1.
City
–
A city is a large and permanent human settlement. Cities generally have complex systems for sanitation, utilities, land usage, housing, a big city or metropolis usually has associated suburbs and exurbs. Such cities are associated with metropolitan areas and urban areas. Once a city expands far enough to another city, this region can be deemed a conurbation or megalopolis. Damascus is arguably the oldest city in the world, in terms of population, the largest city proper is Shanghai, while the fastest-growing is Dubai. There is not enough evidence to assert what conditions gave rise to the first cities, some theorists have speculated on what they consider suitable pre-conditions and basic mechanisms that might have been important driving forces. The conventional view holds that cities first formed after the Neolithic revolution, the Neolithic revolution brought agriculture, which made denser human populations possible, thereby supporting city development. The advent of farming encouraged hunter-gatherers to abandon nomadic lifestyles and to settle near others who lived by agricultural production, the increased population density encouraged by farming and the increased output of food per unit of land created conditions that seem more suitable for city-like activities. In his book, Cities and Economic Development, Paul Bairoch takes up position in his argument that agricultural activity appears necessary before true cities can form. According to Vere Gordon Childe, for a settlement to qualify as a city, it must have enough surplus of raw materials to support trade and a relatively large population. To illustrate this point, Bairoch offers an example, Western Europe during the pre-Neolithic, when the cost of transport is taken into account, the figure rises to 200,000 square kilometres. Bairoch noted that this is roughly the size of Great Britain, the urban theorist Jane Jacobs suggests that city formation preceded the birth of agriculture, but this view is not widely accepted. In his book City Economics, Brendan OFlaherty asserts Cities could persist—as they have for thousands of years—only if their advantages offset the disadvantages, OFlaherty illustrates two similar attracting advantages known as increasing returns to scale and economies of scale, which are concepts usually associated with businesses. Their applications are seen in more basic economic systems as well, increasing returns to scale occurs when doubling all inputs more than doubles the output an activity has economies of scale if doubling output less than doubles cost. To offer an example of these concepts, OFlaherty makes use of one of the oldest reasons why cities were built, in this example, the inputs are anything that would be used for protection and the output is the area protected and everything of value contained in it. OFlaherty then asks that we suppose the protected area is square, the advantage is expressed as, O = s 2, where O is the output and s stands for the length of a side. This equation shows that output is proportional to the square of the length of a side, the inputs depend on the length of the perimeter, I =4 s, where I stands for the quantity of inputs. So there are increasing returns to scale, O = I2 /16 and this equation shows that with twice the inputs, you produce quadruple the output
City
–
1908 map of
Piraeus, the port of
Athens, showing the grid plan of the city
City
–
Ancient
Ur of
Sumer in present-day Tell el-Mukayyar in
Iraq, one of the world's earliest cities
City
–
Mohenjo-daro, a
World Heritage site that was part of the
Indus Valley Civilization
City
–
A map dating 1669 showing the location of
Multan, Pakistan
2.
Political divisions of Mexico
–
The United Mexican States is a federal republic composed of 31 states and Mexico City. According to the Constitution of 1917, the states of the federation are free, each state has its own congress and constitution. Mexico City is currently being reformed to have the rights of a state. The states of the Mexican Federation are free, sovereign, autonomous and they are free to govern themselves according to their own laws, each state has a constitution that cannot contradict the federal constitution, which covers issues of national competence. Since states have autonomy, each has its own civil and penal codes. In addition, the federation makes up a constituency in which 32 senators are elected by the method of proportional representation, Federal Deputies, however, do not represent the states, but rather the citizens themselves. The Chamber of Deputies and the Senate together comprise the Congress of the Union, the states are internally divided into municipalities. Each municipality is autonomous in its ability to elect their own council, the council is headed by a mayor elected every 3 years with no possibility of immediate reelection. Each municipality has a composed of councilors in terms of population size. The council is responsible, in most cases, to all utilities required for its population. This concept, which arises from the Mexican Revolution, is known as a free municipality. In total there are 2438 municipalities in Mexico, the state with the highest number of municipalities is Oaxaca, with 570, Mexico City has a special status within the federation, being a federal district. Until January 2016, Mexico City was officially called Federal District and it is the seat of government of the Union and the capital of the United Mexican States. Mexico City was separated from the State of Mexico, of which it was the capital, on November 18,1824, as such, it did not belong to any state in particular but to all. Therefore, it was the president of Mexico, in representation of the federation, with full autonomy, Mexico City would have its own constitution – it previously had only an organic law called Statute of Autonomy – and its boroughs became municipalities. Until the ratification of Mexico Citys constitution, it is divided for administrative purposes into 16 delegacionesor boroughs. *Mexicos post agency, Correos de México, does not offer an official list, various competing commercially devised lists exist. The list here reflects choices among them according to these sources, on September 27,1821, after three centuries of Spanish rule, Mexico gained independence
Political divisions of Mexico
–
Mexican States and Federal District Estados Mexicanos y el Distrito Federal (
Spanish)
3.
Baja California
–
Baja California, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Baja California, is a state in Mexico. It is the northernmost and westernmost of the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico, before becoming a state in 1952, the area was known as the North Territory of Baja California. It has an area of 70,113 km2, or 3. 57% of the mass of Mexico and comprises the northern half of the Baja California Peninsula, north of the 28th parallel. The mainland portion of the state is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean, on the east by Sonora, the U. S. State of Arizona, and the Gulf of California and its northern limit is the U. S. state of California. The state has an population of 3,165,776 much more than the sparsely populated Baja California Sur to the south. Over 75% of the lives in the capital city, Mexicali, in Ensenada. Other important cities include San Felipe, Rosarito and Tecate, additionally, there is a large immigrant population from the United States due to its proximity to San Diego and the cheaper cost of living compared to San Diego. There is also a significant population from Central America, many immigrants moved to Baja California for a better quality of life and the number of higher paying jobs in comparison to the rest of Mexico and Latin America. Baja California is the twelfth largest state by area in Mexico and its geography ranges from beaches to forests and deserts. The backbone of the state is the Sierra de Baja California, where the Picacho del Diablo and this mountain range effectively divides the weather patterns in the state. In the northwest, the weather is semi-dry and mediterranean, in the narrow center, the weather changes to be more humid due to altitude. It is in area where a few valleys can be found, such as the Valle de Guadalupe. To the east of the range, the Sonoran Desert dominates the landscape. In the south, the weather becomes drier and gives way to the Vizcaino Desert, the state is also home to numerous islands off both of its shores. In fact, the westernmost point in Mexico, the Guadalupe Island, is part of Baja California, the Coronado, Todos Santos and Cedros Islands are also on the Pacific Shore. On the Gulf of California, the biggest island is the Angel de la Guarda, separated from the peninsula by the deep, the first people came to the peninsula at least 11,000 years ago. At that time two main groups are thought to have been present on the peninsula. In the south were the Cochimí, in the north were several groups belonging to the Yuman language family, including the Kiliwa, Paipai, Kumeyaay, Cocopa, and Quechan
Baja California
–
Central Desert in Cataviña
Baja California
–
Flag
Baja California
–
Isla Partida, which is part of the
San Lorenzo Marine Archipelago National Park
Baja California
–
Sierra de San Pedro Martir, with Picacho del Diablo in the center.
4.
Municipality
–
It is to be distinguished from the county, which may encompass rural territory and/or numerous small communities such as towns, villages and hamlets. The term municipality may also mean the governing or ruling body of a given municipality, a municipality is a general-purpose administrative subdivision, as opposed to a special-purpose district. The term is derived from French municipalité and Latin municipalis, a municipality can be any political jurisdiction from a sovereign state, such as the Principality of Monaco, or a small village, such as West Hampton Dunes, New York. The power of municipalities range from virtual autonomy to complete subordination to the state, municipalities may have the right to tax individuals and corporations with income tax, property tax, and corporate income tax, but may also receive substantial funding from the state. Similar terms include Spanish ayuntamiento, also called municipalidad, Polish gmina, Dutch/Flemish Gemeente, in Australia, the term local government area is used in place of the generic municipality. Here, the LGA Structure covers only incorporated areas of Australia, incorporated areas are legally designated parts of states and territories over which incorporated local governing bodies have responsibility. In Canada, municipalities are local governments established through provincial and territorial legislation, the Province of Ontario has different tiers of municipalities, including lower, upper, and single tiers. Types of upper tier municipalities in Ontario include counties and regional municipalities, nova Scotia also has regional municipalities, which include cities, counties, districts, or towns as municipal units. In India, a Nagar Palika or Municipality is a local body that administers a city of population 100,000 or more. Under the Panchayati Raj system, it directly with the state government. Generally, smaller cities and bigger towns have a Nagar Palika. Nagar Palikas are also a form of local self-government entrusted with duties and responsibilities. Such a corporation in Great Britain consists of a head as a mayor or provost, since local government reorganisation, the unit in England, Northern Ireland and Wales is known as a district, and in Scotland as a council area. A district may be awarded borough or city status, or can retain its district title, in Jersey, a municipality refers to the honorary officials elected to run each of the 12 parishes into which it is subdivided. This is the highest level of government in this jurisdiction. In the United States, municipality is usually understood as a city, town, village, or other local government unit, in the Peoples Republic of China, a direct-controlled municipality is a city with equal status to a province, Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, and Chongqing. In Taiwan, a municipality is a city with equal status to a province, Kaohsiung, New Taipei, Taichung, Tainan, Taipei. In Portuguese language usage, there are two words to distinguish the territory and the administrative organ, when referring to the territory, the word concelho is used, when referring to the organ of State, the word município is used
Municipality
–
The
Ponce City Hall, in the city of
Ponce, is the seat of the government for both the city and the surrounding
barrios making up the municipality.
5.
Tijuana Municipality
–
Tijuana Municipality is a municipality in the Mexican state of Baja California. Its municipal seat is located in the city of Tijuana, according to the 2010 census, the municipality had a population of 1,559,683 inhabitants, of whom 1,300,983, or 83. 4%, lived in the city of Tijuana. The municipality maintained its position as 3rd most populated nationally as of 2015 census, only behind Ecatepec de Morelos, carlos Bustamante Anchondo of the PRI is the current municipal president. Much of this movement could be explained by the drug violence. The municipality comprises the largest part of the Tijuana metropolitan area, the area of the municipality of Tijuana is 879.2 km², the municipality includes part of the Coronado Islands, located off the coast of the municipality in the Pacific Ocean. The city of Tijuanas precise location is 32°32′05″N 117°02′37″W and it lies just south of San Diego, California. The adjacent city and former borough of Tijuana is Rosarito Beach, the municipality of Tijuana is divided into eight administrative boroughs, or Delegaciones. The Tijuana metropolitan area occupies all of borough seats, the boroughs are in turn divided into colonias or ejidos. These boroughs offer administrative services such as planning, civil registry, inspection, verification, public works. Centro — Delegación Centro includes the old downtown, new business district and this is the historical midpoint of Tijuana, the municipal palace is located here as well as most of the tourist zones, such as Avenida Revolución and the business district. The Tijuana Cultural Center is located here as well as the Plaza Río Tijuana, until recently the largest mall in the state, Cerro Colorado — The Cerro Colorado is located here and it is surrounded by houses. Because of its many of the areas antennae for radio. La Mesa — This is where the Morelos Park, the largest public park in the city, is located, as well as the Plaza Mundo Divertido, the new Macroplaza, Otay Centenario — This borough was created in 2014 by merging Mesa de Otay and Centenario boroughs. In this borough sits the Tijuana International Airport, the Tijuana campus of the Autonomous University of Baja California and the Technologico are also located here as well as many maquiladoras. This is the borough with the largest number of factories and maquiladoras and its largest colony is Ciudad Industrial. Three of the citys most important streets, Boulevard Bellas Artes, Boulevard Industrial, the Otay Mesa Port of Entry and the Parque de la Amistad park are also here. Playas de Tijuana — This is the westernmost borough of the city bordered by the Pacific Ocean on the west and this is where the beaches of Tijuana are located and it is also one of the two exits to the south towards Rosarito and Ensenada. La Presa — This is the largest borough in size and the Abelardo L. Rodríguez Dam is located within its limits, the new Corredor Tijuana 2000 s and the Tijuana-Tecate free road run through it
Tijuana Municipality
–
Coat of arms
Tijuana Municipality
–
Location of Tijuana in
Baja California.
Tijuana Municipality
6.
Metropolitan area
–
As social, economic and political institutions have changed, metropolitan areas have become key economic and political regions. The Greater São Paulo is a term for one of the multiple definitions the large metropolitan area located in the São Paulo state in Brazil. A metropolitan area combines an urban agglomeration with zones not necessarily urban in character and these outlying zones are sometimes known as a commuter belt, and may extend well beyond the urban zone, to other political entities. For example, El Monte, California is considered part of the Los Angeles metro area in the United States, in practice, the parameters of metropolitan areas, in both official and unofficial usage, are not consistent. Population figures given for one area can vary by millions. A polycentric metropolitan area is one not connected by continuous development or conurbation, in defining a metropolitan area, it is sufficient that a city or cities form a nucleus that other areas have a high degree of integration with. The Australian Bureau of Statistics defines statistical divisions as areas under the influence of one or more major towns or a major city. However, this definition has become obsolete with the conurbation of several statistical divisions into a larger metropolitan areas. In Brazil, metropolitan areas are called metropolitan regions, each State defines its own legislation for the creation, definition and organization of a metropolitan region. The creation of a region is not intended for any statistical purpose, although the Brazilian Institute of Geography. Their main purpose is to allow for a management of public policies of common interest to all cities involved. They dont have political, electoral or jurisdictional power whatsoever, so living in a metropolitan region do not elect representatives for them. Statistics Canada defines a metropolitan area as an area consisting of one or more adjacent municipalities situated around a major urban core. To form a CMA, the area must have a population of at least 100,000. To be included in the CMA, adjacent municipalities must have a degree of integration with the core. As of the Canada 2011 Census, there were 33 CMAs in Canada, including six with a population over one million—Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver, Ottawa, Calgary and Edmonton. In Denmark the only area is Greater Copenhagen, consisting of the Capital Region of Denmark along with the neighboring regions Region Zealand. Greater Copenhagen has an population of 1.25 million people
Metropolitan area
–
Greater Buenos Aires,
Argentina
Metropolitan area
–
Paris (
France), one of Europe's major centres
Metropolitan area
–
Tel Aviv Metropolitan Area,
Israel
Metropolitan area
–
Perth, Western Australia, an isolated metropolitan area
7.
Demonym
–
A demonym is a word that identifies residents or natives of a particular place, which is derived from the name of that particular place. It is a neologism, previously gentilic was recorded in English dictionaries, e. g. the Oxford English Dictionary, thus a Thai may be any resident or citizen of Thailand, of any ethnic group, or more narrowly a member of the Thai people. Conversely, some groups of people may be associated with multiple demonyms, for example, a native of the United Kingdom may be called a British person, a Brit, or a Briton. In some languages, when a parallel demonym does not exist, in English, demonyms are capitalized and are often the same as the adjectival form of the place, e. g. Egyptian, Japanese, or Greek. Significant exceptions exist, for instance the adjectival form of Spain is Spanish, English widely includes country-level demonyms such as Ethiopian or Guatemalan and more local demonyms such as Seoulite, Wisconsinite, Chicagoan, Michigander, Fluminense, and Paulista. Some places lack a commonly used and accepted demonym and this poses a particular challenge to those toponymists who research demonyms. The word gentilic comes from the Latin gentilis and the English suffix -ic, the word demonym was derived from the Greek word meaning populace with the suffix for name. National Geographic attributes the term demonym to Merriam-Webster editor Paul Dickson in a recent work from 1990 and it was subsequently popularized in this sense in 1997 by Dickson in his book Labels for Locals. However, in What Do You Call a Person From, a Dictionary of Resident Names attributed the term to George H. Scheetz, in his Names Names, A Descriptive and Prescriptive Onymicon, which is apparently where the term first appears. Several linguistic elements are used to create demonyms in the English language, the most common is to add a suffix to the end of the location name, slightly modified in some instances. Cairo → Cairene Cyrenaica → Cyrene Damascus → Damascene Greece → Greek Nazareth → Nazarene Slovenia → Slovene Often used for Middle Eastern locations and European locations. Kingston-upon-Hull → Hullensian Leeds → Leodensian Spain → Spaniard Savoy → Savoyard -ese is usually considered proper only as an adjective, thus, a Chinese person is used rather than a Chinese. Monaco → Monégasque Menton → Mentonasque Basque Country → Basque Often used for French locations, mostly they are from Africa and the Pacific, and are not generally known or used outside the country concerned. In much of East Africa, a person of an ethnic group will be denoted by a prefix. For example, a person of the Luba people would be a Muluba, the plural form Baluba, similar patterns with minor variations in the prefixes exist throughout on a tribal level. And Fijians who are indigenous Fijians are known as Kaiviti and these demonyms are usually more informal and colloquial. In the United States such informal demonyms frequently become associated with mascots of the sports teams of the state university system. In other countries the origins are often disputed and these will typically be formed using the standard models above
Demonym
–
Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary has not adopted the term "demonyn" for these adjectives and nouns
8.
Pacific Standard Time
–
The Pacific Time Zone observes standard time by subtracting eight hours from Coordinated Universal Time. During daylight saving time, its time offset is UTC−7 and is based on the mean solar time of the 105th meridian west of the Greenwich Observatory. In the United States and Canada, this zone is generically called the Pacific Time Zone. Specifically, it uses Pacific Standard Time when observing standard time, most of Canada uses daylight saving time. In Mexico, the UTC−8 time zone is known as the Northwest Zone, the largest city in the Pacific Time Zone is Los Angeles, the citys metropolitan area is the largest in the zone. The following states or areas are part of the Pacific Time Zone, California Washington Oregon – all, except for most of Malheur County, nevada Idaho Panhandle – the northern half of Idaho, north of the Salmon River. The town of Hyder, Alaska, is officially in the Alaska Time Zone, however, most of the town observes the Pacific Time because of strong connections with nearby Stewart, British Columbia, which is in the Pacific Time Zone. The United States Post Office in Hyder strictly adheres to Alaska Time, in Canada, the Pacific Time Zone includes most of British Columbia, all of Yukon, and the townsite of Tungsten. In Mexico, the state of Baja California lies completely within the Pacific Time Zone and this does not include the state of Baja California Sur, which is south of Baja California. Through 2006, the time changed to daylight time at 02,00 LST to 03,00 LDT on the first Sunday in April. The Canadian provinces and territories that use daylight time each adopted these dates between October 2005 and February 2007, in Mexico, beginning in 2010, the portion of the country in this time zone uses the extended dates, as do some other parts. The vast majority of Mexico, however, still uses the old dates
Pacific Standard Time
–
Pacific Time Zone
9.
Daylight saving time
–
Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
Daylight saving time
–
Ancient
water clock that lets hour lengths vary with season.
Daylight saving time
–
G. V. Hudson invented modern DST, proposing it first in 1895.
Daylight saving time
–
Retailers generally favor DST.
United Cigar Stores hailed a 1918 DST bill.
Daylight saving time
–
William Willett independently proposed DST in 1907 and advocated it tirelessly.
10.
Pacific Daylight Time
–
The Pacific Time Zone observes standard time by subtracting eight hours from Coordinated Universal Time. During daylight saving time, its time offset is UTC−7 and is based on the mean solar time of the 105th meridian west of the Greenwich Observatory. In the United States and Canada, this zone is generically called the Pacific Time Zone. Specifically, it uses Pacific Standard Time when observing standard time, most of Canada uses daylight saving time. In Mexico, the UTC−8 time zone is known as the Northwest Zone, the largest city in the Pacific Time Zone is Los Angeles, the citys metropolitan area is the largest in the zone. The following states or areas are part of the Pacific Time Zone, California Washington Oregon – all, except for most of Malheur County, nevada Idaho Panhandle – the northern half of Idaho, north of the Salmon River. The town of Hyder, Alaska, is officially in the Alaska Time Zone, however, most of the town observes the Pacific Time because of strong connections with nearby Stewart, British Columbia, which is in the Pacific Time Zone. The United States Post Office in Hyder strictly adheres to Alaska Time, in Canada, the Pacific Time Zone includes most of British Columbia, all of Yukon, and the townsite of Tungsten. In Mexico, the state of Baja California lies completely within the Pacific Time Zone and this does not include the state of Baja California Sur, which is south of Baja California. Through 2006, the time changed to daylight time at 02,00 LST to 03,00 LDT on the first Sunday in April. The Canadian provinces and territories that use daylight time each adopted these dates between October 2005 and February 2007, in Mexico, beginning in 2010, the portion of the country in this time zone uses the extended dates, as do some other parts. The vast majority of Mexico, however, still uses the old dates
Pacific Daylight Time
–
Pacific Time Zone
11.
Baja California Peninsula
–
The Baja California Peninsula is a peninsula in Northwestern Mexico. Its land mass separates the Pacific Ocean from the Gulf of California, the peninsula extends 1,247 km from Mexicali, Baja California in the north to Cabo San Lucas, Baja California Sur in the south. It ranges from 40 km at its narrowest to 320 km at its widest point and has approximately 3,000 km of coastline, the total area of the Baja California Peninsula is 143,390 km2. The peninsula is separated from mainland Mexico by the Gulf of California, there are four main desert areas on the peninsula, the San Felipe Desert, the Central Coast Desert, the Vizcaíno Desert and the Magdalena Plain Desert. The land of California existed as a myth among European explorers before it was discovered, the earliest known mention of the idea of California was in the 1510 romance novel Las Sergas de Esplandián by Spanish author Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. Its first expedition reached the Gulf of California and California, nevertheless, the idea of the island persisted for well over a century and was included in many maps. 1532, Hernán Cortés sends three ships North along the coast of Mexico in search of the Island of California, the three ships disappear without a trace. 1533, Cortés sends a mission to search for the lost ships. Pilot Fortún Ximénez leads a mutiny and founds a settlement in the Bay of La Paz before being killed,1539, Francisco de Ulloa explores both coasts. 1690s–1800s, Spanish settlement and colonization in lower Las Californias, the first Spanish missions in Baja California are established by Jesuit missionaries,1701, The first report and a map showing California as a peninsula rather than an island is sent to Europe. 1767, Jesuits expelled, Franciscans take over the Baja missions,1769, Franciscans go with the Portola expedition to establish new missions in Alta California. Control of the existing Baja missions passes to the Dominican Order,1773, Francisco Palóus line demarcates Franciscan and Dominican areas of mission control. 1804, Las Californias divided into Alta and Baja California, using Palóus line, 1810–1821, Mexican War of Independence 1821, First Mexican Empire, Baja California Territory established, covering Baja California Peninsula. 1847, The Battle of La Paz and the Siege of La Paz occurs,1848, Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo cedes Alta California to the United States. As a U. S. territory it receives the California Gold Rush,1850, California admitted to U. S. statehood. 1853, William Walker, with 45 men, captures the city of La Paz. Mexico forces him to retreat a few months later, 1930–31, The Territory of Baja California is further divided into Northern and Southern territories. 1952, The North Territory of Baja California becomes the 29th State of Mexico, the southern portion, below 28°N, remains a federally administered territory
Baja California Peninsula
–
Satellite image of the Baja California Peninsula
Baja California Peninsula
–
Isla Partida, which is part of the
San Lorenzo Marine Archipelago National Park
Baja California Peninsula
–
Port of
Cabo San Lucas
Baja California Peninsula
–
Baja California as seen in April 1984, from the bay of a Space Shuttle (
STS 41)
12.
Tijuana metropolitan area
–
The Tijuana metropolitan area, and in Spanish the Zona Metropolitana de Tijuana, is located on the Pacific Ocean in Mexico. According to the 2005 census, the Tijuana metropolitan area was the sixth-largest in Mexico, the 2010 Census placed the Tijuana metropolitan area at 5th largest in the country with 1,751,302 persons. The census bureau defined metropolitan area comprises two municipalities, Tijuana and Rosarito Beach
Tijuana metropolitan area
–
Western TJ Metro
13.
Global city
–
A global city, also called world city or sometimes alpha city or world center, is a city generally considered to be an important node in the global economic system. The most complex of these entities is the city, whereby the linkages binding a city have a direct. Patrick Geddes also used the world city later in 1915. More recently, the term has been described as being synonymous with an influence and financial capital. Global city status is considered to be beneficial and desired, and because of this, many groups have tried to classify, although there is a consensus upon leading world cities, the criteria upon which a classification is made can affect which other cities are included. Smith and Peter J. Taylor established the Globalization and World Cities Research Network, the GaWC inventory identifies three levels of global cities and several sub-ranks. The 2004 rankings acknowledged several new indicators while continuing to rank city economics more heavily than political or cultural factors. The following is a list of the cities in the rankings, as they appear on the GaWC website, Alpha ++ cities are cities most integrated with the economy, London. Alpha + cities are advanced service niches for the economy, Hong Kong, Paris, Singapore, Shanghai, Tokyo, Beijing, Sydney. The Institute for Urban Strategies at The Mori Memorial Foundation in Tokyo issued a study of global cities in 2016. The ranking is based on six categories, Economy, Research & Development, Cultural Interaction, Livability, Environment. This Japanese ranking also breaks down top ten world cities ranked in subjective categories such as manager, researcher, artist, visitor, Global Power City top 10,1. Vienna In 2008, the American journal Foreign Policy, in conjunction with the Chicago-based consulting firm A. T, kearney and the Chicago Council on Global Affairs, published a ranking of global cities, based on consultation with Saskia Sassen, Witold Rybczynski, and others. Foreign Policy noted that the world’s biggest, most interconnected cities help set global agendas, weather transnational dangers and they are the engines of growth for their countries and the gateways to the resources of their regions. The Wealth Report is made by the London-based estate agent Knight Frank LLP together with the Citi Private Bank, the report includes a Global Cities Survey, evaluating which cities are considered the most important to the world’s HNWIs. In 2012, the Economist Intelligence Unit, ranked the competitiveness of cities according to their demonstrated ability to attract capital, businesses, talent. The State of the World’s Cities
Global city
–
London
Global city
–
Globalization
Global city
–
New York
Global city
–
Tokyo
14.
Gold Coast (Baja California)
–
The Gold Coast is a northwestern region of the Baja California Peninsula. It is one of the most visited places in Mexico, the Gold Coast is one of the richest, most educated, and most developed areas in Mexico. Just south of California, the Gold Coast consists of the western coastline on the Baja California Peninsula. Its urban area is a continuation of the South Coast urban area, the two regions share much cultural and economic exchange. The largest cities of the Gold Coast are Tijuana, Ensenada, the modern day area of the Gold Coast traces its roots through thousands of years of prehistory when the Kumeyaay dwelt in the area. The first European explorers to arrive to the area were Iberian sailors, the first being Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo in 1542, under orders from the Viceroy of Mexico City, in 1602 Sebastián Vizcaíno mapped the coast of the Californias in detail looking for natural harbors for Spanish galleons. The region is part of an area once belonged to Imperial Spain and was under the jurisdiction of the Province of the Californias. The Californias were split when Mexico won its independence from Spain into Alta California, following the Mexican-American War, the Californias became politically separated as California became a territory of the United States of America. The Baja California Gold Coast is located in an area where the California chaparral, the largest cities of the Baja California Gold Coast lie on a strip that runs from Tijuana to Ensenada. Urban development between cities is nearly continuous. The largest city in the area is cosmopolitan Tijuana and is known as the most visited city in the world. T. J. as it is known, is known for its cultural icon of Avenida Revolucion. Tijuanas large tourism sector is also in part attributed to San Diego, Tijuana serves as an arts, music, culture, sports, and innovation center on the Gold Coast. The city is known for its industry, in which thousands are employed. Within the Tijuana metropolitan area, coastal Rosarito Beach is a water sports, the citys economy is based on the revenue generated by its golf resorts, amusement park, and eco-tourist opportunities. Rosarito is also home to the third largest cycling race in North America, coined the Lobster Capital of the World, Rosarito cuisine focuses largely on sea food and shellfish. Ensenada is the second largest city on the Gold Coast and is approximately 74 miles south of Tijuana, known as a center for wine production, the Guadalupe Valley of Greater Ensenada is a wine locality that in part began wineries in Napa Valley in the San Francisco Bay Area. The Port of Ensenada, located near the heart of the city, maintains cargo and cruise terminals, cruise ships arrive at the port from the nearby ports of Los Angeles, Long Beach, and San Diego
Gold Coast (Baja California)
–
Baja California Gold Coast images, top to bottom, left to right:
Tijuana Cultural Center,
Avenida Revolucion, Tijuana Lighthouse,
Port of Ensenada,
Bahia de Todos Santos, panorama of
Ensenada,
Rosarito Beach Hotel, Grapes from Guadalupe Valley.
15.
North America
–
North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean, and to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers, about 16. 5% of the land area. North America is the third largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 565 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7. 5% of the worlds population, North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period, via crossing the Bering land bridge. The so-called Paleo-Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10,000 years ago, the Classic stage spans roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. The Pre-Columbian era ended with the migrations and the arrival of European settlers during the Age of Discovery. Present-day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect different kind of interactions between European colonists, indigenous peoples, African slaves and their descendants, European influences are strongest in the northern parts of the continent while indigenous and African influences are relatively stronger in the south. Because of the history of colonialism, most North Americans speak English, Spanish or French, the Americas are usually accepted as having been named after the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci by the German cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann. Vespucci, who explored South America between 1497 and 1502, was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a different landmass previously unknown by Europeans. In 1507, Waldseemüller produced a map, in which he placed the word America on the continent of South America. He explained the rationale for the name in the accompanying book Cosmographiae Introductio, for Waldseemüller, no one should object to the naming of the land after its discoverer. He used the Latinized version of Vespuccis name, but in its feminine form America, following the examples of Europa, Asia and Africa. Later, other mapmakers extended the name America to the continent, In 1538. Some argue that the convention is to use the surname for naming discoveries except in the case of royalty, a minutely explored belief that has been advanced is that America was named for a Spanish sailor bearing the ancient Visigothic name of Amairick. Another is that the name is rooted in a Native American language, the term North America maintains various definitions in accordance with location and context. In Canadian English, North America may be used to refer to the United States, alternatively, usage sometimes includes Greenland and Mexico, as well as offshore islands
North America
–
Map of North America, from 1621.
North America
–
North America
North America
–
The
El Castillo pyramid, at
Chichén Itzá, Mexico.
North America
–
Benjamin West 's
The Death of General Wolfe (1771) depicting the
Battle of the Plains of Abraham.
16.
San Diego
–
San Diego is a major city in California, United States. It is in San Diego County, on the coast of the Pacific Ocean in Southern California, approximately 120 miles south of Los Angeles and immediately adjacent to the border with Mexico. With an estimated population of 1,394,928 as of July 1,2015, San Diego is the eighth-largest city in the United States and second-largest in California. It is part of the San Diego–Tijuana conurbation, the second-largest transborder agglomeration between the US and a country after Detroit–Windsor, with a population of 4,922,723 people. San Diego has been called the birthplace of California, historically home to the Kumeyaay people, San Diego was the first site visited by Europeans on what is now the West Coast of the United States. Upon landing in San Diego Bay in 1542, Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo claimed the area for Spain, the Presidio and Mission San Diego de Alcalá, founded in 1769, formed the first European settlement in what is now California. In 1821, San Diego became part of the newly independent Mexico, in 1850, California became part of the United States following the Mexican–American War and the admission of California to the union. The city is the seat of San Diego County and is the center of the region as well as the San Diego–Tijuana metropolitan area. San Diegos main economic engines are military and defense-related activities, tourism, international trade, the presence of the University of California, San Diego, with the affiliated UCSD Medical Center, has helped make the area a center of research in biotechnology. The original inhabitants of the region are now known as the San Dieguito, the area of San Diego has been inhabited by the Kumeyaay people. The first European to visit the region was Portuguese-born explorer Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo sailing under the flag of Castile, sailing his flagship San Salvador from Navidad, New Spain, Cabrillo claimed the bay for the Spanish Empire in 1542, and named the site San Miguel. In November 1602, Sebastián Vizcaíno was sent to map the California coast, in May 1769, Gaspar de Portolà established the Fort Presidio of San Diego on a hill near the San Diego River. It was the first settlement by Europeans in what is now the state of California, in July of the same year, Mission San Diego de Alcalá was founded by Franciscan friars under Junípero Serra. By 1797, the mission boasted the largest native population in Alta California, with over 1,400 neophytes living in, Mission San Diego was the southern anchor in California of the historic mission trail El Camino Real. Both the Presidio and the Mission are National Historic Landmarks, in 1821, Mexico won its independence from Spain, and San Diego became part of the Mexican territory of Alta California. In 1822, Mexico began attempting to extend its authority over the territory of Alta California. The fort on Presidio Hill was gradually abandoned, while the town of San Diego grew up on the land below Presidio Hill. The Mission was secularized by the Mexican government in 1833, the 432 residents of the town petitioned the governor to form a pueblo, and Juan María Osuna was elected the first alcalde, defeating Pío Pico in the vote
San Diego
–
Images from top, left to right: San Diego Skyline,
Coronado Bridge, museum in
Balboa Park, Serra Museum in
Presidio Park and the
Old Point Loma lighthouse
San Diego
–
Kumeyaay people lived in San Diego before Europeans settled there.
San Diego
–
Namesake of the city,
Didacus of Alcalá: Saint Didacus in Ecstasy Before the Cross by Murillo (Musée des Augustins)
San Diego
–
Mission San Diego de Alcalá
17.
San Ysidro Port of Entry
–
The San Ysidro Port of Entry is the largest land border crossing between San Diego and Tijuana. It connects Mexican Federal Highway 1 with Interstate 5 on the U. S. side, the San Ysidro Port of Entry is one of three ports of entry in the San Diego–Tijuana metropolitan region. There has been a border inspection station in the community of San Ysidro since the early 20th century. Since its beginning, cars, pedestrians and trains were inspected here, in 1933 the NRHP-listed Old Customs House was built in Mission Revival style, and still stands housing offices. Trucks also once crossed at this location, but in the 1950s, due to congestion, then in 1983, the Otay Mesa Port of Entry was opened and all truck traffic is now inspected there. The current San Ysidro Land Port of Entry facility was constructed in the 1970s to meet the needs of the time, nearly forty years later, this port of entry has reached its adequate operational capacity and after eight years of planning, it is ready for a major facelift. Point of entry and roughly $48 million for the construction of a new southbound Mexican point of entry. Phase II involves the demolition of the current administrative building and construction of bigger replacement along with an employee parking structure. A new pedestrian processing building will also be constructed, phase III involves the relocation of the southbound lanes entering Mexico. These lanes will be moved west of their current location to make space for the expansion of new buildings, parking structure. Their new location will allow for a traffic checkpoint to facilitate U. S. officials to conduct inspection of vehicles heading to Mexico. Mexican officials will greet vehicles and occupants at a bigger and better equipped immigration,2011 On the U. S. side, construction of the new east/west pedestrian bridge was completed on February 15,2011. On September 14,2011, part of the panels and support beams from the construction project collapsed on vehicles crossing the border, injuring nine people. All northbound traffic was diverted to the Otay Mesa Port of Entry for the rest of the day, then a temporary pedestrian crossing facility was built on the Mexican side on the east side of the crossing. This was replaced when in August 2015 Mexico inaugurated a new pedestrian crossing facility to the east of the traffic lanes. For the first time foreigners are required to show passports when entering Mexico at the border and this walkway was nicknamed Puente Chicanadas and characterized by some as dangerous, suffocating and embarrassing to Mexico. In September 2016, a walkway from Plaza Viva Tijuana costing 25 million pesos, was opened. The southbound lanes of Interstate 5 which take vehicles into Mexico have been moved west of their previous location through the new El Chaparrel Point of Entry. )
San Ysidro Port of Entry
–
San Ysidro Border Inspection Station 2011
San Ysidro Port of Entry
–
San Ysidro Border Inspection Station in 1922
San Ysidro Port of Entry
–
The 1933
Mission Revival-style Old Customs House, in a photo from 1981
18.
Americas
–
The Americas, also collectively called America, encompass the totality of the continents of North America and South America. Together they make up most of the land in Earths western hemisphere, along with their associated islands, they cover 8% of Earths total surface area and 28. 4% of its land area. The topography is dominated by the American Cordillera, a chain of mountains that runs the length of the west coast. The flatter eastern side of the Americas is dominated by river basins, such as the Amazon, St. Lawrence River / Great Lakes basin, Mississippi. Humans first settled the Americas from Asia between 42,000 and 17,000 years ago, a second migration of Na-Dene speakers followed later from Asia. The subsequent migration of the Inuit into the neoarctic around 3500 BCE completed what is regarded as the settlement by the indigenous peoples of the Americas. The first known European settlement in the Americas was by the Norse explorer Leif Ericson, however, the colonization never became permanent and was later abandoned. The voyages of Christopher Columbus from 1492 to 1502 resulted in permanent contact with European powers, diseases introduced from Europe and Africa devastated the indigenous peoples, and the European powers colonized the Americas. Mass emigration from Europe, including numbers of indentured servants. Decolonization of the Americas began with the American Revolution in 1776, the population is over 1 billion, with over 65% of them living in one of the three most populous countries. As of the beginning of the 2010s, the most populous urban agglomerations are Mexico City, New York, Sao Paulo, Los Angeles, Buenos Aires and Rio de Janeiro, all of them megacities. The name America was first recorded in 1507 in the Cosmographiae Introductio, apparently written by Matthias Ringmann and it first applied to both North and South America by Gerardus Mercator in 1538. Amerigen means land of Amerigo and derives from Amerigo and gen, America accorded with the feminine names of Asia, Africa, and Europa. When conceived as a continent, the form is generally the continent of America in the singular. However, without a context, singular America in English commonly refers to the United States of America. In some countries of the world, America is considered a continent encompassing the North America and South America subcontinents, the first inhabitants migrated into the Americas from Asia. Habitation sites are known in Alaska and the Yukon from at least 20,000 years ago, beyond that, the specifics of the Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the dates and routes traveled, are subject to ongoing research and discussion. Widespread habitation of the Americas occurred during the glacial maximum
Americas
–
CIA political map of the Americas in
Lambert azimuthal equal-area projection
Americas
–
The Americas
Americas
–
Parkin Site, a Mississippian site in Arkansas, circa 1539.
Americas
–
World map of
Waldseemüller (Germany, 1507), which first used the name America (in the lower-left section, over South America)
19.
Metropolitan areas of Mexico
–
Metropolitan areas in Mexico have been traditionally defined as the group of municipalities that heavily interact with each other, usually around a core city. Northwestern and southeastern states are divided into a number of large municipalities whereas central states are divided into a large number of smaller municipalities. As such, metropolitan areas in the northwest usually do not extend more than one municipality whereas metropolitan areas in the center extend over many municipalities. A few metropolitan areas extend beyond the limits of one state, Greater Mexico City, Puebla-Tlaxcala, Comarca Lagunera, there are a total of fifty-six metropolitan areas of Mexico as defined by the following government bodies, The National Institute of Statistics and Geography. The United States shares a 2, 000-mile border with Mexico, the 2,000 miles is the most frequently crossed international border in the world, with about 250 million legal crossings every year. The distribution of population and urban population in Mexico has been changed significantly by the interaction between settlements in its north and the United States. Metropolitan areas located at the border with the U. S. form transnational conurbations with deep economic and demographic interaction. For example, the San Diego – Tijuana metropolitan area consists of San Diego County in the U. S. and the municipalities of Tijuana, Playas de Rosarito, and Tecate in Mexico. The total population of the region has estimated to be just over 5 million in 2009. A megalopolis, is known in Spanish as a corona regional de ciudades, the megalopolis consists of 173 municipalities and the 16 boroughs of the Federal District, with an approximate total population of almost 27 million people. List of metropolitan areas by population List of metropolitan areas in the Americas by population List of cities in Mexico Demographics of Mexico National Population Council — official website, National Institute of Statistics and Geography — official website
Metropolitan areas of Mexico
–
1 -
Mexico City, D. F..
Metropolitan areas of Mexico
–
2 -
Guadalajara,
Jalisco.
Metropolitan areas of Mexico
–
3 -
Monterrey,
Nuevo León.
Metropolitan areas of Mexico
–
4 -
Puebla,
Puebla.
20.
The Californias
–
The Californias, or Province of the Californias, or Spanish, Las Californias, Provincia de las Californias, was the northwestern-most area of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. There has been confusion about use of the plural The Californias by Spanish colonial authorities. Afterwards, when its peninsular character was ascertained, it was called simply California, when the expeditions for the settlement of San Diego and Monterey marched, it was understood that they were going, not out of California, but into a new part of it. The peninsula then began to be spoken of as Antigua or Old California. At the same time the old name of The Californias was revived. The first attempted Spanish occupation of California was by the Jesuit missionary Eusebio Kino and his Misión San Bruno failed, however, and it wasnt until 1697 that Misión de Nuestra Señora de Loreto Conchó was successfully established by another Jesuit, Juan María de Salvatierra. The mission became the nucleus of Loreto, first permanent settlement, the Jesuits went on to found a total of 18 missions in the lower two-thirds of the Baja California Peninsula. In 1767, the Jesuits were expelled from the missions, gaspar de Portolá was appointed governor to supervise the transition. At the same time, a new visitador, José de Gálvez, was dispatched from Spain with authority to organize and expand the fledgling province. The more ambitious name, Las Californias, was established by a joint dispatch to the King from Viceroy de Croix and visitador José de Gálvez. Gálvez sought to make a distinction between the Antigua area of established settlement and the Nueva unexplored areas to the north, the single province was divided in 1804, into Alta California province and Baja California province. By the time of the 1804 split, the Alta province had expanded to coastal areas as far north as what is now the San Francisco Bay Area in the U. S. state of California. Expansion came through exploration and colonization expeditions led by Portolá, his successor Pedro Fages, Juan Bautista de Anza, independent Mexico retained the division but demoted the former provinces to territories, due to populations too small for statehood. In 1836, the designation Las Californias was revived, reuniting Alta, the Seven Laws were repealed in 1847, during the Mexican-American War, and the split of the two Californias was restored. Following Mexicos defeat in the war, most of the former Alta California territory was ceded on 2 February 1848 to the United States, under the terms of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. The new Mexico-United States border was established slightly to the north of the previous Alta-Baja border, the areas in North America acquired by the U. S. were designated as unorganized territory under a military governor, pending reestablishment of civilian control and organization. California was the first section of the territory to achieve statehood, the Baja California Peninsula is bordered on three sides by water, the Pacific Ocean and Gulf of California, while Alta California had the Pacific Ocean on the west and deserts on the east. A northern boundary was established by the Adams-Onis Treaty of 1819 and that boundary line remains the northern boundary of the U. S. states of California, Nevada, and the western part of Utah
The Californias
–
A New Map of North America, produced following the 1763
Treaty of Paris, five years before the establishment of the Province of the Californias. Note that most interior geographical detail west of Louisiana was guesswork.
The Californias
–
Spanish colonial coat of arms for Baja California. The simplified version (without the crown) is the coat of arms of modern Baja California Sur
The Californias
–
1857 map of New Spain showing Alta California confined to a narrow strip on the Pacific coast, which is still larger than the actual settled area under Spanish rule.
The Californias
–
Mapa de los Estados Unidos de Méjico, 1847. The map by John Distrunell, used during the negotiations of the
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. The border shown between Baja and Alta California is south of today's U.S.-Mexico border.
21.
Conurbation
–
In most cases, a conurbation is a polycentric urbanised area, in which transportation has developed to link areas to create a single urban labour market or travel to work area. The term conurbation was coined in 1915 by Patrick Geddes in his book Cities In Evolution, the term as described is used in Britain, whereas the term in the United States is most closely equivalent to metropolitan area as used by the Census Bureau. It may consist of a city and its suburbs. A conurbation should also be contrasted with a megalopolis, where the areas are close but not physically contiguous. The cities and towns of Port Louis, Beau Bassin-Rose Hill, Curepipe, Quatre Bornes, Vacoas-Phoenix and other urbanized villages form a large, a large part of this conurbation is located in the district of Plaines Wilhems. This network of urban areas has a population of 530,920 as of 2011. Johannesburg, Ekurhuleni, and Tshwane are currently merging to form a region that comprises a population of 14.6 million people, the Mumbai Metropolitan Region consists of Mumbai and its satellite towns. Developing over a period of about 20 years, it consists of seven municipal corporations, the region has an area of 4,355 km² and with a population of 20,998,395, and is among the top ten most populated urban agglomerations in the world. It is linked together through the Mumbai Suburban Railway system and a network of roads. The population of the NCR region is 21.7 million, Dhaka has recently been linked with Narayanganj and Gazipur city such that there are no gaps between Dhaka and those two cities. The Klang Valley conurbation in the state of Selangor is composed of, Kuala Lumpur, the second largest conurbation by population in Malaysia is Greater Penang. Centred in George Town, the city of the state of Penang, the conurbation also includes the following towns in Penang. Lahore–Raiwind–Kala Shah Kaku, the second largest city in Pakistan with its towns of Kala Shah Kaku. Metro Manila, Philippines Bangkok Metropolitan Region, Thailand Ho Chi Minh City Metropolitan Region, comprising Ho Chi Minh City, Bình Dương, Đồng Nai, Bà Rịa–Vũng Tàu, Tây Ninh, and Tân An. Hanoi Metropolitan Region, comprising Hanoi, Bắc Ninh, Thái Nguyên, Vĩnh Phúc, and Việt Trì. Qui Nhơn-Nha Trang-Da Lat Conurbation Belt, comprising Qui Nhơn, An Nhơn, Sông Cầu, Tuy Hòa, Vân Phong Bay, Ninh Hòa, Nha Trang, Dien Khánh, Cam Lâm, Cam Ranh, Trường Sa, Phan Rang, and Da Lat. Huế-Da Nang-Quảng Ngãi Conurbation Belt, comprising Huế, Hương Tra, Hương Thủy, Lăng Cô, Da Nang, Hòa Vang, Hoàng Sa, Hội An, Tam Kỳ, Chu Lai, Dung Quất, Sơn Tịnh and this area is colloquially known as the Area Metropolitana. The Flemish Diamond is the Flemish reference to a network of four areas in Belgium
Conurbation
–
Population tables of world cities
Conurbation
–
Greater London Urban Area Greater Manchester Urban Area
Conurbation
–
Greater Manchester Urban Area
Conurbation
–
West Midlands Urban Area West Yorkshire Urban Area
22.
Spanish Empire
–
The Spanish Empire was one of the largest empires in history. The Spanish Empire became the foremost global power of its time and was the first to be called the empire on which the sun never sets, the Spanish Empire originated during the Age of Discovery after the voyages of Christopher Columbus. Following the Spanish–American War of 1898, Spain ceded its last colonies in the Caribbean and its last African colonies were granted independence or abandoned during Decolonisation of Africa finishing in 1976. The unity did not mean uniformity, nevertheless, some historians assert that Portugal was part of the Spanish monarchy at the time, while others draw a clear distinction between the Portuguese and Spanish empires. During the 15th century, Castile and Portugal became territorial and commercial rivals in the western Atlantic. The conquest was completed with the campaigns of the armies of the Crown of Castile between 1478 and 1496, when the islands of Gran Canaria, La Palma, and Tenerife were subjugated. The Portuguese tried in vain to keep secret their discovery of the Gold Coast in the Gulf of Guinea, chronicler Pulgar wrote that the fame of the treasures of Guinea spread around the ports of Andalusia in such way that everybody tried to go there. Worthless trinkets, Moorish textiles, and above all, shells from the Canary and Cape Verde islands were exchanged for gold, slaves, ivory and Guinea pepper. The Crown officially organized this trade with Guinea, every caravel had to get a government license, the treaty delimited the spheres of influence of the two countries, establishing the principle of the Mare clausum. It was confirmed in 1481 by the Pope Sixtus IV, in the papal bull Æterni regis, thus, the limitations imposed by the Alcáçovas treaty were overcome and a new and more balanced worlds division would be reached at Tordesillas between both emerging maritime powers. Seven months before the treaty of Alcaçovas, King John II of Aragon died, Ferdinand and Isabella drove the last Moorish king out of Granada in 1492 after a ten-year war. The Catholic Monarchs then negotiated with Christopher Columbus, a Genoese sailor attempting to reach Cipangu by sailing west, Castile was already engaged in a race of exploration with Portugal to reach the Far East by sea when Columbus made his bold proposal to Isabella. Columbus discoveries inaugurated the Spanish colonization of the Americas and these actions gave Spain exclusive rights to establish colonies in all of the New World from north to south, as well as the easternmost parts of Asia. The treaty of Tordesillas was confirmed by Pope Julius II in the bull Ea quae pro bono pacis on 24 January 1506, Spains expansion and colonization was driven by economic influences, a yearning to improve national prestige, and a desire to spread Catholicism into the New World. The Catholic Monarchs had developed a strategy of marriages for their children in order to isolate their long-time enemy, the Spanish princes married the heirs of Portugal, England and the House of Habsburg. Following the same strategy, the Catholic Monarchs decided to support the Catalan-Aragonese house of Naples against Charles VIII of France in the Italian Wars beginning in 1494. As King of Aragon, Ferdinand had been involved in the struggle against France and Venice for control of Italy, these conflicts became the center of Ferdinands foreign policy as king. Only a year later, Ferdinand became part of the Holy League against France and this war was less of a success than the war against Venice, and in 1516, France agreed to a truce that left Milan in its control and recognized Spanish control of Upper Navarre
Spanish Empire
–
Columbus and the Catholic Monarchs (The return of Columbus to Spain).
Spanish Empire
–
Flag
Spanish Empire
–
The death of French general
Gaston de Foix at the
Battle of Ravenna (1512).
Spanish Empire
–
Upon the death of
Ferdinand the Catholic, the lordship of the Spanish Indies became Kingdoms of the Indies.
23.
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
–
With the defeat of its army and the fall of its capital, Mexico entered into negotiations to end the war. The treaty called for the U. S. to pay $15 million to Mexico, Mexicans in those annexed areas had the choice of relocating to within Mexicos new boundaries or receiving American citizenship with full civil rights. Over 90% chose to become U. S. citizens, the U. S. Senate advised and consented to ratification of the treaty by a vote of 38–14. The opponents of this treaty were led by the Whigs, who had opposed the war and rejected Manifest destiny in general, and rejected this expansion in particular. The peace talks were negotiated by Nicholas Trist, chief clerk of the US State Department, Nicholas Trist negotiated with a special commission representing the collapsed government led by Don José Bernardo Couto, Don Miguel de Atristain, and Don Luis Gonzaga Cuevas of Mexico. Instead, Article V of the treaty simply described the new U. S. –Mexico border. Comparing the boundary in the Adams–Onís Treaty to the Guadalupe Hidalgo boundary, Mexico conceded about 55% of its pre-war, pre-Texas territorial claims, articles VIII and IX ensured safety of existing property rights of Mexican citizens living in the transferred territories. Despite assurances to the contrary, the property rights of Mexican citizens were not honored by the U. S. in accordance with modifications to. The U. S. also agreed to assume $3.25 million in debts that Mexico owed to United States citizens, the residents had one year to choose whether they wanted American or Mexican citizenship, Over 90% chose American citizenship, which included full voting rights. The others returned to Mexico, or in cases in New Mexico were allowed to remain in place as Mexican citizens. Article XII engaged the United States to pay, In consideration of the acquired,15 million dollars. Article XI of the treaty was important to Mexico. S, would return captives of the Indians to Mexico. Mexicans believed that the United States had encouraged and assisted the Comanche and Apache raids that had devastated northern Mexico in the years before the war and this article promised relief to them Article XI, however, proved unenforceable. Destructive Indian raids continued despite a heavy U. S. presence near the Mexican border, Mexico filed 366 claims with the U. S. government for damages done by Comanche and Apache raids between 1848 and 1853. In 1853, in the Treaty of Mesilla concluding the Gadsden Purchase, the remainder of New Mexico and Arizona were peacefully purchased under the Gadsden Purchase, which was carried out in 1853. In this purchase the United States paid an additional $10 million, however, the American Civil War delayed construction of such a route, and it was not until 1881 that the Southern Pacific Railroad finally was completed, fulfilling the purpose of the acquisition. Mexico had claimed the area in question since winning its independence from the Spanish Empire in 1821 following the Mexican War of Independence. About 80,000 Mexicans lived in the areas of California, New Mexico, Arizona, and Texas during the period of 1845 to 1850, and far fewer in Nevada, in southern and western Colorado, and in Utah
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
–
Cover of the exchange copy of the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
–
"Mapa de los Estados Unidos de Méjico. The Distrunell map used during the negotiations.
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
–
Map of Mexico. S. Augustus Mitchell, Philadelphia, 1847.
Alta California shown including Nevada, Utah, Arizona.
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
–
A section of the original treaty.
24.
Voiceless velar fricative
–
The voiceless velar fricative is a type of consonantal sound used in some spoken languages. It was part of the consonant inventory of Old English and can still be found in dialects of English. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨x⟩ and it is also used in broad transcription instead of the symbol ⟨χ⟩, the Greek chi, for the voiceless uvular fricative. There is also a voiceless fricative in some languages. For voiceless pre-velar fricative, see voiceless palatal fricative and its place of articulation is velar, which means it is articulated with the back of the tongue at the soft palate. Its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords, in some languages the vocal cords are actively separated, so it is always voiceless, in others the cords are lax, so that it may take on the voicing of adjacent sounds. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, thus Proto-Indo-European *ḱr̥nom horn and *kʷód what became Proto-Germanic *hurnan and *hwat, where *h and *hw were likely to be and. This sound change is part of Grimms law, in Modern Greek, the voiceless velar fricative originated from the Ancient Greek voiceless aspirated stop /kʰ/ in a sound change that lenited Greek aspirated stops into fricatives
Voiceless velar fricative
25.
California
–
California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
California
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A forest of redwood trees in
Redwood National Park
California
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Flag
California
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Mount Shasta
California
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Aerial view of the
California Central Valley
26.
Southern California
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Southern California, often abbreviated as SoCal, is a geographic and cultural region that generally comprises Californias 10 southernmost counties. The region is described as eight counties, based on demographics and economic ties, Imperial, Los Angeles, Orange, Riverside, San Bernardino, San Diego, Santa Barbara. The more extensive 10-county definition, which includes Kern and San Luis Obispo counties, is used and is based on historical political divisions. Southern California is an economic center for the state of California. The 8-county and 10-county definitions are not used for the greater Southern California Megaregion, the megaregions area is more expansive, extending east into Las Vegas, Nevada and south across the Mexican border into Tijuana.5 million people. With over 22 million people, Southern California contains roughly 60 percent of Californias population, located east of Southern California is the Colorado Desert and the Colorado River at the border with Arizona. The Mojave Desert is located at the border with the state of Nevada while towards the south is the Mexico–United States border, within Southern California are two major cities, Los Angeles and San Diego, as well as three of the countrys largest metropolitan areas. With a population of 3,792,621, Los Angeles is the most populous city in California and the second most populous in the United States. South of Los Angeles and with a population of 1,307,402 is San Diego, the second most populous city in the state and the eighth most populous in the nation. The counties of Los Angeles, Orange, San Diego, San Bernardino, and Riverside are the five most populous in the state, the motion picture, television, and music industry are centered in the Los Angeles area in Southern California. Hollywood, a district within Los Angeles, gives its name to the American motion picture industry, headquartered in Southern California are The Walt Disney Company, Sony Pictures, Universal, MGM, Paramount Pictures, 20th Century Fox, and Warner Brothers. Universal, Warner Brothers, and Sony also run major record companies, Southern California is also home to a large homegrown surf and skateboard culture. Companies such as Vans, Volcom, Quiksilver, No Fear, RVCA, some of the worlds biggest action sports events, including the X Games, Boost Mobile Pro, and the U. S. Open of Surfing, are all held in Southern California. Southern California is also important to the world of yachting, the annual Transpacific Yacht Race, or Transpac, from Los Angeles to Hawaii, is one of yachtings premier events. The San Diego Yacht Club held the Americas Cup, the most prestigious prize in yachting, from 1988 to 1995, Southern California is home to many sports franchises and sports networks such as Fox Sports Net. Many locals and tourists frequent the Southern California coast for its popular beaches, the desert city of Palm Springs is popular for its resort feel and nearby open spaces. Southern California is not a geographic designation and definitions of what constitutes Southern California vary. Geographically, Californias North-South midway point lies at exactly 37°958.23 latitude, around 11 miles south of San Jose, however, when the state is divided into two areas, the term Southern California usually refers to the 10 southernmost counties of the state
Southern California
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Southern California Images top from bottom, left to right:
San Diego Skyline,
Downtown Los Angeles,
Village of La Jolla,
Santa Monica Pier,
Surfer at Black's Beach,
Hollywood Sign,
Disneyland,
Hermosa Beach Pier
Southern California
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San Diego Marina district
Southern California
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Sunset in
Venice, a district in Los Angeles
Southern California
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Three Arch Bay in Laguna
27.
Timeline of Tijuana
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The following is a timeline of the history of the city of Tijuana, Baja California, Mexico. 1889 - Tijuana founded in Baja California Territory,1914 - El Hispano Americano newspaper begins publication. 1924 - Caesar salad invented by restaurateur Caesar Cardini,1925 - La Voz de Tijuana newspaper begins publication. 1928 - Agua Caliente Casino and Hotel in business,1929 - Agua Caliente Racetrack opens. 1946 - Jai alai arena opens,1953 - City becomes part of Tijuana Municipality in the state of Baja California. 1954 - Gustavo Aubanel Vallejo becomes mayor,1957 - Autonomous University of Baja California, Tijuana established in Mesa de Otay. 1960 - XEWT-TDT television begins broadcasting,1961 - XETRA radio begins all-news format. 1964 Catedral de Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe established,1965 - National Border Industrialization Program begins. 1970 - Centro de Enseñanza Técnica y Superior campus established,1971 - Escuela Preparatoria Federal Lázaro Cárdenas and Highland Prince Academy de Mexico active. 1976 - Estadio Nacional de Tijuana opens,1977 - La Casa de la Cultura Tijuana established. Plaza Río Tijuana and Las Torres built,1984 - Associacion de Mixtecos Residentes en Tijuana established. 1986 - El Colegio de la Frontera Norte established,1990 Orquesta de Baja California headquartered in city. 1993 - Sister city relationship established with San Diego, USA,1994 Cinépolis multiplex movie theatre in business. March 23, Politician Luis Donaldo Colosio assassinated,1998 - Instituto Municipal de Arte y Cultura established. 2003 Consejo Fronterizo de Arte y Cultura incorporated, eudist Servants of the 11th Hour active. 2007 Club Tijuana Xoloscuintles football team formed, Casa del Tunel art gallery and District 10 Gallery open. 2009 - Green View Tower and VIA Corporativo built,2010 April 4,2010 Baja California earthquake. Masyid Al Islam and La Caja Galería open,2012 - Museum of Mariachi and Tequila opens
Timeline of Tijuana
28.
Kumeyaay
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The Kumeyaay, also known as Tipai-Ipai, formerly Kamia or Diegueño, are Native American people of the extreme southwestern United States and northwest Mexico. They live in the states of California in the US and Baja California in Mexico, in Spanish, the name is commonly spelled Kumiai. The Kumeyaay consist of two related groups, the Ipai and Tipai, the two coastal groups traditional homelands were approximately separated by the San Diego River, the northern Ipai and the southern Tipai. Nomenclature and tribal distinctions are not widely agreed upon, the general scholarly consensus recognizes three separate languages, Ipai, Kumeyaay proper, and Tipai in northern Baja California. Other authorities see only two, Ipai and Tipai, the term Kumeyaay means those who face the water from a cliff. Both Ipai and Tipai mean people, some Kumeyaay in the southern areas also refer to themselves as MuttTipi, which means people of the earth. Linguist Margaret Langdon is credited with doing much of the work on documenting the language. Evidence of settlement, in what is today considered Kumeyaay territory,7000 BCE marked the emergence of two cultural traditions, the California Coast and Valley tradition and the Desert tradition. The Kumeyaay had land extending from the Pacific Ocean to present Ensenada, Mexico, the Cuyamaca complex, a late Holocene complex in San Diego County is related to the Kumeyaay peoples. The Kumeyaay tribe also used to inhabit what is now a state park. One view holds that historic Tipai-Ipai emerged around 1000 years ago, katherine Luomola suggests that the nucleus of later Tipai-Ipai groups came together around AD1000. The Kumeyaay themselves believe that they have lived in San Diego for 12,000 years, at the time of European contact, Kumeyaay comprised several autonomous bands with 30 patrilineal clans. Spaniards entered Tipai-Ipai territory in the late 18th century, bringing with them non-native, invasive flora, and domestic animals, under the Spanish Mission system, bands living near Mission San Diego de Alcalá, established in 1769, were called Diegueños. From 1870 to 1910, American settlers seized lands, including arable, in 1875, President Ulysses Grant created reservations in the area, and additional lands were placed under trust patent status after the passage of the 1891 Act for the Relief of Mission Indians. The reservations tended to be small and lacked water supplies. Kumeyaay people supported themselves by farming and agricultural labor, however. For their common welfare, several formed the non-profit Kumeyaay. The colleges focus is on Kumeyaay History, Kumeyaay Ethnobotany and traditional Indigenous arts and it serves and relies on resources from the thirteen reservations of the Kumeyaay Nation situated in San Diego county
Kumeyaay
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Anthony Pico, chairman of the
Viejas Band of Kumeyaay
Kumeyaay
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Engraving published by Schott, Sorony, and Co., 1857
Kumeyaay
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Kumeyaay coiled basket, woven by Celestine Lachapa, 19th century,
San Diego Museum of Man
Kumeyaay
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Kumeyaay willow storage basket at the
Universidad Autónoma de Baja California cultural museum,
Mexicali
29.
Yuman
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Not to be confused with Quechua, South American language. The Quechan are a Native American tribe who live on the Fort Yuma Indian Reservation on the lower Colorado River in Arizona, members are enrolled into the Quechan Tribe of the Fort Yuma Indian Reservation. The federally recognized Quechan tribes main office is located in Fort Yuma and its operations and the majority of its reservation land are located in California, United States. The term Patayan is used by archaeologists to describe the prehistoric Native American cultures who inhabited parts of modern day Arizona, California and these areas included territory near the Colorado River Valley, the nearby uplands, and north to the vicinity of the Grand Canyon. The prehistoric people may have been ancestral to the Quechan and they practiced floodplain agriculture where possible, but relied heavily on hunting and gathering. The first significant contact of the Quechan with Europeans was with the Spanish explorer Juan Bautista de Anza, the chief Palma and his three companions were baptized in Mexico City on February 13,1777. Palma was given the Spanish baptismal name Salvador Carlos Antonio, Spanish settlement among the Quechan did not go smoothly, the tribe rebelled from July 17–19,1781 and killed four priests and thirty soldiers. They also attacked and damaged the Spanish mission settlements of San Pedro y San Pablo de Bicuñer and Puerto de Purísima Concepción, the following year, the Spanish retaliated with military action against the tribe. After the United States annexed the territories after winning the Mexican-American War, during which, the historic Fort Yuma was built across the Colorado River from the present day Yuma, Arizona. Estimates for the populations of most native groups in California have varied substantially. Alfred L. Kroeber put the 1770 population of the Quechan at 2,500, jack D. Forbes compiled historical estimates and suggested that before they were first contacted, the Quechan had numbered 4,000 or a few more. Kroeber estimated the population of the Quechan in 1910 as 750, by 1950, there were reported to be just under 1,000 Quechan living on the reservation and another 1, 100+ off it. The 2000 census reported a resident population of 2,376 persons on the Fort Yuma Indian Reservation, more than 27 percent identified as white. The Quechan language is part of the Yuman language family, the Fort Yuma Indian Reservation is a part of the Quechans traditional lands. Established in 1884, the reservation, at 32°47′N 114°39′W, has an area of 178.197 km2 in southeastern Imperial County, California. Both the county and city are named for the tribe, warriors of the Colorado, The Yumas of the Quechan Nation and Their Neighbors. Kroeber, A. L. Handbook of the Indians of California, a Native American Encyclopedia, History, Culture, and Peoples. Traders and Raiders, The Indigenous World of the Colorado Basin, chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Press
Yuman
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Quechan tribal seal
Yuman
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Yumas. In: "United States and Mexican Boundary Survey. Report of William H. Emory…" Washington. 1857. Volume I.
Yuman
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Cameron Chino, Quechan artist
30.
Alta California
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Alta California, founded in 1769 by Gaspar de Portolà, was a polity of New Spain and after the Mexican War of Independence in 1822, a territory of Mexico. The region included all of the states of California, Nevada, and Utah. Large areas east of the Sierra Nevada and San Gabriel Mountains were claimed to be part of Alta California, to the southeast, beyond the deserts and the Colorado River, lay the Spanish settlements in Arizona. The areas formerly comprising Alta California were ceded to the United States in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo that ended the Mexican–American War in 1848, two years later, California joined the union as the 31st state. Other parts of Alta California became all or part of the later U. S. states of Arizona, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, and Wyoming. The Spanish explored the area of Alta California by sea beginning in the 16th century. During the following two centuries there were plans to settle the area, none of which were effectively carried out. Ultimately, New Spain did not have the resources nor population to settle such a far northern outpost. To ascertain the Russian threat a number of Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest were launched, the Spanish Crown funded the construction and subsidized the operation of the missions, with the goal that the relocation, conversion and enforced labor of Native people would bolster Spanish rule. The first Alta California mission and presidio were established by the Franciscan friar Junípero Serra, the following year,1770, the second mission and presidio were founded in Monterey. In 1773 a boundary between the Baja California missions and the Franciscan missions of Alta California was set by Francisco Palóu, the missionary effort coincided with the construction of presidios and pueblos, which were to be manned and populated by Hispanic people. The first pueblo founded was San José in 1777, followed by Los Ángeles in 1781, by law, mission land and property were to pass to the indigenous population after a period of about ten years, when the natives would become Spanish subjects. In the interim period, the Franciscans were to act as mission administrators who held the land in trust for the Native residents, the transfer of property never occurred under the Franciscans. As the number of Spanish settlers grew in Alta California, the boundaries, conflicts between the Crown and the Church and between Natives and settlers arose. State and ecclesiastical bureaucrats debated over authority of the missions and they advocated that the Natives owned property and had the right to defend it. Governor Diego de Borica is credited with defining Alta and Baja Californias official borders, Mexico won independence in 1822, and Alta California became a territory of Mexico. The Spanish and later Mexican governments rewarded retired soldados de cuera with large grants, known as ranchos, for the raising of cattle. Hides and tallow from the livestock were the primary exports of California until the mid-19th century, the construction, ranching and domestic work on these vast estates was primarily done by Native Americans, who had learned to speak Spanish and ride horses
Alta California
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Map of N. America showing California when it was part of New Spain. Map dated 1789 from
Dobson's Encyclopedia.
Alta California
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Mexico in 1838. From Britannica 7th edition
Alta California
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Map of Mexico. S. Augustus Mitchell, Philadelphia, 1847. New California is depicted with a north-eastern border at the meridian leading north of the
Rio Grande headwaters.
31.
Ramona
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Ramona is an 1884 American novel written by Helen Hunt Jackson. Set in Southern California after the Mexican-American War, it portrays the life of a mixed-race Scots–Native American orphan girl, originally serialized in the Christian Union on a weekly basis, the novel became immensely popular. It has had more than 300 printings, and been adapted five times as a film, a play adaptation has been performed annually outdoors since 1923. The novels influence on the culture and image of Southern California was considerable and its sentimental portrayal of Mexican colonial life contributed to establishing a unique cultural identity for the region. As its publication coincided with the arrival of railroad lines in the region, in Southern California, shortly after the Mexican-American War, a Scots-Native American orphan girl, Ramona, is raised by Señora Gonzaga Moreno, the sister of Ramonas deceased foster mother. Ramona is referred to as illegitimate in some summaries of the novel, Señora Moreno has raised Ramona as part of the family, giving her every luxury, but only because Ramonas foster mother had requested it as her dying wish. Because of Ramonas mixed Native American heritage, Moreno does not love her and that love is reserved for her only child, Felipe Moreno, whom she adores. Señora Moreno considers herself a Mexican, although California has recently taken over by the United States. She hates the Americans, who have cut up her huge rancho after disputing her claim to it, Señora Moreno delays the sheep shearing, a major event on the rancho, awaiting the arrival of a group of Native Americans from Temecula whom she always hires for that work. She is also awaiting a priest, Father Salvierderra, from Santa Barbara and she arranges for the priest so that the Native American workers can worship and make confession in her chapel, rather than leaving the rancho. Ramona falls in love with Alessandro, a young Native American sheepherder and the son of Pablo Assis, Señora Moreno is outraged, because although Ramona is half-Native American, the Señora does not want her to marry a Native American. Ramona realizes that Señora Moreno has never loved her and she, Alessandro and Ramona have a daughter, and travel around Southern California trying to find a place to settle. In the aftermath of the war, Alessandros tribe was driven off their land and they endure misery and hardship, for the Americans who buy their land also demand their houses and their farm tools. Greedy Americans drive them off from several homesteads, and they find a permanent community that is not threatened by encroachment of United States settlers. They finally move up into the San Bernardino Mountains, Alessandro slowly loses his mind, due to the constant humiliation. He loves Ramona fiercely, and regrets having taken her away from relative comfort in return for bootless wandering and their daughter Eyes of the Sky dies because a white doctor would not go to their homestead to treat her. They have another daughter, named Ramona, but Alessandro still suffers, one day he rides off with the horse of an American, who follows him and shoots him, although he knew that Alessandro was mentally unbalanced. Ramona was missing from the rancho for two years, Felipe Moreno finds the widowed Ramona and they go back to Señora Morenos estate with Ramonas child
Ramona
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1884 first edition
Ramona
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Ramona Lubo, of whom many claimed the novel was named.
Ramona
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Rancho Camulos
Ramona
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Wishing well, Ramona's Marriage Place
32.
Helen Hunt Jackson
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Helen Maria Hunt Jackson, born Helen Fiske, was an American poet and writer who became an activist on behalf of improved treatment of Native Americans by the U. S. government. She described the effects of government actions in her history A Century of Dishonor. Her novel Ramona dramatized the federal governments mistreatment of Native Americans in Southern California after the Mexican–American War, commercially popular, it was estimated to have been reprinted 300 times and most readers liked its romantic and picturesque qualities rather than its political content. The novel was so popular that it attracted tourists to Southern California who wanted to see places from the book. She was born Helen Maria Fiske in Amherst, Massachusetts, the daughter of Nathan Welby Fiske, Helens father was a minister, author, and professor of Latin, Greek, and philosophy at Amherst College. She had two brothers, both of whom died soon after birth, and a sister Anne, Anne became the wife of E. C. Banfield, a government official who served as Solicitor of the United States Treasury. The girls lost their mother in 1844, when Helen was fifteen, three years later their father died. He had provided financially for Helens education and arranged for an uncle to care for her, Fiske attended Ipswich Female Seminary and the Abbott Institute, a boarding school in New York City run by Reverend J. S. C. She was a classmate of Emily Dickinson, also from Amherst, the two corresponded for the rest of their lives, but few of their letters have survived. In 1852 at age 22, Fiske married U. S. Army Captain Edward Bissell Hunt and they had two sons, one of whom, Murray Hunt, died as an infant in 1854 of a brain disease. In 1863, her husband died in a military accident and her second son Rennie Hunt died of diphtheria in 1865. While in Colorado Springs, Hunt met William Sharpless Jackson, a wealthy banker and they married in 1875 and she took the name Jackson, under which she was best known for her later writings. Helen Hunt began writing after the deaths of her family members and she published her early work anonymously, usually under the name H. H. Ralph Waldo Emerson admired her poetry and used several of her poems in his public readings. He included five of them in his Parnassus, An Anthology of Poetry, over the next two years, she published three novels in the anonymous No Name Series, including Mercy Philbricks Choice and Hettys Strange History. She also encouraged a contribution from Emily Dickinson to A Masque of Poets as part of the same series, in 1879 Jacksons interests turned to Native Americans after hearing a lecture in Boston by Chief Standing Bear, of the Ponca Tribe. Upset about the mistreatment of Native Americans by government agents, Jackson became an activist on their behalf and she started investigating and publicizing government misconduct, circulating petitions, raising a lot of money, and writing letters to the New York Times on behalf of the Ponca. A fiery and prolific writer, Jackson engaged in heated exchanges with officials over the injustices committed against the Ponca
Helen Hunt Jackson
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Helen Hunt Jackson, c. 1850–1860
Helen Hunt Jackson
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Helen Hunt Jackson, before 1885
Helen Hunt Jackson
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The site of Hunt Jackson's grave in Colorado Springs
33.
Mexican Revolution
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The Mexican Revolution was a major armed struggle c. 1910–1920 that radically transformed Mexican culture and government. Although recent research has focused on local and regional aspects of the Revolution and its outbreak in 1910 resulted from the failure of the 35-year long regime of Porfirio Díaz to find a managed solution to the presidential succession. This meant there was a crisis among competing elites and the opportunity for agrarian insurrection. Madero challenged Díaz in 1910 presidential election, and following the rigged results, armed conflict ousted Díaz from power and a new election was held in 1911, bringing Madero to the presidency. The origins of the conflict were broadly based in opposition to the Díaz regime, with the 1910 election, elements of the Mexican elite hostile to Díaz, led by Madero, expanded to the middle class, the peasantry in some regions, and organized labor. In October 1911, Madero was overwhelmingly elected in a free, Huerta remained in power from February 1913 until July 1914, when he was forced out by a coalition of different regional revolutionary forces. Then the revolutionaries attempt to come to a political agreement following Huertas ouster failed, Zapata was assassinated in 1919, by agents of President Carranza. The armed conflict lasted for the part of a decade, until around 1920. Revolutionary forces unified against Huertas reactionary regime defeated the Federal forces, although the conflict was primarily a civil war, foreign powers that had important economic and strategic interests in Mexico figured in the outcome of Mexicos power struggles. The United States played a significant role. Out of Mexicos population of 15 million, the losses were high, perhaps 1.5 million people died, nearly 200,000 refugees fled abroad, especially to the United States. Politically, the promulgation of the Mexican Constitution of 1917 is seen by scholars as the end point of the armed conflict. The period 1920–1940 is often considered to be a phase of the Revolution, during which power was consolidated, after the presidency of his ally, General Manuel González, Díaz ran for the presidency again and legally remained in office until 1911. The constitution had been amended to allow presidential re-election, Díazs re-election was ironic, since he had challenged Benito Juárez on the platform no re-election. During the Porfiriato there were regular elections although there were contentious irregularities, the contested 1910 election, was a key political event that led to the Mexican Revolution. As Díaz aged, the question of succession became increasingly important. In 1906, the office of president was revived, with Díaz choosing his close ally Ramón Corral from among his Cientifico advisers to serve in the post. By the 1910 election, the Díaz regime had become highly authoritarian and he had been a national hero, opposing the French Intervention in the 1860s and distinguishing himself in the Battle of Puebla on 5 May 1862
Mexican Revolution
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Collage of the Mexican Revolution
Mexican Revolution
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General
Porfirio Díaz, President of Mexico
Mexican Revolution
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Anti-Diaz newspaper,
Regeneración, the official publication of the
Mexican Liberal Party (PLM).
Mexican Revolution
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A vanner (1903) at the office of opposition magazine El hijo de Ahuizote reads: "The Constitution has died" (La Constitución ha muerto).
34.
United States Army
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The United States Army is the largest branch of the United States Armed Forces and performs land-based military operations. After the Revolutionary War, the Congress of the Confederation created the United States Army on 3 June 1784, the United States Army considers itself descended from the Continental Army, and dates its institutional inception from the origin of that armed force in 1775. As a uniformed service, the Army is part of the Department of the Army. As a branch of the forces, the mission of the U. S. The branch participates in conflicts worldwide and is the major ground-based offensive and defensive force of the United States, the United States Army serves as the land-based branch of the U. S. Section 3062 of Title 10, U. S, the army was initially led by men who had served in the British Army or colonial militias and who brought much of British military heritage with them. As the Revolutionary War progressed, French aid, resources, a number of European soldiers came on their own to help, such as Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, who taught Prussian Army tactics and organizational skills. The army fought numerous pitched battles and in the South in 1780–81 sometimes used the Fabian strategy and hit-and-run tactics, hitting where the British were weakest, to wear down their forces. Washington led victories against the British at Trenton and Princeton, but lost a series of battles in the New York and New Jersey campaign in 1776, with a decisive victory at Yorktown, and the help of the French, the Continental Army prevailed against the British. After the war, though, the Continental Army was quickly given land certificates, State militias became the new nations sole ground army, with the exception of a regiment to guard the Western Frontier and one battery of artillery guarding West Points arsenal. However, because of continuing conflict with Native Americans, it was realized that it was necessary to field a trained standing army. The War of 1812, the second and last war between the United States and Great Britain, had mixed results. After taking control of Lake Erie in 1813, the U. S. Army seized parts of western Upper Canada, burned York and defeated Tecumseh, which caused his Western Confederacy to collapse. Following U. S. victories in the Canadian province of Upper Canada, British troops, were able to capture and burn Washington, which was defended by militia, in 1814. Two weeks after a treaty was signed, Andrew Jackson defeated the British in the Battle of New Orleans and Siege of Fort St. Philip, U. S. troops and sailors captured HMS Cyane, Levant, and Penguin in the final engagements of the war. Per the treaty, both sides, the United States and Great Britain, returned to the status quo. Both navies kept the warships they had seized during the conflict, the armys major campaign against the Indians was fought in Florida against Seminoles. It took long wars to defeat the Seminoles and move them to Oklahoma
United States Army
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Storming of Redoubt #10 in the
Siege of Yorktown during the
American Revolutionary War prompted the British government to begin negotiations, resulting in the
Treaty of Paris and British recognition of the United States of America.
United States Army
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Emblem of the United States Department of the Army
United States Army
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General
Andrew Jackson stands on the parapet of his makeshift defenses as his troops repulse attacking
Highlanders during the
defense of New Orleans, the final major battle of the War of 1812
United States Army
–
The
Battle of Gettysburg, the turning point of the American Civil War
35.
Panama-California Exposition
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The Panama–California Exposition was an exposition held in San Diego, California, between January 1,1915, and January 1,1917. The exposition celebrated the opening of the Panama Canal, and was meant to tout San Diego as the first U. S. port of call for ships traveling north after passing westward through the canal, the fair was held in San Diegos large urban Balboa Park. Beginning on July 9,1909, San Diegos Chamber of Commerce president, San Diego by 1910 had a population of 37,578, and would be the least populated city to ever host an international exposition. Although representatives from San Francisco urged San Diego to end its planning, with no federal and little state government funding, San Diegos exposition would be on a smaller scale with fewer states and countries participating. The Panama–California Exposition Company was formed in September 1909 and its board of directors was soon led by president Ulysses S. Grant, Jr. after Grant resigned in November 1911, real estate developer Colonel D. C. Collier, was president of the exposition. He was responsible for selecting both the location in the city park and the Pueblo Revival and Mission Revival architectural styles, Collier was tasked with steering the exposition in the proper direction, ensuring that every decision made reflected his vision of what the exposition could accomplish. The expositions leadership changed again in early March 1914, when Collier encountered personal financial issues and he was replaced by Davidson who was also joined by several new vice presidents. By March 1910, $1 million was raised for the expo by the Panama–California Exposition Company through selling subscriptions, further, by August a voter-approved bond provided an additional $1 million solely for improving permanent fixtures in the park. Funding for the California State Building was provided through appropriation bills totaling $450,000 signed by Governor Hiram Johnson in both 1911 and 1913, fair officials first sought architect John Galen Howard as their supervisory architect. With Howard unavailable, on January 27,1911, they chose New York architect Bertram Goodhue in that role, the expositions location was selected to be inside the 1,400 acres of Balboa Park. For the first few decades of its existence, City Park remained mostly open space, the land, lacking trees and covered in native wildflowers, was home to bobcats, rattlesnakes, coyotes, and other wildlife. Numerous proposals, some altruistic, some profit-driven, were brought forward for the development, several buildings including a high school, nursery, and gunpowder magazine were eventually built in the park, prior to the initial 1909 plan proposed by Davidson. During construction in 1910, a contest was held that renamed the park after Vasco Núñez de Balboa, two north-south canyons — Cabrillo Canyon and Florida Canyon — traverse the park and separate it into three mesas. Cabrillo Canyon forms a separation between the exposition site and the park entrance from downtown San Diego. The park is rectangular, now bounded by Sixth Avenue to the west, Upas Street to the north, 28th Street to the east. Goodhue and Winslow advocated a design that turned away from the more modest, indigenous, horizontally oriented Pueblo Revival and Mission Revival, towards a more ornate and urban Spanish Baroque. Contrasting with bare walls, rich Mexican and Spanish Churrigueresque decoration would be used, with influences from the Islamic, for American worlds fairs, this was a novelty
Panama-California Exposition
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Official guide book
Panama-California Exposition
–
The Cabrillo Bridge looking towards the West Gate
Panama-California Exposition
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Casa de Balboa, as rebuilt in the 1980s, and the El Prado Arcade
Panama-California Exposition
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One of the San Diego Electric Railway streetcars at 5th and Broadway in San Diego, CA (1915)
36.
Grand Hotel Tijuana
–
The Plaza Aguacaliente & Grand Hotel Tijuana is a high-rise complex of twin skyscrapers in Tijuana, Mexico. The complex consists of two towers, east and west towers, linked by two floor levels, east tower, Grand Hotel Tower I, is mainly for commercial purposes, while west tower, Grand Hotel Tower II, is home for the five-star grand hotel. The complex is located within the business district of Tijuana, Zona Rio. List of hotels in Mexico List of companies of Mexico List of tallest buildings in Tijuana Grand Hotel Tijuana Official Site
Grand Hotel Tijuana
Grand Hotel Tijuana
–
View of Las Torres at background of the Aguacaliente Minaret
37.
Prohibition in the United States
–
Prohibition in the United States was a nationwide constitutional ban on the production, importation, transportation and sale of alcoholic beverages that remained in place from 1920 to 1933. One result was that many communities in the late 19th and early 20th centuries introduced alcohol prohibition, Prohibition supporters, called drys, presented it as a victory for public morals and health. Promoted by the dry crusaders, a movement was led by rural Protestants and social Progressives in the Prohibition, Democratic and it gained a national grass roots base through the Womans Christian Temperance Union. After 1900 it was coordinated by the Anti-Saloon League, Prohibition was mandated in state after state, then finally nationwide under the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1920. Enabling legislation, known as the Volstead Act, set down the rules for enforcing the ban, for example, religious uses of wine were allowed. Private ownership and consumption of alcohol were not made illegal under federal law, in the 1920s the laws were widely disregarded, and tax revenues were lost. Opposition mobilized nationwide, and Prohibition ended with the ratification of the Twenty-first Amendment, some states continued statewide prohibition, marking one of the last stages of the Progressive Era. Anti-prohibitionists, known as wets, criticized the ban as an intrusion of mainly rural Protestant ideals on a central aspect of urban, immigrant. Some researchers contend that its failure is attributable more to a changing historical context than to characteristics of the law itself. Criticism remains that Prohibition led to unintended consequences such as the growth of urban crime organizations, as an experiment it lost supporters every year, and lost tax revenue that governments needed when the Great Depression began in 1929. The U. S. Senate proposed the Eighteenth Amendment on December 18,1917, upon being approved by a 36th state on January 16,1919, the amendment was ratified as a part of the Constitution. The Wartime Prohibition Act took effect June 30,1919, with July 1,1919, on October 28,1919, Congress passed the Volstead Act, the popular name for the National Prohibition Act, over President Woodrow Wilsons veto. The act established the definition of intoxicating liquors as well as penalties for producing them. Although the Volstead Act prohibited the sale of alcohol, the government lacked resources to enforce it. By the terms of the amendment, the country went dry one year later, by 1925, in New York City alone, there were anywhere from 30,000 to 100,000 speakeasy clubs. While Prohibition was successful in reducing the amount of liquor consumed, it stimulated the proliferation of rampant underground, organized, many were astonished and disenchanted with the rise of spectacular gangland crimes, when prohibition was supposed to reduce crime. Prohibition lost its advocates one by one, while the wet opposition talked of personal liberty, new tax revenues from legal beer and liquor, and the scourge of organized crime. On March 22,1933, President Franklin Roosevelt signed into law the Cullen–Harrison Act, legalizing beer with a content of 3. 2%
Prohibition in the United States
–
Detroit police inspecting equipment found in a clandestine brewery during the Prohibition era
Prohibition in the United States
–
The Drunkard's Progress: A lithograph by
Nathaniel Currier supporting the temperance movement, January 1846
Prohibition in the United States
–
"Who does not love wine, wife and song, will be a fool for his lifelong!" Intended as an assertion of the cultural values of
German-Americans in 1873
Prohibition in the United States
–
This 1902 illustration from the Hawaiian Gazette newspaper humorously illustrates the Anti-Saloon League and the Women's Christian Temperance Union's campaign against the producers and sellers of beers in Hawaii.
38.
Caesar salad
–
A Caesar salad is a salad of romaine lettuce and croutons dressed with parmesan cheese, lemon juice, olive oil, egg, Worcestershire sauce, garlic, and black pepper. The salads creation is attributed to restaurateur Caesar Cardini, an Italian immigrant who operated restaurants in Mexico. Cardini was living in San Diego but also working in Tijuana where he avoided the restrictions of Prohibition and his daughter Rosa recounted that her father invented the dish when a Fourth of July 1924 rush depleted the kitchens supplies. Cardini made do with what he had, adding the dramatic flair of the table-side tossing by the chef, a number of Cardinis staff have said that they invented the dish. Julia Child said that she had eaten a Caesar salad at Cardinis restaurant when she was a child in the 1920s, according to Rosa Cardini, the original Caesar salad did not contain pieces of anchovy, the slight anchovy flavor comes from the Worcestershire sauce. Cardini was opposed to using anchovies in his salad, in the 1970s, Cardinis daughter said that the original recipe included whole lettuce leaves, which were meant to be lifted by the stem and eaten with the fingers, coddled eggs, and Italian olive oil. Bottled Caesar dressings are now produced and marketed by many companies, many variations of the salad exist, for example, by topping a Caesar salad with grilled chicken, steak, or seafood. Certain Mexican restaurants may improvise on items such as substituting tortilla strips for croutons or Cotija cheese for the Parmesan and this is a concern with many similar dressings that are emulsified with eggs, though generally the pH level is thought to be acidic enough to kill those bacteria. Nevertheless, later versions of the call at least for briefly cooked coddled eggs or pasteurized eggs. Recipes may omit the egg and produce a Caesar vinaigrette, many variations of this salad exist, yogurt is sometimes substituted for the eggs to maintain a creamy texture and others call for using mayonnaise, oil and vinegar. List of salads Julia Child, Paul Child, greenfield, Terry D. Lorna Bolkey, Kathryn Hall, eds. In Search of Caesar—The Ultimate Caesar Salad Book, the Dictionary of American Food and Drink. The Food Chronology, A Food Lovers Compendium of Events and Anecdotes, from Prehistory to the Present
Caesar salad
–
A Caesar salad
Caesar salad
–
Hotel Caesar's on Avenida Revolución, Tijuana, c. 2000
Caesar salad
–
Condiments
39.
Agua Caliente Touristic Complex
–
Agua Caliente is an historic entertainment center and present day district of Tijuana, Baja California, at the southeastern end of the Centro borough. Paramount icons of Tijuana developed in Agua Caliente such as the Agua Caliente Casino and Hotel, today Agua Caliente is one of Tijuanas paramount tourist centers and the location of some of the citys most affluent neighborhoods. The hot springs around which the Agua Caliente Tourist Complex grew was a known location and prior to major development, was the site of small hotels. With the development of the casino and resort in 1928, Agua Caliente developed as a premier tourist attraction that drew the likes of Charles Chaplin, Rita Hayworth, and Laurel and Hardy. The resort was designed in a Mexican and Californian colonial style, fitted with gardens, its own airstrip, bungalows, minarets, baths, the Agua Caliente Club was a golf course adjacent to the city that later became the Tijuana Country Club. In 1930 the golf course had its first PGA Tour event at the Agua Caliente Open, the Agua Caliente Racetrack was constructed one year later in 1929 and was the site of the Agua Caliente Handicap. The race attracted wealthy Southern Californians and was the richest race in North America, in 1935, then Mexican President Lázaro Cárdenas outlawed gambling and the resort was closed. The resort was converted into a school and the site gradually fell into a state of disrepair as the resort furnishings were stripped away. Though the race continued to operate, gambling was not legalized until 1938. In 1971 the original structure of the racetrack was destroyed in a fire and it was later repaired and continues operation today, though horse racing has been replaced with Greyhound Racing, as the Racetrack of Agua Caliente. Plaza Aguacaliente & Grand Hotel Tijuana are a set of towers built adjacent to the Tijuana Country Club. It was the first major complex built in Agua Caliente after the original Tourist Complex, the early 2000s saw the establishment of Estadio Caliente on the grounds of the racetrack, though the stadium does not interfere with races. The development of the stadium brought Club Tijuana to the city, in the contemporary era Agua Caliente is one of Tijuanas most developed districts. Along with Avenida Revolucion, it is one of the citys tourist centers and is the site of luxury hotels and numerous shopping centers. It is the primary athletic center being home to the only golf course in the city, Auditorio Fausto Gutierrez Moreno, Estadio Caliente
Agua Caliente Touristic Complex
–
Tower of Agua Caliente replica.
Agua Caliente Touristic Complex
–
The Minaret
40.
Rita Hayworth
–
Rita Hayworth was an American actress and dancer. She achieved fame during the 1940s as one of the top stars. The press coined the term love goddess to describe Hayworth after she had become the most glamorous screen idol of the 1940s and she was the top pin-up girl for GIs during World War II. Hayworth is perhaps best known for her performance in the 1946 film noir, Gilda, opposite Glenn Ford, Fred Astaire, with whom she made two films, called her his favorite dance partner. Her greatest success was in the Technicolor musical Cover Girl, with Gene Kelly and she is listed as one of the top-25 female motion picture stars of all time in the American Film Institutes survey, AFIs 100 Years.100 Stars. In 1980, Hayworth was diagnosed with Alzheimers disease, which contributed to her death at age 68, the public disclosure and discussion of her illness drew attention to Alzheimers, and helped to increase public and private funding for Alzheimers research. Hayworth was born in Brooklyn, New York, in 1918 as Margarita Carmen Cansino and her father, Eduardo Cansino, Sr. was from Castilleja de la Cuesta, a little town near Seville, Spain. Her mother, Volga Hayworth, was an American of Irish-English descent who had performed with the Ziegfeld Follies and they also had two sons, Eduardo Cansino, Jr. and Vernon Cansino. Margaritas father wanted her to become a dancer, while her mother hoped she would become an actress. Her paternal grandfather, Antonio Cansino, was renowned as a Spanish classical dancer and he popularized the bolero, and his dancing school in Madrid was world-famous. Hayworth later recalled, From the time I was three and a half … as soon as I could stand on my own feet, I was given dance lessons. She noted I didnt like it very much … but I didnt have the courage to tell my father, rehearse, rehearse, rehearse, that was my girlhood. She attended dance classes every day for a few years in a Carnegie Hall complex and she performed publicly from the age of six. In 1926 at the age of eight, she was featured in La Fiesta, in 1927, her father took the family to Hollywood. He believed that dancing could be featured in the movies and that his family could be part of it and he established his own dance studio, where he taught such stars as James Cagney and Jean Harlow. During the Great Depression, he lost all his investments as commercial interest in his dancing classes waned, in 1931, Eduardo Cansino partnered with his 12-year-old daughter to form an act called the Dancing Cansinos. Since under California law Margarita was too young to work in nightclubs and bars, her father took her with him to work across the border in Tijuana, in the early 1930s, it was a popular tourist spot for people from Los Angeles. Because she was working, Cansino never graduated high school
Rita Hayworth
–
Rita Hayworth in
Down to Earth (1947)
Rita Hayworth
–
At age 12 Margarita Cansino was dancing professionally as her father's partner in the Dancing Cansinos (1931)
Rita Hayworth
–
Fox publicity photograph of Rita Cansino (1935)
Rita Hayworth
–
Columbia Pictures publicity photograph of Rita Hayworth (1940)
41.
Institutional Revolutionary Party
–
Though it is a full member of the Socialist International, the PRI is not considered a social democratic party in the traditional sense, its modern policies have been characterized as centrist. Its membership in the Socialist International dates from 1996, along with its rival, the left-wing PRD, they make Mexico one of the few nations with two major, competing parties part of the same international grouping. The PRI is the largest political party in Mexico according to membership, the adherents of the PRI party are known in Mexico as priístas and the party is nicknamed el tricolor because of its use of the colors green, white and red. The current president of Mexico, Enrique Peña Nieto, is a member of the PRI, at first glance, the PRIs name looks like a confusing oxymoron or paradox to English speakers since they normally associate the term revolution with the destruction of institutions. In 1990, Peruvian Nobel Prize laureate for literature, Mario Vargas Llosa, even though the armed phase of the Mexican Revolution had ended in 1920, Mexico had continued to encounter political unrest. The intent was to institutionalize the agreements result of Mexican Revolution, in the first years of the partys existence, the PNR was, above all, the only political machine existing. As President of the government, the executive President continued to hold power as in an era known as the Maximato. The following presidents of this period, Emilio Portes Gil, Pascual Ortiz Rubio and this ended with the election of Lázaro Cárdenas, a candidate handpicked by the liberal PNR leaders. Though the now strongly conservative Calles thought he could control him, after establishing himself in the presidency, in 1936 Cárdenas had Calles and dozens of his corrupt associates arrested or deported to the United States. Cárdenass successor Manuel Ávila Camacho gave the party its present name in 1946, from 1929 to 1982, the PRI won every presidential election by well over 70 percent of the vote—margins that were usually obtained by massive electoral fraud. Toward the end of his term, the incumbent president in consultation with party leaders, in essence, given the PRIs overwhelming dominance, the president chose his successor. The PRIs dominance was near-absolute at all levels as well. It held a majority in the Chamber of Deputies, as well as every seat in the Senate. After several decades in power the PRI had become a symbol of corruption, consequently, its left wing went on to form its own party the Party of the Democratic Revolution in 1989. The conservative National Action Party became a party after 1976 when it obtained the support from businessmen after recurring economic crises. Critics claim electoral fraud, with voter suppression and violence, was used when the machine did not work. However, the three major parties now make the claim against each other. Subsequent administrations maintained stability with continued assistance from PRI members such as Secretary of Finance Francisco Gil Diaz, Lázaro Cárdenas renamed the party the Party of the Mexican Revolution whose aim was to establish a democracy of workers and socialism
Institutional Revolutionary Party
–
Plutarco Elías Calles, president of Mexico (1924-28) and founder of the PNR in 1929.
Institutional Revolutionary Party
–
Institutional Revolutionary Party Partido Revolucionario Institucional
Institutional Revolutionary Party
–
Lázaro Cárdenas, president of Mexico 1934-40, candidate of the PNR and founder of the PRM.
Institutional Revolutionary Party
–
Manuel Avila Camacho, president of Mexico 1940-46, candidate of the PRM; the PRI founded at the end of his presidency.
42.
Luis Donaldo Colosio
–
Luis Donaldo Colosio-Murrieta was a Mexican politician, economist, and PRI presidential candidate, who was assassinated at a campaign rally in Tijuana during the Mexican presidential campaign of 1994. He was the son of Luis Colosio Fernández and Ofelia Murrieta Armida García, Colosio-Murrieta studied at the Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, better known by its initials ITESM, after which he joined the Institutional Revolutionary Party in 1972. In 1979, he joined the Ministry of Budget and Planning under future president Carlos Salinas de Gortari and he was elected to Congress as the federal deputy for his home town in 1985 and, in 1987, he was selected to serve on the PRIs National Executive Committee. In 1988, Carlos Salinas chose him as the manager for his presidential campaign. In the same election, Colosio was elected to the Senate, in the early years of Salinass presidency, Colosio served as the chairman of their partys National Executive Committee. In 1992, Salinas chose him to serve in his cabinet, in November 1993, the PRI announced that Colosio was to be its candidate for the upcoming presidential election. Like all the PRIs previous presidential candidates, he was greeted by large crowds throughout his presidential campaign, Salinas declaration was motivated by persistent rumours that highly visible Camacho would replace Colosio, who was not doing well in his campaign. Camacho let speculation grow for some time, but eventually declared he wouldnt run for office, the day after Camachos statement, Colosio was killed. Colosio collapsed, and was rushed to the citys main hospital. His death was announced a few later, amid contradicting eyewitness reports that remain to this day. The shooter, Mario Aburto Martínez, was arrested at the site, nonetheless, many theories still surround Colosios assassination. Colosio received three wounds, and it was never clear if they could have been done by a single person or not. The case was closed after many different prosecutors investigated it, but after the many mishandlings of the investigation and contradictory versions. Aburto remains imprisoned at the high-security La Palma facility in Almoloya de Juárez, on 18 November 1994, Diana Laura Riojas, the wife of Colosio, died while she was investigating on her own the murder of her husband, officially she died from pancreatic cancer. This stroke of luck for Zedillo, who would have never been a candidate under normal circumstances, eventually Ernesto Zedillo was elected president. Eight months after Colosios assassination, his wife, Laura Riojas, news magazine Proceso reported Colosios widows first words upon learning of her husbands assassination, Who did it. Two children, now cared for by relatives, survived, Colosios father continued determined to uncover what he strongly suspected are hidden truths behind his sons very public murder and, in 2004, he published a book about the case. Colosio, El asesinato, directed by Carlos Bolado, explored the aftermath of the assassination of the candidate and it notes that two investigations were conducted, and details the 15 associated people who were killed following the investigation, as well as widespread violence and unrest
Luis Donaldo Colosio
–
Luis Donaldo Colosio
Luis Donaldo Colosio
–
Monument to Luis Donaldo Colosio in
Mexico City 's
Paseo de la Reforma.
Luis Donaldo Colosio
–
Monument to Colosio.
43.
Latin America
–
Latin America is a group of countries and dependencies in the Americas where Romance languages are predominant. It is therefore broader than the terms Ibero-America or Hispanic America—though it usually excludes French Canada and it has an area of approximately 19,197,000 km2, almost 13% of the Earths land surface area. As of 2015, its population was estimated at more than 626 million and in 2014, Latin America had a combined nominal GDP of 5,573,397 million USD and a GDP PPP of 7,531,585 million USD. The term Latin America was first used in 1861 in La revue des races Latines, a further investigation of the concept of Latin America is by Michel Gobat in the American Historical Review. The term was first used in Paris in an 1856 conference by the Chilean politician Francisco Bilbao and this term was also used in 1861 by French scholars in La revue des races Latines, a magazine dedicated to the Pan-Latinism movement. Latin America is, therefore, defined as all parts of the Americas that were once part of the Spanish. By this definition, Latin America is coterminous with Ibero-America and this definition emphasizes a similar socioeconomic history of the region, which was characterized by formal or informal colonialism, rather than cultural aspects. As such, some sources avoid this oversimplification by using the phrase Latin America, the distinction between Latin America and Anglo-America is a convention based on the predominant languages in the Americas by which Romance-language and English-speaking cultures are distinguished. Latin America can be subdivided into several subregions based on geography, politics, demographics and it may be subdivided on linguistic grounds into Hispanic America, Portuguese America and French America. *, Not a sovereign state The concept of Latin America has been criticized by a number of intellectuals, the earliest known settlement was identified at Monte Verde, near Puerto Montt in Southern Chile. Its occupation dates to some 14,000 years ago and there is disputed evidence of even earlier occupation. Over the course of millennia, people spread to all parts of the continents, by the first millennium CE, South Americas vast rainforests, mountains, plains and coasts were the home of tens of millions of people. Some groups formed more permanent settlements such as the Chibcha and the Tairona groups and these groups are in the circum Caribbean region. The Chibchas of Colombia, the Quechuas and Aymaras of Bolivia, the region was home to many indigenous peoples and advanced civilizations, including the Aztecs, Toltecs, Maya, and Inca. The Aztec empire was ultimately the most powerful civilization known throughout the Americas, with the arrival of the Europeans following Christopher Columbus voyages, the indigenous elites, such as the Incas and Aztecs, lost power to the heavy European invasion. Hernándo Cortés seized the Aztec elites power with the help of local groups who had favored the Aztec elite, epidemics of diseases brought by the Europeans, such as smallpox and measles, wiped out a large portion of the indigenous population. Historians cannot determine the number of natives who died due to European diseases, due to the lack of written records, specific numbers are hard to verify. Many of the survivors were forced to work in European plantations, intermixing between the indigenous peoples and the European colonists was very common, and, by the end of the colonial period, people of mixed ancestry formed majorities in several colonies
Latin America
–
Presencia de América Latina (Presence of Latin America, 1964–65) is a 300 square meters (3,200 sq ft) mural at the hall of the Arts House of the University of Concepción, Chile. It is also known as Latin America's Integration.
Latin America
–
Latin America
Latin America
–
The Parc de l'Amérique-Latine in
Quebec City, the capital of the French-speaking Canadian province of Quebec, celebrates the cultural ties between Quebec and the other people who speak a Romance language in the Americas.
Latin America
–
A view of
Machu Picchu, a pre-Columbian
Inca site in
Peru. One of the
New Seven Wonders of the World.
44.
Mexicali
–
Mexicali is the capital city of the Mexican state of Baja California and seat of the Municipality of Mexicali. The city maintains a highly educated and skilled population, as it has modernized, mexicalis economy has been historically based on agricultural products, and to this day it remains a large sector of the economy. As time has progressed, however, its economy has gone from being agricultural to include industry. Mexicali became the center for the aerospace industry in Mexico when Rockwell Collins established an operation there in 1966. Rockwell Collins is the oldest company under the program nationwide. The Spaniards arrived in the area crossing the Sonoran Deserts Camino del Diablo or Devils Road. This led to the evangelization of the area by Catholic missionaries, nowadays, indigenous Cocopah people still inhabit a small government-protected corner of the Colorado River delta near the junction of the Hardy and the Colorado. The Cocopah mostly work on agricultural ejidos or fishing, the early European presence in this area was limited to Anzas and subsequent Spanish expeditions across the Colorado Desert and subsequent travelers on the Sonora Road opened by them. Also the presence of the Jesuits who attempted to establish a mission in what is now Fort Yuma and they left after a revolt by the Yuma in 1781. After this, the Spanish had little to do with the corner of the Baja California Peninsula, perceiving it as an untamable. Later in the 1820s, the Mexican authorities reopened the Sonoran Road, the Sonoran Road provided a route for American fur trappers, and later American troops of Kearny and Cooke passing through the area during the Mexican–American War. Herds of cattle and sheep were driven into California across this desert trail also and this route became a U. S. This mail route remained in use until 1877 when the Southern Pacific Railroad came to Yuma making it obsolete and these sediments extended far to the west of the river itself, accumulating in a shallow basin below the Sierra de Cucapá. However, from time period until the 1880s, the area was almost completely unpopulated. However, around 1900, the area with any real population, aside from the Cocopah, were concentrated in Los Algodones. In 1900, the U. S. -based California Development Company received permission from the government of Díaz to cut a canal through the deltas Arroyo Alamo, to attract farmers to the area, the developers named it the Imperial Valley. In 1903, the first 500 farmers arrived, by late 1904,405 km² of valley were irrigated, with 10,000 people settled on the land harvesting cotton, fruits, and vegetables. The concentration of housing units that straddled the border was called Calexico on the U. S. side
Mexicali
–
Cathedral of
Our Lady of Guadalupe in Downtown Mexicali
Mexicali
–
Mexicali
Mexicali
–
Mexicali, seen from the
International Space Station, is situated south of the Mexico–US border
Mexicali
–
Cars crossing the border station from Mexicali-Calexico
45.
Imperial Beach
–
Imperial Beach is a residential beach city in San Diego County, California, with a population of 26,324 at the 2010 census. The city is the southernmost beach city in Southern California and the West Coast of the United States and it is in the South Bay area of San Diego County,14.1 miles south of downtown San Diego and 5 miles northwest of downtown Tijuana, Mexico. Imperial Beach is located at 32°34′42″N 117°7′2″W making it the most southwesterly city in the continental United States, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 4.5 square miles. 4.2 square miles of it is land and 0.3 square miles of it is water and it is also part of the San Diego – Tijuana metropolitan area, the largest bi-national metropolitan area shared between the United States and Mexico with over 5 million people. Founded in June 1887, the city takes its name from Imperial County, California, Farmers and land owners from the Imperial Valley came to the area in the late 1880s seeking cooler weather during summer months. In March 1887, over 2,000 laborers descended upon nearby Coronado, California to construct the Hotel del Coronado, a large number of the workers stayed in Imperial Beach and some would later make it their permanent homestead. The city would incorporate in 1956, operating its own Mayor-council government providing city fire department service, the city has a warm semi-arid climate, with summer temperatures often in the upper 70s and winter temperatures in the 60s. Because of the year round temperatures many homes in Imperial Beach are built without air conditioning. Imperial Beach often remains 10 degrees cooler than areas of San Diego County in the summer. The city is mostly or partly sunny 323 days of the year, the Farmers Almanac consistently ranks the area within the Top 10 Best Weather Cities in America. Imperial Beach encompasses nearly 4 miles of beach and employs a year-round lifeguard staff, San Diego Magazine identifies the Boca Rio beach break as the second best surfing location in the county, second only to Blacks Beach and the Scripps Canyon area near La Jolla. The area around Imperial Beach Pier known as Pier Plaza showcases plaques placed on surfboard benches that tell the story of how the big waves influenced surfing from 1937 to the 1950s. The city connects to nearby Coronado, California by way of the Silver Strand, Silver Strand State Beach, a popular beach for camping, bird watching, and bicycling, is located in the middle of the isthmus and includes both bay and ocean beaches. The San Diego County summer tourist season brings many visitors to the citys beaches each year. For 31 years, Imperial Beach played home to the U. S. Open Sandcastle competition, the city held the final sand castle competition in August 2011, bringing an end to the annual event and tradition. The city also holds the beach front classic car show every summer, the Imperial Beach Farmers Market, the only beachfront farmers market in San Diego County, operates from Pier Plaza every Friday afternoon and offering local fruits, vegetables and community art. The South Bay Drive-in, the only ocean view drive-in theatre, is located just outside Imperial Beach off Coronado Avenue. Imperial Beach is home to Tijuana River National Estuarine Research Reserve, a National Estuarine Research Reserve, the estuary, located off Seacoast Drive and Imperial Beach Boulevard, is home to many endangered birds and wildlife
Imperial Beach
–
"Surfhenge" in Imperial Beach
46.
Rosarito Beach
–
Rosarito is a coastal resort city in the Mexican state of Baja California located approximately 10 miles south of the U. S. border in Rosarito Beach Municipality. Often mistakenly called Rosarito Beach because of the well-known Rosarito Beach Hotel and its beaches and dance clubs are a popular destination for young people from the United States during the Memorial Day and Labor Day weekends. Rosarito Beach is the seat of the municipality of Rosarito Beach, the city is the second largest in the Tijuana metropolitan area and southern beach city of the San Diego–Tijuana international metropolitan region. Additionally, it is the westernmost municipal seat in Mexico, slightly farther west than neighboring Tijuana, as of 2010, the city had a population of 65,278. The Kumeyaay referred to the now known as Rosarito Beach as Wa-cuatay. After conquering the Aztec Empire, Hernán Cortés sent expeditions to explore what he believed to be the Island of California, in 1533, mutineer Fortún Ximénez was the first European to land in Baja California, at La Paz, Baja California Sur. In September 1542, Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo passed through the Rosarito Beach area on his way from Ensenada to San Diego Bay,1697 saw the establishment of the first permanent European settlement in Baja California in a Jesuit mission at Loreto. Rosarito would soon be caught in a struggle between Jesuits, Dominicans, and Franciscan monks for decades. In 1773, a frontier was defined separating Nueva or Alta California, under the jurisdiction of the Franciscans, from Antigua or Baja California, which was entrusted to the Dominicans. In 1788, Luis de Sales, a Dominican priest, redrew the boundary, extending Baja California to the Rosarito Arroyo, known at the time as the Barrabas Arroyo. Because Mission San Miguel,13 kilometers to the south, was flooded by the Río Guadalupe. Additional advantages of the location were good grazing and plentiful arable land. In 1817, Ahumada founded the Misión El Descanso or Misión San Miguel la Nueva among the Kumeyaay people 22 kilometers to the south of the present-day Rosarito Beach. In 1830, Father Félix Caballero constructed a church here. At the time it had a population of just 254, including those from Mission San Miguel, by 1853 the mission was deserted. Ruins of Misión El Descanso remain within the community of El Descanso, the 11 league rancho was bounded on the north by Rancho Tía Juana, on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the south by public lands. Subsequently, his son, Don Joaquín Machado, applied for title to the land as Rancho Rosarito to President Porfirio Díaz, on May 14,1885, Machado received his title and registered it in Ensenada, then the capital city of the Northern District of Baja California Territory. May 14 is now recognized and celebrated as Rosaritos Foundation Day by the Historical Society of Rosarito, rosarito´s College Center It is a branch of the Autonoums University of Baja California
Rosarito Beach
–
Rosarito
Rosarito Beach
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Rosarito Beach Hotel - one of the many highrises on the beach
Rosarito Beach
–
Rosarito Beach Hotel
Rosarito Beach
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Christ of the Sacred Heart, a coastal landmark atop a summit on the coast south of Rosarito
47.
Tijuana River
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The Tijuana River is an intermittent river,120 mi long, near the Pacific coast of northern Baja California state in northwestern Mexico and Southern California in the western United States. The Tijuana River has two main tributaries, one the Arroyo de Alamar or Rio Alamar, runs in its upper reaches in the United States as Cottonwood Creek. It runs from its source in the Laguna Mountains southwestward where it is impounded in by two dams, Barrett and Morena, to water to the city of San Diego. The Arroyo de las Palmas, main tributary of the Tijuana River and its lower reaches provide the last undeveloped coast wetlands in San Diego County amidst a highly urbanized environment at the southern city limits of Imperial Beach. The river has been the subject of controversy in recent decades regarding pollution, flood control. The Tijuana River rises in the Sierra de Juárez of northern Baja California and it flows WNW through Tijuana, crossing the border approximately 5 mi from the Pacific. It flows west, just skirting the border south of the San Ysidro section of San Diego. The lower 2 mi of the form the broad mud flat estuary. It is Southern Californias largest coastal wetland and it is naturally prone to flooding during heavy rains. The Tijuana River enters the Pacific 10 mi south of downtown San Diego at the city limits of Imperial Beach. The river is impounded in Mexico southeast of Tijuana by the Abelardo L. Rodríguez Dam for drinking water, former Baja California Governor Milton Castellanos Everardo constructed concrete barriers along the riverbank to prevent flooding during his tenure. The majority of its watershed is within Mexico, between Mesa de Otay to the east, and hills to the west, the Tijuana River National Estuarine Research Reserve protects 2,293 acres and studies the Tijuana River Estuary. It was established as part of the National Estuarine Research Reserve system in the United States. The reserve is managed in part as a Biological Field Station by the San Diego State University College of Sciences, the Tijuana Slough National Wildlife Refuge is part of the San Diego National Wildlife Refuge Complex, and is also within the Estuarine Research Reserve. The Tijuana Slough Refuge protects one of southern Californias largest remaining salt marshes without a road or railroad trestle running through it, designated as a Globally Important Bird Area by the American Bird Conservancy, over 370 species of birds have been sighted on the refuge. The river has been used as a wastewater conduit since at least the early 20th century, as such, the issue of sewage in the Tijuana River predates other news stories about the Mexico-United States border within the San Diego–Tijuana region by several decades. Raw sewage overflows on the Mexican side, from canyons along the river, are a problem despite cross-border efforts to clean it up. In fact, it is the source of pollution
Tijuana River
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Dam on the Tijuana River in Mexico.
Tijuana River
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Tijuana River seen from a pedestrian bridge in
Tijuana (Mexico).
Tijuana River
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The
Tijuana River Estuary.
Tijuana River
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Major cities
48.
List of tallest buildings in Tijuana
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This is a list of tallest buildings in the Baja California city of Tijuana. Tijuana has the most high rises in northern Mexico after Monterrey, the tallest highrise in Tijuana is New City Residential at 102 metres and is estimated for completion in 2012. This list ranks Tijuana skyscrapers that stand at least 49 metres tall, spires and architectural detail are included in the height, though antenna masts are not. Equal signs =, indicated a ranking maintained by another skyscraper, the Year column indicates building completion. Buildings in Tijuana Tijuana Skyscraper Diagram
List of tallest buildings in Tijuana
List of tallest buildings in Tijuana
List of tallest buildings in Tijuana
List of tallest buildings in Tijuana
49.
Highrise
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A tower block, high-rise, apartment tower, residential tower, apartment block, block of flats, or office tower is a tall building or structure used as a residential and/or office building. In some areas it may be referred to as an MDU, in the United States, such a structure is referred to as an apartment building or office building, while a group of such buildings is called an apartment complex or office complex. High-rise buildings became possible with the invention of the elevator and cheaper, the materials used for the structural system of high-rise buildings are reinforced concrete and steel. Most North American style skyscrapers have a frame, while residential blocks are usually constructed of concrete. There is no difference between a tower block and a skyscraper, although a building with fifty or more stories is generally considered a skyscraper. They also pose challenges to firefighters during emergencies in high-rise structures. Studies are often required to ensure that pedestrian wind comfort and wind danger concerns are addressed, in order to allow less wind exposure, to transmit more daylight to the ground and to appear more slender, many high-rises have a design with setbacks. In contrast with low-rise and single-family houses, apartment blocks accommodate more inhabitants per unit of area of land, various bodies have defined high-rise, Emporis Standards defines a high-rise as A multi-story structure between 35–100 meters tall, or a building of unknown height from 12–39 floors. According to the code of Hyderabad, India, a high-rise building is one with four floors or more. The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary defines a high-rise as a building having many storeys, most building engineers, inspectors, architects and similar professionals define a high-rise as a building that is at least 75 feet tall. The lower floors were occupied by either shops or wealthy families. Surviving Oxyrhynchus Papyri indicate that seven-story buildings even existed in provincial towns, in Arab Egypt, the initial capital city of Fustat housed many high-rise residential buildings, some seven stories tall that could reportedly accommodate hundreds of people. By the 16th century, Cairo also had high-rise apartment buildings where the two floors were for commercial and storage purposes and the multiple stories above them were rented out to tenants. The skyline of many important medieval cities was dominated by large numbers of high-rising urban towers, the residential Towers of Bologna numbered between 80 and 100 at a time, the largest of which still rise to 97.2 m. In Florence, a law of 1251 decreed that all buildings should be reduced to a height of less than 26 m. Even medium-sized towns such as San Gimignano are known to have featured 72 towers up to 51 m in height, the oldest still standing tulou dates back from the 14th century. Tower blocks were built in the Yemeni city of Shibam in the 16th century. The houses of Shibam are all out of mud bricks, but about five hundred of them are tower houses
Highrise
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A high-rise
residential apartment building in
Hong Kong
Highrise
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High-rise residential complexes are a prominent feature of the
borough of
Fort Lee,
Bergen County,
New Jersey, United States, in the
New York City Metropolitan Area, with
several over 90 metres (300 ft) tall.
Highrise
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There are numerous high-rise
apartments in
Navi Mumbai,
India
Highrise
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16-floor Rusland Court tower block in
Charlestown, Greater Manchester, United Kingdom.
Mexico
Baja California
South Korea
United States
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Cuba
Spain
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Germany
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