1.
Member of the Order of Merit
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The Order of Merit is an order of merit recognising distinguished service in the armed forces, science, art, literature, or for the promotion of culture. While all members are awarded the right to use the post-nominal letters OM and a medallion for life, however, Sir Frederic Leighton, President of the Royal Academy, advised against the new order, primarily because of its selection process. From its inception, the order has been open to women, Florence Nightingale being the first woman to receive the honour, several individuals have refused admission into the Order of Merit, such as Rudyard Kipling, A. E. Housman, and George Bernard Shaw. To date, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, remains the youngest person inducted into the Order of Merit, having been admitted by Queen Elizabeth II in 1968. All citizens of the Commonwealth realms are eligible for appointment to the Order of Merit, since 1991, it has been required that the insignia be returned upon the recipients death. However, it has been claimed by Stanley Martin, in his book The Order of Merit 1902–2002, One Hundred Years of Matchless Honour, that the Order of Merit is the pinnacle of the British honours system. Some orders of precedence are as follows, Martin, Stanley, The Order of Merit, One Hundred Years of Matchless Honour, New York City, I. B
Member of the Order of Merit
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Order of Merit
Member of the Order of Merit
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King Edward VII, founder of the Order of Merit
2.
Fellow of the Royal Society
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As of 2016, there are around 1600 living Fellows, Foreign and Honorary Members. Fellowship of the Royal Society has been described by The Guardian newspaper as “the equivalent of a lifetime achievement Oscar” with several institutions celebrating their announcement each year. Up to 60 new Fellows, honorary and foreign members are elected annually usually in May, each candidate is considered on their merits and can be proposed from any sector of the scientific community. Fellows are elected for life on the basis of excellence in science and are entitled to use the post-nominal letters FRS, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society and Category, Female Fellows of the Royal Society. Every year, Fellows elect up to ten new Foreign Members, like Fellows, Foreign Members are elected for life through peer review on the basis of excellence in science. As of 2016 there are around 165 Foreign Members, who are entitled to use the post-nominal ForMemRS, see Category, Foreign Members of the Royal Society. Honorary Fellows include Bill Bryson, Melvyn Bragg, Robin Saxby, David Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Turville, Honorary Fellows are entitled to use the post nominal letters HonFRS. Others including John Maddox, Patrick Moore and Lisa Jardine were elected as honorary fellows, statute 12 is a legacy mechanism for electing members before official honorary membership existed in 1997. Fellows elected under statute 12 include David Attenborough and John Palmer, prime Ministers of the United Kingdom such as Margaret Thatcher, Neville Chamberlain, H. H. Asquith were elected under statute 12, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society. The Council of the Royal Society can recommend members of the British Royal Family for election as Royal Fellows of the Royal Society. As of 2016 there are five royal fellows, Charles, Prince of Wales, Anne, Princess Royal, Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and Prince Andrew, Duke of York. Her Majesty the Queen, Elizabeth II is not a Royal Fellow, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh was elected under statute 12, not as a Royal Fellow. The election of new fellows is announced annually in May, after their nomination, each candidate for Fellowship or Foreign Membership is nominated by two Fellows of the Royal Society, who sign a certificate of proposal. Previously, nominations required at least five fellows to support each nomination by the proposer, the certificate of election includes a statement of the principal grounds on which the proposal is being made. There is no limit on the number of nominations each year. In 2015, there were 654 candidates for election as Fellows and 106 candidates for Foreign Membership. The final list of up to 52 Fellowship candidates and up to 10 Foreign Membership candidates is confirmed by the Council in April, a candidate is elected if he or she secures two-thirds of votes of those Fellows present and voting. A further maximum of six can be ‘Honorary’, ‘General’ or ‘Royal’ Fellows, nominations for Fellowship are peer reviewed by sectional committees, each with fifteen members and a chair
Fellow of the Royal Society
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The entrance to the Royal Society in Carlton House Terrace, London
Fellow of the Royal Society
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The President, Council, and Fellows of the Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge
Fellow of the Royal Society
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John Evelyn, who helped to found the Royal Society
Fellow of the Royal Society
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Mace granted by Charles II
3.
Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts
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Fellowship of the Royal Society of Arts is an award open to anyone who can demonstrate that they support the mission and share the values of the Royal Society of Arts. Fellows are charged a subscription and are entitled to use the post-nominal letters FRSA, examples of current fellows, who come from diverse backgrounds and professions, include Tim Berners-Lee, Sue Black, Stephen Hawking, Benson Taylor and Gareth Malone. Previous Fellows have included Charles Dickens, Benjamin Franklin and Karl Marx, a partial List of Fellows of the Royal Society of Arts gives more examples, alongside the Category, Fellows of the Royal Society of Arts. As of 2016 the RSA Fellowship is a community of 28,000 members who have either applied for or been nominated for Fellowship since 1754
Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts
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William Shipley, founder of the Society in 1754.
4.
Fellow of the British Computer Society
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The British Computer Society is a professional body and a learned society that represents those working in Information Technology both in the United Kingdom and internationally. Established in 1957, in 2009 it rebranded as BCS — The Chartered Institute for IT, with a worldwide membership of over 82,000 members in over 100 countries, BCS is a registered charity and was incorporated by Royal Charter in 1984. The BCS is also a member of the Council of European Professional Informatics Societies, BCS is also a member organisation of the Science Council through which it is licensed to award the designation of Chartered Scientist. BCS has offices off the Strand in Southampton Street, south of Covent Garden in central London, the main administrative offices are in Swindon, Wiltshire, west of London. It also has two offices in Sri Lanka and Mauritius. Members are sent the quarterly IT professional magazine ITNOW, the forerunner of BCS was the London Computer Group, founded in 1956. BCS was formed a year later from the merger of the LCG, in October 1957, BCS was incorporated, by Articles of Association, as The British Computer Society Ltd, the first President of BCS was Sir Maurice Wilkes, FRS. In 1966, the BCS was granted charitable status and in 1970, the major ethical responsibilities of BCS are emphasized by the leopards face, surmounting the whole crest and depicting eternal vigilance over the integrity of the Society and its members. The BCS patron is HRH The Duke of Kent, KG and he became patron in December 1976 and has been actively involved in BCS activities, particularly having been President in the Silver Jubilee Year in 1982–1983. In 2007, BCS launched BCSrecruit. com — a job site specifically aimed at IT professionals. In 2008 the BCS was labelled irrelevant by an IT training company, on 21 September 2009, the British Computer Society went through a transformation and re-branded itself as BCS — The Chartered Institute for IT. In 2010, an Extraordinary General Meeting was called to discuss the direction of the BCS, the debate has been covered by the computing press. The BCS advisory Council elects the Honorary Officers — the President, lists of Trust Board and Advisory Council members are maintained online. The advisory Council provides advice to the Trustee Board on the direction and operation of BCS, in particular it is consulted on strategic plans and the annual budget. The Council is a body of the membership, with members elected directly by the professional membership. The BCS is the professional body in the United Kingdom with the ability to grant chartered status to IT professionals under its Royal Charter. Thus having the ability to grant Chartered status to both its Fellows and Professional members, known as Chartered IT Professional, they are entitled to use the suffix CITP. The BCS keeps a register of current Chartered Members and Fellows, other Professional membership bodies apply to the BCS for a licence that enables them to award CITP to their eligible members
Fellow of the British Computer Society
Fellow of the British Computer Society
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British Computer Society
5.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
London
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Palace of Westminster,
Buckingham Palace and
Central London skyline
London
London
London
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The name London may derive from the
River Thames
6.
Emanuel School
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Emanuel School is a co-educational public school in Battersea, south-west London. The school was founded in 1594 by Anne Sackville, Lady Dacre and Queen Elizabeth I and occupies a 12-acre site near to Clapham Junction railway station. The school is part of the Headmasters and Headmistresses Conference and at the start of the 2014–15 academic year had 760 pupils between the ages of ten and eighteen, paying fees of £16,404 per year and it teaches the GCSE and A-Level syllabuses. Emanuel School is one of five schools administered by the United Westminster Schools Foundation and it came into being by the will of Anne, Lady Dacre, dated 1594. She was the daughter of Sir Richard Sackville by his wife Winifred and her brother was Thomas Sackville, 1st Earl of Dorset. She married Gregory Fiennes of Herstmonceaux and Chelsea, 10th Baron Dacre and he died on 25 September 1594 and she followed him, dying on 14 May 1595. Her epitaph states, Faeminei lux clara chori, pia, casta, pudica, aegis subsidium, with Lady Dacres benefaction in 1594, Emanuel Hospital, as it was first called, began. The children wore long tunics, rather similar in cut to those still worn by pupils at Christs Hospital. Thanks to the interest of Queen Elizabeth I, cousin to Lady Dacre, a charter was drawn up, mention is made of the Hospital and similar foundations in an undated letter written by Daniel Defoe, entitled A Scheme for a Royal Palace in the Place of White-Hall. In 1883, the school sought larger, newer buildings for the children, and the boy boarders, as they all then were, moved to the present buildings on the edge of Wandsworth Common. The Rev. A. Towsey, 1883–1894 The Rev. Dr A Chilton MVO, DD, 1894–1905 The Rev. H. Buchanan-Riley, 1905–1913 S. Goodwin, 1914–1927 G. H. Wyatt, 1927–1928 C. M. Broom, 1928–1953 J. B. Grundy, 1953–1963 W. S. Hipkins,1964 C. C, daily Chapel services are led by the Chaplain with regular Holy Communion services and musical concerts. Confirmation is available with the Chaplain who holds regular classes for pupils, whilst the Chapel is open for the use of pupils, teachers, staff. Paintings of Moses and Aaron that formed part of the altarpiece of St. Benet Fink are now held in Chapel
Emanuel School
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Emanuel School
7.
Conway Berners-Lee
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Conway Berners-Lee is an English mathematician and computer scientist who worked in the team that developed the Ferranti Mark 1, the worlds first commercial stored program electronic computer. He was born in Birmingham in 1921 and is the father of Sir Tim Berners-Lee, early in World War II Berners-Lee volunteered for the armed services, but was re-directed to university because the government needed people trained in mathematics and electronics. He attended Trinity College, Cambridge in 1940 and read parts I, in addition, he attended a series of lectures in electronics. After university he had training in electronic engineering and soon joined the army in the Corps of Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers. He worked on Gun Laying and Searchlight Radar in England, after the end of hostilities, Berners-Lee was posted to Egypt where he encountered Maurice Kendalls book The Advanced Theory of Statistics which greatly impressed him. He then had a chance to join the statistics bureau in the GHQ in Cairo and he was employed to close down a very large punched card installation involving about five million 65-column punched cards covering all types of vehicle and spares. This meant that they had to say goodbye to 30 women who had been punching the cards, the last job was sorting and listing the 250,000 personnel cards to get all the service people onto ships for home. There was a race with the clerks doing this job by hand—and the clerks won over the machines, Berners-Lee was demobilised in 1947 with the rank of Major. He then worked on a punched card data processing system for the Plastics Division of Imperial Chemical Industries and he met his wife Mary Lee Woods at the Ferranti Christmas party in Manchester in 1952. She had been working as a programmer on the Ferranti Mark 1 and Mark 1 Star computers at the School of Computer Science and he joined Ferranti in 1953 working at Ferrantis London Computer Centre. They were married on 10 July 1954 at St Saviours Church, the following is an extract from Dominic Wilsons book Organizational Marketing. ‘Men got more than women’, Mary Lee added, ‘It was grossly unfair and there was a rebellion. The personnel officer was shocked wed even discussed our wages. ’ She was on £400 a year, ‘The Tin Hut marriage rate was high’, her husband said. ‘The Robinsons … the Bennetts … the Clarkes … us. ’ Many of these pioneers had moved on to professorships, or stock options and top executive jobs. Theyd been the culmination of a progress from military radar work to academia to commerce. In the 1950s it was not clear how computers could usefully be employed away from the field of mathematics, as well as Statistics, Berners-Lee had acquired a knowledge of Operations Research, and he showed himself to be good at devising worthwhile computer applications. He directed the development of routines for the data processing techniques of sorting and updating files. In 1956 he devised an application for planning the production of items from a variety of components, in 1957 he published an article on machine loading
Conway Berners-Lee
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Conway Berners-Lee
8.
Queen Elizabeth Prize
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The £1 million Prize is awarded biennially in the name of Queen Elizabeth II. The prize was launched in November 2011 by a cross-party line up of the UK Prime Minister David Cameron, Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg. The inaugural prize was presented to the creators of the Internet, the browser, the 2015 prize was awarded to Robert Langer, for his work in controlled-release large molecule drug delivery. The third prize was awarded on 1 February 2017 to Eric Fossum, George Smith, Nobukazu Teranishi, the objective of the Queen Elizabeth Prize is to raise the public profile of engineering, and to inspire young people and engage them in engineering. It is run by a company, limited by guarantee. The day-to-day running of the QEPrize is carried out by a team based at the Royal Academy of Engineering, the prize rewards an outstanding engineering-led advance that has produced tangible and widespread public benefit. This is judged on criteria, that includes the cultural impacts of the engineering. Nominations are encouraged from the public, from engineering and science academies, universities, research organisations, the only restriction is that self-nomination is not permitted, and that the prize not be awarded posthumously. Nominations can be made via a portal on the QEPrize website. A search group composed of eminent engineers sifts and develops the nominations before the process begins. The panel uses the following criteria to select the winning nominations, in what way has this innovation been of global benefit to humanity. Is there anyone else who might claim to have had a role in this development. The winner of the QEPrize are announced every two years by the Chairman of the QEPrize Foundation, in the first three prize cycles, this announcement was held at the Royal Academy of Engineering, and was attended by members of the Royal Family. The QEPrize awards ceremony takes place in the year as the announcement. The QEPrize trophy, designed by the winner of the Create the Trophy competition, is presented to the QEPrize winner by a member of the Royal Family, in the first three prize cycles, the trophy was presented by Her Majesty The Queen. On 1 February 2017, it was announced that the 2017 prize would be awarded to the four engineers responsible for the creation of digital imaging sensors. The announcement was made by Lord Browne of Madingley at the Royal Academy of Engineering, the winners of the 2017 prize were, George E. The winners will receive their award in a ceremony at Buckingham Palace later in 2017, the 2015 prize was awarded to Robert Langer of United States, for his work in controlled-release large molecule drug delivery
Queen Elizabeth Prize
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External video
Queen Elizabeth Prize
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The Queen Elizabeth Prize for Engineering
Queen Elizabeth Prize
9.
Awards and honours presented to Tim Berners-Lee
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Sir Timothy John Tim Berners-Lee, OM, KBE, FRS, FREng, FRSA, DFBCS, also known as TimBL, the inventor of the World Wide Web, has received a number of awards and honours. 1994, Became one of six members of the World Wide Web Hall of Fame. 1995, Kilby Foundations Young Innovator of the Year Award,1995, The Software System Award from the Association for Computing Machinery. 1995, Distinguished Fellow of the British Computer Society 1996, Honorary degree,1997, Appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire for services to global computer networking. 1998, Honorary doctorate, University of Essex,1998, The USENIX Lifetime Achievement Award, USENIX. 1999, Time Magazine named him one of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th century, march 2000, Honorary degree, The Open University as Doctor of the University. 2001, Elected a Fellow of the Royal Society 2001, Elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts,2002, Albert Medal 2002, Named in the BBCs list of the 100 Greatest Britons following a UK-wide vote. The cash prize, worth one million euros, was awarded on 15 June, in Helsinki, Finland, by the President of the Republic of Finland, Tarja Halonen. 2004, Promoted to Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the New Year Honours for services to the development of the Internet. Formally invested on 16 July 2004, July 21,2004, Honorary Doctor of Science degree, Lancaster University. 2007, Ranked Joint First, alongside Albert Hofmann, in The Telegraphs list of 100 greatest living geniuses. 13 June 2007, Order of Merit, becoming one of only 24 living members entitled to hold the honour,2008, IEEE/RSE Wolfson James Clerk Maxwell Award, for conceiving and further developing the World Wide Web.2 December 2008, Honorary doctorate, University of Manchester. His parents worked on the Manchester Mark 1 in the 1940s and 50s,21 April 2009, Honorary doctorate, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid. 28 April 2009, Elected a foreign associate of the United States National Academy of Sciences,8 June 2009, Webby Award for Lifetime Achievement, at the awards ceremony held in New York City. 26 May 2011, Honorary Doctor of Science degree, Harvard University,2011, Inducted into IEEE Intelligent Systems AIs Hall of Fame for the significant contributions to the field of AI and intelligent systems. 2012, Inducted into the Internet Hall of Fame by the Internet Society,27 July 2012, Recognised for the invention of the World Wide Web in the 2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony. 13 September 2013, Honorary Doctor of Science degree, University of St Andrews,19 May 2014, Honorary Doctor of Engineering and Technology degree, Yale University. 24 May 2014, Honorary Doctor of Science degree, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute,24 September 2014, Honorary Freedom of the City of London
Awards and honours presented to Tim Berners-Lee
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Berners-Lee receives the Freedom of the City of London, at the
Guildhall, in 2014
10.
World Wide Web Consortium
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The World Wide Web Consortium is the main international standards organization for the World Wide Web. As of 1 April 2017, the World Wide Web Consortium has 461 members, the W3C also engages in education and outreach, develops software and serves as an open forum for discussion about the Web. The World Wide Web Consortium was founded by Tim Berners-Lee after he left the European Organization for Nuclear Research in October,1994, the organization tries to foster compatibility and agreement among industry members in the adoption of new standards defined by the W3C. Incompatible versions of HTML are offered by different vendors, causing inconsistency in how web pages are displayed, the consortium tries to get all those vendors to implement a set of core principles and components which are chosen by the consortium. It was originally intended that CERN host the European branch of W3C, however, CERN wished to focus on particle physics, not information technology. In April 1995, the French Institute for Research in Computer Science and Automation became the European host of W3C, starting in 1997, W3C created regional offices around the world. In October 2012, W3C convened a community of major web players and publishers to establish a MediaWiki wiki that seeks to document open web standards called the WebPlatform and WebPlatform Docs. Sometimes, when a specification becomes too large, it is split into independent modules which can mature at their own pace, subsequent editions of a module or specification are known as levels and are denoted by the first integer in the title. Subsequent revisions on each level are denoted by a following an decimal point. The W3C standard formation process is defined within the W3C process document, after enough content has been gathered from editor drafts and discussion, it may be published as a working draft for review by the community. A WD document is the first form of a standard that is publicly available, commentary by virtually anyone is accepted, though no promises are made with regard to action on any particular element commented upon. At this stage, the document may have significant differences from its final form. As such, anyone who implements WD standards should be ready to significantly modify their implementations as the standard matures, a candidate recommendation is a version of a standard that is more mature than the WD. At this point, the responsible for the standard is satisfied that the standard meets its goal. The purpose of the CR is to aid from the development community as to how implementable the standard is. The standard document may change further, but at this point, significant features are mostly decided, the design of those features can still change due to feedback from implementors. A proposed recommendation is the version of a standard that has passed the two levels. The users of the standard provide input, at this stage, the document is submitted to the W3C Advisory Council for final approval
World Wide Web Consortium
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World Wide Web Consortium
11.
University of Oxford
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The University of Oxford is a collegiate research university located in Oxford, England. It grew rapidly from 1167 when Henry II banned English students from attending the University of Paris, after disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled north-east to Cambridge where they established what became the University of Cambridge. The two ancient universities are frequently referred to as Oxbridge. The university is made up of a variety of institutions, including 38 constituent colleges, All the colleges are self-governing institutions within the university, each controlling its own membership and with its own internal structure and activities. Being a city university, it not have a main campus, instead, its buildings. Oxford is the home of the Rhodes Scholarship, one of the worlds oldest and most prestigious scholarships, the university operates the worlds oldest university museum, as well as the largest university press in the world and the largest academic library system in Britain. Oxford has educated many notable alumni, including 28 Nobel laureates,27 Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom, the University of Oxford has no known foundation date. Teaching at Oxford existed in form as early as 1096. It grew quickly in 1167 when English students returned from the University of Paris, the historian Gerald of Wales lectured to such scholars in 1188 and the first known foreign scholar, Emo of Friesland, arrived in 1190. The head of the university had the title of chancellor from at least 1201, the university was granted a royal charter in 1248 during the reign of King Henry III. After disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled from the violence to Cambridge, the students associated together on the basis of geographical origins, into two nations, representing the North and the South. In later centuries, geographical origins continued to many students affiliations when membership of a college or hall became customary in Oxford. At about the time, private benefactors established colleges as self-contained scholarly communities. Among the earliest such founders were William of Durham, who in 1249 endowed University College, thereafter, an increasing number of students lived in colleges rather than in halls and religious houses. In 1333–34, an attempt by some dissatisfied Oxford scholars to found a new university at Stamford, Lincolnshire was blocked by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge petitioning King Edward III. Thereafter, until the 1820s, no new universities were allowed to be founded in England, even in London, thus, Oxford and Cambridge had a duopoly, the new learning of the Renaissance greatly influenced Oxford from the late 15th century onwards. Among university scholars of the period were William Grocyn, who contributed to the revival of Greek language studies, and John Colet, the noted biblical scholar. With the English Reformation and the breaking of communion with the Roman Catholic Church, recusant scholars from Oxford fled to continental Europe, as a centre of learning and scholarship, Oxfords reputation declined in the Age of Enlightenment, enrolments fell and teaching was neglected
University of Oxford
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Balliol College – one of the university's oldest constituent colleges
University of Oxford
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University of Oxford
seal
University of Oxford
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Aerial view of
Merton College 's
Mob Quad, the oldest
quadrangle of the university, constructed in the years from 1288 to 1378
University of Oxford
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In 1605 Oxford was still a walled city, but several colleges had been built outside the city walls (north is at the bottom on this map)
12.
University of Southampton
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The University of Southampton is a public research university located in Southampton, England. The origins of the university back to the founding of the Hartley Institution in 1862 following a legacy to the Corporation of Southampton by Henry Robinson Hartley. In 1902, the Institution developed into the Hartley University College awarding degrees from the University of London, on 29 April 1952, the institution was granted a Royal Charter to give the University of Southampton full university status, allowing it to award its own degrees. The university has seven teaching campuses, in addition, the university operates a School of Art based in nearby Winchester and an international branch in Malaysia offering courses in Engineering. Each campus is equipped with its own library facilities, the University of Southampton currently has 17,485 undergraduate and 7,390 postgraduate students, making it the largest university by higher education students in the South East region. The university owns and operates a sports ground at nearby Wide Lane for use by students, besides being recognised as one of the leading research universities in the UK, Southampton has also achieved consistently high scores for its teaching and learning activities. It additionally has one of the highest proportions of income derived from activities in Britain. As of 2015, Southampton is one of the few universities to achieve a top 20 UK position in the most established national and international rankings, in the 2016 edition of U. S. News & World Report, Southampton is placed in the top 10 of British Universities. Southampton is a member of the European University Association, the Association of Commonwealth Universities and is an institution of the Worldwide Universities Network. The university consistently ranks in the top 5 in Engineering programs in England, the University of Southampton has its origin as the Hartley Institution which was formed in 1862 from a benefaction by Henry Robinson Hartley. Hartley had inherited a fortune from two generations of successful wine merchants, at his death in 1850, he left a bequest of £103,000 to the Southampton Corporation for the study and advancement of the sciences in his property on Southamptons High Street, in the city centre. Hartley was a straggler, who had little liking of the new age docks. He did not desire to create a college for many but a centre for Southamptons intellectual elite. After lengthy legal challenges to the Bequest, and a debate as to how best interpret the language of his Will. On 15 October 1862, the Hartley Institute was opened by the Prime Minister Lord Palmerston in a civic occasion which exceeded in splendor anything that anyone in the town could remember. After initial years of struggle, the Hartley Institute became the Hartley College in 1883. This move was followed by increasing numbers of students, teaching staff, in 1902, the Hartley College became the Hartley University college, a degree awarding branch of the University of London. This was after inspection of the teaching and finances by the University College Grants Committee, an increase in student numbers in the following years motivated fund raising efforts to move the college to greenfield land around Back Lane in the Highfield area of Southampton
University of Southampton
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The arrival of Prime Minister
Lord Palmerston for the opening of the Hartley Institute on 15 October 1862
University of Southampton
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Front of the Hartley Library, constructed in the 1930s after the move to Highfield Campus, with the support of private donors.
University of Southampton
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Toast rack, a 1929 Dennis GL that has been owned by the University of Southampton Engineering Society since 1958.
University of Southampton
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The Gardens on the west half of Highfield Campus were landscaped by
Basil Spence.
13.
Plessey
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The Plessey Company plc was a British-based international electronics, defence and telecommunications company. It originated in 1917, growing and diversifying into electronics and it expanded after the Second World War by acquisition of companies and formed overseas companies. It was listed on the London Stock Exchange and was a constituent of the FTSE100 Index, in 1989, it was taken over by a consortium formed by GEC and Siemens which split the assets of the Plessey group. The majority of Plesseys defence assets were amalgamated into BAE Systems in 1999 when BAe merged with the arm of GEC. A small portion of the market, mostly embedded electronic systems and circuitcards remained with GE, formerly GE Fanuc. The bulk of Plesseys telecommunications assets were acquired by Ericsson through its 2005 acquisition of Marconi Corporation plc, the remainder of the communication assets went to Telent plc. The Plessey company was founded in 1917 in Marylebone, central London, the original shareholders were Thomas Hurst Hodgson, C. H. Whitaker, Raymond Parker and his brother Plessey Parker, a talented German engineer, William Oscar Heyne was employed by the company. Heyne later became the Managing Director and Chairman of Plessey and was one of the key figures in the development of Plessey during the 1920s and 30s, the company moved to Cottenham Road in Ilford early in 1919. In 1925 the original company was wound up and a new one formed with a share capital. Most of the work carried out by the company was mechanical engineering rather than electronics. An early customer of Plessey was a company called British Electro Chemists. One of that companys shareholders was Byron G. Clark, an American, Hodgson, one of the founders of Plessey. The Clark family would dominate the management of Plessey for most of its history. During the 1920s Plessey began to diversify into electrical manufacturing, important contracts included the manufacture of early radios for Marconi and the production of telephones for the GPO. Because of the production, Plessey moved to Vicarage Lane Ilford in 1923. In 1929 the television pioneer John Logie Baird had his first production produced by Plessey. The company also produced the first British made portable battery radio in the same year, the manufacture of electrical components also became a key area of growth for Plessey
Plessey
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Plessey
Plessey
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R1155 Receiver on top of T1154 Transmitter.
Plessey
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Plessey Semiconductors factory at Cheney Manor, Swindon in 1982. The factory housed both bipolar and MOS lines. A small part of the canteen facilities (which had five grades of service) for all Plessey employees is visible on the right of the image, since demolished around 2010
Plessey
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Plessey Semiconductors factory at Cheney Manor, Swindon on 17 July 2012, undergoing demolition
14.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
–
The Massachusetts Institute of Technology is a private research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, often cited as one of the worlds most prestigious universities. Researchers worked on computers, radar, and inertial guidance during World War II, post-war defense research contributed to the rapid expansion of the faculty and campus under James Killian. The current 168-acre campus opened in 1916 and extends over 1 mile along the bank of the Charles River basin. The Institute is traditionally known for its research and education in the sciences and engineering, and more recently in biology, economics, linguistics. Air Force and 6 Fields Medalists have been affiliated with MIT, the school has a strong entrepreneurial culture, and the aggregated revenues of companies founded by MIT alumni would rank as the eleventh-largest economy in the world. In 1859, a proposal was submitted to the Massachusetts General Court to use newly filled lands in Back Bay, Boston for a Conservatory of Art and Science, but the proposal failed. A charter for the incorporation of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Rogers, a professor from the University of Virginia, wanted to establish an institution to address rapid scientific and technological advances. The Rogers Plan reflected the German research university model, emphasizing an independent faculty engaged in research, as well as instruction oriented around seminars, two days after the charter was issued, the first battle of the Civil War broke out. After a long delay through the war years, MITs first classes were held in the Mercantile Building in Boston in 1865, in 1863 under the same act, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts founded the Massachusetts Agricultural College, which developed as the University of Massachusetts Amherst. In 1866, the proceeds from sales went toward new buildings in the Back Bay. MIT was informally called Boston Tech, the institute adopted the European polytechnic university model and emphasized laboratory instruction from an early date. Despite chronic financial problems, the institute saw growth in the last two decades of the 19th century under President Francis Amasa Walker. Programs in electrical, chemical, marine, and sanitary engineering were introduced, new buildings were built, the curriculum drifted to a vocational emphasis, with less focus on theoretical science. The fledgling school still suffered from chronic financial shortages which diverted the attention of the MIT leadership, during these Boston Tech years, MIT faculty and alumni rebuffed Harvard University president Charles W. Eliots repeated attempts to merge MIT with Harvard Colleges Lawrence Scientific School. There would be at least six attempts to absorb MIT into Harvard, in its cramped Back Bay location, MIT could not afford to expand its overcrowded facilities, driving a desperate search for a new campus and funding. Eventually the MIT Corporation approved an agreement to merge with Harvard, over the vehement objections of MIT faculty, students. However, a 1917 decision by the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court effectively put an end to the merger scheme, the neoclassical New Technology campus was designed by William W. Bosworth and had been funded largely by anonymous donations from a mysterious Mr. Smith, starting in 1912. In January 1920, the donor was revealed to be the industrialist George Eastman of Rochester, New York, who had invented methods of production and processing
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
–
Stereographic card showing an MIT mechanical drafting studio, 19th century (photo by
E.L. Allen, left/right inverted)
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
–
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
–
A 1905 map of MIT's Boston campus
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
–
Plaque in Building 6 honoring
George Eastman, founder of
Eastman Kodak, who was revealed as the anonymous "Mr. Smith" who helped maintain MIT's independence
15.
Engineer
–
Engineers design materials, structures, and systems while considering the limitations imposed by practicality, regulation, safety, and cost. The word engineer is derived from the Latin words ingeniare and ingenium, the work of engineers forms the link between scientific discoveries and their subsequent applications to human and business needs and quality of life. His/her work is predominantly intellectual and varied and not of a mental or physical character. It requires the exercise of original thought and judgement and the ability to supervise the technical, he/she is thus placed in a position to make contributions to the development of engineering science or its applications. In due time he/she will be able to give authoritative technical advice, much of an engineers time is spent on researching, locating, applying, and transferring information. Indeed, research suggests engineers spend 56% of their time engaged in various information behaviours, Engineers must weigh different design choices on their merits and choose the solution that best matches the requirements. Their crucial and unique task is to identify, understand, Engineers apply techniques of engineering analysis in testing, production, or maintenance. Analytical engineers may supervise production in factories and elsewhere, determine the causes of a process failure and they also estimate the time and cost required to complete projects. Supervisory engineers are responsible for major components or entire projects, Engineering analysis involves the application of scientific analytic principles and processes to reveal the properties and state of the system, device or mechanism under study. Most engineers specialize in one or more engineering disciplines, numerous specialties are recognized by professional societies, and each of the major branches of engineering has numerous subdivisions. Civil engineering, for example, includes structural and transportation engineering and materials engineering include ceramic, metallurgical, mechanical engineering cuts across just about every discipline since its core essence is applied physics. Engineers also may specialize in one industry, such as vehicles, or in one type of technology. Several recent studies have investigated how engineers spend their time, that is, research suggests that there are several key themes present in engineers’ work, technical work, social work, computer-based work, information behaviours. Amongst other more detailed findings, a recent work sampling study found that engineers spend 62. 92% of their time engaged in work,40. 37% in social work. The time engineers spend engaged in activities is also reflected in the competencies required in engineering roles. There are many branches of engineering, each of which specializes in specific technologies, typically engineers will have deep knowledge in one area and basic knowledge in related areas. When developing a product, engineers work in interdisciplinary teams. For example, when building robots an engineering team will typically have at least three types of engineers, a mechanical engineer would design the body and actuators
Engineer
–
An electrical engineer, circa 1950
Engineer
–
Engineers conferring on prototype design, 1954
Engineer
–
NASA Launch Control Center Firing Room 2 as it appeared in the Apollo era
Engineer
–
The
Challenger disaster is held as a case study of
engineering ethics.
16.
Computer science
–
Computer science is the study of the theory, experimentation, and engineering that form the basis for the design and use of computers. An alternate, more succinct definition of science is the study of automating algorithmic processes that scale. A computer scientist specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems and its fields can be divided into a variety of theoretical and practical disciplines. Some fields, such as computational complexity theory, are highly abstract, other fields still focus on challenges in implementing computation. Human–computer interaction considers the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable, the earliest foundations of what would become computer science predate the invention of the modern digital computer. Machines for calculating fixed numerical tasks such as the abacus have existed since antiquity, further, algorithms for performing computations have existed since antiquity, even before the development of sophisticated computing equipment. Wilhelm Schickard designed and constructed the first working mechanical calculator in 1623, in 1673, Gottfried Leibniz demonstrated a digital mechanical calculator, called the Stepped Reckoner. He may be considered the first computer scientist and information theorist, for, among other reasons and he started developing this machine in 1834, and in less than two years, he had sketched out many of the salient features of the modern computer. A crucial step was the adoption of a card system derived from the Jacquard loom making it infinitely programmable. Around 1885, Herman Hollerith invented the tabulator, which used punched cards to process statistical information, when the machine was finished, some hailed it as Babbages dream come true. During the 1940s, as new and more powerful computing machines were developed, as it became clear that computers could be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science broadened to study computation in general. Computer science began to be established as an academic discipline in the 1950s. The worlds first computer science program, the Cambridge Diploma in Computer Science. The first computer science program in the United States was formed at Purdue University in 1962. Since practical computers became available, many applications of computing have become distinct areas of study in their own rights and it is the now well-known IBM brand that formed part of the computer science revolution during this time. IBM released the IBM704 and later the IBM709 computers, still, working with the IBM was frustrating if you had misplaced as much as one letter in one instruction, the program would crash, and you would have to start the whole process over again. During the late 1950s, the science discipline was very much in its developmental stages. Time has seen significant improvements in the usability and effectiveness of computing technology, modern society has seen a significant shift in the users of computer technology, from usage only by experts and professionals, to a near-ubiquitous user base
Computer science
–
Ada Lovelace is credited with writing the first
algorithm intended for processing on a computer.
Computer science
Computer science
–
The
German military used the
Enigma machine (shown here) during
World War II for communications they wanted kept secret. The large-scale decryption of Enigma traffic at
Bletchley Park was an important factor that contributed to Allied victory in WWII.
Computer science
–
Digital logic
17.
World Wide Web
–
The World Wide Web is an information space where documents and other web resources are identified by Uniform Resource Locators, interlinked by hypertext links, and can be accessed via the Internet. English scientist Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web in 1989 and he wrote the first web browser computer program in 1990 while employed at CERN in Switzerland. The Web browser was released outside of CERN in 1991, first to research institutions starting in January 1991. The World Wide Web has been central to the development of the Information Age and is the primary tool billions of people use to interact on the Internet, Web pages are primarily text documents formatted and annotated with Hypertext Markup Language. In addition to formatted text, web pages may contain images, video, audio, embedded hyperlinks permit users to navigate between web pages. Multiple web pages with a theme, a common domain name. Website content can largely be provided by the publisher, or interactive where users contribute content or the content depends upon the user or their actions, websites may be mostly informative, primarily for entertainment, or largely for commercial, governmental, or non-governmental organisational purposes. In the 2006 Great British Design Quest organised by the BBC and the Design Museum, Tim Berners-Lees vision of a global hyperlinked information system became a possibility by the second half of the 1980s. By 1985, the global Internet began to proliferate in Europe, in 1988 the first direct IP connection between Europe and North America was made and Berners-Lee began to openly discuss the possibility of a web-like system at CERN. Such a system, he explained, could be referred to using one of the meanings of the word hypertext. At this point HTML and HTTP had already been in development for two months and the first Web server was about a month from completing its first successful test. While the read-only goal was met, accessible authorship of web content took longer to mature, with the concept, WebDAV, blogs, Web 2.0. The proposal was modelled after the SGML reader Dynatext by Electronic Book Technology, a NeXT Computer was used by Berners-Lee as the worlds first web server and also to write the first web browser, WorldWideWeb, in 1990. By Christmas 1990, Berners-Lee had built all the necessary for a working Web, the first web browser. The first web site, which described the project itself, was published on 20 December 1990, jones stored it on a magneto-optical drive and on his NeXT computer. On 6 August 1991, Berners-Lee published a summary of the World Wide Web project on the newsgroup alt. hypertext. This date is confused with the public availability of the first web servers. The first server outside Europe was installed at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center in Palo Alto, California, accounts differ substantially as to the date of this event
World Wide Web
–
The NeXT Computer used by
Tim Berners-Lee at
CERN.
World Wide Web
–
The CERN
data center in 2010 housing some WWW servers
18.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol
–
The Hypertext Transfer Protocol is an application protocol for distributed, collaborative, and hypermedia information systems. HTTP is the foundation of data communication for the World Wide Web, Hypertext is structured text that uses logical links between nodes containing text. HTTP is the protocol to exchange or transfer hypertext, development of HTTP was initiated by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN in 1989. Standards development of HTTP was coordinated by the Internet Engineering Task Force and the World Wide Web Consortium, culminating in the publication of a series of Requests for Comments. The first definition of HTTP/1.1, the version of HTTP in common use, occurred in RFC2068 in 1997, although this was obsoleted by RFC2616 in 1999 and then again by RFC7230 and family in 2014. A later version, the successor HTTP/2, was standardized in 2015, HTTP functions as a request–response protocol in the client–server computing model. A web browser, for example, may be the client, the client submits an HTTP request message to the server. The server, which provides resources such as HTML files and other content, or performs other functions on behalf of the client, the response contains completion status information about the request and may also contain requested content in its message body. A web browser is an example of a user agent, other types of user agent include the indexing software used by search providers, voice browsers, mobile apps, and other software that accesses, consumes, or displays web content. HTTP is designed to permit intermediate network elements to improve or enable communications between clients and servers, high-traffic websites often benefit from web cache servers that deliver content on behalf of upstream servers to improve response time. Web browsers cache previously accessed web resources and reuse them when possible to network traffic. HTTP proxy servers at private network boundaries can facilitate communication for clients without a globally routable address, HTTP is an application layer protocol designed within the framework of the Internet protocol suite. Its definition presumes an underlying and reliable transport layer protocol, however HTTP can be adapted to use unreliable protocols such as the User Datagram Protocol, for example in HTTPU and Simple Service Discovery Protocol. HTTP resources are identified and located on the network by Uniform Resource Locators, using the Uniform Resource Identifiers schemes http, uRIs and hyperlinks in HTML documents form inter-linked hypertext documents. HTTP/1.1 is a revision of the original HTTP, in HTTP/1.0 a separate connection to the same server is made for every resource request. HTTP/1.1 can reuse a connection multiple times to download images, scripts, stylesheets, HTTP/1.1 communications therefore experience less latency as the establishment of TCP connections presents considerable overhead. Tim Berners-Lee and his team at CERN are credited with inventing the original HTTP along with HTML and the technology for a web server. Berners-Lee first proposed the WorldWideWeb project in 1989—now known as the World Wide Web, the first version of the protocol had only one method, namely GET, which would request a page from a server
Hypertext Transfer Protocol
–
URL beginning with the HTTP scheme and the
WWW domain name label.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol
–
Tim Berners-Lee
19.
Server (computing)
–
In computing, a server is a computer program or a device that provides functionality for other programs or devices, called clients. This architecture is called the model, and a single overall computation is distributed across multiple processes or devices. Servers can provide various functionalities, often called services, such as sharing data or resources among multiple clients, a single server can serve multiple clients, and a single client can use multiple servers. A client process may run on the device or may connect over a network to a server on a different device. Typical servers are database servers, file servers, mail servers, print servers, web servers, game servers, designating a computer as server-class hardware implies that it is specialized for running servers on it. The use of the server in computing comes from queueing theory, where it dates to the mid 20th century, being notably used in Kendall. In earlier papers, such as the Erlang, more terms such as operators are used. In computing, server dates at least to RFC5, one of the earliest documents describing ARPANET, the use of serving also dates to early documents, such as RFC4, contrasting serving-host with using-host. The Jargon File defines server in the sense of a process performing service for requests, usually remote, with the 1981 version reading. A kind of DAEMON which performs a service for the requester, strictly speaking, the term server refers to a computer program or process. Through metonymy, it refers to a used to running one or several server programs. On a network, such a device is called a host, in addition to server, the words serve and service are frequently used, though servicer and servant are not. The word service may refer to either the form of functionality. Alternatively, it may refer to a program that turns a computer into a server. Originally used as servers serve users, in the sense of obey, today one says that servers serve data. For instance, web servers serve web pages to users or service their requests, the server is part of the client–server model, in this model, a server serves data for clients. The nature of communication between a client and server is request and response and this is in contrast with peer-to-peer model in which the relationship is on-demand reciprocation. In principle, any computerized process that can be used or called by another process is a server, thus any general purpose computer connected to a network can host servers
Server (computing)
–
Wikimedia Foundation servers
Server (computing)
–
A rack-mountable server. Top cover removed to reveal the internal components.
Server (computing)
20.
World Wide Web Foundation
–
The World Wide Web Foundation is an organization dedicated to the improvement and availability of the World Wide Web. The formation of the organization was announced on September 14,2008 by Tim Berners-Lee at the Newseum in Washington, the organization launched on November 15,2009. One of its board members is former British Prime Minister Gordon Brown. The mission of the organization is to establish the open Web as a public good. The foundation works in two areas, A free and open Web and Open Democracy, to reach the objectives of the organization and it publishes the Web Index with statistics for 86 selected countries. This organization is not related to the Open Web Foundation, when announcing the foundation, Berners-Lee discussed a system to label websites for their trustworthiness. According to the BBC he said there needed to be new systems that would give websites a label for trustworthiness once they had proved reliable sources. The New Scientist criticized the formation of an organization to others what is true or not. World Wide Web Consortium World Wide Web Foundation
World Wide Web Foundation
–
Alberto Ibarguen and Berners-Lee announcing the Web Foundation in 2008
21.
Ford Foundation
–
The Ford Foundation is a New York headquartered, globally oriented private foundation with the mission of advancing human welfare. Created in 1936 by Edsel Ford and Henry Ford, it was funded by a US$25,000 gift from Edsel Ford. By 1947, after the death of the two founders, the foundation owned 90 percent of the shares of the Ford Motor Company. Between 1955 and 1974, the foundation sold its Ford Motor Company holdings, the foundation makes grants through its headquarters and ten international field offices. For fiscal year 2014, it reported assets of US$12.4 billion, after the deaths of Edsel Ford in 1943 and Henry Ford in 1947, the presidency of the foundation fell to Edsels eldest son, Henry Ford II. It quickly became clear that the foundation would become the largest philanthropy in the world, the board of trustees then commissioned the Gaither Study Committee to chart the foundations future. The committee, headed by California attorney H, the board embraced the recommendations in 1949. The board of directors decided to diversify the foundations portfolio and gradually divested itself of its substantial Ford Motor Company stock between 1955 and 1974 and this divestiture allowed Ford Motor to become a public company. In 2012, stating that it is not a research library, in 1951, the foundation made its first grant to support the development of the public broadcasting system, then known as National Educational Television, which went on the air in 1952. These grants continued, and in 1969 the foundation gave US$1 million to the Childrens Television Workshop to help create, the Corporation for Public Broadcasting replaced NET with the Public Broadcasting Service on October 5,1970. The foundations first international office opened in 1952 in New Delhi. In 1961, Kofi Annan received a grant from the foundation to finish his studies at Macalester College in St. Paul. In 1968, the foundation began disbursing $12 million to persuade law schools to make law school clinics part of their curriculum, clinics were intended to give practical experience in law practice while providing pro bono representation to the poor. In 1967 and 1968, the provided financial support for decentralization. Decentralization in Ocean Hill–Brownsville led to the firing of some teachers and administrators. Beginning in the late 1960s and continuing through the 1970s, the foundation expanded into civil rights litigation, the Mexican American Legal Defense and Educational Fund was incorporated in 1967 with a US$2.2 million grant from the foundation. In the same year, the foundation funded the establishment of the Southwest Council of La Raza. In 1972, the foundation provided a three-year US$1.2 million grant to the Native American Rights Fund, the same year, the Puerto Rican Legal Defense and Education Fund opened with funding from numerous organizations, including the foundation
Ford Foundation
–
New York headquarters
22.
Open Data Institute
–
The Open Data Institute is a non-profit private company limited by guarantee, based in the United Kingdom. Founded by Sirs Tim Berners-Lee and Nigel Shadbolt in 2012, the ODI’s mission is to connect, equip, the ODI’s global network includes individuals, businesses, startups, franchises, collaborators and governments who help to achieve this mission. The Open Data Institute provides in-house and online, free and paid-for training courses, ODI courses and learning materials cover theory and practice surrounding data publishing and use, from introductory overviews to courses for specific subject areas. ODI Friday lunchtime lectures cover a different theme each week surrounding the communication and application of data, in order to bring open data’s benefits to specific areas of society and industry, the ODI focuses much of its research, publications and projects around specific themes and sectors. Since its inception in 2012, the ODI has championed open data as a public good, in 2015, the ODI was instrumental in beginning a global discussion around the need to define and strengthen data infrastructure. Definitions in the include, Data that is closed, data that is shared. ODI Associate Curator, Hannah Redler, selected ‘Data Anthropologies’ as Data as Culture’s 2015–16 theme, for it the ODI commissioned Artists in Residence, Thomson & Craighead, Natasha Caruana and Alex McLean to exhibit work and create new data-driven pieces. The ODI has supported open data leaders in governments around the world to boost economies, innovation, social impact and transparency using open data. As part of the Open Data for Development Network, funded by the International Development Research Centre, the ODI focuses on highlighting how data can enhance FinTech and banking and bring broad benefits to customers, regulators and industry. As part of a joint industry and government Open Banking Working Group and this highlights how banking customers can have more control over their data, and how to create an environment that maximises data reuse. The paper focuses on key technologies and how they can support data sharing via APIs that preserve privacy, the ODI’s 2013 ‘Show me the money’ report focused on the UK peer-to-peer lending market, revealing ‘lending by region’ using data from P2P platforms. Through research, open discussion and sector-focused events, the ODI is identifying challenges, solutions and global priorities in improving agriculture and nutrition with open data. The ODI runs an Open Data for Smart Cities training course, ODI Members are organisations and individuals, from large corporations to students, who explore, demonstrate and share the value of data. ODI Members are all committed to unlocking the value of data, new member companies in 2015 included Deutsche Bank, Ocado Technology, SAP and The Bulmer Foundation. Each year the ODI invites new applicants onto its ODI Startup programme in order to them to develop a sustainable business. The ODI assesses startups for the programme based on the strength of their idea and team, market opportunity and timing, potential scale, use of open data, and potential impact. 30 ODI Startups have joined the programme, which between them employ 185 people and have secured over £10m in contracts and investments, ODI Nodes are franchises of the ODI. Hosted by existing organisations, ODI Nodes operate locally and are connected globally as part of the ODI Node network, each node adopts the ODI Charter, an open codification of the guiding principles and rules under which the ODI operates
Open Data Institute
–
65 Clifton Street, ODI headquarters in
Shoreditch. The Open Data Institute is on the 3rd floor
23.
Order of the British Empire
–
There is also the related British Empire Medal, whose recipients are affiliated with, but not members of, the order. Recommendations for appointments to the Order of the British Empire were at first made on the nomination of the United Kingdom, the self-governing Dominions of the Empire, nominations continue today from Commonwealth countries that participate in recommending British honours. Most members are citizens of the United Kingdom or the Commonwealth realms that use the Imperial system of honours and awards. Honorary knighthoods are appointed to citizens of nations where the Queen is not head of state, occasionally, honorary appointees are, incorrectly, referred to as Sir or Dame – Bill Gates or Bob Geldof, for example. In particular, King George V wished to create an Order to honour many thousands of those who had served in a variety of non-combatant roles during the First World War, when first established, the Order had only one division. However, in 1918, soon after its foundation, it was divided into Military. The Orders motto is For God and the Empire, at the foundation of the Order, the Medal of the Order of the British Empire was instituted, to serve as a lower award granting recipients affiliation but not membership. In 1922, this was renamed the British Empire Medal, in addition, the BEM is awarded by the Cook Islands and by some other Commonwealth nations. The British monarch is Sovereign of the Order, and appoints all members of the Order. The next most senior member is the Grand Master, of whom there have been three, Prince Edward, the Prince of Wales, Queen Mary, and the current Grand Master, the Duke of Edinburgh. The Order is limited to 300 Knights and Dames Grand Cross,845 Knights and Dames Commander, and 8,960 Commanders. There are no limits applied to the number of members of the fourth and fifth classes. Foreign recipients, as members, do not contribute to the numbers restricted to the Order as full members do. Though men can be knighted separately from an order of chivalry, women cannot, and so the rank of Knight/Dame Commander of the Order is the lowest rank of damehood, and second-lowest of knighthood. Because of this, Dame Commander is awarded in circumstances in which a man would be created a Knight Bachelor, for example, by convention, female judges of the High Court of Justice are created Dames Commander after appointment, while male judges become Knights Bachelor. The Order has six officials, the Prelate, the Dean, the Secretary, the Registrar, the King of Arms, the Bishop of London, a senior bishop in the Church of England, serves as the Orders Prelate. The Dean of St Pauls is ex officio the Dean of the Order, the Orders King of Arms is not a member of the College of Arms, as are many other heraldic officers. From time to time, individuals are appointed to a higher grade within the Order, thereby ceasing usage of the junior post-nominal letters
Order of the British Empire
–
Most Excellent Order of the British Empire
Order of the British Empire
–
MBE as awarded in 1918
Order of the British Empire
–
Close up of an MBE from 1945 showing the "For God and the Empire"
Order of the British Empire
–
Lieutenant General Sir
Robert Fulton, KBE
24.
Elizabeth II
–
Elizabeth II has been Queen of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand since 6 February 1952. Elizabeth was born in London as the eldest child of the Duke and Duchess of York, later King George VI and Queen Elizabeth and her father acceded to the throne on the abdication of his brother Edward VIII in 1936, from which time she was the heir presumptive. She began to undertake duties during the Second World War. Elizabeths many historic visits and meetings include a visit to the Republic of Ireland. She has seen major changes, such as devolution in the United Kingdom, Canadian patriation. She has reigned through various wars and conflicts involving many of her realms and she is the worlds oldest reigning monarch as well as Britains longest-lived. In October 2016, she became the longest currently reigning monarch, in 2017 she became the first British monarch to commemorate a Sapphire Jubilee. Elizabeth has occasionally faced republican sentiments and press criticism of the family, however, support for the monarchy remains high. Elizabeth was born at 02,40 on 21 April 1926, during the reign of her paternal grandfather and her father, Prince Albert, Duke of York, was the second son of the King. Her mother, Elizabeth, Duchess of York, was the youngest daughter of Scottish aristocrat Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and she was delivered by Caesarean section at her maternal grandfathers London house,17 Bruton Street, Mayfair. Elizabeths only sibling, Princess Margaret, was born in 1930, the two princesses were educated at home under the supervision of their mother and their governess, Marion Crawford, who was casually known as Crawfie. Lessons concentrated on history, language, literature and music, Crawford published a biography of Elizabeth and Margarets childhood years entitled The Little Princesses in 1950, much to the dismay of the royal family. The book describes Elizabeths love of horses and dogs, her orderliness, others echoed such observations, Winston Churchill described Elizabeth when she was two as a character. She has an air of authority and reflectiveness astonishing in an infant and her cousin Margaret Rhodes described her as a jolly little girl, but fundamentally sensible and well-behaved. During her grandfathers reign, Elizabeth was third in the line of succession to the throne, behind her uncle Edward, Prince of Wales, and her father, the Duke of York. Although her birth generated public interest, she was not expected to become queen, many people believed that he would marry and have children of his own. When her grandfather died in 1936 and her uncle succeeded as Edward VIII, she became second-in-line to the throne, later that year, Edward abdicated, after his proposed marriage to divorced socialite Wallis Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis. Consequently, Elizabeths father became king, and she became heir presumptive, if her parents had had a later son, she would have lost her position as first-in-line, as her brother would have been heir apparent and above her in the line of succession
Elizabeth II
–
The Queen in March 2015
Elizabeth II
–
Princess Elizabeth aged 3, April 1929
Elizabeth II
–
Princess Elizabeth aged 7, painted by
Philip de László, 1933
Elizabeth II
–
Elizabeth in
Auxiliary Territorial Service uniform, April 1945
25.
United States National Academy of Sciences
–
The National Academy of Sciences is a United States nonprofit, non-governmental organization. NAS is part of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, along with the National Academy of Engineering, as a national academy, new members of the organization are elected annually by current members, based on their distinguished and continuing achievements in original research. Election to the National Academies is one of the highest honors in the scientific field, members serve pro bono as advisers to the nation on science, engineering, and medicine. The group holds a congressional charter under Title 36 of the United States Code, … to provide scientific advice to the government whenever called upon by any government department. The Academy receives no compensation from the government for its services, as of 2016, the National Academy of Sciences includes about 2,350 members and 450 foreign associates. It employed about 1,100 staff in 2005, the current members annually elect new members for life. Approximately 200 members have won a Nobel Prize, the National Academy of Sciences is a member of the International Council for Science. Although there is no relationship with state and local academies of science. The National Academies is governed by a 17-member Council, made up of five officers and 12 Councilors, the National Academy of Sciences meets annually in Washington, D. C. which is documented in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, its scholarly journal. The National Academies Press is the publisher for the National Academies, since 2004, the National Academy of Sciences has administered the Marian Koshland Science Museum to provide public exhibits and programming related to its policy work. The museums current exhibits focus on change and infectious disease. The National Academy of Sciences maintains multiple buildings around the United States, the building has a neoclassical architectural style and was built by architect Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue. The building was dedicated in 1924 and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the building is used for lectures, symposia, exhibitions, and concerts, in addition to annual meetings of the NAS, NAE, and NAM. The 2012 Presidential Award for Math and Science Teaching ceremony was held here on March 5,2014, approximately 150 staff members work at the NAS Building. More than 1,000 National Academies staff members work at The Keck Center of the National Academies at 500 Fifth Street in northwest Washington, the Keck Center provides meeting space and houses the National Academies Press Bookstore. The NAS also maintains conference centers in California and Massachusetts, the J. Erik Jonsson Conference Center located at 314 Quissett Avenue in Woods Hole, Massachusetts, is another conference facility. The Act of Incorporation, signed by President Abraham Lincoln on March 3,1863, created the National Academy of Sciences, many of the original NAS members came from the so-called Scientific Lazzaroni, an informal network of mostly physical scientists working in the vicinity of Cambridge, Massachusetts. Senator Henry Wilson of Massachusetts was to name Agassiz to the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, Agassiz was to come to Washington at the governments expense to plan the organization with the others
United States National Academy of Sciences
–
National Academy of Sciences
United States National Academy of Sciences
–
The Keck Center of the National Academies in
Washington, D.C., one of several facilities where the National Academy of Sciences maintains offices.
United States National Academy of Sciences
–
The National Academies' Beckman Conference Center,
Irvine, California
26.
Time (magazine)
–
Time is an American weekly news magazine published in New York City. It was founded in 1923 and for decades was dominated by Henry Luce, a European edition is published in London and also covers the Middle East, Africa and, since 2003, Latin America. An Asian edition is based in Hong Kong, the South Pacific edition, which covers Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Islands, is based in Sydney, Australia. In December 2008, Time discontinued publishing a Canadian advertiser edition, Time has the worlds largest circulation for a weekly news magazine, and has a readership of 26 million,20 million of which are based in the United States. As of 2012, it had a circulation of 3.3 million making it the eleventh most circulated magazine in the United States reception room circuit, as of 2015, its circulation was 3,036,602. Richard Stengel was the editor from May 2006 to October 2013. Nancy Gibbs has been the editor since October 2013. Time magazine was created in 1923 by Briton Hadden and Henry Luce, the two had previously worked together as chairman and managing editor respectively of the Yale Daily News. They first called the proposed magazine Facts and they wanted to emphasize brevity, so that a busy man could read it in an hour. They changed the name to Time and used the slogan Take Time–Its Brief and it set out to tell the news through people, and for many decades the magazines cover depicted a single person. More recently, Time has incorporated People of the Year issues which grew in popularity over the years, notable mentions of them were Barack Obama, Steve Jobs, Matej Turk, etc. The first issue of Time was published on March 3,1923, featuring Joseph G. Cannon, the retired Speaker of the House of Representatives, on its cover, a facsimile reprint of Issue No. 1, including all of the articles and advertisements contained in the original, was included with copies of the February 28,1938 issue as a commemoration of the magazines 15th anniversary. The cover price was 15¢ On Haddens death in 1929, Luce became the dominant man at Time, the Intimate History of a Publishing Enterprise 1923–1941. In 1929, Roy Larsen was also named a Time Inc. director, J. P. Morgan retained a certain control through two directorates and a share of stocks, both over Time and Fortune. Other shareholders were Brown Brothers W. A. Harriman & Co. the Intimate History of a Changing Enterprise 1957–1983. According to the September 10,1979 issue of The New York Times, after Time magazine began publishing its weekly issues in March 1923, Roy Larsen was able to increase its circulation by utilizing U. S. radio and movie theaters around the world. It often promoted both Time magazine and U. S. political and corporate interests, Larsen next arranged for a 30-minute radio program, The March of Time, to be broadcast over CBS, beginning on March 6,1931
Time (magazine)
–
The first issue of Time (March 3, 1923), featuring
Speaker Joseph G. Cannon.
Time (magazine)
–
Bibi Aisha on the Cover of Time.
Time (magazine)
–
Time Magazine red X covers: from left to right, Adolf Hitler, Saddam Hussein, Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, and Osama bin Laden.
27.
Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century
–
Time 100, The Most Important People of the Century is a compilation of the 20th centurys 100 most influential people, published in Time magazine in 1999. The idea for such a list started on February 1,1998, with a debate at a symposium in Hanoi, in a separate issue on December 31,1999, Time recognized Albert Einstein as the Person of the Century. Times article cites twenty persons in each of five categories, Leaders and Revolutionaries, Scientists and Thinkers, Builders and Titans, Artists and Entertainers. Of the 100 chosen, Albert Einstein was chosen as the Person of the Century, the cover of the magazine featured the famous image of Einstein taken in 1947 by American portrait photographer Philippe Halsman. The argument was based on Times explicit criterion that the persons chosen should have the greatest impact on this century, in the same 31 December 1999 issue of Time, essayist Nancy Gibbs addressed the topic with the article The Necessary Evil. In the article, she argues that Hitler and Mussolini were simply the latest in a line of murderous figures. Elvis most original recordings were his first, the Beatles started out as imitators, then continued to grow throughout their years together. Theyre one of our great contributions, along with jazz and film, … To some extent, too, we wanted people who also represented important 20th century trends or developments. That would help account for the Barts and Oprahs, what Bart, or really the Simpsons, have done is merge social satire with popular animation in a way that hasnt really been done before. New York mayor Rudy Giuliani accused Time of romanticizing gangsters, and he stated and he murdered in order to get the position that he had, and then he authorized hundreds and hundreds of murders. However, Time business editor Bill Saporito defended the selection by calling Luciano as kind of a genius who had a deep impact on the underground economy. Were not out there to heap glory on these people, he explained, were out to say these are people who influenced our lives. Saporito further noted that every piece of merchandise came out of the Garment District had a little extra cost in it because of organized crime. TIME magazines list of the influential people, published annually beginning in 2004. People of the Century at TIME
Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century
–
Albert Einstein
Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century
–
Franklin D. Roosevelt
Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century
–
Mahatma Gandhi
Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century
–
Mussolini and Hitler, most influential dictators of the 20th century
28.
2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony
–
The opening ceremony of the 2012 Summer Olympic Games took place on the evening of Friday 27 July in the Olympic Stadium, London. As mandated by the Olympic Charter, the proceedings combined the formal opening of this international sporting event with an artistic spectacle to showcase the host nations culture. The 2012 Games were formally opened by Queen Elizabeth II, the spectacle was entitled Isles of Wonder and directed by Academy Award-winning British film director Danny Boyle. Prior to London 2012 there had been considerable apprehension about Britains ability to stage a ceremony that could reach the standard set at the Beijing Summer Games of 2008. The 2008 ceremony had been noted for its scale, extravagance and expense, hailed as the greatest ever, in contrast, London spent an estimated £27m, which was nevertheless about twice the original budget. Nonetheless, the London opening ceremony was seen as a tremendous success, widely praised as a masterpiece. The ceremony began at 21,00 BST and lasted almost four hours and it was watched by an estimated worldwide television audience of 900 million, becoming the most-viewed Olympic opening ceremony in both the UK and US. The content had largely been kept secret before the performance, despite involving thousands of volunteers, two shorter sections drew particular comment, involving a filmed cameo appearance of the Queen, and a live performance by the London Symphony Orchestra joined by comedian Rowan Atkinson. These were widely ascribed to Britains sense of humour, the ceremony featured children and young people in most of its segments, reflecting the inspire a generation aspiration of Londons original bid for the Games. The London Organising Committee of the Olympic and Paralympic Games approached Danny Boyle to be the director of the ceremony in June 2010 and he said it felt weirdly more like a. civic or national responsibility to take the job. He said. obviously Im not going to try and build on Beijing and we cant, and you wouldnt want to, so were going back to the beginning. Were going to try and give the impression that were rethinking and restarting, theyve tried to top themselves each time and you cant do that after Beijing. Beijings budget had been £65m, whereas Londons final budget was £27m, the London stadium had the same number of seats as Beijings, but was half the size, this intimacy of scale meant that Boyle felt he could achieve something personal and connecting. K. Chesterton aphorism, The world shall not for lack of wonders. In July 2010 Boyle started brainstorming ideas with designer Mark Tildesley, writer Frank Cottrell Boyce and they considered what was essentially British, with the non-British Larlarb able to offer a view of what the world thought Britain meant. Cottrell Boyce had given Boyle a copy of Pandaemonium, by Humphrey Jennings and it had become traditional during the opening ceremony to produce the Olympic rings in a spectacular manner. Boyle decided that the journey from the pastoral to the industrial, at the same time the team moved to the Three Mills studio complex in east London, where a 4x4 metre scale model of the stadium was built. For security reasons, a single CGI-assisted version of the ceremony was kept on editor Sascha Dhillons laptop, the cast included professional performers and 7,500 volunteers
2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony
–
Final rehearsal on 25 July
2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony
–
Danny Boyle, the director of the opening ceremony
2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony
–
The
2012 Tour de France winner
Bradley Wiggins opening the ceremony
2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony
–
Scene representing
Industrial Britain. Rehearsal 23 July 2012 before the ceremony four days later.
29.
NeXT Computer
–
The NeXT Computer is a workstation computer developed, marketed, and sold by NeXT Inc. It runs the Mach- and BSD-derived, Unix-based NeXTSTEP operating system, the motherboard is square and fits into one of four identical slots in the enclosure. The NeXT Computer enclosure consists of a 1-foot die-cast magnesium cube-shaped, black case and it was launched in 1988 at US$6,500. The NeXT Computer was succeeded by the NeXTcube, an upgraded model and this event gave developers interested in developing NeXT software an insight into the software architecture, object-oriented programming, and developing for the NeXT Computer. The luncheon speaker was Steve Jobs, citing as truly innovative the optical drive, DSP, and object-oriented programming environment, the magazine concluded that the NeXT Computer is worth every penny of its $6500 market price. It was, however, not a significant commercial success, failing to reach the level of volume sales like the Apple II, Commodore 64. The workstations were sold to universities, financial institutions, and government agencies, issue #3 was first demonstrated to Steve Jobs at NeXTWorld Expo 1993. com — NeXTcube Photos of black hardware A fun fact and one of Steve Jobs quirks. All the components in the including the PCB and connectors had to be black in color. PCBs were typically green from the mask that was applied. A process of pad capping was developed to allow the black oxide from the layers to be seen. Even the euro card connector had to be molded in black which where typically grey. The mounting hardware had to be black oxide. etc
NeXT Computer
–
NeXT Computer used by
Berners-Lee at
CERN
30.
Olympic Stadium (London)
–
London Stadium, is a stadium in Stratford, Greater London, England, at Marshgate Lane in the Lower Lea Valley. It was constructed to serve as the stadium for the 2012 Summer Olympics and Paralympics, hosting the track and field events. It was subsequently renovated as a stadium, with its primary tenants being West Ham United Football Club. The stadium is 6 1⁄2 miles from Central London, land preparation for the stadium began in mid-2007, with the official construction start date on 22 May 2008, although piling works for the foundation began four weeks before. The stadium held its first public event in March 2012, serving as the line for a celebrity running event organised by the National Lottery. Following the Paralympics the stadium was used intermittently whilst under renovation, the decision to make West Ham United the main tenants was controversial, with the initial tenancy process having to be rerun. As well as its tenants, the stadium will continue to be used for a series of special events. It annually hosts the finish of the Great Newham London Run at the start of July. The stadium can also hold concerts with up to 80,000 spectators, during Londons bid for the games, promotional materials featured a main stadium with a roof designed to wrap itself around the venue like muscles supporting the body. However at that time there had no formal design brief agreed. While the bidding process was ongoing West Ham had talks with the ODA about contributing to the development of a multi-purpose stadium, with the original Olympic design finalised and being built, the government had a change of heart and a bidding process for a multi-sport post-Olympic legacy was launched. The stadium design was launched on 7 November 2007, the construction of the stadium commenced three months early in May 2008 after the bowl of the stadium had been dug out and the area cleared. The building of the stadium was completed in March 2011 reportedly on time and under budget, the stadiums track and field arena is excavated out of the soft clay found on the site, around which is permanent seating for 25,000, built using concrete rakers. The natural slope of the land is incorporated into the design, with warm-up, spectators enter the stadium via a podium level, which is level with the top of the permanent seating bowl. A demountable lightweight steel and pre-cast concrete upper tier is built up from this bowl to accommodate a further 55,000 spectators, the stadium is made up of different tiers, during the Games the stadium was able to hold 80,000 spectators. The base tier, which allows for 25,000 seats, is an elliptical bowl that is made up of low-carbon-dioxide concrete. The foundation of the level is 5,000 piles reaching up to 20 metres deep. From there, there is a mixture of driven cast in situ piles, continuous flight auger piles, the second tier, which holds 55,000 seats, is 315 m long,256 m wide, and 60 m high
Olympic Stadium (London)
–
Aerial view of the Stadium in April 2012
Olympic Stadium (London)
–
Exploded view of the stadium's layers
Olympic Stadium (London)
–
The Olympic Stadium interior
Olympic Stadium (London)
–
The Olympic Stadium during the
2012 Summer Olympics
31.
Twitter
–
Twitter is an online news and social networking service where users post and interact with messages, tweets, restricted to 140 characters. Registered users can post tweets, but those who are unregistered can only read them, users access Twitter through its website interface, SMS or a mobile device app. Twitter Inc. is based in San Francisco, California, United States, Twitter was created in March 2006 by Jack Dorsey, Noah Glass, Biz Stone, and Evan Williams and launched in July. The service rapidly gained worldwide popularity, in 2012, more than 100 million users posted 340 million tweets a day, and the service handled an average of 1.6 billion search queries per day. In 2013, it was one of the ten most-visited websites and has described as the SMS of the Internet. As of 2016, Twitter had more than 319 million monthly active users. On the day of the 2016 U. S. presidential election, Twitter proved to be the largest source of breaking news, Twitters origins lie in a daylong brainstorming session held by board members of the podcasting company Odeo. Jack Dorsey, then a student at New York University. The original project name for the service was twttr, an idea that Williams later ascribed to Noah Glass, inspired by Flickr. The developers initially considered 10958 as a code, but later changed it to 40404 for ease of use. Work on the project started on March 21,2006, when Dorsey published the first Twitter message at 9,50 PM Pacific Standard Time, Dorsey has explained the origin of the Twitter title. we came across the word twitter, and it was just perfect. The definition was a short burst of inconsequential information, and chirps from birds, and thats exactly what the product was. The first Twitter prototype, developed by Dorsey and contractor Florian Weber, was used as a service for Odeo employees. Williams fired Glass, who was silent about his part in Twitters startup until 2011, Twitter spun off into its own company in April 2007. Williams provided insight into the ambiguity that defined this early period in a 2013 interview, With Twitter and they called it a social network, they called it microblogging, but it was hard to define, because it didnt replace anything. There was this path of discovery with something like that, where over time you figure out what it is, Twitter actually changed from what we thought it was in the beginning, which we described as status updates and a social utility. It is that, in part, but the insight we eventually came to was Twitter was really more of an information network than it is a social network, the tipping point for Twitters popularity was the 2007 South by Southwest Interactive conference. During the event, Twitter usage increased from 20,000 tweets per day to 60,000, the Twitter people cleverly placed two 60-inch plasma screens in the conference hallways, exclusively streaming Twitter messages, remarked Newsweeks Steven Levy
Twitter
–
A blueprint sketch, c. 2006, by
Jack Dorsey, envisioning an
SMS -based
social network.
Twitter
–
Twitter's homepage as of August 2015 (only in select countries)
Twitter
–
Jack Dorsey, a co-founder and the chairman of Twitter, in 2009
Twitter
–
Twitter's San Francisco, California headquarters, as seen from a corner on Market Street
32.
LCD
–
A liquid-crystal display is a flat-panel display or other electronically modulated optical device that uses the light-modulating properties of liquid crystals. Liquid crystals do not emit light directly, instead using a backlight or reflector to produce images in color or monochrome and they use the same basic technology, except that arbitrary images are made up of a large number of small pixels, while other displays have larger elements. LCDs are used in a range of applications including computer monitors, televisions, instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays. Small LCD screens are common in consumer devices such as digital cameras, watches, calculators. LCD screens are used on consumer electronics products such as DVD players, video game devices. LCD screens have replaced heavy, bulky cathode ray tube displays in all applications. LCD screens are available in a range of screen sizes than CRT and plasma displays, with LCD screens available in sizes ranging from tiny digital watches to huge. Since LCD screens do not use phosphors, they do not suffer image burn-in when an image is displayed on a screen for a long time. LCDs are, however, susceptible to image persistence, the LCD screen is more energy-efficient and can be disposed of more safely than a CRT can. Its low electrical power consumption enables it to be used in battery-powered electronic equipment more efficiently than CRTs can be, by 2008, annual sales of televisions with LCD screens exceeded sales of CRT units worldwide, and the CRT became obsolete for most purposes. Without the liquid crystal between the filters, light passing through the first filter would be blocked by the second polarizer. Before an electric field is applied, the orientation of the molecules is determined by the alignment at the surfaces of electrodes. In a twisted nematic device, the surface alignment directions at the two electrodes are perpendicular to other, and so the molecules arrange themselves in a helical structure. This induces the rotation of the polarization of the incident light, and this light will then be mainly polarized perpendicular to the second filter, and thus be blocked and the pixel will appear black. By controlling the voltage applied across the liquid crystal layer in each pixel, color LCD systems use the same technique, with color filters used to generate red, green, and blue pixels. The optical effect of a TN device in the state is far less dependent on variations in the device thickness than that in the voltage-off state. Because of this, TN displays with low content and no backlighting are usually operated between crossed polarizers such that they appear bright with no voltage. When no image is displayed, different arrangements are used, for this purpose, TN LCDs are operated between parallel polarizers, whereas IPS LCDs feature crossed polarizers
LCD
–
LCD with top polarizer removed from device and placed on top, such that the top and bottom polarizers are perpendicular.
LCD
–
Polarizing filter film with a vertical axis to polarize light as it enters.
LCD
–
18 parallel CCFLs as backlight for a 42-inch LCD TV
LCD
–
A pink elastomeric connector mating an LCD panel to circuit board traces, shown next to a centimeter-scale ruler. (The conductive and insulating layers in the black stripe are very small, click on the image for more detail.)
33.
Ferranti Mark 1
–
It was the tidied up and commercialised version of the Manchester computer. The first machine was delivered to the University of Manchester in February 1951, ahead of the UNIVAC I, which was turned over to the United States Census Bureau on 31 March 1951. Based on the Manchester Mark 1, which was designed at the University of Manchester by Freddie Williams and Tom Kilburn, the machine was built by Ferranti of the United Kingdom. The Mark 1 used a 20-bit word stored as a line of dots of electric charges settled on the surface of a Williams tube display. Instructions were stored in a word, while numbers were stored in two words. The main memory consisted of eight tubes, each storing one such page of 64 words, other tubes stored the single 80-bit accumulator, the 40-bit multiplicand/quotient register and eight B-lines, or index registers, which was one of the unique features of the Mark 1 design. The accumulator could also be addressed as two 40-bit words, an extra 20-bit word per tube stored an offset value into the secondary storage. Secondary storage was provided in the form of a 512-page magnetic drum, the drum provided eight times the storage of the original designed at Manchester. The instructions, like the Manchester machine, used a single format in which operands were modified. There were about fifty instructions in total, the basic cycle time was 1.2 milliseconds, and a multiplication could be completed in the new parallel unit in about 2.16 milliseconds. The multiplier used almost a quarter of the machines 4,050 vacuum tubes, several instructions were included to copy a word of memory from one of the Williams tubes to a paper tape machine, or read them back in. Several new instructions were added to the original Manchester design, including a random number instruction, the original Mark 1 had to be programmed by entering alphanumeric characters representing a five-bit value that could be represented on the paper tape input. As a result, the representing the values from 0–31 looked entirely random, specifically /E@A. The first machine was delivered to the University of Manchester, Ferranti had high hopes for further sales, and were encouraged by an order placed by the Atomic Energy Research Establishment for delivery in autumn 1952. But a change of government while the machine was being led to all government contracts over £100,000 being cancelled. The company ultimately sold it to the University of Toronto, who had been building their own machine and they purchased it for around $30,000, a fire sale price, and gave it the nickname FERUT. FERUT was extensively used in business, engineering, and academia, among other duties, after the first two machines, a revised version of the design became available, known as the Ferranti Mark 1 Star or the Ferranti Mark 1*. The revisions mainly cleaned up the set for better usability
Ferranti Mark 1
–
Ferranti Mark 1, c. 1951
34.
Direct grant grammar school
–
A direct grant grammar school was a type of selective secondary school in England and Wales that existed between 1945 and 1976. One quarter of the places in schools were directly funded by central government, while the remainder attracted fees, some paid by the Local Education Authority. On average, the schools received just over half of their income from the state, the status was introduced by the Education Act 1944 as a modification of an existing direct grant scheme to privately endowed schools. There were 179 direct grant grammar schools, which, together with over 1,200 grammar schools maintained by local authorities and they varied greatly in size and composition, but, on average, achieved higher academic results than either maintained grammar schools or independent schools. State secondary education was reorganised on comprehensive lines in the late 1960s, the direct grant was phased out from 1975 and the schools were required to choose between becoming maintained comprehensive schools or fully independent schools. Forty-five schools, almost all Roman Catholic, joined the state system, the rest became independent and mostly remain as highly selective independent schools. In the 19th century, few boys and very few girls in England and Wales received secondary education, during this time, secondary provision expanded and adjusted to growing demand. These schools were reformed under the Endowed Schools Act 1869, which led to many endowments being diverted to the creation of girls schools. In the meantime a range of schools had appeared. After the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 and mid-century Irish immigration, new proprietary schools were established, initially as joint-stock companies, converting to charities if they were successful. One of the largest such companies was the Girls Public Day School Company, set up to provide an academic education for girls. In the latter part of the century, many of the less wealthy schools received annual grants from the Department of Science and Art, secondary schools controlled by voluntary bodies could receive a grant from either the Board of Education or their local authority, or both. In return they were required to meet the Boards regulations, and were subject to the system of inspections as state-funded schools. Under the Education Act 1907, secondary schools in receipt of grant were required to admit a specified proportion of their intake, usually 25%, suitable pupils were selected using a scholarship examination. By 1932 there were 240 secondary schools receiving a direct grant, the Depression and the falling birth rate in the pre-war years had also weakened independent schools and schools receiving the direct grant. At the same time, the sector had grown to the point where universal secondary education seemed achievable. Proposals were made for a reorganisation of the sector, including a new accommodation with the voluntary schools. In response, the Headmasters Conference persuaded the President of the Board of Education, butler, to establish a commission under Lord Fleming in July 1942 to consider means whereby the association between the Public Schools
Direct grant grammar school
–
Manchester Grammar School, the best-known of the direct grant grammar schools, was significantly larger than most.
Direct grant grammar school
–
Frances Buss, a pioneer of women's education and founding head of
North London Collegiate School
Direct grant grammar school
–
Bradford Grammar School, originally a large secular boys school (now mixed)
Direct grant grammar school
–
Culford School, one of only three mixed direct grant grammars
35.
Trainspotter
–
A railfan, rail buff, or train buff, railway enthusiast or railway buff, trainspotter or anorak, or foamer, is a person interested in a recreational capacity in rail transport. Railfans of many ages can be found worldwide, magazines dedicated to railfanning include Trains and Railfan & Railroad. The term metrophile is used by some to identify a railfan with a particular interest in metro systems, the study of railways, or a general interest in them as a hobby, is sometimes jokingly known as ferroequinology. In the United Kingdom, railfans are sometimes called trainspotters or anoraks, the term gricer has been used in the UK since at least 1969, and is said to have been current in 1938 amongst members of the Manchester Locomotive Society, according to the Oxford English Dictionary. There has been speculation that the term derives from grouser, one who collects dead grouse after a shoot, in Australia, they are sometimes referred to as gunzels. The hobby extends to all aspects of transport systems. It should be noted that items such as timetables and railway paper are collected for study. There are many retailers and auction houses specializing in such material, Railway art or architecture Railway operations, economics or commerce Railway preservation/restoration Level junction. This is where the railfan can also be interested in the railroad or grade crossing signals, monitoring railroad radio communications with a radio scanner. Train photography is an activity of railfans. Most railfans do their photographing from public property, unless they have permission to use a private property owners land. Occasionally, they run into problems with law enforcement, especially due to post 9/11 paranoia, in 2004, for example, the New York City Subway attempted to institute a photo ban. This was met with opposition, and was ultimately scrapped. Some railroad photographers have become known for their works. Stewart, or in Germany with Carl Bellingrodt, in the United Kingdom Photography is allowed at all stations on the National Rail network. London Underground also allows tourists and rail enthusiasts to take pictures and videos while passing through a station, though flash and tripods are not allowed. The Tyne and Wear Metro prohibits all photography without permission from Nexus. In Singapore, photography and filming can be taken in all SMRT, however, upskirt photos are illegal and permission must be obtained from the operators to record weddings and movies on the network
Trainspotter
–
Railfan
photographers awaiting a special train
Trainspotter
–
Railfan photographing a
Caltrain service in the
United States
Trainspotter
–
A
model railway of
Berlin 's
Bahnhof Zoo at the LOXX Berlin model railway
Trainspotter
–
A
WAG-5 in
Araku Valley near
Vizag,
Andhra Pradesh, India, a paradise for trainspotters
36.
Bachelor of arts
–
A Bachelor of Arts is a bachelors degree awarded for an undergraduate course or program in either the liberal arts, the sciences, or both. Bachelor of Arts degree programs take three to four years depending on the country, academic institution, and specific specializations, majors or minors. The word baccalaureus or baccalarium should not be confused with baccalaureatus, degree diplomas generally are printed on high-quality paper or parchment, individual institutions set the preferred abbreviation for their degrees. In Pakistan, the Bachelor of Arts degree can also be attained within two years as an external degree, in colleges and universities in Australia, New Zealand, Nepal and South Africa, the BA degree can be taken over three years of full-time study. Unlike in other countries, students do not receive a grade for their Bachelor of Arts degree with varying levels of honours. Qualified students may be admitted, after they have achieved their Bachelors program with an overall grade point average. Thus, to achieve a Bachelor Honours degree, a postgraduate year. A student who holds a Honours degree is eligible for entry to either a Doctorate or a very high research Master´s degree program. Education in Canada is controlled by the Provinces and can be different depending on the province in Canada. Canadian universities typically offer a 3-year Bachelor of Arts degrees, in many universities and colleges, Bachelor of Arts degrees are differentiated either as Bachelors of Arts or as honours Bachelor of Arts degree. The honours degrees are designated with the abbreviation in brackets of. It should not be confused with the consecutive Bachelor of Arts degree with Honours, Latin Baccalaureatus in Artibus Cum Honore, BA hon. de jure without brackets and with a dot. It is a degree, which is considered to be the equivalent of a corresponding maîtrise degree under the French influenced system. Going back in history, a three-year Bachelor of Arts degree was called a pass degree or general degree. Students may be required to undertake a long high-quality research empirical thesis combined with a selection of courses from the relevant field of studies. The consecutive B. cum Honore degree is essential if students ultimate goal is to study towards a two- or three-year very high research masters´ degree qualification. A student holding a Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree also may choose to complete a Doctor of Philosophy program without the requirement to first complete a masters degree, over the years, in some universities certain Baccalaureatus cum Honore programs have been changed to corresponding master´s degrees. In general, in all four countries, the B. A. degree is the standard required for entry into a masters programme, in science, a BA hons degree is generally a prerequisite for entrance to a Ph. D program or a very-high-research-activity master´s programme
Bachelor of arts
–
A certificate or diploma evidencing the granting of a bachelor's degree
37.
Poole
–
Poole /puːl/ is a large coastal town and seaport in the county of Dorset, on the south coast of England. The town is 33 kilometres east of Dorchester, and adjoins Bournemouth to the east, the local council is Borough of Poole and was made a unitary authority in 1997, gaining administrative independence from Dorset County Council. The borough had a population of 147,645 at the 2011 census, together with Bournemouth and Christchurch, the town forms the South East Dorset conurbation with a total population of over 465,000. Human settlement in the dates back to before the Iron Age. The earliest recorded use of the name was in the 12th century when the town began to emerge as an important port. Later, the town had important trade links with North America and, at its peak during the 18th century, in the Second World War, Poole was one of the main departing points for the Normandy landings. Poole is a tourist resort, attracting visitors with its natural harbour, history. The town has a port with cross-Channel freight and passenger ferry services. The headquarters of the Royal National Lifeboat Institution are in Poole, despite their names, Poole is the home of The Arts University Bournemouth, the Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra and a significant part of Bournemouth University. The towns name derives from a corruption of the Celtic word bol, variants include Pool, Pole, Poles, Poll, Polle, Polman, and Poolman. The area around modern Poole has been inhabited for the past 2,500 years, during the 3rd century BC, Celts known as the Durotriges moved from hilltop settlements at Maiden Castle and Badbury Rings to heathland around the River Frome and Poole Harbour. The Romans landed at Poole during their conquest of Britain in the 1st century and took over an Iron Age settlement at Hamworthy, in Anglo-Saxon times, Poole was included in the Kingdom of Wessex. The settlement was used as a base for fishing and the harbour a place for ships to anchor on their way to the River Frome, following the Norman conquest of England, Poole rapidly grew into a busy port as the importance of Wareham declined. The town was part of the manor of Canford, but does not exist as an entry in the Domesday Book. The earliest written mention of Poole occurred on a document from 1196 describing the newly built St Jamess Chapel in La Pole. The Lord of the Manor, Sir William Longspée, sold a charter of liberties to the burgesses of Poole in 1248 to raise funds for his participation in the Seventh Crusade. Consequently, Poole gained a measure of freedom from feudal rule and acquired the right to appoint a mayor. In 1568, Poole gained further autonomy when it was granted independence from Dorset
Poole
–
Poole Quay
Poole
–
The
Poole Logboat, a 2,000-year-old
monoxylon discovered during dredging works in
Poole Harbour.
Poole
–
Beech Hurst in the town centre, a
Georgian mansion built in 1798 for a wealthy Newfoundland merchant.
Poole
–
Poole Quay was the busy centre of the town's maritime trade
38.
Ferndown
–
Ferndown is a town and civil parish in the East Dorset district of Dorset in southern England, situated immediately to the north of unitary authorities of Poole and Bournemouth. The parish, which until 1972 was called Hampreston, includes the communities of Hampreston, Longham, Stapehill, the latest population figure for the parish is 26,559. Ferndown is the 2nd largest inland town in Dorset in terms of population The district has a large elderly population. Ferndown is also the town of Sean Camp, and who was previously the drummer for Pirates of Panama Ferndown lies adjacent to the A31 trunk road between Wimborne and Ringwood. To the east, the A31 connects to the M27 and M3 via the outskirts of Southampton to Winchester, to the west, the A31 links to the A35 to East Dorset and Devon. The nearest railway station is Branksome,6.8 miles away, the nearby port of Poole provides year-round services to Cherbourg in France and Santander in Spain. Condor Ferries catamarans run seasonal services to Guernsey, Jersey and St. Malo, Ferndown is also only 4 miles from Bournemouth International Airport at Hurn. Ryanair, EasyJet, Thomsonfly, Bmibaby and Palmair operate from the airport and provide scheduled services to destinations in the UK and Europe. On the outskirts of the town lie the Ferndown and Uddens Industrial Estates, Ferndown Industrial Estate, Uddens Trading Estate and East Dorset Trade Park cover an area of approximately 61. h hectares. Many household names ad major employers are present there, such as Farrow & Ball, a diverse range of industries are also represented covering business services, manufacturing, retail and many more. Businesses on the Ferndown and Uddens Industrial Estates endorsed the Business Improvement District in July 2014, to be approved the majority of business voters must have support the BID. The outcome was that 60. 5% voted in favour which increased to 68. 8% by rateable value, the turnout was 42. 5%, which is considerably higher than the average for first term BID ballots. No matter how businesses vote or if they chose to abstain, the first chairman of the BID is Russell Bowyer who is quoted as saying “A BID can only be established if it does useful things for local businesses. It is a fair and equitable means of working together to address matters of common interest. It also means that 100 per cent of the money raised stays in the area to be spent on priorities determined by the local business community. The Ferndown Leisure Centre, situated next to Ferndown Upper School, has two heated pools, a hall, a fully equipped Gymnasium, Squash Courts and a rifle range as well as a power house suite. Also there are areas of woodland and heathlands around Ferndown including Holt Heath. This heathland originally covered the area and up until the early 1900s covered many areas that are now residential
Ferndown
–
The Parish Church of St Mary, Ferndown
39.
CERN
–
The European Organization for Nuclear Research, known as CERN, is a European research organization that operates the largest particle physics laboratory in the world. Established in 1954, the organization is based in a northwest suburb of Geneva on the Franco–Swiss border, Israel is the only non-European country granted full membership. The main site at Meyrin hosts a large computing facility, which is used to store and analyse data from experiments. Researchers need remote access to facilities, so the lab has historically been a major wide area network hub. CERN is also the birthplace of the World Wide Web, the convention establishing CERN was ratified on 29 September 1954 by 12 countries in Western Europe. The acronym was retained for the new laboratory after the council was dissolved. CERNs first president was Sir Benjamin Lockspeiser, edoardo Amaldi was the general secretary of CERN at its early stages when operations were still provisional, while the first Director-General was Felix Bloch. The laboratory was originally devoted to study of nuclei, but was soon applied to higher-energy physics. Therefore, the laboratory operated by CERN is commonly referred to as the European laboratory for particle physics, several important achievements in particle physics have been made through experiments at CERN. The 1984 Nobel Prize for Physics was awarded to Carlo Rubbia, the 1992 Nobel Prize for Physics was awarded to CERN staff researcher Georges Charpak for his invention and development of particle detectors, in particular the multiwire proportional chamber. The World Wide Web began as a CERN project named ENQUIRE, initiated by Tim Berners-Lee in 1989, Berners-Lee and Cailliau were jointly honoured by the Association for Computing Machinery in 1995 for their contributions to the development of the World Wide Web. Based on the concept of hypertext, the project was intended to facilitate sharing of information among researchers, the first website was activated in 1991. On 30 April 1993, CERN announced that the World Wide Web would be free to anyone, a copy of the original first webpage, created by Berners-Lee, is still published on the World Wide Web Consortiums website as a historical document. Prior to the Webs development, CERN had pioneered the introduction of Internet technology, a short history of this period can be found at CERN. ch. More recently, CERN has become a facility for the development of computing, hosting projects including the Enabling Grids for E-sciencE. It also hosts the CERN Internet Exchange Point, one of the two main internet exchange points in Switzerland. 48×10−5, a measurement with 6. 0-sigma significance. However, on 23 February, CERN stated in a release that the results were flawed due to an incorrectly connected GPS-synchronization cable. In March 2012, the ICARUS Collaboration reported that the measurement would be reproduced by both OPERA and ICARUS, further tests, after fixing the GPS connector, showed speed measurements consistent with the speed of light from four experiments at Gran Sasso, including OPERA
CERN
–
European Organization for Nuclear Research Organisation européenne pour la recherche nucléaire
CERN
–
The 12 founding member states of CERN in 1954 (map borders from 1954-1990)
CERN
–
This
NeXT Computer used by British scientist
Sir Tim Berners-Lee at CERN became the first
Web server.
CERN
–
This
Cisco Systems router at CERN was one of the first
IP routers deployed in Europe.
40.
Geneva
–
Geneva is the second most populous city in Switzerland and is the most populous city of Romandy, the French-speaking part of Switzerland. Situated where the Rhône exits Lake Geneva, it is the capital of the Republic, the municipality has a population of 198,072, and the canton has 484,736 residents. In 2014, the compact agglomération du Grand Genève had 946,000 inhabitants in 212 communities in both Switzerland and France, within Swiss territory, the commuter area named Métropole lémanique contains a population of 1.25 million. This area is essentially spread east from Geneva towards the Riviera area and north-east towards Yverdon-les-Bains, Geneva is the city that hosts the highest number of international organizations in the world. It is also the place where the Geneva Conventions were signed, Geneva was ranked as the worlds ninth most important financial centre for competitiveness by the Global Financial Centres Index, ahead of Frankfurt, and third in Europe behind London and Zürich. A2009 survey by Mercer found that Geneva has the third-highest quality of life of any city in the world, the city has been referred to as the worlds most compact metropolis and the Peace Capital. In 2009 and 2011, Geneva was ranked as, respectively, the city was mentioned in Latin texts, by Caesar, with the spelling Genava, probably from a Celtic toponym *genawa- from the stem *genu-, in the sense of a bending river or estuary. The medieval county of Geneva in Middle Latin was known as pagus major Genevensis or Comitatus Genevensis, the name takes various forms in modern languages, Geneva /dʒᵻˈniːvə/ in English, French, Genève, German, Genf, Italian, Ginevra, and Romansh, Genevra. The city in origin shares its name, *genawa estuary, with the Italian port city of Genoa, Geneva was an Allobrogian border town, fortified against the Helvetii tribe, when the Romans took it in 121 BC. It became Christian under the Late Roman Empire, and acquired its first bishop in the 5th century, having been connected to the bishopric of Vienne in the 4th. In the Middle Ages, Geneva was ruled by a count under the Holy Roman Empire until the late 14th century, around this time the House of Savoy came to dominate the city. In the 15th century, a republican government emerged with the creation of the Grand Council. In 1541, with Protestantism in the ascendancy, John Calvin, by the 18th century, however, Geneva had come under the influence of Catholic France, which cultivated the city as its own. France also tended to be at odds with the ordinary townsfolk, in 1798, revolutionary France under the Directory annexed Geneva. At the end of the Napoleonic Wars, on 1 June 1814, in 1907, the separation of Church and State was adopted. Geneva flourished in the 19th and 20th centuries, becoming the seat of international organizations. Geneva is located at 46°12 North, 6°09 East, at the end of Lake Geneva. It is surrounded by two chains, the Alps and the Jura
Geneva
–
Top left:
Palace of Nations, Middle left:
ATLAS experiment at
CERN, Right:
Jet d'Eau, Bottom: View over Geneva and the
lake.
Geneva
–
L'Escalade, the failed surprise-attack (12 December 1602) made by troops sent by
Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy, to take Geneva
Geneva
–
Geneva seen from SPOT Satellite
Geneva
–
The Geneva area seen from the Salève in France. The Jura mountains can be seen on the horizon.
41.
Hypertext
–
Hypertext documents are interconnected by hyperlinks, which are typically activated by a mouse click, keypress sequence or by touching the screen. Apart from text, the hypertext is also sometimes used to describe tables, images. Hypertext is one of the key underlying concepts of the World Wide Web, as implemented on the Web, hypertext enables the easy-to-use publication of information over the Internet. The English prefix hyper- comes from the Greek prefix ὑπερ- and means over or beyond and it signifies the overcoming of the previous linear constraints of written text. The term hypertext is often used where the term hypermedia might seem appropriate, instead they use the strange term interactive multimedia, this is four syllables longer, and does not express the idea of extending hypertext. Hypertext documents can either be static or dynamic, static hypertext can be used to cross-reference collections of data in documents, software applications, or books on CDs. A well-constructed system can also incorporate other user-interface conventions, such as menus, links used in a hypertext document usually replace the current piece of hypertext with the destination document. A lesser known feature is StretchText, which expands or contracts the content in place, Hypertext can be used to support very complex and dynamic systems of linking and cross-referencing. The most famous implementation of hypertext is the World Wide Web, written in the months of 1990. In 1941, Jorge Luis Borges published The Garden of Forking Paths, in 1945, Vannevar Bush wrote an article in The Atlantic Monthly called As We May Think, about a futuristic proto-hypertext device he called a Memex. The coded symbols would enable the Memex to index, search, in 1963, Ted Nelson coined the terms hypertext and hypermedia as part of a model he developed for creating and using linked content. He later worked with Andries van Dam to develop the Hypertext Editing System in 1967 at Brown University, in December of that year, Engelbart demonstrated a hypertext interface to the public for the first time, in what has come to be known as The Mother of All Demos. The first hypermedia application is considered to be the Aspen Movie Map. The Movie Map allowed users to choose which way they wished to drive in a virtual cityscape. In 1980, Tim Berners-Lee created ENQUIRE, an early hypertext database system somewhat like a wiki but without hypertext punctuation, which was not invented until 1987. The early 1980s also saw a number of experimental hyperediting functions in word processors and hypermedia programs, many of whose features, guide, the first significant hypertext system for personal computers, was developed by Peter J. Brown at UKC in 1982. Sponsored by the founder of IBM, Thomas J, in 1983, Ben Shneiderman at the University of Maryland Human - Computer Interaction Lab led a group that developed the HyperTies system that was commercialized by Cognetics Corporation. Hyperties was used to create the July 1988 issue of the Communications of the ACM as a hypertext document, in August 1987, Apple Computer released HyperCard for the Macintosh line at the MacWorld convention
Hypertext
–
Engineer
Vannevar Bush wrote "
As We May Think " in 1945 describing his conception of the
Memex, a machine that could implement what we now call hypertext. His aim was to help humanity achieve a
collective memory with such a machine and avoid the use of scientific discoveries for destruction and war
Hypertext
–
Douglas Engelbart in 2008, at the 40th anniversary celebrations of "
The Mother of All Demos " in San Francisco, a 90-minute 1968 presentation of the
NLS computer system which was a combination of hardware and software that demonstrated many hyper text ideas
Hypertext
–
Ted Nelson gives a presentation on
Project Xanadu, a theoretical hyper text model conceived in the 1960s whose first and incomplete implementation was first published in 1998
Hypertext
–
Hypertext Editing System (HES)
IBM 2250 Display console – Brown University 1969
42.
Computer network
–
A computer network or data network is a telecommunications network which allows nodes to share resources. In computer networks, networked computing devices exchange data with other using a data link. The connections between nodes are established using either cable media or wireless media, the best-known computer network is the Internet. Network computer devices that originate, route and terminate the data are called network nodes, nodes can include hosts such as personal computers, phones, servers as well as networking hardware. Two such devices can be said to be networked together when one device is able to exchange information with the other device, Computer networks differ in the transmission medium used to carry their signals, communications protocols to organize network traffic, the networks size, topology and organizational intent. In most cases, application-specific communications protocols are layered over other more general communications protocols and this formidable collection of information technology requires skilled network management to keep it all running reliably. The chronology of significant computer-network developments includes, In the late 1950s, in 1960, the commercial airline reservation system semi-automatic business research environment went online with two connected mainframes. Licklider developed a group he called the Intergalactic Computer Network. In 1964, researchers at Dartmouth College developed the Dartmouth Time Sharing System for distributed users of computer systems. The same year, at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, a group supported by General Electric and Bell Labs used a computer to route. Throughout the 1960s, Leonard Kleinrock, Paul Baran, and Donald Davies independently developed network systems that used packets to transfer information between computers over a network, in 1965, Thomas Marill and Lawrence G. Roberts created the first wide area network. This was an precursor to the ARPANET, of which Roberts became program manager. Also in 1965, Western Electric introduced the first widely used telephone switch that implemented true computer control, in 1972, commercial services using X.25 were deployed, and later used as an underlying infrastructure for expanding TCP/IP networks. In July 1976, Robert Metcalfe and David Boggs published their paper Ethernet, Distributed Packet Switching for Local Computer Networks, in 1979, Robert Metcalfe pursued making Ethernet an open standard. In 1976, John Murphy of Datapoint Corporation created ARCNET, a network first used to share storage devices. In 1995, the transmission speed capacity for Ethernet increased from 10 Mbit/s to 100 Mbit/s, by 1998, Ethernet supported transmission speeds of a Gigabit. Subsequently, higher speeds of up to 100 Gbit/s were added, the ability of Ethernet to scale easily is a contributing factor to its continued use. Providing access to information on shared storage devices is an important feature of many networks, a network allows sharing of files, data, and other types of information giving authorized users the ability to access information stored on other computers on the network
Computer network
Computer network
–
Fiber optic cables are used to transmit light from one computer/network node to another
Computer network
–
Computers are very often connected to networks using wireless links
Computer network
–
An
ATM network interface in the form of an accessory card. A lot of network interfaces are built-in.
43.
Transmission Control Protocol
–
The Transmission Control Protocol is one of the main protocols of the Internet protocol suite. It originated in the initial implementation in which it complemented the Internet Protocol. Therefore, the suite is commonly referred to as TCP/IP. TCP provides reliable, ordered, and error-checked delivery of a stream of octets between applications running on hosts communicating by an IP network, major Internet applications such as the World Wide Web, email, remote administration, and file transfer rely on TCP. Applications that do not require reliable data stream service may use the User Datagram Protocol, during May 1974, the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers published a paper titled A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication. The papers authors, Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn, described a protocol for sharing resources using packet-switching among the nodes. A central control component of this model was the Transmission Control Program that incorporated both connection-oriented links and datagram services between hosts, the model became known informally as TCP/IP, although formally it was henceforth termed the Internet Protocol Suite. The Transmission Control Protocol provides a service at an intermediate level between an application program and the Internet Protocol. It provides host-to-host connectivity at the Transport Layer of the Internet model, an application does not need to know the particular mechanisms for sending data via a link to another host, such as the required packet fragmentation on the transmission medium. At the transport layer, the protocol handles all handshaking and transmission details, at the lower levels of the protocol stack, due to network congestion, traffic load balancing, or other unpredictable network behaviour, IP packets may be lost, duplicated, or delivered out of order. TCP detects these problems, requests re-transmission of lost data, rearranges out-of-order data, If the data still remains undelivered, the source is notified of this failure. Once the TCP receiver has reassembled the sequence of octets originally transmitted, thus, TCP abstracts the applications communication from the underlying networking details. TCP is optimized for accurate delivery rather than timely delivery and can incur relatively long delays while waiting for messages or re-transmissions of lost messages. Therefore, it is not particularly suitable for applications such as Voice over IP. For such applications, protocols like the Real-time Transport Protocol operating over the User Datagram Protocol are usually recommended instead, TCP is a reliable stream delivery service which guarantees that all bytes received will be identical with bytes sent and in the correct order. Since packet transfer by many networks is not reliable, a known as positive acknowledgement with re-transmission is used to guarantee reliability. This fundamental technique requires the receiver to respond with an acknowledgement message as it receives the data, the sender keeps a record of each packet it sends and maintains a timer from when the packet was sent. The sender re-transmits a packet if the timer expires before receiving the message acknowledgement, the timer is needed in case a packet gets lost or corrupted
Transmission Control Protocol
–
A Simplified TCP State Diagram. See TCP EFSM diagram for a more detailed state diagram including the states inside the ESTABLISHED state.
44.
Domain name system
–
The Domain Name System is a hierarchical decentralized naming system for computers, services, or other resources connected to the Internet or a private network. It associates various information with domain names assigned to each of the participating entities, by providing a worldwide, distributed directory service, the Domain Name System is an essential component of the functionality of the Internet, that has been in use since 1985. The Domain Name System delegates the responsibility of assigning domain names, Network administrators may delegate authority over sub-domains of their allocated name space to other name servers. This mechanism provides distributed and fault tolerant service and was designed to avoid a large central database. The Domain Name System also specifies the technical functionality of the service that is at its core. It defines the DNS protocol, a specification of the data structures and data communication exchanges used in the DNS. Historically, other directory services preceding DNS were not scalable to large or global directories as they were based on text files. The Internet maintains two principal namespaces, the domain name hierarchy and the Internet Protocol address spaces, the Domain Name System maintains the domain name hierarchy and provides translation services between it and the address spaces. Internet name servers and a communication protocol implement the Domain Name System, a DNS name server is a server that stores the DNS records for a domain, a DNS name server responds with answers to queries against its database. The most common types of stored in the DNS database are for Start of Authority, IP addresses, SMTP mail exchangers, name servers, pointers for reverse DNS lookups. As a general purpose database, the DNS has also used in combating unsolicited email by storing a real-time blackhole list. The DNS database is stored in a structured zone file. An often-used analogy to explain the Domain Name System is that it serves as the book for the Internet by translating human-friendly computer hostnames into IP addresses. For example, the name www. example. com translates to the addresses 93.184.216.119 and 2606,2800,220, 6d, 26bf,1447,1097. Unlike a phone book, DNS can be updated, allowing a services location on the network to change without affecting the end users. Users take advantage of this when they use meaningful Uniform Resource Locators, an important and ubiquitous function of DNS is its central role in distributed Internet services such as cloud services and content delivery networks. When a user accesses a distributed Internet service using a URL and this process of using the DNS to assign proximal servers to users is key to providing faster and more reliable responses on the Internet and is widely used by most major Internet services. The DNS reflects the structure of administrative responsibility in the Internet, each subdomain is a zone of administrative autonomy delegated to a manager
Domain name system
–
The hierarchical Domain Name System, organized into zones, each served by a name server
45.
Web browser
–
A web browser is a software application for retrieving, presenting and traversing information resources on the World Wide Web. An information resource is identified by a Uniform Resource Identifier that may be a web page, image, hyperlinks present in resources enable users easily to navigate their browsers to related resources. Although browsers are primarily intended to use the World Wide Web, the most popular web browsers are Google Chrome, Microsoft Edge, Safari, Opera and Firefox. The first web browser was invented in 1990 by Sir Tim Berners-Lee, Berners-Lee is the director of the World Wide Web Consortium, which oversees the Webs continued development, and is also the founder of the World Wide Web Foundation. His browser was called WorldWideWeb and later renamed Nexus, the first commonly available web browser with a graphical user interface was Erwise. The development of Erwise was initiated by Robert Cailliau, andreesens browser sparked the internet boom of the 1990s. The introduction of Mosaic in 1993 – one of the first graphical web browsers – led to an explosion in web use, Microsoft responded with its Internet Explorer in 1995, also heavily influenced by Mosaic, initiating the industrys first browser war. Bundled with Windows, Internet Explorer gained dominance in the web browser market, Internet Explorer usage share peaked at over 95% by 2002. Opera debuted in 1996, it has never achieved widespread use and it is also available on several other embedded systems, including Nintendos Wii video game console. In 1998, Netscape launched what was to become the Mozilla Foundation in an attempt to produce a competitive browser using the open source software model, as of August 2011, Firefox has a 28% usage share. Apples Safari had its first beta release in January 2003, as of April 2011, the most recent major entrant to the browser market is Chrome, first released in September 2008. Chromes take-up has increased year by year, by doubling its usage share from 8% to 16% by August 2011. This increase seems largely to be at the expense of Internet Explorer, in December 2011, Chrome overtook Internet Explorer 8 as the most widely used web browser but still had lower usage than all versions of Internet Explorer combined. Chromes user-base continued to grow and in May 2012, Chromes usage passed the usage of all versions of Internet Explorer combined, by April 2014, Chromes usage had hit 45%. Internet Explorer was deprecated in Windows 10, with Microsoft Edge replacing it as the web browser. The ways that web browser makers fund their development costs has changed over time, the first web browser, WorldWideWeb, was a research project. In addition to being freeware, Netscape Navigator and Opera were also sold commercially, Internet Explorer, on the other hand, was bundled free with the Windows operating system, and therefore it was funded partly by the sales of Windows to computer manufacturers and direct to users. Internet Explorer also used to be available for the Mac, in this respect, IE may have contributed to Windows and Microsoft applications sales in another way, through lock-in to Microsofts browser
Web browser
–
Marc Andreessen, inventor of Netscape
Web browser
–
Usage share of web browsers according to
StatCounter
Web browser
–
Some home media devices now include web browsers, like this
LG Smart TV. The browser is controlled using an on-screen keyboard and LG's "Magic Motion" remote.
46.
WorldWideWeb
–
WorldWideWeb was the first web browser and editor. At the time it was written, it was the web browser in existence. The source code was released into the domain on April 30,1993. Some of the code still resides on Tim Berners-Lees NeXT Computer in the CERN museum and has not been recovered due to the status as a historical artifact. Berners-Lee wrote what would become known as WorldWideWeb on a NeXT Computer during the half of 1990. The first successful build was completed by December 25,1990, successive builds circulated among Berners-Lees colleagues at CERN before being released to the public, by way of Internet newsgroups, in August 1991. By this time, several others, including Bernd Pollermann, Robert Cailliau, Jean-François Groff, Berners-Lee proposed different names for his new application, The Mine of Information and The Information Mesh were proposals. At the end WorldWideWeb was chosen, but later renamed to Nexus to avoid confusion between the World Wide Web and the web browser. The team created so called passive browsers which do not have the ability to edit because it was hard to port this feature from the NeXT system to operating systems. A number of early browsers appeared, notably ViolaWWW and they were all eclipsed by Mosaic in terms of popularity, which by 1993 had replaced the WorldWideWeb program. Those involved in its creation had moved on to other tasks, such as defining standards, on April 30,1993, the CERN directorate released the source code of WorldWideWeb into the public domain. Several versions of the software are available on the web. Berners-Lee initially considered releasing it under the GNU General Public License, since WorldWideWeb was developed on and for the NeXTSTEP platform, the program uses many of NeXTSTEPs components – WorldWideWebs layout engine was built around NeXTSTEPs Text class. WorldWideWeb is capable of displaying basic style sheets, downloading and opening any file supported by the NeXT system, browsing newsgroups. In earlier versions, images are displayed in windows, until NeXTSTEPs Text class gained support for Image objects. WorldWideWeb is able to use different protocols, FTP, HTTP, NNTP, later versions are able to display inline images. The browser is also a WYSIWYG editor and it allows the simultaneous editing and linking of many pages in different windows. The functions Mark Selection, which creates an anchor, and Link to Marked, editing pages remotely is not possible, as the HTTP PUT method had not yet been implemented during the period of the applications active development
WorldWideWeb
–
WorldWideWeb, c. 1993
47.
NeXTSTEP
–
NeXTSTEP is a discontinued object-oriented, multitasking operating system based on UNIX. Although relatively unsuccessful at the time, it attracted interest from computer scientists and it was also the platform on which Tim Berners-Lee created the first web browser. After the purchase of NeXT by Apple, it became the source of the operating systems macOS, iOS, watchOS and tvOS. Many bundled macOS applications, such as TextEdit, Mail and Chess, are descendants of NeXTSTEP applications, the toolkits offer considerable power, and are the canonical development system for all of the software on the machine. NeXTSTEPs user interface is considered to be refined and consistent and it introduced the idea of the Dock and the Shelf. Additional kits were added to the line to make the system more attractive. These include Portable Distributed Objects, which allow easy remote invocation, and Enterprise Objects Framework, the kits made the system particularly interesting to custom application programmers, and NeXTSTEP had a long history in the financial programming community. A preview release of NeXTSTEP was shown with the launch of the NeXT Computer on October 12,1988, the first full release, NeXTSTEP1.0, shipped on September 18,1989. NeXTSTEP was later modified to separate the underlying operating system from the higher-level object libraries, the result was the OpenStep API, which ran on multiple underlying operating systems, including NeXTs own OPENSTEP, Windows NT and SUN Solaris. NeXTSTEPs legacy stands today in the form of its direct descendents, from day one, the operating system of NeXTSTEP was built upon Mach/BSD. It was built on 4. 3BSD Tahoe and it changed to 4. 3BSD Reno after the release of NeXTSTEP3.0. It changed to 4. 4BSD during the development of Rhapsody, the first web browser, WorldWideWeb, and the first ever app store were all invented on the NeXTSTEP platform. Some features and keyboard shortcuts now commonly found in web browsers can be traced back to NeXTSTEP conventions, the basic layout options of HTML1.0 and 2.0 are attributable to those features available in NeXTs Text class. Other games based on the Doom engine such as Heretic and its sequel Hexen by Raven Software as well as Strife by Rogue Entertainment were also developed on NeXT hardware using ids tools. Altsys made a NeXTSTEP application called Virtuoso, version 2 of which was ported to Mac OS, the modern Notebook interface for Mathematica, and the advanced spreadsheet Lotus Improv, were developed using NeXTSTEP. The software that controlled MCIs Friends and Family calling plan program was developed using NeXTSTEP, about the time of the release of NeXTSTEP3.2, NeXT partnered with Sun Microsystems to develop OpenStep. It is the product of an effort to separate the underlying operating system from the higher-level object libraries to create a cross-platform object-oriented API standard derived from NeXTSTEP, the OpenStep API targets multiple underlying operating systems, including NeXTs own OPENSTEP. Implementations of that standard were released for Suns Solaris, Windows NT, NeXTs implementation is called OPENSTEP for Mach and its first release superseded NeXTSTEP3.3 on NeXT, Sun and Intel IA-32 systems
NeXTSTEP
–
NeXTSTEP
graphical user interface
48.
CERN HTTPd
–
CERN httpd was a web server daemon originally developed at CERN from 1990 onwards by Tim Berners-Lee, Ari Luotonen and Henrik Frystyk Nielsen. Implemented in C, it was the first ever web server software and it could also be configured as a web proxy server. Version 0.1 was released in June 1991, in August 1991, Berners-Lee announced in the Usenet newsgroup alt. hypertext the availability of the source code of the server daemon and other World Wide Web software from the CERN FTP site. The server was presented on the Hypertext 91 conference in San Antonio and was part of the CERN Program Library, later versions of the server are based on the libwww library. The development of CERN httpd was later taken over by W3C, from 1996 onwards, W3C focused on the development of the Java-based Jigsaw server. The initial version was public domain software, the last one was under an MIT license
CERN HTTPd
–
This
NeXT Computer used by
Tim Berners-Lee at CERN became the world's first web server
49.
Daemon (computer software)
–
In multitasking computer operating systems, a daemon is a computer program that runs as a background process, rather than being under the direct control of an interactive user. Traditionally, the names of a daemon end with the letter d, for clarification that the process is, in fact, a daemon. For example, syslogd is the daemon that implements the system logging facility, in a Unix environment, the parent process of a daemon is often, but not always, the init process. In addition, a daemon launched by forking and exiting typically must perform other operations, such procedures are often implemented in various convenience routines such as daemon in Unix. Systems often start daemons at boot time which will respond to requests, hardware activity. Daemons such as cron may also perform defined tasks at scheduled times, the term was coined by the programmers of MITs Project MAC. They took the name from Maxwells demon, an imaginary being from an experiment that constantly works in the background. Maxwells Demon is consistent with Greek mythologys interpretation of a daemon as a supernatural being working in the background, however, BSD and some of its derivatives have adopted a Christian demon as their mascot rather than a Greek daemon. The word daemon is a spelling of demon, and is pronounced /ˈdiːmən/ DEE-mən. In the context of software, the original pronunciation /ˈdiːmən/ has drifted to /ˈdeɪmən/ DAY-mən for some speakers. Alternate terms for daemon are service, started task, and ghost job, after the term was adopted for computer use, it was rationalized as a backronym for Disk And Execution MONitor. Daemons which connect to a network are examples of network services. However, more commonly, a daemon may be any background process, executing as a background task by forking and exiting. This is required sometimes for the process to become a session leader and it also allows the parent process to continue its normal execution. Setting the root directory as the current working directory so that the process does not keep any directory in use that may be on a file system. Required files will be opened later, in the Microsoft DOS environment, daemon-like programs were implemented as terminate and stay resident software. On Microsoft Windows NT systems, programs called Windows services perform the functions of daemons and they run as processes, usually do not interact with the monitor, keyboard, and mouse, and may be launched by the operating system at boot time. However, any Windows application can perform the role of a daemon, not just a service, on the classic Mac OS, optional features and services were provided by files loaded at startup time that patched the operating system, these were known as system extensions and control panels
Daemon (computer software)
–
Components of some
Linux desktop environments which are daemons include
D-Bus,
NetworkManager (here called unetwork),
PulseAudio (usound), and
Avahi.
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