Richard Robinson et al. define Sangha as, the two meanings overlap but are not necessarily identical. Some members of the ideal Sangha are not ordained, some monastics have yet to acquire the Dharma-eye, the Sangha is the third of the Three Jewels in Buddhism. Due to the temptations and vicissitudes of life in the world, monastic life is considered to provide the safest and most suitable environment for advancing toward enlightenment, in Buddhism, the Buddha, the Dharma and the Sangha each are described as having certain characteristics. These characteristics are chanted either on a daily basis and/or on Uposatha days, the Sangha also fulfils the function of preserving the Buddha’s original teachings and of providing spiritual support for the Buddhist lay-community. The Sangha has historically assumed responsibility for maintaining the integrity of the doctrine as well as the translation and propagation of the teachings of the Buddha. Between midday and the day, a strict life of scripture study, chanting, meditation. Transgression of rules carries penalties ranging from confession to permanent expulsion from the Sangha, saichō, the founder of the Japanese school of Tendai, decided to reduce the number of rules down to about 60 based on the Bodhisattva Precepts. The Order of Interbeing, established in 1964 and associated with the Plum Village movement, has fourteen precepts observed by all monastics and they were written by Thích Nhất Hạnh. In practice, they often have a few personal possessions. Traditionally, Buddhist monks, nuns, and novices eschew ordinary clothes, originally the robes were sewn together from rags and stained with earth or other available dyes. A Buddhist monk is a bhikkhu in Pali, Sanskrit bhikṣu while a nun is a bhikkhuni, Sanskrit bhikṣuṇī. An emphasis on working for food is attributed to additional training guidelines laid down by a Chan Buddhist master, Baizhang Huaihai, notably the phrase, the idea that all Buddhists, especially Sangha members, practice vegetarianism is a Western misperception. In the Pali Canon the Buddha rejected a suggestion by Devadatta to impose vegetarianism on the Sangha, according to the Pali Texts, the Buddha ate meat as long as the animal was not killed specifically for him. Consequently, the Theravada tradition does not practice vegetarianism, although an individual may do so as his or her personal choice. On this question Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions vary depending on their interpretation of their scriptures, in some Mahayana sutras, meat eating is strongly discouraged and it is stated that the Buddha did not eat meat
33.
Mali
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Mali, officially the Republic of Mali, is a landlocked country in West Africa. Mali is the eighth-largest country in Africa, with an area of just over 1,240,000 square kilometres, the population of Mali is 14.5 million. The countrys economy centers on agriculture and fishing, some of Malis prominent natural resources include gold, being the third largest producer of gold in the African continent, and salt. About half the population lives below the poverty line of $1.25 a day. A majority of the population are Muslims, present-day Mali was once part of three West African empires that controlled trans-Saharan trade, the Ghana Empire, the Mali Empire, and the Songhai Empire. During its golden age, there was a flourishing of mathematics, astronomy, literature, at its peak in 1300, the Mali Empire covered an area about twice the size of modern-day France and stretched to the west coast of Africa. In the late 19th century, during the Scramble for Africa, France seized control of Mali, French Sudan joined with Senegal in 1959, achieving independence in 1960 as the Mali Federation. Shortly thereafter, following Senegals withdrawal from the federation, the Sudanese Republic declared itself the independent Republic of Mali. After a long period of one-party rule, a coup in 1991 led to the writing of a new constitution and the establishment of Mali as a democratic, multi-party state. In January 2012, a conflict broke out in northern Mali, in which Tuareg rebels took control of by April and declared the secession of a new state. The conflict was complicated by a coup that took place in March. In response to Islamist territorial gains, the French military launched Opération Serval in January 2013, a month later, Malian and French forces recaptured most of the north. Presidential elections were held on 28 July 2013, with a second round held on 11 August. The name Mali is taken from the name of the Mali Empire, the name was originally derived from the Mandinka or Bambara word mali, meaning “hippopotamus”, but it eventually came to mean the place where the king lives. The word carries the connotation of strength, D. Niane suggests in Sundiata, An Epic of Old Mali that it is not impossible that Mali was the name given to one of the capitals of the emperors. 14th century Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta reported that the capital of the Mali Empire was indeed called Mali and this name could have formerly been that of a city. In old Mali there is one village called Malikoma which means “New Mali. ”Another theory suggests that Mali is a Fulani pronunciation of the name of the Mande peoples. It is suggested that a sound shift led to the change, whereby in Fulani the alveolar segment /nd/ shifts to /l/, Mali was once part of three famed West African empires which controlled trans-Saharan trade in gold, salt, slaves, and other precious commodities
34.
Hausa people
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The Hausa are one of the largest ethnic groups in Africa. The largest population of Hausa are concentrated in Nigeria and Niger, most Hausa, however, live in small villages or towns in Africa, where they grow crops, raise livestock including cattle, and engage in trade. They speak the Hausa language, an Afro-Asiatic language of the Chadic group, the Hausa aristocracy had historically developed an equestrian based culture. Still a status symbol of the nobility in Hausa society. Daura city is the origin of Hausawa, Hausa people, the town predates all the major Hausa towns in tradition and culture. A table of Hausa ethnic population by country, Daura, in northern Nigeria is the oldest city of Hausaland. The Hausa of Sokoto, also in northern Nigeria, speak the oldest surviving classical vernacular of the language, historically Sokoto was the centre of Hausa Islamic scholarship. Migrants from these areas were introducing Islam to many of the Hausa by the 14th century, all of these groups live in the Sahel, Saharan and Sudanian regions, and as a result have influenced each others cultures to varying degrees. Today some Fulani people cannot be distinguished from Hausa people in northern states of Nigeria, due to inter-marriage. In Agadez and Saharan areas of central Niger, the Tuareg and Hausa groups are indistinguishable from each other in their traditional clothing, but the two groups differ in language, lifestyle and preferred beasts of burden. Islamic Shari’a law is loosely the law of the land in Hausa areas, well understood by any Islamic scholar or teacher, known in Hausa as a mallam, mallan or malam. This pluralist attitude toward ethnic-identity and cultural affiliation has enabled the Hausa to inhabit one of the largest geographic regions of non-Bantu ethnic groups in Africa, the Nok culture appeared in Northern Nigeria around 1000 BC and vanished under unknown circumstances around 300 AD in the region of West Africa. It is believed to be the product of a nation that branched to create the Hausa, Gwari, Birom, Kanuri, Nupe. The Kwatarkwashi Culture or Sokoto Culture located to the North west of Nok is thought to be the same as or an ancestor of the Nok. Noks social system is thought to have highly advanced. The Nok culture is considered to be the earliest sub-Saharan producer of life-sized Terracotta, the refinement of this culture is attested to by the image of a Nok dignitary at the Minneapolis Institute of Arts. The dignitary is portrayed wearing a crooked baton, the dignitary is also portrayed sitting with flared nostrils, and an open mouth suggesting performance. Other images show figures on horseback, indicating that the Nok culture possessed the horse, iron use, in smelting and forging for tools, appears in Nok culture in Africa at least by 550 BC and possibly earlier
35.
West Africa
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West Africa, also called Western Africa and the West of Africa, is the westernmost subregion of Africa. Early human settlers from northern Holocene societies arrived in West Africa around 12,000 B. C, sedentary farming began in, or around the fifth millennium B. C, as well as the domestication of cattle. By 1500 B. C, ironworking technology allowed an expansion of productivity. Northern tribes developed walled settlements and non-walled settlements that numbered at 400, in the forest region, Iron Age cultures began to flourish, and an inter-region trade began to appear. The desertification of the Sahara and the change of the coast cause trade with upper Mediterranean peoples to be seen. Local leather, cloth, and gold also contributed to the abundance of prosperity for many of the following empires. Also, based on the archaeology of city of Kumbi Saleh in modern-day Mauritania, three great kingdoms were identified in Bilad al-Sudan by the ninth century. They included Ghana, Gao and Kanem, the Sosso Empire sought to fill the void, but was defeated by the Mandinka forces of Sundiata Keita, founder of the new Mali Empire. In the 15th century, the Songhai would form a new dominant state based on Gao, in the Songhai Empire, under the leadership of Sonni Ali, further east, Oyo arose as the dominant Yoruba state and the Aro Confederacy as a dominant Igbo state in modern-day Nigeria. The Kingdom of Nri was a West African medieval state in the present-day southeastern Nigeria, the Kingdom of Nri was unusual in the history of world government in that its leader exercised no military power over his subjects. The kingdom existed as a sphere of religious and political influence over a third of Igboland, the Eze Nri managed trade and diplomacy on behalf of the Nri people, and possessed divine authority in religious matters. The Oyo Empire was a Yoruba empire of what is today Western, established in the 15th century, the Oyo Empire grew to become one of the largest West African states. It rose through the organizational skills of the Yoruba, wealth gained from trade. The Benin Empire was an empire located in what is now southern Nigeria. Its capital was Edo, now known as Benin City, Edo and it should not be confused with the modern-day country called Benin, formerly called Dahomey. The Benin Empire was one of the oldest and most highly developed states in the hinterland of West Africa. Olfert Dapper, a Dutch writer, describing Benin in his book Description of Africa and its craft was the most adored and treasured bronze casting in the history of Africa. It was annexed by the British Empire in 1897 during the invasion, in the early 19th century, a series of Fulani reformist jihads swept across Western Africa
36.
Kano
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Kano is the state capital of Kano State in Northern West, Nigeria. It is situated in the Sahelian geographic region, south of the Sahara, Kano is the commercial nerve center of Northern Nigeria and is the second largest city in Nigeria, after Lagos. The total area of Metropolitan Kano is now 499 square kilometres, the principal inhabitants of the city are the Hausa people. As in most parts of northern Nigeria, the Hausa language is spoken in Kano. The city is the capital of the Kano Emirate, the current emir, Muhammadu Sanusi II, was enthroned on 8 June 2014 after the death of Alhaji Ado Bayero, the thirtienth emir of Kano Emirate, on Friday,6 June 2014. The citys Mallam Aminu Kano International Airport, the airport serving northern Nigeria, was named after politician Aminu Kano. Kano was originally known as Dala, after the hill, and was referred to as such as late as the end of the 15th century, the Kano Chronicle identifies Barbushe, a priest of a Dala Hill spirit, as the citys first settler. His grandson Gijimasu, the king, began building city walls at the foot of Dala Hill. His own son, Tsaraki, the king, completed them during his reign. In the 12th century Ali Yaji as King of Kano renounced his allegiance to the cult of Tsumburbura, accepted Islam, the reign of Yaji ensued an era of expansionism that saw Kano becoming the capital of a pseudo Habe Empire. In 1463 Muhammad Rumfa ascended the throne, during his reign, political pressure from the rising Songhai Empire forced him to take Auwa, the daughter of Askiyah the Great as his wife. She was to become the first female Madaki of Kano. Rumfa reformed the city, expanded the Sahelian Gidan Rumfa, and played a role in the further Islamization of the city, the Kano Chronicle attributes a total of twelve innovations to Rumfa. According to the Kano Chronicle, the thirty-seventh Sarkin Kano was Mohammed Sharef and his successor, Kumbari dan Sharefa, engaged in major battles with Sokoto. At the beginning of the 19th century, Fulani Islamic leader Usman dan Fodio led a jihad affecting much of central Sudan, in 1805 the last sultan of Kano was defeated by the Jobe Clan of the Fulani, and Kano became an Emirate of the Caliphate. Kano was the largest and most prosperous province of the empire and this was one of the last major slave societies, with high percentages of enslaved population long after the Atlantic slave trade had been cut off. Heinrich Barth, a German scholar who spent several years in northern Nigeria in the 1850s, estimated the percentage of slaves in Kano to be at least 50%, most of whom lived in slave villages. The city suffered famines from 1807–10, in the 1830s,1847,1855,1863,1873,1884, from 1893 until 1895, two rival claimants for the throne fought a civil war, or Basasa
37.
Nigeria
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Its coast in the south lies on the Gulf of Guinea in the Atlantic Ocean. It comprises 36 states and the Federal Capital Territory, where the capital, Nigeria is officially a democratic secular country. Modern-day Nigeria has been the site of numerous kingdoms and tribal states over the millennia, the modern state originated from British colonial rule beginning in the 19th century, and the merging of the Southern Nigeria Protectorate and Northern Nigeria Protectorate in 1914. The British set up administrative and legal structures whilst practising indirect rule through traditional chiefdoms, Nigeria became a formally independent federation in 1960, and plunged into a civil war from 1967 to 1970. Nigeria is often referred to as the Giant of Africa, owing to its large population, with approximately 184 million inhabitants, Nigeria is the most populous country in Africa and the seventh most populous country in the world. Nigeria has one of the largest populations of youth in the world, Nigeria is divided roughly in half between Christians, who live mostly in the southern part of the country, and Muslims in the northern part. A minority of the population practise religions indigenous to Nigeria, such as native to the Igbo. As of 2015, Nigeria is the worlds 20th largest economy, worth more than $500 billion and $1 trillion in terms of nominal GDP and it overtook South Africa to become Africas largest economy in 2014. The 2013 debt-to-GDP ratio was 11 percent, Nigeria is a member of the MINT group of countries, which are widely seen as the globes next BRIC-like economies. It is also listed among the Next Eleven economies set to become among the biggest in the world, Nigeria is a founding member of the African Union and a member of many other international organizations, including the United Nations, the Commonwealth of Nations and OPEC. The name Nigeria was taken from the Niger River running through the country and this name was coined in the late 19th century by British journalist Flora Shaw, who later married Lord Lugard, a British colonial administrator. The origin of the name Niger, which applied only to the middle reaches of the Niger River, is uncertain. The word is likely an alteration of the Tuareg name egerew n-igerewen used by inhabitants along the middle reaches of the river around Timbuktu prior to 19th-century European colonialism. The Nok civilisation of Northern Nigeria flourished between 500 BC and AD200, producing life-sized terracotta figures which are some of the earliest known sculptures in Sub-Saharan Africa, further north, the cities Kano and Katsina have a recorded history dating to around 999 AD. Hausa kingdoms and the Kanem-Bornu Empire prospered as trade posts between North and West Africa, the Kingdom of Nri of the Igbo people consolidated in the 10th century and continued until it lost its sovereignty to the British in 1911. Nri was ruled by the Eze Nri, and the city of Nri is considered to be the foundation of Igbo culture, Nri and Aguleri, where the Igbo creation myth originates, are in the territory of the Umeuri clan. Members of the clan trace their lineages back to the patriarchal king-figure Eri, in West Africa, the oldest bronzes made using the lost-wax process were from Igbo Ukwu, a city under Nri influence. The Yoruba kingdoms of Ife and Oyo in southwestern Nigeria became prominent in the 12th and 14th centuries, the oldest signs of human settlement at Ifes current site date back to the 9th century, and its material culture includes terracotta and bronze figures
38.
Embroidery
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Embroidery is the handicraft of decorating fabric or other materials with needle and thread or yarn. Embroidery may also incorporate materials such as, pearls, beads, quills. Today, embroidery is most often seen on caps, hats, coats, blankets, dress shirts, denim, stockings, Embroidery is available with a wide variety of thread or yarn color. The process used to tailor, patch, mend and reinforce cloth fostered the development of sewing techniques, indeed, the remarkable stability of basic embroidery stitches has been noted, It is a striking fact that in the development of embroidery. There are no changes of materials or techniques which can be felt or interpreted as advances from a primitive to a later, on the other hand, we often find in early works a technical accomplishment and high standard of craftsmanship rarely attained in later times. The art of embroidery has been found world-wide and several examples have been found. Works in China have been dated to the Warring States period, depending on time, location and materials available, embroidery could be the domain of a few experts or a wide-spread, popular technique. This flexibility led to a variety of works, from the royal to the mundane, in 18th century England and its colonies, samplers employing fine silks were produced by the daughters of wealthy families. Embroidery was a marking a girls path into womanhood as well as conveying rank. Conversely, embroidery is also an art, using materials that were accessible to nonprofessionals. Examples include Hardanger from Norway, Merezhka from Ukraine, Mountmellick embroidery from Ireland, Nakshi kantha from Bangladesh and West Bengal, many techniques had a practical use such as Sashiko from Japan, which was used as a way to reinforce clothing. Embroidery was an important art in the Medieval Islamic world, the 17th century Turkish traveler Evliya Çelebi called it the craft of the two hands. Because embroidery was a sign of social status in Muslim societies. Craftsmen embroidered items with gold and silver thread, Embroidery cottage industries, some employing over 800 people, grew to supply these items. Taste for fine material has become general, and the drapery of embroidered fabrics used at feasts surpasses every description. The development of embroidery and its mass production came about in stages in the Industrial Revolution. The earliest machine embroidery used a combination of machine looms and teams of women embroidering the textiles by hand and this was done in France by the mid-1800s. The manufacture of machine-made embroideries in St. Gallen in eastern Switzerland flourished in the half of the 19th century
39.
Hippie
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The word hippie came from hipster and was initially used to describe beatniks who had moved into New York Citys Greenwich Village and San Franciscos Haight-Ashbury district. The term hippie was first popularized in San Francisco by Herb Caen, the origins of the terms hip and hep are uncertain. By the 1940s, both had become part of African American jive slang and meant sophisticated, currently fashionable, fully up-to-date, the Beats adopted the term hip, and early hippies inherited the language and countercultural values of the Beat Generation. In the United Kingdom in 1970, many gathered at the gigantic Isle of Wight Festival with a crowd of around 400,000 people, in later years, mobile peace convoys of New Age travelers made summer pilgrimages to free music festivals at Stonehenge and elsewhere. In Australia, hippies gathered at Nimbin for the 1973 Aquarius Festival, piedra Roja Festival, a major hippie event in Chile, was held in 1970. Hippie fashion and values had an effect on culture, influencing popular music, television, film, literature. Since the 1960s, many aspects of culture have been assimilated by mainstream society. The religious and cultural diversity espoused by the hippies has gained widespread acceptance, lexicographer Jesse Sheidlower, the principal American editor of the Oxford English Dictionary, argues that the terms hipster and hippie derive from the word hip, whose origins are unknown. The term hipster was coined by Harry Gibson in 1944, by the 1940s, the terms hip, hep and hepcat were popular in Harlem jazz slang, although hep eventually came to denote an inferior status to hip. In Greenwich Village in the early 1960s, New York City, young counterculture advocates were named hips because they were considered in the know or cool, as opposed to being square. In the April 27,1961 issue of The Village Voice, An open letter to JFK & Fidel Castro, Norman Mailer utilizes the term hippies, in questioning JFKs behavior. In a 1961 essay, Kenneth Rexroth used both the hipster and hippies to refer to young people participating in black American or Beatnik nightlife. According to Malcolm Xs 1964 autobiography, the hippie in 1940s Harlem had been used to describe a specific type of white man who acted more Negro than Negroes. Andrew Loog Oldham refers to all the Chicago hippies, seemingly in reference to black musicians, in his rear sleeve notes to the 1965 LP The Rolling Stones. The word hippie was also used in reference to Philadelphia in at least two songs in 1963, South Street by The Orlons, and You Cant Sit Down by The Dovells. In both songs, the term is applied to residents of Philadelphias South Street, in that article, Fallon wrote about the Blue Unicorn Cafe, using the term hippie to refer to the new generation of beatniks who had moved from North Beach into the Haight-Ashbury district. New York Times editor and usage writer Theodore M. Bernstein said the paper changed the spelling from hippy to hippie to avoid the ambiguous description of clothing as hippy fashions. Even the counterculture of the Ancient Greeks, espoused by philosophers like Diogenes of Sinope and the Cynics were also early forms of hippie culture
40.
Columbia University
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Columbia University is a private Ivy League research university in Upper Manhattan, New York City. It was established in 1754 as Kings College by royal charter of George II of Great Britain, after the American Revolutionary War, Kings College briefly became a state entity, and was renamed Columbia College in 1784. Columbia is one of the fourteen founding members of the Association of American Universities and was the first school in the United States to grant the M. D. degree. The university also has global research outposts in Amman, Beijing, Istanbul, Paris, Mumbai, Rio de Janeiro, Santiago, Asunción, Columbia administers annually the Pulitzer Prize. Additionally,100 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Columbia as students, researchers, faculty, Columbia is second only to Harvard University in the number of Nobel Prize-winning affiliates, with over 100 recipients of the award as of 2016. In 1746 an act was passed by the assembly of New York to raise funds for the foundation of a new college. Classes were initially held in July 1754 and were presided over by the colleges first president, Dr. Johnson was the only instructor of the colleges first class, which consisted of a mere eight students. Instruction was held in a new schoolhouse adjoining Trinity Church, located on what is now lower Broadway in Manhattan, in 1763, Dr. Johnson was succeeded in the presidency by Myles Cooper, a graduate of The Queens College, Oxford, and an ardent Tory. In the charged political climate of the American Revolution, his opponent in discussions at the college was an undergraduate of the class of 1777. The suspension continued through the occupation of New York City by British troops until their departure in 1783. The colleges library was looted and its sole building requisitioned for use as a hospital first by American. Loyalists were forced to abandon their Kings College in New York, the Loyalists, led by Bishop Charles Inglis fled to Windsor, Nova Scotia, where they founded Kings Collegiate School. After the Revolution, the college turned to the State of New York in order to restore its vitality, the Legislature agreed to assist the college, and on May 1,1784, it passed an Act for granting certain privileges to the College heretofore called Kings College. The Regents finally became aware of the colleges defective constitution in February 1787 and appointed a revision committee, in April of that same year, a new charter was adopted for the college, still in use today, granting power to a private board of 24 Trustees. On May 21,1787, William Samuel Johnson, the son of Dr. Samuel Johnson, was unanimously elected President of Columbia College, prior to serving at the university, Johnson had participated in the First Continental Congress and been chosen as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention. The colleges enrollment, structure, and academics stagnated for the majority of the 19th century, with many of the college presidents doing little to change the way that the college functioned. In 1857, the college moved from the Kings College campus at Park Place to a primarily Gothic Revival campus on 49th Street and Madison Avenue, during the last half of the 19th century, under the leadership of President F. A. P. Barnard, the institution assumed the shape of a modern university
41.
Muslin
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Muslin is a cotton fabric of plain weave. It is made in a range of weights from delicate sheers to coarse sheeting. It gets its name from the city of Mosul, Iraq, early muslin was handwoven of uncommonly delicate handspun yarn, especially in the region around Dhaka, Bengal. It was imported into Europe for much of the 17th and early 18th centuries, fine linen muslin was formerly known as sindon. In 2013, the art of weaving Jamdani muslin in Bangladesh was included in the list of Masterpieces of the Oral. Muslin from French mousseline, from Italian mussolina, from Mussolo ‘Mosul’, although this view has the fabric named after the city where Europeans first encountered it, the fabric is believed to have originated in Dhakeshwari, now Dhaka the capital of Bangladesh. In the 9th century, an Arab merchant named Sulaiman made note of the origin in Bengal. Bengali muslin was traded throughout the Muslim world, from the Middle East to Southeast Asia, in many Islamic regions, such as in Central Asia, the cloth was named Daka, after the city of Dhaka. Some believe Crusaders of the First Crusade found the cloth in the Middle East, subsequently, the word Muslin found its place in various European languages as French mousseline, Italian mussolina etc. In 1298, Marco Polo described the cloth in his book The Travels and he said it was made in Mosul, Iraq. During the 17th and 18th centuries, Mughal Bengal emerged as the foremost muslin exporter in the world, during the Roman period Khadi muslin was introduced in Europe and a vast amounts of fabrics were traded to Europe for many centuries. It became highly popular in 18th-century France and eventually spread across much of the Western world, brutality to muslin weavers was intense, William Bolts noting in 1772 that instances have been known of their cutting off their thumbs to prevent their being forced to wind silk. As a result, the quality of muslin suffered greatly and its finesse was nearly lost for two centuries, there have been various attempts at reviving the muslin industry in modern Bangladesh. At the end of the 16th century the English traveler Ralph Fitch greatly admired the muslin of Sonargaon, the Portuguese traveler Duarte Barbosa described the muslin of Bengal in the early 16th century. He mentioned a few types of fabrics, such as estrabante, mamona, fugoza, choutara, in present day, many different types of muslins are produced in many different places, including Dhaka. The word muslin is used colloquially. Under British rule, the British East India company could not compete with the local Muslin with their own export of cloth to India, Muslin production was repressed and the knowledge eradicated. Local weavers were systematically rounded up and their hands mutilated with removal of their thumbs, when sewing clothing, a dressmaker may test the fit of a garment, using an inexpensive muslin fabric before cutting pieces from expensive fabric, thereby avoiding potential costly mistakes
42.
Batik
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Batik is a technique of wax-resist dyeing applied to whole cloth, or cloth made using this technique. Batik is made either by drawing dots and lines of the resist with a tool called a canting. In October 2009, UNESCO designated Indonesian batik as a Masterpiece of Oral, the word batik is Javanese in origin. It may either come from the Javanese word amba and titik, the word is first recorded in English in the Encyclopædia Britannica of 1880, in which it is spelled battik. It is attested in the Indonesian Archipelago during the Dutch colonial period in various forms, mbatek, mbatik, batek, wax resist dyeing of fabric is an ancient art form. It already existed in Egypt in the 4th century BC, where it was used to wrap mummies, linen was soaked in wax, in Asia, the technique was practised in China during the Tang Dynasty, and in India and Japan during the Nara Period. In Africa it was practised by the Yoruba tribe in Nigeria, Soninke. These African version however, uses cassava starch or rice paste, the art of batik is most highly developed in the island of Java in Indonesia. In Java, all the materials for the process are readily available — cotton and beeswax, Indonesian batik predates written records, G. P. Rouffaer argues that the technique might have been introduced during the 6th or 7th century from India or Sri Lanka. On the other hand, the Dutch archaeologist J. L. A, brandes and the Indonesian archaeologist F. A. Rouffaer reported that the gringsing pattern was already known by the 12th century in Kediri, East Java. The motif is thought to represent the lotus, a flower in Hindu-Buddhist beliefs. This evidence suggests that intricate batik fabric patterns applied with the canting existed in 13th-century Java or even earlier. In Europe, the technique was described for the first time in the History of Java, published in London in 1817 by Stamford Raffles, in 1873 the Dutch merchant Van Rijckevorsel gave the pieces he collected during a trip to Indonesia to the ethnographic museum in Rotterdam. Today the Tropenmuseum houses the biggest collection of Indonesian batik in the Netherlands, the Dutch and Chinese colonists were active in developing batik, particularly coastal batik, in the late colonial era. They introduced new patterns as well as the use of the cap to mass-produce batiks, displayed at the Exposition Universelle at Paris in 1900, the Indonesian batik impressed the public and artists. In the 1920s, Javanese batik makers migrating to Malaya introduced the use of wax, in Subsaharan Africa, Javanese batik was introduced in the 19th century by Dutch and English traders. The local people there adapted the Javanese batik, making larger motifs with thicker lines, in the 1970s, batik was introduced to Australia, where aboriginal artists at Erna Bella have developed it as their own craft. Firstly, a cloth is washed, soaked and beaten with a large mallet, patterns are drawn with pencil and later redrawn using hot wax, usually made from a mixture of paraffin or bees wax, sometimes mixed with plant resins, which functions as a dye-resist
43.
Janis Joplin
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She died of an accidental drug overdose in 1970, aged 27, after releasing three albums. A fourth album, Pearl, was released a more than three months after her death, reaching number 1 on the charts. Joplin rose to fame in 1967 during an appearance at Monterey Pop Festival, as the singer of the then little-known San Francisco psychedelic rock band Big Brother. After releasing two albums with the band, she left Big Brother to continue as a solo artist with her own backing groups, first the Kozmic Blues Band and she appeared at the Woodstock festival and the Festival Express train tour. Five singles by Joplin went into the Billboard Top 100, including Me and Bobby McGee, which reached number 1 in March 1971. Her most popular include, Piece of My Heart, Cry Baby, Down on Me, Ball n Chain, Summertime, Maybe, and Mercedes Benz. Joplin, who was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1995, was known for her performing ability. Audiences and critics alike referred to her presence as electric. Rolling Stone ranked Joplin number 46 on its 2004 list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time and she remains one of the top-selling musicians in the United States, with Recording Industry Association of America certifications of 15.5 million albums sold in the USA. Janis Lyn Joplin was born in Port Arthur, Texas, on January 19,1943, to Dorothy Bonita East, a registrar at a college, and her husband, Seth Ward Joplin. She had two siblings, Michael and Laura. The family attended the Church of Christ, the Joplins felt that Janis needed more attention than their other children. Primarily a painter while still in school, she first began singing blues and she attended Thomas Jefferson High School, where she was a classmate of Super Bowl winning American football coach Jimmy Johnson. She stated while in school, that she was mostly shunned. Joplin was quoted as saying, I was a misfit, I read, I painted, I thought. As a teen, she became overweight, and her skin broke out so badly she was left deep scars that required dermabrasion. Other kids at school would routinely taunt her and call her names like pig, freak, nigger lover. The campus newspaper, The Daily Texan, ran a profile of her in the issue dated July 27,1962, while at UT she performed with a folk trio called the Waller Creek Boys and frequently socialized with the staff of the campus humor magazine The Texas Ranger
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