1.
Sir
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Sir is an honorific address used in a number of situations in many anglophone cultures. The term can be used as a prefix, especially in the Commonwealth, for males who have been given certain honours or titles. The term is commonly used as a respectful way to address a man. Equivalent terms of address to females are maam or madam in most cases, or in the case of a woman, girl, or unmarried woman who prefers to be addressed as such. The equivalent term for a woman or baronetess is Dame. Sir derives from the Middle French honorific title sire, sire developed alongside the word seigneur, also used to refer to a feudal lord. Both derived from the Vulgar Latin senior, sire comes from the nominative case declension senior and seigneur, the prefix is used with the holders given name or full name, but never with the surname alone. For example, whilst Sir Alexander and Sir Alexander Fleming would be correct, the equivalent for a female who holds a knighthood or baronetcy in her own right is Dame, and follows the same usage customs as Sir. For example, while Lady Fiennes is correct, Lady Virginia, the widows of knights retain the style of wives of knights, however widows of baronets are either referred to as dowager, or use their forename before their courtesy style. For example, the widow of Sir Thomas Herbert Cochrane Troubridge, 4th Baronet, would either be known as Dowager Lady Troubridge or Laura, Lady Troubridge. Examples include, Admiral of the Fleet Sir Bruce Fraser, GCB, KBE Field Marshal Sir Thomas Blamey, GBE, KCB, CMG, DSO, ED This is also the case with academic titles, such as professor. For example, Patrick Bateson is both a professor and a bachelor, his correct title would be Professor Sir Patrick Bateson. The title of Doctor, however, is not used in combination with sir, knighted doctors are addressed as knights, though they may still use any post-nominal letters associated with their degrees. Church of England clergy who receive knighthoods do not use the title Sir, for example, the Reverend Dr John Polkinghorne, KBE is never referred to as Sir John Polkinghorne. Clergy of other denominations may use different conventions, peers who have been knighted are not addressed as Sir in the formal sense of the style, as their titles of nobility take precedence. Other male heirs of an earl who lack courtesy titles, and the heirs of a viscount or baron, do however use the style of Sir if knighted. Dual nationals holding a Commonwealth citizenship that recognise the British monarch as head of state are entitled to use the styling, the permissibility of using the style of Sir varies. Regular creation of new knights of the order ended in 1921 upon the formation of the Irish Free State, with the death of the last knight in 1974, the Order became dormant
2.
Order of Merit
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The Order of Merit is an order of merit recognising distinguished service in the armed forces, science, art, literature, or for the promotion of culture. While all members are awarded the right to use the post-nominal letters OM and a medallion for life, however, Sir Frederic Leighton, President of the Royal Academy, advised against the new order, primarily because of its selection process. From its inception, the order has been open to women, Florence Nightingale being the first woman to receive the honour, several individuals have refused admission into the Order of Merit, such as Rudyard Kipling, A. E. Housman, and George Bernard Shaw. To date, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, remains the youngest person inducted into the Order of Merit, having been admitted by Queen Elizabeth II in 1968. All citizens of the Commonwealth realms are eligible for appointment to the Order of Merit, since 1991, it has been required that the insignia be returned upon the recipients death. However, it has been claimed by Stanley Martin, in his book The Order of Merit 1902–2002, One Hundred Years of Matchless Honour, that the Order of Merit is the pinnacle of the British honours system. Some orders of precedence are as follows, Martin, Stanley, The Order of Merit, One Hundred Years of Matchless Honour, New York City, I. B
3.
Order of the British Empire
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There is also the related British Empire Medal, whose recipients are affiliated with, but not members of, the order. Recommendations for appointments to the Order of the British Empire were at first made on the nomination of the United Kingdom, the self-governing Dominions of the Empire, nominations continue today from Commonwealth countries that participate in recommending British honours. Most members are citizens of the United Kingdom or the Commonwealth realms that use the Imperial system of honours and awards. Honorary knighthoods are appointed to citizens of nations where the Queen is not head of state, occasionally, honorary appointees are, incorrectly, referred to as Sir or Dame – Bill Gates or Bob Geldof, for example. In particular, King George V wished to create an Order to honour many thousands of those who had served in a variety of non-combatant roles during the First World War, when first established, the Order had only one division. However, in 1918, soon after its foundation, it was divided into Military. The Orders motto is For God and the Empire, at the foundation of the Order, the Medal of the Order of the British Empire was instituted, to serve as a lower award granting recipients affiliation but not membership. In 1922, this was renamed the British Empire Medal, in addition, the BEM is awarded by the Cook Islands and by some other Commonwealth nations. The British monarch is Sovereign of the Order, and appoints all members of the Order. The next most senior member is the Grand Master, of whom there have been three, Prince Edward, the Prince of Wales, Queen Mary, and the current Grand Master, the Duke of Edinburgh. The Order is limited to 300 Knights and Dames Grand Cross,845 Knights and Dames Commander, and 8,960 Commanders. There are no limits applied to the number of members of the fourth and fifth classes. Foreign recipients, as members, do not contribute to the numbers restricted to the Order as full members do. Though men can be knighted separately from an order of chivalry, women cannot, and so the rank of Knight/Dame Commander of the Order is the lowest rank of damehood, and second-lowest of knighthood. Because of this, Dame Commander is awarded in circumstances in which a man would be created a Knight Bachelor, for example, by convention, female judges of the High Court of Justice are created Dames Commander after appointment, while male judges become Knights Bachelor. The Order has six officials, the Prelate, the Dean, the Secretary, the Registrar, the King of Arms, the Bishop of London, a senior bishop in the Church of England, serves as the Orders Prelate. The Dean of St Pauls is ex officio the Dean of the Order, the Orders King of Arms is not a member of the College of Arms, as are many other heraldic officers. From time to time, individuals are appointed to a higher grade within the Order, thereby ceasing usage of the junior post-nominal letters
4.
Fellow of the Royal Society
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As of 2016, there are around 1600 living Fellows, Foreign and Honorary Members. Fellowship of the Royal Society has been described by The Guardian newspaper as “the equivalent of a lifetime achievement Oscar” with several institutions celebrating their announcement each year. Up to 60 new Fellows, honorary and foreign members are elected annually usually in May, each candidate is considered on their merits and can be proposed from any sector of the scientific community. Fellows are elected for life on the basis of excellence in science and are entitled to use the post-nominal letters FRS, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society and Category, Female Fellows of the Royal Society. Every year, Fellows elect up to ten new Foreign Members, like Fellows, Foreign Members are elected for life through peer review on the basis of excellence in science. As of 2016 there are around 165 Foreign Members, who are entitled to use the post-nominal ForMemRS, see Category, Foreign Members of the Royal Society. Honorary Fellows include Bill Bryson, Melvyn Bragg, Robin Saxby, David Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Turville, Honorary Fellows are entitled to use the post nominal letters HonFRS. Others including John Maddox, Patrick Moore and Lisa Jardine were elected as honorary fellows, statute 12 is a legacy mechanism for electing members before official honorary membership existed in 1997. Fellows elected under statute 12 include David Attenborough and John Palmer, prime Ministers of the United Kingdom such as Margaret Thatcher, Neville Chamberlain, H. H. Asquith were elected under statute 12, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society. The Council of the Royal Society can recommend members of the British Royal Family for election as Royal Fellows of the Royal Society. As of 2016 there are five royal fellows, Charles, Prince of Wales, Anne, Princess Royal, Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and Prince Andrew, Duke of York. Her Majesty the Queen, Elizabeth II is not a Royal Fellow, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh was elected under statute 12, not as a Royal Fellow. The election of new fellows is announced annually in May, after their nomination, each candidate for Fellowship or Foreign Membership is nominated by two Fellows of the Royal Society, who sign a certificate of proposal. Previously, nominations required at least five fellows to support each nomination by the proposer, the certificate of election includes a statement of the principal grounds on which the proposal is being made. There is no limit on the number of nominations each year. In 2015, there were 654 candidates for election as Fellows and 106 candidates for Foreign Membership. The final list of up to 52 Fellowship candidates and up to 10 Foreign Membership candidates is confirmed by the Council in April, a candidate is elected if he or she secures two-thirds of votes of those Fellows present and voting. A further maximum of six can be ‘Honorary’, ‘General’ or ‘Royal’ Fellows, nominations for Fellowship are peer reviewed by sectional committees, each with fifteen members and a chair
5.
Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts
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Fellowship of the Royal Society of Arts is an award open to anyone who can demonstrate that they support the mission and share the values of the Royal Society of Arts. Fellows are charged a subscription and are entitled to use the post-nominal letters FRSA, examples of current fellows, who come from diverse backgrounds and professions, include Tim Berners-Lee, Sue Black, Stephen Hawking, Benson Taylor and Gareth Malone. Previous Fellows have included Charles Dickens, Benjamin Franklin and Karl Marx, a partial List of Fellows of the Royal Society of Arts gives more examples, alongside the Category, Fellows of the Royal Society of Arts. As of 2016 the RSA Fellowship is a community of 28,000 members who have either applied for or been nominated for Fellowship since 1754
6.
British Computer Society
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The British Computer Society is a professional body and a learned society that represents those working in Information Technology both in the United Kingdom and internationally. Established in 1957, in 2009 it rebranded as BCS — The Chartered Institute for IT, with a worldwide membership of over 82,000 members in over 100 countries, BCS is a registered charity and was incorporated by Royal Charter in 1984. The BCS is also a member of the Council of European Professional Informatics Societies, BCS is also a member organisation of the Science Council through which it is licensed to award the designation of Chartered Scientist. BCS has offices off the Strand in Southampton Street, south of Covent Garden in central London, the main administrative offices are in Swindon, Wiltshire, west of London. It also has two offices in Sri Lanka and Mauritius. Members are sent the quarterly IT professional magazine ITNOW, the forerunner of BCS was the London Computer Group, founded in 1956. BCS was formed a year later from the merger of the LCG, in October 1957, BCS was incorporated, by Articles of Association, as The British Computer Society Ltd, the first President of BCS was Sir Maurice Wilkes, FRS. In 1966, the BCS was granted charitable status and in 1970, the major ethical responsibilities of BCS are emphasized by the leopards face, surmounting the whole crest and depicting eternal vigilance over the integrity of the Society and its members. The BCS patron is HRH The Duke of Kent, KG and he became patron in December 1976 and has been actively involved in BCS activities, particularly having been President in the Silver Jubilee Year in 1982–1983. In 2007, BCS launched BCSrecruit. com — a job site specifically aimed at IT professionals. In 2008 the BCS was labelled irrelevant by an IT training company, on 21 September 2009, the British Computer Society went through a transformation and re-branded itself as BCS — The Chartered Institute for IT. In 2010, an Extraordinary General Meeting was called to discuss the direction of the BCS, the debate has been covered by the computing press. The BCS advisory Council elects the Honorary Officers — the President, lists of Trust Board and Advisory Council members are maintained online. The advisory Council provides advice to the Trustee Board on the direction and operation of BCS, in particular it is consulted on strategic plans and the annual budget. The Council is a body of the membership, with members elected directly by the professional membership. The BCS is the professional body in the United Kingdom with the ability to grant chartered status to IT professionals under its Royal Charter. Thus having the ability to grant Chartered status to both its Fellows and Professional members, known as Chartered IT Professional, they are entitled to use the suffix CITP. The BCS keeps a register of current Chartered Members and Fellows, other Professional membership bodies apply to the BCS for a licence that enables them to award CITP to their eligible members
7.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
8.
Emanuel School
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Emanuel School is a co-educational public school in Battersea, south-west London. The school was founded in 1594 by Anne Sackville, Lady Dacre and Queen Elizabeth I and occupies a 12-acre site near to Clapham Junction railway station. The school is part of the Headmasters and Headmistresses Conference and at the start of the 2014–15 academic year had 760 pupils between the ages of ten and eighteen, paying fees of £16,404 per year and it teaches the GCSE and A-Level syllabuses. Emanuel School is one of five schools administered by the United Westminster Schools Foundation and it came into being by the will of Anne, Lady Dacre, dated 1594. She was the daughter of Sir Richard Sackville by his wife Winifred and her brother was Thomas Sackville, 1st Earl of Dorset. She married Gregory Fiennes of Herstmonceaux and Chelsea, 10th Baron Dacre and he died on 25 September 1594 and she followed him, dying on 14 May 1595. Her epitaph states, Faeminei lux clara chori, pia, casta, pudica, aegis subsidium, with Lady Dacres benefaction in 1594, Emanuel Hospital, as it was first called, began. The children wore long tunics, rather similar in cut to those still worn by pupils at Christs Hospital. Thanks to the interest of Queen Elizabeth I, cousin to Lady Dacre, a charter was drawn up, mention is made of the Hospital and similar foundations in an undated letter written by Daniel Defoe, entitled A Scheme for a Royal Palace in the Place of White-Hall. In 1883, the school sought larger, newer buildings for the children, and the boy boarders, as they all then were, moved to the present buildings on the edge of Wandsworth Common. The Rev. A. Towsey, 1883–1894 The Rev. Dr A Chilton MVO, DD, 1894–1905 The Rev. H. Buchanan-Riley, 1905–1913 S. Goodwin, 1914–1927 G. H. Wyatt, 1927–1928 C. M. Broom, 1928–1953 J. B. Grundy, 1953–1963 W. S. Hipkins,1964 C. C, daily Chapel services are led by the Chaplain with regular Holy Communion services and musical concerts. Confirmation is available with the Chaplain who holds regular classes for pupils, whilst the Chapel is open for the use of pupils, teachers, staff. Paintings of Moses and Aaron that formed part of the altarpiece of St. Benet Fink are now held in Chapel
9.
The Queen's College, Oxford
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The Queens College is a constituent college of the University of Oxford, England. The college was founded in 1341 by Robert de Eglesfield in honour of Queen Philippa of Hainault, the college is distinguished by its predominantly neoclassical architecture, which includes buildings designed by Sir Christopher Wren and Nicholas Hawksmoor. In 2014, the college had an endowment of £206.1 million, the college was founded during the 14th century by Robert de Eglesfield, chaplain to Queen Philippa of Hainault, hence its name. The colleges coat of arms is that of the founder, it slightly from his familys coat of arms. The current coat of arms was adopted by dEglesfield because he was unable to use his familys arms, the frontage of the college was designed by Nicholas Hawksmoor, part of a substantial rebuilding in the 18th century during which the library was built. The medieval foundations, however, remain beneath the current 18th-century structure, in 2012, the college had net assets of £201.4 million. The college has had an association with the north of England, in part because of its founder. This connection was reinforced for many years until recently by the large number of Hastings Scholarships given to men from 20 schools in Yorkshire. Graduate students from the universities of Bradford, Hull, Leeds, Sheffield, the college is named for its first patroness, Queen Philippa of Hainault. Established in January 1341 under the name of the Hall of the Queens scholars of Oxford, an Act of 1585 sought to end this confusion by providing that it should be called by the one name the Queens College, in practice the definite article is usually omitted. The full name of the College, as indicated in its reports, is The Provost. Queens College in Cambridge positions its apostrophe differently and has no article, in April 2012, as part of the celebrations of the Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II, a series of commemorative stamps were released featuring A-Z pictures of famous British landmarks. The Queens Colleges front quad was used on the Q stamp, alongside other landmarks such as the Angel of the North on A, the college has one of the best-stocked college libraries in Oxford. The current lending library consists of around 50,000 volumes, the Upper Library has been a focal point for the College ever since its construction at the end of the 17th century. Unlike many other rooms in Oxford libraries, the Upper Library remains as a silent reading room for students open during staffed hours. The open cloister below the Upper Library was enclosed in the 19th century to form the Lower Library, the college has one of the largest and most diverse collections of rare books in Oxford. The chapel is noted for its Frobenius organ in the west gallery and it was installed in 1965, replacing a Rushworth and Dreaper organ from 1931. The earliest mention of an organ is 1826, the Chapel Choir has been described as Oxfords finest mixed-voice choir and continues to perform termly concerts, with recent examples including Handels Messiah and Bachs St. John Passion
10.
University of Oxford
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The University of Oxford is a collegiate research university located in Oxford, England. It grew rapidly from 1167 when Henry II banned English students from attending the University of Paris, after disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled north-east to Cambridge where they established what became the University of Cambridge. The two ancient universities are frequently referred to as Oxbridge. The university is made up of a variety of institutions, including 38 constituent colleges, All the colleges are self-governing institutions within the university, each controlling its own membership and with its own internal structure and activities. Being a city university, it not have a main campus, instead, its buildings. Oxford is the home of the Rhodes Scholarship, one of the worlds oldest and most prestigious scholarships, the university operates the worlds oldest university museum, as well as the largest university press in the world and the largest academic library system in Britain. Oxford has educated many notable alumni, including 28 Nobel laureates,27 Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom, the University of Oxford has no known foundation date. Teaching at Oxford existed in form as early as 1096. It grew quickly in 1167 when English students returned from the University of Paris, the historian Gerald of Wales lectured to such scholars in 1188 and the first known foreign scholar, Emo of Friesland, arrived in 1190. The head of the university had the title of chancellor from at least 1201, the university was granted a royal charter in 1248 during the reign of King Henry III. After disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled from the violence to Cambridge, the students associated together on the basis of geographical origins, into two nations, representing the North and the South. In later centuries, geographical origins continued to many students affiliations when membership of a college or hall became customary in Oxford. At about the time, private benefactors established colleges as self-contained scholarly communities. Among the earliest such founders were William of Durham, who in 1249 endowed University College, thereafter, an increasing number of students lived in colleges rather than in halls and religious houses. In 1333–34, an attempt by some dissatisfied Oxford scholars to found a new university at Stamford, Lincolnshire was blocked by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge petitioning King Edward III. Thereafter, until the 1820s, no new universities were allowed to be founded in England, even in London, thus, Oxford and Cambridge had a duopoly, the new learning of the Renaissance greatly influenced Oxford from the late 15th century onwards. Among university scholars of the period were William Grocyn, who contributed to the revival of Greek language studies, and John Colet, the noted biblical scholar. With the English Reformation and the breaking of communion with the Roman Catholic Church, recusant scholars from Oxford fled to continental Europe, as a centre of learning and scholarship, Oxfords reputation declined in the Age of Enlightenment, enrolments fell and teaching was neglected
11.
Conway Berners-Lee
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Conway Berners-Lee is an English mathematician and computer scientist who worked in the team that developed the Ferranti Mark 1, the worlds first commercial stored program electronic computer. He was born in Birmingham in 1921 and is the father of Sir Tim Berners-Lee, early in World War II Berners-Lee volunteered for the armed services, but was re-directed to university because the government needed people trained in mathematics and electronics. He attended Trinity College, Cambridge in 1940 and read parts I, in addition, he attended a series of lectures in electronics. After university he had training in electronic engineering and soon joined the army in the Corps of Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers. He worked on Gun Laying and Searchlight Radar in England, after the end of hostilities, Berners-Lee was posted to Egypt where he encountered Maurice Kendalls book The Advanced Theory of Statistics which greatly impressed him. He then had a chance to join the statistics bureau in the GHQ in Cairo and he was employed to close down a very large punched card installation involving about five million 65-column punched cards covering all types of vehicle and spares. This meant that they had to say goodbye to 30 women who had been punching the cards, the last job was sorting and listing the 250,000 personnel cards to get all the service people onto ships for home. There was a race with the clerks doing this job by hand—and the clerks won over the machines, Berners-Lee was demobilised in 1947 with the rank of Major. He then worked on a punched card data processing system for the Plastics Division of Imperial Chemical Industries and he met his wife Mary Lee Woods at the Ferranti Christmas party in Manchester in 1952. She had been working as a programmer on the Ferranti Mark 1 and Mark 1 Star computers at the School of Computer Science and he joined Ferranti in 1953 working at Ferrantis London Computer Centre. They were married on 10 July 1954 at St Saviours Church, the following is an extract from Dominic Wilsons book Organizational Marketing. ‘Men got more than women’, Mary Lee added, ‘It was grossly unfair and there was a rebellion. The personnel officer was shocked wed even discussed our wages. ’ She was on £400 a year, ‘The Tin Hut marriage rate was high’, her husband said. ‘The Robinsons … the Bennetts … the Clarkes … us. ’ Many of these pioneers had moved on to professorships, or stock options and top executive jobs. Theyd been the culmination of a progress from military radar work to academia to commerce. In the 1950s it was not clear how computers could usefully be employed away from the field of mathematics, as well as Statistics, Berners-Lee had acquired a knowledge of Operations Research, and he showed himself to be good at devising worthwhile computer applications. He directed the development of routines for the data processing techniques of sorting and updating files. In 1956 he devised an application for planning the production of items from a variety of components, in 1957 he published an article on machine loading
12.
Queen Elizabeth Prize for Engineering
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The £1 million Prize is awarded biennially in the name of Queen Elizabeth II. The prize was launched in November 2011 by a cross-party line up of the UK Prime Minister David Cameron, Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg. The inaugural prize was presented to the creators of the Internet, the browser, the 2015 prize was awarded to Robert Langer, for his work in controlled-release large molecule drug delivery. The third prize was awarded on 1 February 2017 to Eric Fossum, George Smith, Nobukazu Teranishi, the objective of the Queen Elizabeth Prize is to raise the public profile of engineering, and to inspire young people and engage them in engineering. It is run by a company, limited by guarantee. The day-to-day running of the QEPrize is carried out by a team based at the Royal Academy of Engineering, the prize rewards an outstanding engineering-led advance that has produced tangible and widespread public benefit. This is judged on criteria, that includes the cultural impacts of the engineering. Nominations are encouraged from the public, from engineering and science academies, universities, research organisations, the only restriction is that self-nomination is not permitted, and that the prize not be awarded posthumously. Nominations can be made via a portal on the QEPrize website. A search group composed of eminent engineers sifts and develops the nominations before the process begins. The panel uses the following criteria to select the winning nominations, in what way has this innovation been of global benefit to humanity. Is there anyone else who might claim to have had a role in this development. The winner of the QEPrize are announced every two years by the Chairman of the QEPrize Foundation, in the first three prize cycles, this announcement was held at the Royal Academy of Engineering, and was attended by members of the Royal Family. The QEPrize awards ceremony takes place in the year as the announcement. The QEPrize trophy, designed by the winner of the Create the Trophy competition, is presented to the QEPrize winner by a member of the Royal Family, in the first three prize cycles, the trophy was presented by Her Majesty The Queen. On 1 February 2017, it was announced that the 2017 prize would be awarded to the four engineers responsible for the creation of digital imaging sensors. The announcement was made by Lord Browne of Madingley at the Royal Academy of Engineering, the winners of the 2017 prize were, George E. The winners will receive their award in a ceremony at Buckingham Palace later in 2017, the 2015 prize was awarded to Robert Langer of United States, for his work in controlled-release large molecule drug delivery
13.
Awards and honours presented to Tim Berners-Lee
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Sir Timothy John Tim Berners-Lee, OM, KBE, FRS, FREng, FRSA, DFBCS, also known as TimBL, the inventor of the World Wide Web, has received a number of awards and honours. 1994, Became one of six members of the World Wide Web Hall of Fame. 1995, Kilby Foundations Young Innovator of the Year Award,1995, The Software System Award from the Association for Computing Machinery. 1995, Distinguished Fellow of the British Computer Society 1996, Honorary degree,1997, Appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire for services to global computer networking. 1998, Honorary doctorate, University of Essex,1998, The USENIX Lifetime Achievement Award, USENIX. 1999, Time Magazine named him one of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th century, march 2000, Honorary degree, The Open University as Doctor of the University. 2001, Elected a Fellow of the Royal Society 2001, Elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts,2002, Albert Medal 2002, Named in the BBCs list of the 100 Greatest Britons following a UK-wide vote. The cash prize, worth one million euros, was awarded on 15 June, in Helsinki, Finland, by the President of the Republic of Finland, Tarja Halonen. 2004, Promoted to Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the New Year Honours for services to the development of the Internet. Formally invested on 16 July 2004, July 21,2004, Honorary Doctor of Science degree, Lancaster University. 2007, Ranked Joint First, alongside Albert Hofmann, in The Telegraphs list of 100 greatest living geniuses. 13 June 2007, Order of Merit, becoming one of only 24 living members entitled to hold the honour,2008, IEEE/RSE Wolfson James Clerk Maxwell Award, for conceiving and further developing the World Wide Web.2 December 2008, Honorary doctorate, University of Manchester. His parents worked on the Manchester Mark 1 in the 1940s and 50s,21 April 2009, Honorary doctorate, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid. 28 April 2009, Elected a foreign associate of the United States National Academy of Sciences,8 June 2009, Webby Award for Lifetime Achievement, at the awards ceremony held in New York City. 26 May 2011, Honorary Doctor of Science degree, Harvard University,2011, Inducted into IEEE Intelligent Systems AIs Hall of Fame for the significant contributions to the field of AI and intelligent systems. 2012, Inducted into the Internet Hall of Fame by the Internet Society,27 July 2012, Recognised for the invention of the World Wide Web in the 2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony. 13 September 2013, Honorary Doctor of Science degree, University of St Andrews,19 May 2014, Honorary Doctor of Engineering and Technology degree, Yale University. 24 May 2014, Honorary Doctor of Science degree, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute,24 September 2014, Honorary Freedom of the City of London
14.
World Wide Web Consortium
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The World Wide Web Consortium is the main international standards organization for the World Wide Web. As of 1 April 2017, the World Wide Web Consortium has 461 members, the W3C also engages in education and outreach, develops software and serves as an open forum for discussion about the Web. The World Wide Web Consortium was founded by Tim Berners-Lee after he left the European Organization for Nuclear Research in October,1994, the organization tries to foster compatibility and agreement among industry members in the adoption of new standards defined by the W3C. Incompatible versions of HTML are offered by different vendors, causing inconsistency in how web pages are displayed, the consortium tries to get all those vendors to implement a set of core principles and components which are chosen by the consortium. It was originally intended that CERN host the European branch of W3C, however, CERN wished to focus on particle physics, not information technology. In April 1995, the French Institute for Research in Computer Science and Automation became the European host of W3C, starting in 1997, W3C created regional offices around the world. In October 2012, W3C convened a community of major web players and publishers to establish a MediaWiki wiki that seeks to document open web standards called the WebPlatform and WebPlatform Docs. Sometimes, when a specification becomes too large, it is split into independent modules which can mature at their own pace, subsequent editions of a module or specification are known as levels and are denoted by the first integer in the title. Subsequent revisions on each level are denoted by a following an decimal point. The W3C standard formation process is defined within the W3C process document, after enough content has been gathered from editor drafts and discussion, it may be published as a working draft for review by the community. A WD document is the first form of a standard that is publicly available, commentary by virtually anyone is accepted, though no promises are made with regard to action on any particular element commented upon. At this stage, the document may have significant differences from its final form. As such, anyone who implements WD standards should be ready to significantly modify their implementations as the standard matures, a candidate recommendation is a version of a standard that is more mature than the WD. At this point, the responsible for the standard is satisfied that the standard meets its goal. The purpose of the CR is to aid from the development community as to how implementable the standard is. The standard document may change further, but at this point, significant features are mostly decided, the design of those features can still change due to feedback from implementors. A proposed recommendation is the version of a standard that has passed the two levels. The users of the standard provide input, at this stage, the document is submitted to the W3C Advisory Council for final approval
15.
University of Southampton
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The University of Southampton is a public research university located in Southampton, England. The origins of the university back to the founding of the Hartley Institution in 1862 following a legacy to the Corporation of Southampton by Henry Robinson Hartley. In 1902, the Institution developed into the Hartley University College awarding degrees from the University of London, on 29 April 1952, the institution was granted a Royal Charter to give the University of Southampton full university status, allowing it to award its own degrees. The university has seven teaching campuses, in addition, the university operates a School of Art based in nearby Winchester and an international branch in Malaysia offering courses in Engineering. Each campus is equipped with its own library facilities, the University of Southampton currently has 17,485 undergraduate and 7,390 postgraduate students, making it the largest university by higher education students in the South East region. The university owns and operates a sports ground at nearby Wide Lane for use by students, besides being recognised as one of the leading research universities in the UK, Southampton has also achieved consistently high scores for its teaching and learning activities. It additionally has one of the highest proportions of income derived from activities in Britain. As of 2015, Southampton is one of the few universities to achieve a top 20 UK position in the most established national and international rankings, in the 2016 edition of U. S. News & World Report, Southampton is placed in the top 10 of British Universities. Southampton is a member of the European University Association, the Association of Commonwealth Universities and is an institution of the Worldwide Universities Network. The university consistently ranks in the top 5 in Engineering programs in England, the University of Southampton has its origin as the Hartley Institution which was formed in 1862 from a benefaction by Henry Robinson Hartley. Hartley had inherited a fortune from two generations of successful wine merchants, at his death in 1850, he left a bequest of £103,000 to the Southampton Corporation for the study and advancement of the sciences in his property on Southamptons High Street, in the city centre. Hartley was a straggler, who had little liking of the new age docks. He did not desire to create a college for many but a centre for Southamptons intellectual elite. After lengthy legal challenges to the Bequest, and a debate as to how best interpret the language of his Will. On 15 October 1862, the Hartley Institute was opened by the Prime Minister Lord Palmerston in a civic occasion which exceeded in splendor anything that anyone in the town could remember. After initial years of struggle, the Hartley Institute became the Hartley College in 1883. This move was followed by increasing numbers of students, teaching staff, in 1902, the Hartley College became the Hartley University college, a degree awarding branch of the University of London. This was after inspection of the teaching and finances by the University College Grants Committee, an increase in student numbers in the following years motivated fund raising efforts to move the college to greenfield land around Back Lane in the Highfield area of Southampton
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Plessey
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The Plessey Company plc was a British-based international electronics, defence and telecommunications company. It originated in 1917, growing and diversifying into electronics and it expanded after the Second World War by acquisition of companies and formed overseas companies. It was listed on the London Stock Exchange and was a constituent of the FTSE100 Index, in 1989, it was taken over by a consortium formed by GEC and Siemens which split the assets of the Plessey group. The majority of Plesseys defence assets were amalgamated into BAE Systems in 1999 when BAe merged with the arm of GEC. A small portion of the market, mostly embedded electronic systems and circuitcards remained with GE, formerly GE Fanuc. The bulk of Plesseys telecommunications assets were acquired by Ericsson through its 2005 acquisition of Marconi Corporation plc, the remainder of the communication assets went to Telent plc. The Plessey company was founded in 1917 in Marylebone, central London, the original shareholders were Thomas Hurst Hodgson, C. H. Whitaker, Raymond Parker and his brother Plessey Parker, a talented German engineer, William Oscar Heyne was employed by the company. Heyne later became the Managing Director and Chairman of Plessey and was one of the key figures in the development of Plessey during the 1920s and 30s, the company moved to Cottenham Road in Ilford early in 1919. In 1925 the original company was wound up and a new one formed with a share capital. Most of the work carried out by the company was mechanical engineering rather than electronics. An early customer of Plessey was a company called British Electro Chemists. One of that companys shareholders was Byron G. Clark, an American, Hodgson, one of the founders of Plessey. The Clark family would dominate the management of Plessey for most of its history. During the 1920s Plessey began to diversify into electrical manufacturing, important contracts included the manufacture of early radios for Marconi and the production of telephones for the GPO. Because of the production, Plessey moved to Vicarage Lane Ilford in 1923. In 1929 the television pioneer John Logie Baird had his first production produced by Plessey. The company also produced the first British made portable battery radio in the same year, the manufacture of electrical components also became a key area of growth for Plessey
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Massachusetts Institute of Technology
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The Massachusetts Institute of Technology is a private research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, often cited as one of the worlds most prestigious universities. Researchers worked on computers, radar, and inertial guidance during World War II, post-war defense research contributed to the rapid expansion of the faculty and campus under James Killian. The current 168-acre campus opened in 1916 and extends over 1 mile along the bank of the Charles River basin. The Institute is traditionally known for its research and education in the sciences and engineering, and more recently in biology, economics, linguistics. Air Force and 6 Fields Medalists have been affiliated with MIT, the school has a strong entrepreneurial culture, and the aggregated revenues of companies founded by MIT alumni would rank as the eleventh-largest economy in the world. In 1859, a proposal was submitted to the Massachusetts General Court to use newly filled lands in Back Bay, Boston for a Conservatory of Art and Science, but the proposal failed. A charter for the incorporation of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Rogers, a professor from the University of Virginia, wanted to establish an institution to address rapid scientific and technological advances. The Rogers Plan reflected the German research university model, emphasizing an independent faculty engaged in research, as well as instruction oriented around seminars, two days after the charter was issued, the first battle of the Civil War broke out. After a long delay through the war years, MITs first classes were held in the Mercantile Building in Boston in 1865, in 1863 under the same act, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts founded the Massachusetts Agricultural College, which developed as the University of Massachusetts Amherst. In 1866, the proceeds from sales went toward new buildings in the Back Bay. MIT was informally called Boston Tech, the institute adopted the European polytechnic university model and emphasized laboratory instruction from an early date. Despite chronic financial problems, the institute saw growth in the last two decades of the 19th century under President Francis Amasa Walker. Programs in electrical, chemical, marine, and sanitary engineering were introduced, new buildings were built, the curriculum drifted to a vocational emphasis, with less focus on theoretical science. The fledgling school still suffered from chronic financial shortages which diverted the attention of the MIT leadership, during these Boston Tech years, MIT faculty and alumni rebuffed Harvard University president Charles W. Eliots repeated attempts to merge MIT with Harvard Colleges Lawrence Scientific School. There would be at least six attempts to absorb MIT into Harvard, in its cramped Back Bay location, MIT could not afford to expand its overcrowded facilities, driving a desperate search for a new campus and funding. Eventually the MIT Corporation approved an agreement to merge with Harvard, over the vehement objections of MIT faculty, students. However, a 1917 decision by the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court effectively put an end to the merger scheme, the neoclassical New Technology campus was designed by William W. Bosworth and had been funded largely by anonymous donations from a mysterious Mr. Smith, starting in 1912. In January 1920, the donor was revealed to be the industrialist George Eastman of Rochester, New York, who had invented methods of production and processing
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Engineer
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Engineers design materials, structures, and systems while considering the limitations imposed by practicality, regulation, safety, and cost. The word engineer is derived from the Latin words ingeniare and ingenium, the work of engineers forms the link between scientific discoveries and their subsequent applications to human and business needs and quality of life. His/her work is predominantly intellectual and varied and not of a mental or physical character. It requires the exercise of original thought and judgement and the ability to supervise the technical, he/she is thus placed in a position to make contributions to the development of engineering science or its applications. In due time he/she will be able to give authoritative technical advice, much of an engineers time is spent on researching, locating, applying, and transferring information. Indeed, research suggests engineers spend 56% of their time engaged in various information behaviours, Engineers must weigh different design choices on their merits and choose the solution that best matches the requirements. Their crucial and unique task is to identify, understand, Engineers apply techniques of engineering analysis in testing, production, or maintenance. Analytical engineers may supervise production in factories and elsewhere, determine the causes of a process failure and they also estimate the time and cost required to complete projects. Supervisory engineers are responsible for major components or entire projects, Engineering analysis involves the application of scientific analytic principles and processes to reveal the properties and state of the system, device or mechanism under study. Most engineers specialize in one or more engineering disciplines, numerous specialties are recognized by professional societies, and each of the major branches of engineering has numerous subdivisions. Civil engineering, for example, includes structural and transportation engineering and materials engineering include ceramic, metallurgical, mechanical engineering cuts across just about every discipline since its core essence is applied physics. Engineers also may specialize in one industry, such as vehicles, or in one type of technology. Several recent studies have investigated how engineers spend their time, that is, research suggests that there are several key themes present in engineers’ work, technical work, social work, computer-based work, information behaviours. Amongst other more detailed findings, a recent work sampling study found that engineers spend 62. 92% of their time engaged in work,40. 37% in social work. The time engineers spend engaged in activities is also reflected in the competencies required in engineering roles. There are many branches of engineering, each of which specializes in specific technologies, typically engineers will have deep knowledge in one area and basic knowledge in related areas. When developing a product, engineers work in interdisciplinary teams. For example, when building robots an engineering team will typically have at least three types of engineers, a mechanical engineer would design the body and actuators
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Computer science
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Computer science is the study of the theory, experimentation, and engineering that form the basis for the design and use of computers. An alternate, more succinct definition of science is the study of automating algorithmic processes that scale. A computer scientist specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems and its fields can be divided into a variety of theoretical and practical disciplines. Some fields, such as computational complexity theory, are highly abstract, other fields still focus on challenges in implementing computation. Human–computer interaction considers the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable, the earliest foundations of what would become computer science predate the invention of the modern digital computer. Machines for calculating fixed numerical tasks such as the abacus have existed since antiquity, further, algorithms for performing computations have existed since antiquity, even before the development of sophisticated computing equipment. Wilhelm Schickard designed and constructed the first working mechanical calculator in 1623, in 1673, Gottfried Leibniz demonstrated a digital mechanical calculator, called the Stepped Reckoner. He may be considered the first computer scientist and information theorist, for, among other reasons and he started developing this machine in 1834, and in less than two years, he had sketched out many of the salient features of the modern computer. A crucial step was the adoption of a card system derived from the Jacquard loom making it infinitely programmable. Around 1885, Herman Hollerith invented the tabulator, which used punched cards to process statistical information, when the machine was finished, some hailed it as Babbages dream come true. During the 1940s, as new and more powerful computing machines were developed, as it became clear that computers could be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science broadened to study computation in general. Computer science began to be established as an academic discipline in the 1950s. The worlds first computer science program, the Cambridge Diploma in Computer Science. The first computer science program in the United States was formed at Purdue University in 1962. Since practical computers became available, many applications of computing have become distinct areas of study in their own rights and it is the now well-known IBM brand that formed part of the computer science revolution during this time. IBM released the IBM704 and later the IBM709 computers, still, working with the IBM was frustrating if you had misplaced as much as one letter in one instruction, the program would crash, and you would have to start the whole process over again. During the late 1950s, the science discipline was very much in its developmental stages. Time has seen significant improvements in the usability and effectiveness of computing technology, modern society has seen a significant shift in the users of computer technology, from usage only by experts and professionals, to a near-ubiquitous user base
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World Wide Web
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The World Wide Web is an information space where documents and other web resources are identified by Uniform Resource Locators, interlinked by hypertext links, and can be accessed via the Internet. English scientist Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web in 1989 and he wrote the first web browser computer program in 1990 while employed at CERN in Switzerland. The Web browser was released outside of CERN in 1991, first to research institutions starting in January 1991. The World Wide Web has been central to the development of the Information Age and is the primary tool billions of people use to interact on the Internet, Web pages are primarily text documents formatted and annotated with Hypertext Markup Language. In addition to formatted text, web pages may contain images, video, audio, embedded hyperlinks permit users to navigate between web pages. Multiple web pages with a theme, a common domain name. Website content can largely be provided by the publisher, or interactive where users contribute content or the content depends upon the user or their actions, websites may be mostly informative, primarily for entertainment, or largely for commercial, governmental, or non-governmental organisational purposes. In the 2006 Great British Design Quest organised by the BBC and the Design Museum, Tim Berners-Lees vision of a global hyperlinked information system became a possibility by the second half of the 1980s. By 1985, the global Internet began to proliferate in Europe, in 1988 the first direct IP connection between Europe and North America was made and Berners-Lee began to openly discuss the possibility of a web-like system at CERN. Such a system, he explained, could be referred to using one of the meanings of the word hypertext. At this point HTML and HTTP had already been in development for two months and the first Web server was about a month from completing its first successful test. While the read-only goal was met, accessible authorship of web content took longer to mature, with the concept, WebDAV, blogs, Web 2.0. The proposal was modelled after the SGML reader Dynatext by Electronic Book Technology, a NeXT Computer was used by Berners-Lee as the worlds first web server and also to write the first web browser, WorldWideWeb, in 1990. By Christmas 1990, Berners-Lee had built all the necessary for a working Web, the first web browser. The first web site, which described the project itself, was published on 20 December 1990, jones stored it on a magneto-optical drive and on his NeXT computer. On 6 August 1991, Berners-Lee published a summary of the World Wide Web project on the newsgroup alt. hypertext. This date is confused with the public availability of the first web servers. The first server outside Europe was installed at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center in Palo Alto, California, accounts differ substantially as to the date of this event
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Hypertext Transfer Protocol
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The Hypertext Transfer Protocol is an application protocol for distributed, collaborative, and hypermedia information systems. HTTP is the foundation of data communication for the World Wide Web, Hypertext is structured text that uses logical links between nodes containing text. HTTP is the protocol to exchange or transfer hypertext, development of HTTP was initiated by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN in 1989. Standards development of HTTP was coordinated by the Internet Engineering Task Force and the World Wide Web Consortium, culminating in the publication of a series of Requests for Comments. The first definition of HTTP/1.1, the version of HTTP in common use, occurred in RFC2068 in 1997, although this was obsoleted by RFC2616 in 1999 and then again by RFC7230 and family in 2014. A later version, the successor HTTP/2, was standardized in 2015, HTTP functions as a request–response protocol in the client–server computing model. A web browser, for example, may be the client, the client submits an HTTP request message to the server. The server, which provides resources such as HTML files and other content, or performs other functions on behalf of the client, the response contains completion status information about the request and may also contain requested content in its message body. A web browser is an example of a user agent, other types of user agent include the indexing software used by search providers, voice browsers, mobile apps, and other software that accesses, consumes, or displays web content. HTTP is designed to permit intermediate network elements to improve or enable communications between clients and servers, high-traffic websites often benefit from web cache servers that deliver content on behalf of upstream servers to improve response time. Web browsers cache previously accessed web resources and reuse them when possible to network traffic. HTTP proxy servers at private network boundaries can facilitate communication for clients without a globally routable address, HTTP is an application layer protocol designed within the framework of the Internet protocol suite. Its definition presumes an underlying and reliable transport layer protocol, however HTTP can be adapted to use unreliable protocols such as the User Datagram Protocol, for example in HTTPU and Simple Service Discovery Protocol. HTTP resources are identified and located on the network by Uniform Resource Locators, using the Uniform Resource Identifiers schemes http, uRIs and hyperlinks in HTML documents form inter-linked hypertext documents. HTTP/1.1 is a revision of the original HTTP, in HTTP/1.0 a separate connection to the same server is made for every resource request. HTTP/1.1 can reuse a connection multiple times to download images, scripts, stylesheets, HTTP/1.1 communications therefore experience less latency as the establishment of TCP connections presents considerable overhead. Tim Berners-Lee and his team at CERN are credited with inventing the original HTTP along with HTML and the technology for a web server. Berners-Lee first proposed the WorldWideWeb project in 1989—now known as the World Wide Web, the first version of the protocol had only one method, namely GET, which would request a page from a server
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Server (computing)
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In computing, a server is a computer program or a device that provides functionality for other programs or devices, called clients. This architecture is called the model, and a single overall computation is distributed across multiple processes or devices. Servers can provide various functionalities, often called services, such as sharing data or resources among multiple clients, a single server can serve multiple clients, and a single client can use multiple servers. A client process may run on the device or may connect over a network to a server on a different device. Typical servers are database servers, file servers, mail servers, print servers, web servers, game servers, designating a computer as server-class hardware implies that it is specialized for running servers on it. The use of the server in computing comes from queueing theory, where it dates to the mid 20th century, being notably used in Kendall. In earlier papers, such as the Erlang, more terms such as operators are used. In computing, server dates at least to RFC5, one of the earliest documents describing ARPANET, the use of serving also dates to early documents, such as RFC4, contrasting serving-host with using-host. The Jargon File defines server in the sense of a process performing service for requests, usually remote, with the 1981 version reading. A kind of DAEMON which performs a service for the requester, strictly speaking, the term server refers to a computer program or process. Through metonymy, it refers to a used to running one or several server programs. On a network, such a device is called a host, in addition to server, the words serve and service are frequently used, though servicer and servant are not. The word service may refer to either the form of functionality. Alternatively, it may refer to a program that turns a computer into a server. Originally used as servers serve users, in the sense of obey, today one says that servers serve data. For instance, web servers serve web pages to users or service their requests, the server is part of the client–server model, in this model, a server serves data for clients. The nature of communication between a client and server is request and response and this is in contrast with peer-to-peer model in which the relationship is on-demand reciprocation. In principle, any computerized process that can be used or called by another process is a server, thus any general purpose computer connected to a network can host servers
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Internet
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The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet protocol suite to link devices worldwide. The origins of the Internet date back to research commissioned by the United States federal government in the 1960s to build robust, the primary precursor network, the ARPANET, initially served as a backbone for interconnection of regional academic and military networks in the 1980s. Although the Internet was widely used by academia since the 1980s, Internet use grew rapidly in the West from the mid-1990s and from the late 1990s in the developing world. In the two decades since then, Internet use has grown 100-times, measured for the period of one year, newspaper, book, and other print publishing are adapting to website technology, or are reshaped into blogging, web feeds and online news aggregators. The entertainment industry was initially the fastest growing segment on the Internet, the Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of personal interactions through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect supply chains across entire industries, the Internet has no centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies for access and usage, each constituent network sets its own policies. The term Internet, when used to refer to the global system of interconnected Internet Protocol networks, is a proper noun. In common use and the media, it is not capitalized. Some guides specify that the word should be capitalized when used as a noun, the Internet is also often referred to as the Net, as a short form of network. Historically, as early as 1849, the word internetted was used uncapitalized as an adjective, the designers of early computer networks used internet both as a noun and as a verb in shorthand form of internetwork or internetworking, meaning interconnecting computer networks. The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used interchangeably in everyday speech, however, the World Wide Web or the Web is only one of a large number of Internet services. The Web is a collection of interconnected documents and other web resources, linked by hyperlinks, the term Interweb is a portmanteau of Internet and World Wide Web typically used sarcastically to parody a technically unsavvy user. The ARPANET project led to the development of protocols for internetworking, the third site was the Culler-Fried Interactive Mathematics Center at the University of California, Santa Barbara, followed by the University of Utah Graphics Department. In an early sign of growth, fifteen sites were connected to the young ARPANET by the end of 1971. These early years were documented in the 1972 film Computer Networks, early international collaborations on the ARPANET were rare. European developers were concerned with developing the X.25 networks, in December 1974, RFC675, by Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal, and Carl Sunshine, used the term internet as a shorthand for internetworking and later RFCs repeated this use. Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation funded the Computer Science Network, in 1982, the Internet Protocol Suite was standardized, which permitted worldwide proliferation of interconnected networks.5 Mbit/s and 45 Mbit/s. Commercial Internet service providers emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990
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World Wide Web Foundation
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The World Wide Web Foundation is an organization dedicated to the improvement and availability of the World Wide Web. The formation of the organization was announced on September 14,2008 by Tim Berners-Lee at the Newseum in Washington, the organization launched on November 15,2009. One of its board members is former British Prime Minister Gordon Brown. The mission of the organization is to establish the open Web as a public good. The foundation works in two areas, A free and open Web and Open Democracy, to reach the objectives of the organization and it publishes the Web Index with statistics for 86 selected countries. This organization is not related to the Open Web Foundation, when announcing the foundation, Berners-Lee discussed a system to label websites for their trustworthiness. According to the BBC he said there needed to be new systems that would give websites a label for trustworthiness once they had proved reliable sources. The New Scientist criticized the formation of an organization to others what is true or not. World Wide Web Consortium World Wide Web Foundation
25.
Ford Foundation
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The Ford Foundation is a New York headquartered, globally oriented private foundation with the mission of advancing human welfare. Created in 1936 by Edsel Ford and Henry Ford, it was funded by a US$25,000 gift from Edsel Ford. By 1947, after the death of the two founders, the foundation owned 90 percent of the shares of the Ford Motor Company. Between 1955 and 1974, the foundation sold its Ford Motor Company holdings, the foundation makes grants through its headquarters and ten international field offices. For fiscal year 2014, it reported assets of US$12.4 billion, after the deaths of Edsel Ford in 1943 and Henry Ford in 1947, the presidency of the foundation fell to Edsels eldest son, Henry Ford II. It quickly became clear that the foundation would become the largest philanthropy in the world, the board of trustees then commissioned the Gaither Study Committee to chart the foundations future. The committee, headed by California attorney H, the board embraced the recommendations in 1949. The board of directors decided to diversify the foundations portfolio and gradually divested itself of its substantial Ford Motor Company stock between 1955 and 1974 and this divestiture allowed Ford Motor to become a public company. In 2012, stating that it is not a research library, in 1951, the foundation made its first grant to support the development of the public broadcasting system, then known as National Educational Television, which went on the air in 1952. These grants continued, and in 1969 the foundation gave US$1 million to the Childrens Television Workshop to help create, the Corporation for Public Broadcasting replaced NET with the Public Broadcasting Service on October 5,1970. The foundations first international office opened in 1952 in New Delhi. In 1961, Kofi Annan received a grant from the foundation to finish his studies at Macalester College in St. Paul. In 1968, the foundation began disbursing $12 million to persuade law schools to make law school clinics part of their curriculum, clinics were intended to give practical experience in law practice while providing pro bono representation to the poor. In 1967 and 1968, the provided financial support for decentralization. Decentralization in Ocean Hill–Brownsville led to the firing of some teachers and administrators. Beginning in the late 1960s and continuing through the 1970s, the foundation expanded into civil rights litigation, the Mexican American Legal Defense and Educational Fund was incorporated in 1967 with a US$2.2 million grant from the foundation. In the same year, the foundation funded the establishment of the Southwest Council of La Raza. In 1972, the foundation provided a three-year US$1.2 million grant to the Native American Rights Fund, the same year, the Puerto Rican Legal Defense and Education Fund opened with funding from numerous organizations, including the foundation
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Open Data Institute
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The Open Data Institute is a non-profit private company limited by guarantee, based in the United Kingdom. Founded by Sirs Tim Berners-Lee and Nigel Shadbolt in 2012, the ODI’s mission is to connect, equip, the ODI’s global network includes individuals, businesses, startups, franchises, collaborators and governments who help to achieve this mission. The Open Data Institute provides in-house and online, free and paid-for training courses, ODI courses and learning materials cover theory and practice surrounding data publishing and use, from introductory overviews to courses for specific subject areas. ODI Friday lunchtime lectures cover a different theme each week surrounding the communication and application of data, in order to bring open data’s benefits to specific areas of society and industry, the ODI focuses much of its research, publications and projects around specific themes and sectors. Since its inception in 2012, the ODI has championed open data as a public good, in 2015, the ODI was instrumental in beginning a global discussion around the need to define and strengthen data infrastructure. Definitions in the include, Data that is closed, data that is shared. ODI Associate Curator, Hannah Redler, selected ‘Data Anthropologies’ as Data as Culture’s 2015–16 theme, for it the ODI commissioned Artists in Residence, Thomson & Craighead, Natasha Caruana and Alex McLean to exhibit work and create new data-driven pieces. The ODI has supported open data leaders in governments around the world to boost economies, innovation, social impact and transparency using open data. As part of the Open Data for Development Network, funded by the International Development Research Centre, the ODI focuses on highlighting how data can enhance FinTech and banking and bring broad benefits to customers, regulators and industry. As part of a joint industry and government Open Banking Working Group and this highlights how banking customers can have more control over their data, and how to create an environment that maximises data reuse. The paper focuses on key technologies and how they can support data sharing via APIs that preserve privacy, the ODI’s 2013 ‘Show me the money’ report focused on the UK peer-to-peer lending market, revealing ‘lending by region’ using data from P2P platforms. Through research, open discussion and sector-focused events, the ODI is identifying challenges, solutions and global priorities in improving agriculture and nutrition with open data. The ODI runs an Open Data for Smart Cities training course, ODI Members are organisations and individuals, from large corporations to students, who explore, demonstrate and share the value of data. ODI Members are all committed to unlocking the value of data, new member companies in 2015 included Deutsche Bank, Ocado Technology, SAP and The Bulmer Foundation. Each year the ODI invites new applicants onto its ODI Startup programme in order to them to develop a sustainable business. The ODI assesses startups for the programme based on the strength of their idea and team, market opportunity and timing, potential scale, use of open data, and potential impact. 30 ODI Startups have joined the programme, which between them employ 185 people and have secured over £10m in contracts and investments, ODI Nodes are franchises of the ODI. Hosted by existing organisations, ODI Nodes operate locally and are connected globally as part of the ODI Node network, each node adopts the ODI Charter, an open codification of the guiding principles and rules under which the ODI operates
27.
Elizabeth II
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Elizabeth II has been Queen of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand since 6 February 1952. Elizabeth was born in London as the eldest child of the Duke and Duchess of York, later King George VI and Queen Elizabeth and her father acceded to the throne on the abdication of his brother Edward VIII in 1936, from which time she was the heir presumptive. She began to undertake duties during the Second World War. Elizabeths many historic visits and meetings include a visit to the Republic of Ireland. She has seen major changes, such as devolution in the United Kingdom, Canadian patriation. She has reigned through various wars and conflicts involving many of her realms and she is the worlds oldest reigning monarch as well as Britains longest-lived. In October 2016, she became the longest currently reigning monarch, in 2017 she became the first British monarch to commemorate a Sapphire Jubilee. Elizabeth has occasionally faced republican sentiments and press criticism of the family, however, support for the monarchy remains high. Elizabeth was born at 02,40 on 21 April 1926, during the reign of her paternal grandfather and her father, Prince Albert, Duke of York, was the second son of the King. Her mother, Elizabeth, Duchess of York, was the youngest daughter of Scottish aristocrat Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and she was delivered by Caesarean section at her maternal grandfathers London house,17 Bruton Street, Mayfair. Elizabeths only sibling, Princess Margaret, was born in 1930, the two princesses were educated at home under the supervision of their mother and their governess, Marion Crawford, who was casually known as Crawfie. Lessons concentrated on history, language, literature and music, Crawford published a biography of Elizabeth and Margarets childhood years entitled The Little Princesses in 1950, much to the dismay of the royal family. The book describes Elizabeths love of horses and dogs, her orderliness, others echoed such observations, Winston Churchill described Elizabeth when she was two as a character. She has an air of authority and reflectiveness astonishing in an infant and her cousin Margaret Rhodes described her as a jolly little girl, but fundamentally sensible and well-behaved. During her grandfathers reign, Elizabeth was third in the line of succession to the throne, behind her uncle Edward, Prince of Wales, and her father, the Duke of York. Although her birth generated public interest, she was not expected to become queen, many people believed that he would marry and have children of his own. When her grandfather died in 1936 and her uncle succeeded as Edward VIII, she became second-in-line to the throne, later that year, Edward abdicated, after his proposed marriage to divorced socialite Wallis Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis. Consequently, Elizabeths father became king, and she became heir presumptive, if her parents had had a later son, she would have lost her position as first-in-line, as her brother would have been heir apparent and above her in the line of succession
28.
National Academy of Sciences
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The National Academy of Sciences is a United States nonprofit, non-governmental organization. NAS is part of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, along with the National Academy of Engineering, as a national academy, new members of the organization are elected annually by current members, based on their distinguished and continuing achievements in original research. Election to the National Academies is one of the highest honors in the scientific field, members serve pro bono as advisers to the nation on science, engineering, and medicine. The group holds a congressional charter under Title 36 of the United States Code, … to provide scientific advice to the government whenever called upon by any government department. The Academy receives no compensation from the government for its services, as of 2016, the National Academy of Sciences includes about 2,350 members and 450 foreign associates. It employed about 1,100 staff in 2005, the current members annually elect new members for life. Approximately 200 members have won a Nobel Prize, the National Academy of Sciences is a member of the International Council for Science. Although there is no relationship with state and local academies of science. The National Academies is governed by a 17-member Council, made up of five officers and 12 Councilors, the National Academy of Sciences meets annually in Washington, D. C. which is documented in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, its scholarly journal. The National Academies Press is the publisher for the National Academies, since 2004, the National Academy of Sciences has administered the Marian Koshland Science Museum to provide public exhibits and programming related to its policy work. The museums current exhibits focus on change and infectious disease. The National Academy of Sciences maintains multiple buildings around the United States, the building has a neoclassical architectural style and was built by architect Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue. The building was dedicated in 1924 and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the building is used for lectures, symposia, exhibitions, and concerts, in addition to annual meetings of the NAS, NAE, and NAM. The 2012 Presidential Award for Math and Science Teaching ceremony was held here on March 5,2014, approximately 150 staff members work at the NAS Building. More than 1,000 National Academies staff members work at The Keck Center of the National Academies at 500 Fifth Street in northwest Washington, the Keck Center provides meeting space and houses the National Academies Press Bookstore. The NAS also maintains conference centers in California and Massachusetts, the J. Erik Jonsson Conference Center located at 314 Quissett Avenue in Woods Hole, Massachusetts, is another conference facility. The Act of Incorporation, signed by President Abraham Lincoln on March 3,1863, created the National Academy of Sciences, many of the original NAS members came from the so-called Scientific Lazzaroni, an informal network of mostly physical scientists working in the vicinity of Cambridge, Massachusetts. Senator Henry Wilson of Massachusetts was to name Agassiz to the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, Agassiz was to come to Washington at the governments expense to plan the organization with the others
29.
Time (magazine)
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Time is an American weekly news magazine published in New York City. It was founded in 1923 and for decades was dominated by Henry Luce, a European edition is published in London and also covers the Middle East, Africa and, since 2003, Latin America. An Asian edition is based in Hong Kong, the South Pacific edition, which covers Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Islands, is based in Sydney, Australia. In December 2008, Time discontinued publishing a Canadian advertiser edition, Time has the worlds largest circulation for a weekly news magazine, and has a readership of 26 million,20 million of which are based in the United States. As of 2012, it had a circulation of 3.3 million making it the eleventh most circulated magazine in the United States reception room circuit, as of 2015, its circulation was 3,036,602. Richard Stengel was the editor from May 2006 to October 2013. Nancy Gibbs has been the editor since October 2013. Time magazine was created in 1923 by Briton Hadden and Henry Luce, the two had previously worked together as chairman and managing editor respectively of the Yale Daily News. They first called the proposed magazine Facts and they wanted to emphasize brevity, so that a busy man could read it in an hour. They changed the name to Time and used the slogan Take Time–Its Brief and it set out to tell the news through people, and for many decades the magazines cover depicted a single person. More recently, Time has incorporated People of the Year issues which grew in popularity over the years, notable mentions of them were Barack Obama, Steve Jobs, Matej Turk, etc. The first issue of Time was published on March 3,1923, featuring Joseph G. Cannon, the retired Speaker of the House of Representatives, on its cover, a facsimile reprint of Issue No. 1, including all of the articles and advertisements contained in the original, was included with copies of the February 28,1938 issue as a commemoration of the magazines 15th anniversary. The cover price was 15¢ On Haddens death in 1929, Luce became the dominant man at Time, the Intimate History of a Publishing Enterprise 1923–1941. In 1929, Roy Larsen was also named a Time Inc. director, J. P. Morgan retained a certain control through two directorates and a share of stocks, both over Time and Fortune. Other shareholders were Brown Brothers W. A. Harriman & Co. the Intimate History of a Changing Enterprise 1957–1983. According to the September 10,1979 issue of The New York Times, after Time magazine began publishing its weekly issues in March 1923, Roy Larsen was able to increase its circulation by utilizing U. S. radio and movie theaters around the world. It often promoted both Time magazine and U. S. political and corporate interests, Larsen next arranged for a 30-minute radio program, The March of Time, to be broadcast over CBS, beginning on March 6,1931
30.
Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century
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Time 100, The Most Important People of the Century is a compilation of the 20th centurys 100 most influential people, published in Time magazine in 1999. The idea for such a list started on February 1,1998, with a debate at a symposium in Hanoi, in a separate issue on December 31,1999, Time recognized Albert Einstein as the Person of the Century. Times article cites twenty persons in each of five categories, Leaders and Revolutionaries, Scientists and Thinkers, Builders and Titans, Artists and Entertainers. Of the 100 chosen, Albert Einstein was chosen as the Person of the Century, the cover of the magazine featured the famous image of Einstein taken in 1947 by American portrait photographer Philippe Halsman. The argument was based on Times explicit criterion that the persons chosen should have the greatest impact on this century, in the same 31 December 1999 issue of Time, essayist Nancy Gibbs addressed the topic with the article The Necessary Evil. In the article, she argues that Hitler and Mussolini were simply the latest in a line of murderous figures. Elvis most original recordings were his first, the Beatles started out as imitators, then continued to grow throughout their years together. Theyre one of our great contributions, along with jazz and film, … To some extent, too, we wanted people who also represented important 20th century trends or developments. That would help account for the Barts and Oprahs, what Bart, or really the Simpsons, have done is merge social satire with popular animation in a way that hasnt really been done before. New York mayor Rudy Giuliani accused Time of romanticizing gangsters, and he stated and he murdered in order to get the position that he had, and then he authorized hundreds and hundreds of murders. However, Time business editor Bill Saporito defended the selection by calling Luciano as kind of a genius who had a deep impact on the underground economy. Were not out there to heap glory on these people, he explained, were out to say these are people who influenced our lives. Saporito further noted that every piece of merchandise came out of the Garment District had a little extra cost in it because of organized crime. TIME magazines list of the influential people, published annually beginning in 2004. People of the Century at TIME
31.
2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony
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The opening ceremony of the 2012 Summer Olympic Games took place on the evening of Friday 27 July in the Olympic Stadium, London. As mandated by the Olympic Charter, the proceedings combined the formal opening of this international sporting event with an artistic spectacle to showcase the host nations culture. The 2012 Games were formally opened by Queen Elizabeth II, the spectacle was entitled Isles of Wonder and directed by Academy Award-winning British film director Danny Boyle. Prior to London 2012 there had been considerable apprehension about Britains ability to stage a ceremony that could reach the standard set at the Beijing Summer Games of 2008. The 2008 ceremony had been noted for its scale, extravagance and expense, hailed as the greatest ever, in contrast, London spent an estimated £27m, which was nevertheless about twice the original budget. Nonetheless, the London opening ceremony was seen as a tremendous success, widely praised as a masterpiece. The ceremony began at 21,00 BST and lasted almost four hours and it was watched by an estimated worldwide television audience of 900 million, becoming the most-viewed Olympic opening ceremony in both the UK and US. The content had largely been kept secret before the performance, despite involving thousands of volunteers, two shorter sections drew particular comment, involving a filmed cameo appearance of the Queen, and a live performance by the London Symphony Orchestra joined by comedian Rowan Atkinson. These were widely ascribed to Britains sense of humour, the ceremony featured children and young people in most of its segments, reflecting the inspire a generation aspiration of Londons original bid for the Games. The London Organising Committee of the Olympic and Paralympic Games approached Danny Boyle to be the director of the ceremony in June 2010 and he said it felt weirdly more like a. civic or national responsibility to take the job. He said. obviously Im not going to try and build on Beijing and we cant, and you wouldnt want to, so were going back to the beginning. Were going to try and give the impression that were rethinking and restarting, theyve tried to top themselves each time and you cant do that after Beijing. Beijings budget had been £65m, whereas Londons final budget was £27m, the London stadium had the same number of seats as Beijings, but was half the size, this intimacy of scale meant that Boyle felt he could achieve something personal and connecting. K. Chesterton aphorism, The world shall not for lack of wonders. In July 2010 Boyle started brainstorming ideas with designer Mark Tildesley, writer Frank Cottrell Boyce and they considered what was essentially British, with the non-British Larlarb able to offer a view of what the world thought Britain meant. Cottrell Boyce had given Boyle a copy of Pandaemonium, by Humphrey Jennings and it had become traditional during the opening ceremony to produce the Olympic rings in a spectacular manner. Boyle decided that the journey from the pastoral to the industrial, at the same time the team moved to the Three Mills studio complex in east London, where a 4x4 metre scale model of the stadium was built. For security reasons, a single CGI-assisted version of the ceremony was kept on editor Sascha Dhillons laptop, the cast included professional performers and 7,500 volunteers
32.
NeXT Computer
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The NeXT Computer is a workstation computer developed, marketed, and sold by NeXT Inc. It runs the Mach- and BSD-derived, Unix-based NeXTSTEP operating system, the motherboard is square and fits into one of four identical slots in the enclosure. The NeXT Computer enclosure consists of a 1-foot die-cast magnesium cube-shaped, black case and it was launched in 1988 at US$6,500. The NeXT Computer was succeeded by the NeXTcube, an upgraded model and this event gave developers interested in developing NeXT software an insight into the software architecture, object-oriented programming, and developing for the NeXT Computer. The luncheon speaker was Steve Jobs, citing as truly innovative the optical drive, DSP, and object-oriented programming environment, the magazine concluded that the NeXT Computer is worth every penny of its $6500 market price. It was, however, not a significant commercial success, failing to reach the level of volume sales like the Apple II, Commodore 64. The workstations were sold to universities, financial institutions, and government agencies, issue #3 was first demonstrated to Steve Jobs at NeXTWorld Expo 1993. com — NeXTcube Photos of black hardware A fun fact and one of Steve Jobs quirks. All the components in the including the PCB and connectors had to be black in color. PCBs were typically green from the mask that was applied. A process of pad capping was developed to allow the black oxide from the layers to be seen. Even the euro card connector had to be molded in black which where typically grey. The mounting hardware had to be black oxide. etc
33.
London Stadium
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London Stadium, is a stadium in Stratford, Greater London, England, at Marshgate Lane in the Lower Lea Valley. It was constructed to serve as the stadium for the 2012 Summer Olympics and Paralympics, hosting the track and field events. It was subsequently renovated as a stadium, with its primary tenants being West Ham United Football Club. The stadium is 6 1⁄2 miles from Central London, land preparation for the stadium began in mid-2007, with the official construction start date on 22 May 2008, although piling works for the foundation began four weeks before. The stadium held its first public event in March 2012, serving as the line for a celebrity running event organised by the National Lottery. Following the Paralympics the stadium was used intermittently whilst under renovation, the decision to make West Ham United the main tenants was controversial, with the initial tenancy process having to be rerun. As well as its tenants, the stadium will continue to be used for a series of special events. It annually hosts the finish of the Great Newham London Run at the start of July. The stadium can also hold concerts with up to 80,000 spectators, during Londons bid for the games, promotional materials featured a main stadium with a roof designed to wrap itself around the venue like muscles supporting the body. However at that time there had no formal design brief agreed. While the bidding process was ongoing West Ham had talks with the ODA about contributing to the development of a multi-purpose stadium, with the original Olympic design finalised and being built, the government had a change of heart and a bidding process for a multi-sport post-Olympic legacy was launched. The stadium design was launched on 7 November 2007, the construction of the stadium commenced three months early in May 2008 after the bowl of the stadium had been dug out and the area cleared. The building of the stadium was completed in March 2011 reportedly on time and under budget, the stadiums track and field arena is excavated out of the soft clay found on the site, around which is permanent seating for 25,000, built using concrete rakers. The natural slope of the land is incorporated into the design, with warm-up, spectators enter the stadium via a podium level, which is level with the top of the permanent seating bowl. A demountable lightweight steel and pre-cast concrete upper tier is built up from this bowl to accommodate a further 55,000 spectators, the stadium is made up of different tiers, during the Games the stadium was able to hold 80,000 spectators. The base tier, which allows for 25,000 seats, is an elliptical bowl that is made up of low-carbon-dioxide concrete. The foundation of the level is 5,000 piles reaching up to 20 metres deep. From there, there is a mixture of driven cast in situ piles, continuous flight auger piles, the second tier, which holds 55,000 seats, is 315 m long,256 m wide, and 60 m high
34.
Twitter
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Twitter is an online news and social networking service where users post and interact with messages, tweets, restricted to 140 characters. Registered users can post tweets, but those who are unregistered can only read them, users access Twitter through its website interface, SMS or a mobile device app. Twitter Inc. is based in San Francisco, California, United States, Twitter was created in March 2006 by Jack Dorsey, Noah Glass, Biz Stone, and Evan Williams and launched in July. The service rapidly gained worldwide popularity, in 2012, more than 100 million users posted 340 million tweets a day, and the service handled an average of 1.6 billion search queries per day. In 2013, it was one of the ten most-visited websites and has described as the SMS of the Internet. As of 2016, Twitter had more than 319 million monthly active users. On the day of the 2016 U. S. presidential election, Twitter proved to be the largest source of breaking news, Twitters origins lie in a daylong brainstorming session held by board members of the podcasting company Odeo. Jack Dorsey, then a student at New York University. The original project name for the service was twttr, an idea that Williams later ascribed to Noah Glass, inspired by Flickr. The developers initially considered 10958 as a code, but later changed it to 40404 for ease of use. Work on the project started on March 21,2006, when Dorsey published the first Twitter message at 9,50 PM Pacific Standard Time, Dorsey has explained the origin of the Twitter title. we came across the word twitter, and it was just perfect. The definition was a short burst of inconsequential information, and chirps from birds, and thats exactly what the product was. The first Twitter prototype, developed by Dorsey and contractor Florian Weber, was used as a service for Odeo employees. Williams fired Glass, who was silent about his part in Twitters startup until 2011, Twitter spun off into its own company in April 2007. Williams provided insight into the ambiguity that defined this early period in a 2013 interview, With Twitter and they called it a social network, they called it microblogging, but it was hard to define, because it didnt replace anything. There was this path of discovery with something like that, where over time you figure out what it is, Twitter actually changed from what we thought it was in the beginning, which we described as status updates and a social utility. It is that, in part, but the insight we eventually came to was Twitter was really more of an information network than it is a social network, the tipping point for Twitters popularity was the 2007 South by Southwest Interactive conference. During the event, Twitter usage increased from 20,000 tweets per day to 60,000, the Twitter people cleverly placed two 60-inch plasma screens in the conference hallways, exclusively streaming Twitter messages, remarked Newsweeks Steven Levy
35.
Ferranti Mark 1
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It was the tidied up and commercialised version of the Manchester computer. The first machine was delivered to the University of Manchester in February 1951, ahead of the UNIVAC I, which was turned over to the United States Census Bureau on 31 March 1951. Based on the Manchester Mark 1, which was designed at the University of Manchester by Freddie Williams and Tom Kilburn, the machine was built by Ferranti of the United Kingdom. The Mark 1 used a 20-bit word stored as a line of dots of electric charges settled on the surface of a Williams tube display. Instructions were stored in a word, while numbers were stored in two words. The main memory consisted of eight tubes, each storing one such page of 64 words, other tubes stored the single 80-bit accumulator, the 40-bit multiplicand/quotient register and eight B-lines, or index registers, which was one of the unique features of the Mark 1 design. The accumulator could also be addressed as two 40-bit words, an extra 20-bit word per tube stored an offset value into the secondary storage. Secondary storage was provided in the form of a 512-page magnetic drum, the drum provided eight times the storage of the original designed at Manchester. The instructions, like the Manchester machine, used a single format in which operands were modified. There were about fifty instructions in total, the basic cycle time was 1.2 milliseconds, and a multiplication could be completed in the new parallel unit in about 2.16 milliseconds. The multiplier used almost a quarter of the machines 4,050 vacuum tubes, several instructions were included to copy a word of memory from one of the Williams tubes to a paper tape machine, or read them back in. Several new instructions were added to the original Manchester design, including a random number instruction, the original Mark 1 had to be programmed by entering alphanumeric characters representing a five-bit value that could be represented on the paper tape input. As a result, the representing the values from 0–31 looked entirely random, specifically /E@A. The first machine was delivered to the University of Manchester, Ferranti had high hopes for further sales, and were encouraged by an order placed by the Atomic Energy Research Establishment for delivery in autumn 1952. But a change of government while the machine was being led to all government contracts over £100,000 being cancelled. The company ultimately sold it to the University of Toronto, who had been building their own machine and they purchased it for around $30,000, a fire sale price, and gave it the nickname FERUT. FERUT was extensively used in business, engineering, and academia, among other duties, after the first two machines, a revised version of the design became available, known as the Ferranti Mark 1 Star or the Ferranti Mark 1*. The revisions mainly cleaned up the set for better usability
36.
Direct grant grammar school
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A direct grant grammar school was a type of selective secondary school in England and Wales that existed between 1945 and 1976. One quarter of the places in schools were directly funded by central government, while the remainder attracted fees, some paid by the Local Education Authority. On average, the schools received just over half of their income from the state, the status was introduced by the Education Act 1944 as a modification of an existing direct grant scheme to privately endowed schools. There were 179 direct grant grammar schools, which, together with over 1,200 grammar schools maintained by local authorities and they varied greatly in size and composition, but, on average, achieved higher academic results than either maintained grammar schools or independent schools. State secondary education was reorganised on comprehensive lines in the late 1960s, the direct grant was phased out from 1975 and the schools were required to choose between becoming maintained comprehensive schools or fully independent schools. Forty-five schools, almost all Roman Catholic, joined the state system, the rest became independent and mostly remain as highly selective independent schools. In the 19th century, few boys and very few girls in England and Wales received secondary education, during this time, secondary provision expanded and adjusted to growing demand. These schools were reformed under the Endowed Schools Act 1869, which led to many endowments being diverted to the creation of girls schools. In the meantime a range of schools had appeared. After the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 and mid-century Irish immigration, new proprietary schools were established, initially as joint-stock companies, converting to charities if they were successful. One of the largest such companies was the Girls Public Day School Company, set up to provide an academic education for girls. In the latter part of the century, many of the less wealthy schools received annual grants from the Department of Science and Art, secondary schools controlled by voluntary bodies could receive a grant from either the Board of Education or their local authority, or both. In return they were required to meet the Boards regulations, and were subject to the system of inspections as state-funded schools. Under the Education Act 1907, secondary schools in receipt of grant were required to admit a specified proportion of their intake, usually 25%, suitable pupils were selected using a scholarship examination. By 1932 there were 240 secondary schools receiving a direct grant, the Depression and the falling birth rate in the pre-war years had also weakened independent schools and schools receiving the direct grant. At the same time, the sector had grown to the point where universal secondary education seemed achievable. Proposals were made for a reorganisation of the sector, including a new accommodation with the voluntary schools. In response, the Headmasters Conference persuaded the President of the Board of Education, butler, to establish a commission under Lord Fleming in July 1942 to consider means whereby the association between the Public Schools
37.
Railfan
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A railfan, rail buff, or train buff, railway enthusiast or railway buff, trainspotter or anorak, or foamer, is a person interested in a recreational capacity in rail transport. Railfans of many ages can be found worldwide, magazines dedicated to railfanning include Trains and Railfan & Railroad. The term metrophile is used by some to identify a railfan with a particular interest in metro systems, the study of railways, or a general interest in them as a hobby, is sometimes jokingly known as ferroequinology. In the United Kingdom, railfans are sometimes called trainspotters or anoraks, the term gricer has been used in the UK since at least 1969, and is said to have been current in 1938 amongst members of the Manchester Locomotive Society, according to the Oxford English Dictionary. There has been speculation that the term derives from grouser, one who collects dead grouse after a shoot, in Australia, they are sometimes referred to as gunzels. The hobby extends to all aspects of transport systems. It should be noted that items such as timetables and railway paper are collected for study. There are many retailers and auction houses specializing in such material, Railway art or architecture Railway operations, economics or commerce Railway preservation/restoration Level junction. This is where the railfan can also be interested in the railroad or grade crossing signals, monitoring railroad radio communications with a radio scanner. Train photography is an activity of railfans. Most railfans do their photographing from public property, unless they have permission to use a private property owners land. Occasionally, they run into problems with law enforcement, especially due to post 9/11 paranoia, in 2004, for example, the New York City Subway attempted to institute a photo ban. This was met with opposition, and was ultimately scrapped. Some railroad photographers have become known for their works. Stewart, or in Germany with Carl Bellingrodt, in the United Kingdom Photography is allowed at all stations on the National Rail network. London Underground also allows tourists and rail enthusiasts to take pictures and videos while passing through a station, though flash and tripods are not allowed. The Tyne and Wear Metro prohibits all photography without permission from Nexus. In Singapore, photography and filming can be taken in all SMRT, however, upskirt photos are illegal and permission must be obtained from the operators to record weddings and movies on the network
38.
Poole
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Poole /puːl/ is a large coastal town and seaport in the county of Dorset, on the south coast of England. The town is 33 kilometres east of Dorchester, and adjoins Bournemouth to the east, the local council is Borough of Poole and was made a unitary authority in 1997, gaining administrative independence from Dorset County Council. The borough had a population of 147,645 at the 2011 census, together with Bournemouth and Christchurch, the town forms the South East Dorset conurbation with a total population of over 465,000. Human settlement in the dates back to before the Iron Age. The earliest recorded use of the name was in the 12th century when the town began to emerge as an important port. Later, the town had important trade links with North America and, at its peak during the 18th century, in the Second World War, Poole was one of the main departing points for the Normandy landings. Poole is a tourist resort, attracting visitors with its natural harbour, history. The town has a port with cross-Channel freight and passenger ferry services. The headquarters of the Royal National Lifeboat Institution are in Poole, despite their names, Poole is the home of The Arts University Bournemouth, the Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra and a significant part of Bournemouth University. The towns name derives from a corruption of the Celtic word bol, variants include Pool, Pole, Poles, Poll, Polle, Polman, and Poolman. The area around modern Poole has been inhabited for the past 2,500 years, during the 3rd century BC, Celts known as the Durotriges moved from hilltop settlements at Maiden Castle and Badbury Rings to heathland around the River Frome and Poole Harbour. The Romans landed at Poole during their conquest of Britain in the 1st century and took over an Iron Age settlement at Hamworthy, in Anglo-Saxon times, Poole was included in the Kingdom of Wessex. The settlement was used as a base for fishing and the harbour a place for ships to anchor on their way to the River Frome, following the Norman conquest of England, Poole rapidly grew into a busy port as the importance of Wareham declined. The town was part of the manor of Canford, but does not exist as an entry in the Domesday Book. The earliest written mention of Poole occurred on a document from 1196 describing the newly built St Jamess Chapel in La Pole. The Lord of the Manor, Sir William Longspée, sold a charter of liberties to the burgesses of Poole in 1248 to raise funds for his participation in the Seventh Crusade. Consequently, Poole gained a measure of freedom from feudal rule and acquired the right to appoint a mayor. In 1568, Poole gained further autonomy when it was granted independence from Dorset
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