1.
Standard time
–
Historically, the concept was established during the 19th century to aid weather forecasting and train travel. Applied globally in the 20th century, the areas became extended around evenly spaced meridians into time zones which centered on them. The standard time set in time zone has come to be defined in terms of offsets from Universal Time. In regions where daylight saving time is used, that time is defined by another offset, during the 19th century, scheduled steamships and trains required time standardization in the industrialized world. A standardized time system was first used by British railways on December 1,1847, when they switched from local mean time and it was also given the name railway time reflecting the important role the railway companies played in bringing it about. The vast majority of Great Britains public clocks were standardized to GMT by 1855, until 1883 each United States railroad chose its own time standards. By 1870 the Allegheny Time service extended over 2,500 miles with 300 telegraph offices receiving time signals, in 1870 Charles F. Dowd proposed four time zones based on the meridian through Washington, DC for North American railroads. In 1872 he revised his proposal to base it on the Greenwich meridian, sandford Fleming, a Canadian, proposed worldwide Standard Time at a meeting of the Royal Canadian Institute on February 8,1879. Cleveland Abbe advocated standard time to coordinate international weather observations and resultant weather forecasts. In 1879 he recommended four time zones across the contiguous United States, william F. Allen, the Convention secretary, argued that North American railroads should adopt a five-zone standard, similar to the one in use today, to avoid government action. On October 11,1883, the heads of the major railroads met in Chicago at the Grand Pacific Hotel, although most railroads adopted the new system as scheduled, some did so early on October 7 and others late on December 2. S. /Canadian railroads in 1883. Standard time was not enacted into US law until the 1918 Standard Time Act established standard time in time zones, the daylight saving time portion of the law was repealed in 1919 over a presidential veto, but was reestablished nationally during World War II. In 1999, standard time was inducted into the North America Railway Hall of Fame in the category National, Technical Innovations, the Dominion of Newfoundland, whose capital St. In the Netherlands, introduction of the railways made it desirable to create a standard time, on 1 May 1909, Amsterdam Time or Dutch Time was introduced. Before that, time was measured in different cities and in the east of the country, in 1909, a national time was introduced which was the same as the local time in Amsterdam, to be precise the exact time of the Wester Tower. This time was indicated as GMT +0h 19m 32. 13s until 17 March 1937 and this time zone was also known as the Loenen time or Gorinchem time, as this was the exact time in both Loenen and Gorinchem. At noon in Amsterdam, it was 11,40 in London and 12,40 in Berlin, the shift to the current Central European Time zone took place on 16 May 1940. The German occupiers ordered the clock to be moved an hour and this time was kept in summer and winter throughout 1941 and 1942
Standard time
–
Telegraphic equipment used to transmit standard time from the
Allegheny Observatory
Standard time
–
Worldwide time zones at present
2.
Legal
–
Law is a system of rules that are created and enforced through social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior. Law as a system helps regulate and ensure that a community show respect, private individuals can create legally binding contracts, including arbitration agreements that may elect to accept alternative arbitration to the normal court process. The formation of laws themselves may be influenced by a constitution, written or tacit, the law shapes politics, economics, history and society in various ways and serves as a mediator of relations between people. Islamic Sharia law is the worlds most widely used religious law, the adjudication of the law is generally divided into two main areas referred to as Criminal law and Civil law. Criminal law deals with conduct that is considered harmful to social order, Civil law deals with the resolution of lawsuits between individuals or organizations. Law provides a source of scholarly inquiry into legal history, philosophy, economic analysis. Law also raises important and complex issues concerning equality, fairness, there is an old saying that all are equal before the law, although Jonathan Swift argued that Laws are like cobwebs, which may catch small flies, but let wasps and hornets break through. In 1894, the author Anatole France said sarcastically, In its majestic equality, the law forbids rich and poor alike to sleep under bridges, beg in the streets, and steal loaves of bread. Writing in 350 BC, the Greek philosopher Aristotle declared, The rule of law is better than the rule of any individual, mikhail Bakunin said, All law has for its object to confirm and exalt into a system the exploitation of the workers by a ruling class. Cicero said more law, less justice, marxist doctrine asserts that law will not be required once the state has withered away. Regardless of ones view of the law, it today a completely central institution. Numerous definitions of law have been put forward over the centuries, at the same time, it plays only one part in the congeries of rules which influence behavior, for social and moral rules of a less institutionalized kind are also of great importance. There have been attempts to produce a universally acceptable definition of law. In 1972, one indicated that no such definition could be produced. McCoubrey and White said that the question what is law, glanville Williams said that the meaning of the word law depends on the context in which that word is used. He said that, for example, early customary law and municipal law were contexts where the law had two different and irreconcilable meanings. Thurman Arnold said that it is obvious that it is impossible to define the word law and it is possible to take the view that there is no need to define the word law. The history of law links closely to the development of civilization, Ancient Egyptian law, dating as far back as 3000 BC, contained a civil code that was probably broken into twelve books
Legal
–
Lady Justice, a
goddess symbolising
justice who bears a sword – symbolising the coercive power of a
tribunal –,
scales – representing an objective standard by which competing claims are weighed – and a blindfold indicating that justice should be impartial and meted out objectively, without fear or favor and regardless of money, wealth, power or identity.
Legal
–
King
Hammurabi is revealed the
code of laws by the Mesopotamian sun god
Shamash, also revered as the god of justice.
Legal
–
The
Constitution of India is the longest written constitution for a country, containing 444 articles, 12 schedules, numerous amendments and 117,369 words.
Legal
–
Bentham's utilitarian theories remained dominant in law until the 20th century.
3.
Commerce
–
Commerce is the activity of buying and selling of goods and services, especially on a large scale. The system includes legal, economic, political, social, cultural and technological systems that are in operation in any country or internationally, commerce is derived from the Latin commercium, from cum, together, and merx, merchandise. Some commentators trace the origins of commerce to the start of transaction in prehistoric times. Apart from traditional self-sufficiency, trading became a facility of prehistoric people. Historian Peter Watson and Ramesh Manickam dates the history of commerce from circa 150,000 years ago. In historic times, the introduction of currency as a money, facilitated a wider exchange of goods. Numismatists have collections of these tokens, which include coins from some Ancient World large-scale societies. For example, if a man who makes pots for a living needs a new house, he/she may wish to hire someone to build it for him/her. But he/she cannot make an equivalent number of pots to equal this service done for him/her, because if the builder could build the house. During the Middle Ages, commerce developed in Europe by trading luxury goods at trade fairs, wealth became converted into movable wealth or capital. Banking systems developed where money on account was transferred across national boundaries, hand to hand markets became a feature of town life, and were regulated by town authorities. Today commerce includes as a subset a complex system of companies which try to maximize their profits by offering products and services to the market at the lowest production cost
Commerce
–
The
caduceus has been used today as the symbol of commerce with which
Mercury has traditionally been associated.
4.
Country
–
A country is a region that is identified as a distinct national entity in political geography. Sometimes the word countries is used to both to sovereign states and to other political entities, while other times it refers only to states. The word country comes from Old French contrée, itself derived from Vulgar Latin contrata and it most likely entered the English language after the Franco-Norman invasion during the 11th century. Areas much smaller than a state may be called by names such as the West Country in England, the Black Country, Constable Country. In many European countries the words are used for sub-divisions of the territory, as in the German Bundesländer. The modern Italian contrada is a word with its meaning varying locally, the term country is frequently used to refer to sovereign states. There is no agreement on the number of countries in the world. There are 206 sovereign states, of which 193 states are members of the United Nations, all are defined as states by declarative theory of statehood and constitutive theory of statehood. The latest proclaimed state is South Sudan in 2011, the Kingdom of Denmark, a sovereign state, comprises Metropolitan Denmark and two nominally separate countries—the Faroe Islands, and Greenland—which are almost fully internally self-governing. The Kingdom of the Netherlands, a state, comprises four separate countries, Netherlands, Aruba, Curaçao. The degree of autonomy of non-sovereign countries varies widely, some are possessions of sovereign states, as several states have overseas territories, with citizenry at times identical and at times distinct from their own
Country
–
Topographical map of
Europe
5.
Communication
–
Communication is the act of conveying intended meanings from one entity or group to another through the use of mutually understood signs and semiotic rules. The main steps inherent to all communication are, The forming of communicative motivation or reason, transmission of the encoded message as a sequence of signals using a specific channel or medium. Noise sources such as forces and in some cases human activity begin influencing the quality of signals propagating from the sender to one or more receivers. Reception of signals and reassemblying of the message from a sequence of received signals. Decoding of the encoded message. Interpretation and making sense of the original message. The channel of communication can be visual, auditory, tactile and haptic, olfactory, electromagnetic, human communication is unique for its extensive use of abstract language. Development of civilization has been linked with progress in telecommunication. Nonverbal communication describes the process of conveying information in the form of non-linguistic representations, examples of nonverbal communication include haptic communication, chronemic communication, gestures, body language, facial expressions, eye contact, and how one dresses. Nonverbal communication also relates to intent of a message, examples of intent are voluntary, intentional movements like shaking a hand or winking, as well as involuntary, such as sweating. Speech also contains nonverbal elements known as paralanguage, e. g. rhythm, intonation, tempo and it affects communication most at the subconscious level and establishes trust. Likewise, written texts include nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words, Nonverbal communication demonstrates one of Wazlawicks laws, you cannot not communicate. Once proximity has formed awareness, living creatures begin interpreting any signals received, Nonverbal cues are heavily relied on to express communication and to interpret others’ communication and can replace or substitute verbal messages. There are several reasons as to why non-verbal communication plays a role in communication. Written communication can also have non-verbal attributes, e-mails and web chats allow individual’s the option to change text font colours, stationary, emoticons, and capitalization in order to capture non-verbal cues into a verbal medium. Many different non-verbal channels are engaged at the time in communication acts. “Non-verbal behaviours may form a language system. ”Smiling, crying, pointing, caressing. Such non-verbal signals allow the most basic form of communication when verbal communication is not effective due to language barriers, Verbal communication is the spoken or written conveyance of a message
Communication
–
Communication major dimensions scheme
Communication
–
Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication
Communication
–
Berlo's Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of Communication
Communication
–
Transactional model of communication
6.
Time
–
Time is the indefinite continued progress of existence and events that occur in apparently irreversible succession from the past through the present to the future. Time is often referred to as the dimension, along with the three spatial dimensions. Time has long been an important subject of study in religion, philosophy, and science, nevertheless, diverse fields such as business, industry, sports, the sciences, and the performing arts all incorporate some notion of time into their respective measuring systems. Two contrasting viewpoints on time divide prominent philosophers, one view is that time is part of the fundamental structure of the universe—a dimension independent of events, in which events occur in sequence. Isaac Newton subscribed to this realist view, and hence it is referred to as Newtonian time. This second view, in the tradition of Gottfried Leibniz and Immanuel Kant, holds that time is neither an event nor a thing, Time in physics is unambiguously operationally defined as what a clock reads. Time is one of the seven fundamental physical quantities in both the International System of Units and International System of Quantities, Time is used to define other quantities—such as velocity—so defining time in terms of such quantities would result in circularity of definition. The operational definition leaves aside the question there is something called time, apart from the counting activity just mentioned, that flows. Investigations of a single continuum called spacetime bring questions about space into questions about time, questions that have their roots in the works of early students of natural philosophy. Furthermore, it may be there is a subjective component to time. Temporal measurement has occupied scientists and technologists, and was a motivation in navigation. Periodic events and periodic motion have long served as standards for units of time, examples include the apparent motion of the sun across the sky, the phases of the moon, the swing of a pendulum, and the beat of a heart. Currently, the unit of time, the second, is defined by measuring the electronic transition frequency of caesium atoms. Time is also of significant social importance, having economic value as well as value, due to an awareness of the limited time in each day. In day-to-day life, the clock is consulted for periods less than a day whereas the calendar is consulted for periods longer than a day, increasingly, personal electronic devices display both calendars and clocks simultaneously. The number that marks the occurrence of an event as to hour or date is obtained by counting from a fiducial epoch—a central reference point. Artifacts from the Paleolithic suggest that the moon was used to time as early as 6,000 years ago. Lunar calendars were among the first to appear, either 12 or 13 lunar months, without intercalation to add days or months to some years, seasons quickly drift in a calendar based solely on twelve lunar months
Time
–
The flow of
sand in an
hourglass can be used to keep track of elapsed time. It also concretely represents the
present as being between the
past and the
future.
Time
Time
–
Horizontal
sundial in
Taganrog
Time
–
A contemporary
quartz watch
7.
Coordinated Universal Time
–
Coordinated Universal Time, abbreviated to UTC, is the primary time standard by which the world regulates clocks and time. It is within about 1 second of mean time at 0° longitude. It is one of closely related successors to Greenwich Mean Time. For most purposes, UTC is considered interchangeable with GMT, the first Coordinated Universal Time was informally adopted on 1 January 1960. This change also adopted leap seconds to simplify future adjustments, a number of proposals have been made to replace UTC with a new system that would eliminate leap seconds, but no consensus has yet been reached. Leap seconds are inserted as necessary to keep UTC within 0.9 seconds of universal time, see the Current number of leap seconds section for the number of leap seconds inserted to date. The official abbreviation for Coordinated Universal Time is UTC and this abbreviation arose from a desire by the International Telecommunication Union and the International Astronomical Union to use the same abbreviation in all languages. English speakers originally proposed CUT, while French speakers proposed TUC, the compromise that emerged was UTC, which conforms to the pattern for the abbreviations of the variants of Universal Time. Time zones around the world are expressed using positive or negative offsets from UTC, the westernmost time zone uses UTC−12, being twelve hours behind UTC, the easternmost time zone, theoretically, uses UTC+12, being twelve hours ahead of UTC. In 1995, the nation of Kiribati moved those of its atolls in the Line Islands from UTC-10 to UTC+14 so that the country would all be on the same day. UTC is used in internet and World Wide Web standards. The Network Time Protocol, designed to synchronise the clocks of computers over the internet, computer servers, online services and other entities that rely on having a universally accepted time use UTC as it is more specific than GMT. If only limited precision is needed, clients can obtain the current UTC from a number of official internet UTC servers, for sub-microsecond precision, clients can obtain the time from satellite signals. UTC is also the standard used in aviation, e. g. for flight plans. Weather forecasts and maps all use UTC to avoid confusion about time zones, the International Space Station also uses UTC as a time standard. Amateur radio operators often schedule their radio contacts in UTC, because transmissions on some frequencies can be picked up by many time zones, UTC is also used in digital tachographs used on large goods vehicles under EU and AETR rules. UTC divides time into days, hours, minutes and seconds, days are conventionally identified using the Gregorian calendar, but Julian day numbers can also be used. Each day contains 24 hours and each hour contains 60 minutes, the number of seconds in a minute is usually 60, but with an occasional leap second, it may be 61 or 59 instead
Coordinated Universal Time
–
Key concepts
Coordinated Universal Time
–
World map of current time zones
8.
Newfoundland Time Zone
–
The clock time in this zone is based on the mean solar time of the meridian 52 degrees and 30 arcminutes west of the Greenwich Observatory. The Newfoundland Time Zone consists only of the province of Newfoundland, officially, the entire province is in the Newfoundland Time Zone by legislation. In practice, however, Newfoundland Time is observed only on the island of Newfoundland, its offshore islands, the rest of Labrador, from Cartwright north and west, observes the Atlantic Time Zone along with the rest of Atlantic Canada. Southeastern Labrador prefers Newfoundland Time in part to synchronize with the schedule of radio broadcasts from Newfoundland and this time zone exists because of the location of the island and the fact that it was a separate dominion when the time zones were established. The island of Newfoundland lies squarely in the half of the Atlantic Time Zone. Since it was separate from Canada, it had the right to adopt its own time zone, in 1963, the Newfoundland government attempted to bring the province into conformity with the other Atlantic provinces, but withdrew in the face of stiff public opposition. Daylight saving time is observed throughout the province, in 1988, the provincial government experimented with double daylight saving time, moving clocks ahead two hours during daylight saving time instead of just one. However, this forced children to go to school in the dark in the part of the school year. In 2006, the province enacted an extension to daylight saving time, starting in 2007, following the lead of the United States and other Canadian provinces. This unusual time zone puts the island of Newfoundland an hour and an ahead of Central Canada, a half hour ahead of the rest of Atlantic Canada. Because of this, it will hit milestones of time any other part of the continent. For instance, the Newfoundland releases of Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, references to programs airing at 6,00,6,30 in Newfoundland are commonly heard across Canada. However, whenever the provinces two full-fledged stations, CJON and CBNT, originate local programming, they refer to it as coming up at 6,00,5,30 in most of Labrador
Newfoundland Time Zone
–
Newfoundland Time Zone
9.
Indian Standard Time
–
Indian Standard Time is the time observed throughout India and Sri Lanka, with a time offset of UTC+05,30. India does not observe daylight saving time or other seasonal adjustments, in military and aviation time IST is designated E*. Indian Standard Time is calculated on the basis of 82.30 E longitude, in Shankargarh Fort, in the tz database, it is represented by Asia/Kolkata. The Central observatory was moved from Chennai to a location at Shankargarh Fort Allahabad district, daylight Saving Time was used briefly during the China–Indian War of 1962 and the Indo–Pakistani Wars of 1965 and 1971. Inhabitants of the states have to advance their clocks with the early sunrise. In the late 1980s, a team of researchers proposed separating the country two or three time zones to conserve energy. The binary system that they suggested involved a return to British–era time zones, in 2001, the government established a four–member committee under the Ministry of Science and Technology to examine the need for multiple time zones and daylight saving. In Assam, tea gardens follow a separate time zone, known as the Chaibagaan or Bagan time, still Indian Standard Time remains the only officially used time. The filmmaker Jahnu Barua has been campaigning for a time zone for the past 25 years. In 2010, he suggested creating a time zone for the Development of Northeastern Region. In 2014, Chief Minister of Assam Tarun Gogoi started campaigning for another time zone for Assam, however, the proposal would need to be cleared by the Central Government of India. Official time signals are generated by the Time and Frequency Standards Laboratory at the National Physical Laboratory in New Delhi, the signals are based on atomic clocks and are synchronised with the worldwide system of clocks that support the Coordinated Universal Time. IST is taken as the time as it passes through almost the centre of India. To communicate the exact time to the people, the time is broadcast over the state-owned All India Radio. Telephone companies have dedicated phone numbers connected to mirror time servers that also relay the precise time, another increasingly popular means of obtaining the time is through Global Positioning System receivers
Indian Standard Time
–
IST in relation with the bordering nations
10.
Temperate
–
In geography, temperate or tepid latitudes of Earth lie between the tropics and the polar regions. The temperatures in these regions are relatively moderate, rather than extremely hot or cold. The north temperate zone extends from the Tropic of Cancer to the Arctic Circle, the south temperate zone extends from the Tropic of Capricorn to the Antarctic Circle. In some climate classifications, the zone is often divided into several smaller climate zones. These include Humid subtropical climate, Mediterranean climate, oceanic, subtropical climates are located between 23. 5° and 35. 0° north or south latitude on the eastern or leeward sides of landmasses. This climate has long, generally hot, summers and short, mild winters and these climates may occur in southern Asia, the southeastern United States, parts of eastern Australia, and in eastern coastal South America. Mediterranean climates, occur between 30° and 42° north and south latitude, on the sides of landmasses. This climate has hot summers and short mild winters, however, seasonal rainfall is the opposite of that of the subtropical humid type. These climates occur near the rimlands of the Mediterranean Sea, in western Australia, in California, the oceanic climates occur in the higher middle latitudes, between 45° and 60° north and south latitude. They are created by the flow from the cool high latitude oceans to their west. This causes the climate to have cool summers and cool winters, annual rainfall is spread throughout the entire year. Regions with this climate include Western Europe, northwestern North America, the Continental climates occur in middle latitudes, between 35° or 40° to 55°. These climates are normally inland or on sides of landmasses. They feature warm to hot summers and cold winters, with a large temperature variation. Regions with this climate include northern temperate Asia, the northern United States, southern Canada, the vast majority of the worlds human population resides in temperate zones, especially in the northern hemisphere, due to its greater mass of land. The richest temperate flora in the world is found in southern Africa, geographical zone Habitat Köppen climate classification Middle latitudes Polar circle Subtropics
Temperate
–
The different geographical zones
11.
Daylight saving time
–
Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
Daylight saving time
–
Ancient
water clock that lets hour lengths vary with season.
Daylight saving time
–
G. V. Hudson invented modern DST, proposing it first in 1895.
Daylight saving time
–
Retailers generally favor DST.
United Cigar Stores hailed a 1918 DST bill.
Daylight saving time
–
William Willett independently proposed DST in 1907 and advocated it tirelessly.
12.
Daylight saving
–
Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
Daylight saving
–
Ancient
water clock that lets hour lengths vary with season.
Daylight saving
–
DST used
Daylight saving
–
G. V. Hudson invented modern DST, proposing it first in 1895.
Daylight saving
–
Retailers generally favor DST.
United Cigar Stores hailed a 1918 DST bill.
13.
Clocks
–
A clock is an instrument to measure, keep, and indicate time. The word clock is derived from the Celtic words clagan and clocca meaning bell, a silent instrument missing such a striking mechanism has traditionally been known as a timepiece. In general usage today a clock refers to any device for measuring and displaying the time, Watches and other timepieces that can be carried on ones person are often distinguished from clocks. The clock is one of the oldest human inventions, meeting the need to measure intervals of time shorter than the natural units, the day, the lunar month. Devices operating on several physical processes have been used over the millennia, a sundial shows the time by displaying the position of a shadow on a flat surface. There is a range of duration timers, an example being the hourglass. Water clocks, along with the sundials, are possibly the oldest time-measuring instruments, spring-driven clocks appeared during the 15th century. During the 15th and 16th centuries, clockmaking flourished, the next development in accuracy occurred after 1656 with the invention of the pendulum clock. A major stimulus to improving the accuracy and reliability of clocks was the importance of precise time-keeping for navigation, the electric clock was patented in 1840. The development of electronics in the 20th century led to clocks with no clockwork parts at all, the timekeeping element in every modern clock is a harmonic oscillator, a physical object that vibrates or oscillates at a particular frequency. This object can be a pendulum, a fork, a quartz crystal. Analog clocks usually indicate time using angles, Digital clocks display a numeric representation of time. Two numeric display formats are used on digital clocks, 24-hour notation. Most digital clocks use electronic mechanisms and LCD, LED, or VFD displays, for convenience, distance, telephony or blindness, auditory clocks present the time as sounds. There are also clocks for the blind that have displays that can be read by using the sense of touch, some of these are similar to normal analog displays, but are constructed so the hands can be felt without damaging them. The evolution of the technology of clocks continues today, the study of timekeeping is known as horology. The apparent position of the Sun in the sky moves over the course of a day, shadows cast by stationary objects move correspondingly, so their positions can be used to indicate the time of day. A sundial shows the time by displaying the position of a shadow on a flat surface, sundials can be horizontal, vertical, or in other orientations
Clocks
–
The
Swiss railway clock.
Clocks
–
The
Shepherd gate clock at the
Royal Observatory, Greenwich.
Clocks
–
Simple horizontal sundial.
Clocks
–
The flow of
sand in an
hourglass can be used to keep track of elapsed time.
14.
Apparent solar time
–
Solar time is a calculation of the passage of time based on the position of the Sun in the sky. The fundamental unit of time is the day. Two types of time are apparent solar time and mean solar time. Fix a tall pole vertically in the ground, at some instant on any day the shadow will point exactly north or south. That instant is local apparent noon,12,00 local apparent time, about 24 hours later the shadow will again point north/south, the Sun seeming to have covered a 360-degree arc around the Earths axis. When the Sun has covered exactly 15 degrees, local apparent time is 13,00 exactly, after 15 more degrees it will be 14,00 exactly. As explained in the equation of time article, this is due to the eccentricity of the Earths orbit, the effect of this is that a clock running at a constant rate – e. g. This is mean solar time, which is not perfectly constant from one century to the next but is close enough for most purposes. Currently a mean solar day is about 86,400.002 SI seconds, the two kinds of solar time are among the three kinds of time reckoning that were employed by astronomers until the 1950s. By the 1950s it had become clear that the Earths rotation rate was not constant, so astronomers developed ephemeris time, the apparent sun is the true sun as seen by an observer on Earth. Apparent solar time or true solar time is based on the apparent motion of the actual Sun and it is based on the apparent solar day, the interval between two successive returns of the Sun to the local meridian. Solar time can be measured by a sundial. The equivalent on other planets is termed local true solar time, the length of a solar day varies through the year, and the accumulated effect produces seasonal deviations of up to 16 minutes from the mean. The effect has two main causes, first, Earths orbit is an ellipse, not a circle, so the Earth moves faster when it is nearest the Sun and slower when it is farthest from the Sun. Second, due to Earths axial tilt, the Suns annual motion is along a circle that is tilted to Earths celestial equator. In June and December when the sun is farthest from the equator a given shift along the ecliptic corresponds to a large shift at the equator. So apparent solar days are shorter in March and September than in June or December and these lengths will change slightly in a few years and significantly in thousands of years. Mean solar time is the angle of the mean Sun plus 12 hours
Apparent solar time
–
Sun and
Moon,
Nuremberg Chronicle, 1493
Apparent solar time
Apparent solar time
–
Key concepts
Apparent solar time
–
Internal structure
15.
Sundial
–
A sundial is a device that tells the time of day by the apparent position of the Sun in the sky. In the narrowest sense of the word it consists of a flat plate, as the sun appears to move across the sky, the shadow aligns with different hour-lines which are marked on the dial to indicate the time of day. The style is the edge of the gnomon, though a single point or nodus may be used. The gnomon casts a shadow, the shadow of the style shows the time. The gnomon may be a rod, a wire or a decorated metal casting. The style must be parallel to the axis of the Earths rotation for the sundial to be throughout the year. The styles angle from horizontal is equal to the geographical latitude. In a broader sense a sundial is any device that uses the suns altitude or azimuth to show the time, in addition to their time-telling function, sundials are valued as decorative objects, as literary metaphors and as objects of mathematical study. It is common for inexpensive mass-produced decorative sundials to have incorrectly aligned gnomons and hour-lines, there are several different types of sundials. Some sundials use a shadow or the edge of a shadow while others use a line or spot of light to indicate the time, the shadow-casting object, known as a gnomon, may be a long thin rod or other object with a sharp tip or a straight edge. Sundials employ many types of gnomon, the gnomon may be fixed or moved according to the season. It may be oriented vertically, horizontally, aligned with the Earths axis, given that sundials use light to indicate time, a line of light may be formed by allowing the suns rays through a thin slit or focusing them through a cylindrical lens. A spot of light may be formed by allowing the suns rays to pass through a hole or by reflecting them from a small circular mirror. Sundials also may use many types of surfaces to receive the light or shadow, planes are the most common surface, but partial spheres, cylinders, cones and other shapes have been used for greater accuracy or beauty. Sundials differ in their portability and their need for orientation, the installation of many dials requires knowing the local latitude, the precise vertical direction, and the direction to true North. Portable dials are self-aligning, for example, it may have two dials that operate on different principles, such as a horizontal and analemmatic dial, mounted together on one plate, in these designs, their times agree only when the plate is aligned properly. Sundials indicate the solar time, unless corrected for some other time. To obtain the clock time, three types of corrections need to be made
Sundial
–
SSW facing, vertical declining sundial on Moot Hall,
Aldeburgh, Suffolk, England.
Sundial
–
A combined analemmatic-equatorial sundial in Ann Morrison Park in
Boise, Idaho, 43°36'45.5"N 116°13'27.6"W
Sundial
–
Sundial in
Singapore Botanic Gardens. The fact that
Singapore is located almost at the
equator is reflected in its design.
Sundial
–
World's oldest sundial, from Egypt's Valley of the Kings (c. 1500 BC)
16.
Mean solar time
–
Solar time is a calculation of the passage of time based on the position of the Sun in the sky. The fundamental unit of time is the day. Two types of time are apparent solar time and mean solar time. Fix a tall pole vertically in the ground, at some instant on any day the shadow will point exactly north or south. That instant is local apparent noon,12,00 local apparent time, about 24 hours later the shadow will again point north/south, the Sun seeming to have covered a 360-degree arc around the Earths axis. When the Sun has covered exactly 15 degrees, local apparent time is 13,00 exactly, after 15 more degrees it will be 14,00 exactly. As explained in the equation of time article, this is due to the eccentricity of the Earths orbit, the effect of this is that a clock running at a constant rate – e. g. This is mean solar time, which is not perfectly constant from one century to the next but is close enough for most purposes. Currently a mean solar day is about 86,400.002 SI seconds, the two kinds of solar time are among the three kinds of time reckoning that were employed by astronomers until the 1950s. By the 1950s it had become clear that the Earths rotation rate was not constant, so astronomers developed ephemeris time, the apparent sun is the true sun as seen by an observer on Earth. Apparent solar time or true solar time is based on the apparent motion of the actual Sun and it is based on the apparent solar day, the interval between two successive returns of the Sun to the local meridian. Solar time can be measured by a sundial. The equivalent on other planets is termed local true solar time, the length of a solar day varies through the year, and the accumulated effect produces seasonal deviations of up to 16 minutes from the mean. The effect has two main causes, first, Earths orbit is an ellipse, not a circle, so the Earth moves faster when it is nearest the Sun and slower when it is farthest from the Sun. Second, due to Earths axial tilt, the Suns annual motion is along a circle that is tilted to Earths celestial equator. In June and December when the sun is farthest from the equator a given shift along the ecliptic corresponds to a large shift at the equator. So apparent solar days are shorter in March and September than in June or December and these lengths will change slightly in a few years and significantly in thousands of years. Mean solar time is the angle of the mean Sun plus 12 hours
Mean solar time
–
Sun and
Moon,
Nuremberg Chronicle, 1493
Mean solar time
Mean solar time
–
Key concepts
Mean solar time
–
Internal structure
17.
Equation of time
–
The equation of time describes the discrepancy between two kinds of solar time. The word equation is used in the sense of reconcile a difference. The two times that differ are the apparent solar time, which tracks the motion of the sun, and mean solar time. Apparent solar time can be obtained by measurement of the current position of the Sun, Mean solar time, for the same place, would be the time indicated by a steady clock set so that over the year its differences from apparent solar time would resolve to zero. The equation of time is the east or west component of the analemma, the equation of time values for each day of the year, compiled by astronomical observatories, were widely listed in almanacs and ephemerides. During a year the equation of time varies as shown on the graph, apparent time, and the sundial, can be ahead by as much as 16 min 33 s, or behind by as much as 14 min 6 s. The equation of time has zeros near 15 April,13 June,1 September and 25 December, ignoring very slow changes in the Earths orbit and rotation, these events are repeated at the same times every tropical year. However, due to the number of days in a year. The equation of time is constant only for a planet with zero axial tilt, on Mars the difference between sundial time and clock time can be as much as 50 minutes, due to the considerably greater eccentricity of its orbit. The planet Uranus, which has a large axial tilt, has an equation of time that makes its days start. There is no accepted definition of the sign of the equation of time. Some publications show it as positive when a sundial is ahead of a clock, as shown in the graph above, others when the clock is ahead of the sundial. In the English-speaking world, the usage is the more common. Anyone who makes use of a table or graph should first check its sign usage. Often, there is a note or caption which explains it, otherwise, the sign can be determined by knowing that, during the first three months of each year, the clock is ahead of the sundial. The mnemonic NYSS, for new year, sundial slow, can be useful, some published tables avoid the ambiguity by not using signs, but by showing phrases such as sundial fast or sundial slow instead. In this article, and others in English Wikipedia, a value of the equation of time implies that a sundial is ahead of a clock. The phrase equation of time is derived from the medieval Latin, the word aequātiō was widely used in early astronomy to tabulate the difference between an observed value and the expected value
Equation of time
–
This graph uses the opposite sign to the one above it. There is no universally followed convention for the sign of the equation of time.
Equation of time
–
The equation of time — above the axis a sundial will appear fast relative to a clock showing local mean time, and below the axis a sundial will appear slow.
Equation of time
–
A sundial made in 1812, by
Whitehurst & Son with a circular scale showing the equation of time correction. This is now on display in the Derby Museum.
18.
Orbital eccentricity
–
The orbital eccentricity of an astronomical object is a parameter that determines the amount by which its orbit around another body deviates from a perfect circle. A value of 0 is an orbit, values between 0 and 1 form an elliptical orbit,1 is a parabolic escape orbit. The term derives its name from the parameters of conic sections and it is normally used for the isolated two-body problem, but extensions exist for objects following a rosette orbit through the galaxy. In a two-body problem with inverse-square-law force, every orbit is a Kepler orbit, the eccentricity of this Kepler orbit is a non-negative number that defines its shape. The limit case between an ellipse and a hyperbola, when e equals 1, is parabola, radial trajectories are classified as elliptic, parabolic, or hyperbolic based on the energy of the orbit, not the eccentricity. Radial orbits have zero angular momentum and hence eccentricity equal to one, keeping the energy constant and reducing the angular momentum, elliptic, parabolic, and hyperbolic orbits each tend to the corresponding type of radial trajectory while e tends to 1. For a repulsive force only the trajectory, including the radial version, is applicable. For elliptical orbits, a simple proof shows that arcsin yields the projection angle of a circle to an ellipse of eccentricity e. For example, to view the eccentricity of the planet Mercury, next, tilt any circular object by that angle and the apparent ellipse projected to your eye will be of that same eccentricity. From Medieval Latin eccentricus, derived from Greek ἔκκεντρος ekkentros out of the center, from ἐκ- ek-, eccentric first appeared in English in 1551, with the definition a circle in which the earth, sun. Five years later, in 1556, a form of the word was added. The eccentricity of an orbit can be calculated from the state vectors as the magnitude of the eccentricity vector, e = | e | where. For elliptical orbits it can also be calculated from the periapsis and apoapsis since rp = a and ra = a, where a is the semimajor axis. E = r a − r p r a + r p =1 −2 r a r p +1 where, rp is the radius at periapsis. For Earths annual orbit path, ra/rp ratio = longest_radius / shortest_radius ≈1.034 relative to center point of path, the eccentricity of the Earths orbit is currently about 0.0167, the Earths orbit is nearly circular. Venus and Neptune have even lower eccentricity, over hundreds of thousands of years, the eccentricity of the Earths orbit varies from nearly 0.0034 to almost 0.058 as a result of gravitational attractions among the planets. The table lists the values for all planets and dwarf planets, Mercury has the greatest orbital eccentricity of any planet in the Solar System. Such eccentricity is sufficient for Mercury to receive twice as much solar irradiation at perihelion compared to aphelion, before its demotion from planet status in 2006, Pluto was considered to be the planet with the most eccentric orbit
Orbital eccentricity
–
Gravity Simulator plot of the changing orbital eccentricity of
Mercury,
Venus,
Earth, and
Mars over the next 50,000 years. The arrows indicate the different scales used. The 0 point on this plot is the year 2007.
Orbital eccentricity
–
An elliptic, parabolic and hyperbolic
Kepler orbit: elliptic (eccentricity = 0.7) parabolic (eccentricity = 1) hyperbolic orbit (eccentricity = 1.3)
19.
Axial tilt
–
In astronomy, axial tilt, also known as obliquity, is the angle between an objects rotational axis and its orbital axis, or, equivalently, the angle between its equatorial plane and orbital plane. At an obliquity of zero, the two axes point in the direction, i. e. the rotational axis is perpendicular to the orbital plane. Over the course of an orbit, the obliquity usually does not change considerably, and this causes one pole to be directed more toward the Sun on one side of the orbit, and the other pole on the other side — the cause of the seasons on the Earth. Earths obliquity oscillates between 22.1 and 24.5 degrees on a 41, 000-year cycle, the mean obliquity is currently 23°26′13. 4″. There are two methods of specifying tilt. The IAU also uses the rule to define a positive pole for the purpose of determining orientation. Using this convention, Venus is tilted 177° and it is denoted by the Greek letter ε. Earth currently has a tilt of about 23. 4°. This value remains about the relative to a stationary orbital plane throughout the cycles of axial precession. But the ecliptic due to planetary perturbations, and the obliquity of the ecliptic is not a fixed quantity. At present, it is decreasing at a rate of about 47″ per century, Earths obliquity may have been reasonably accurately measured as early as 1100 BC in India and China. The ancient Greeks had good measurements of the obliquity since about 350 BC, about 830 AD, the Caliph Al-Mamun of Baghdad directed his astronomers to measure the obliquity, and the result was used in the Arab world for many years. It was widely believed, during the Middle Ages, that both precession and Earths obliquity oscillated around a value, with a period of 672 years. Earths axis remains tilted in the direction with reference to the background stars throughout a year. This means that one pole will be directed away from the Sun at one side of the orbit and this is the cause of Earths seasons. Summer occurs in the Northern hemisphere when the pole is directed toward the Sun. Variations in Earths axial tilt can influence the seasons and is likely a factor in climate change. The exact angular value of the obliquity is found by observation of the motions of Earth, from 1984, the Jet Propulsion Laboratorys DE series of computer-generated ephemerides took over as the fundamental ephemeris of the Astronomical Almanac
Axial tilt
Axial tilt
20.
Greenwich Mean Time
–
Greenwich Mean Time is the mean solar time at the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, London. GMT was formerly used as the civil time standard, now superseded in that function by Coordinated Universal Time. Today GMT is considered equivalent to UTC for UK civil purposes and for navigation is considered equivalent to UT1, consequently, the term GMT should not be used for precise purposes. Due to Earths uneven speed in its orbit and its axial tilt, noon GMT is rarely the exact moment the sun crosses the Greenwich meridian. This event may occur up to 16 minutes before or after noon GMT, noon GMT is the annual average moment of this event, which accounts for the word mean in Greenwich Mean Time. Originally, astronomers considered a GMT day to start at noon while for almost everyone else it started at midnight, to avoid confusion, the name Universal Time was introduced to denote GMT as counted from midnight. Astronomers preferred the old convention to simplify their observational data, so each night was logged under a single calendar date. Today Universal Time usually refers to UTC or UT1, in some countries Greenwich Mean Time is the legal time in the winter and the population uses the term. For an explanation of why this is, see GMT in legislation below, synchronisation of the chronometer on GMT did not affect shipboard time, which was still solar time. Most time zones were based upon GMT, as an offset of a number of hours ahead of GMT or behind GMT and it was gradually adopted for other purposes, but a legal case in 1858 held local mean time to be the official time. On 14 May 1880, a signed by Clerk to Justices appeared in The Times, stating that Greenwich time is now kept almost throughout England. For example, our polling booths were opened, say, at 813 and closed at 413 PM. This was changed later in 1880, GMT was adopted on the Isle of Man in 1883, Jersey in 1898 and Guernsey in 1913. Ireland adopted GMT in 1916, supplanting Dublin Mean Time, hourly time signals from Greenwich Observatory were first broadcast on 5 February 1924, rendering the time ball at the observatory redundant in the process. The daily rotation of the Earth is irregular and constantly slows, on 1 January 1972, GMT was superseded as the international civil time standard by Coordinated Universal Time, maintained by an ensemble of atomic clocks around the world. Indeed, even the Greenwich meridian itself is not quite what it used to be—defined by the centre of the instrument at the Observatory at Greenwich. Nevertheless, the line in the old observatorys courtyard today differs no more than a few metres from that line which is now the prime meridian of the world. Historically GMT has been used two different conventions for numbering hours. The long-standing astronomical convention dating from the work of Ptolemy, was to refer to noon as zero hours and this contrasted with the civil convention of referring to midnight as zero hours dating from the Romans
Greenwich Mean Time
–
Greenwich clock with standard measurements
Greenwich Mean Time
–
light blue
Greenwich Mean Time
–
This arch that stretches over a
highway indicates the
prime meridian in
Spain.
21.
Royal Observatory, Greenwich
–
The Royal Observatory, Greenwich is an observatory situated on a hill in Greenwich Park, overlooking the River Thames. It played a role in the history of astronomy and navigation. The observatory was commissioned in 1675 by King Charles II, with the stone being laid on 10 August. The site was chosen by Sir Christopher Wren and he appointed John Flamsteed as the first Astronomer Royal. The building was completed in the summer of 1676, the building was often called Flamsteed House, in reference to its first occupant. The scientific work of the observatory was relocated elsewhere in stages in the first half of the 20th century,1675 –22 June, Royal Observatory founded. 1675 –10 August, construction began,1714 Longitude Act established the Board of Longitude and Longitude rewards. The Astronomer Royal was, until the Board was dissolved in 1828,1767 Astronomer Royal Nevil Maskelyne began publication of the Nautical Almanac, based on observations made at the Observatory. 1833 Daily time signals began, marked by dropping a Time ball,1899 The New Physical Observatory was completed. 1924 Hourly time signals from the Royal Observatory were first broadcast on 5 February,1948 Office of the Astronomer Royal was moved to Herstmonceux. 1957 Royal Observatory completed its move to Herstmonceux, becoming the Royal Greenwich Observatory, the Greenwich site is renamed the Old Royal Observatory. Greenwich site is returned to its name, the Royal Observatory. The Ordnance Office was given responsibility for building the Observatory, with Moore providing the key instruments, Moore donated two clocks, built by Thomas Tompion, which were installed in the 20 foot high Octagon Room, the principal room of the building. They were of unusual design, each with a pendulum 13 feet in length mounted above the face, giving a period of four seconds. British astronomers have used the Royal Observatory as a basis for measurement. Four separate meridians have passed through the buildings, defined by successive instruments, subsequently, nations across the world used it as their standard for mapping and timekeeping. When the Airy circle became the reference for the meridian, the difference resulting from the change was considered enough to be neglected. When a new triangulation was done between 1936 and 1962, scientists determined that in the Ordnance Survey system the longitude of the international Greenwich meridian was not 0° and this old astronomical prime meridian has been replaced by a more precise prime meridian
Royal Observatory, Greenwich
–
Royal Observatory, Greenwich. A
time ball sits atop the Octagon Room.
Royal Observatory, Greenwich
–
Flamsteed House in 1824
Royal Observatory, Greenwich
–
Royal Observatory, Greenwich c. 1902 as depicted on a postcard
Royal Observatory, Greenwich
–
Former Royal Greenwich Observatory,
Herstmonceux, East Sussex
22.
Bristol
–
Bristol is a city and county in South West England with a population of 449,300 in 2016. The district has the 10th largest population in England, while the Bristol metropolitan area is the 12th largest in the United Kingdom, the city borders North Somerset and South Gloucestershire, with the cities of Bath and Gloucester to the south-east and north-east, respectively. Iron Age hill forts and Roman villas were built near the confluence of the rivers Frome and Avon, Bristol received a royal charter in 1155 and was historically divided between Gloucestershire and Somerset until 1373, when it became a county of itself. From the 13th to the 18th century, Bristol was among the top three English cities after London in tax receipts, Bristol was surpassed by the rapid rise of Manchester, Liverpool and Birmingham in the Industrial Revolution. Bristol was a place for early voyages of exploration to the New World. On a ship out of Bristol in 1497 John Cabot, a Venetian, in 1499 William Weston, a Bristol merchant, was the first Englishman to lead an exploration to North America. At the height of the Bristol slave trade, from 1700 to 1807, the Port of Bristol has since moved from Bristol Harbour in the city centre to the Severn Estuary at Avonmouth and Royal Portbury Dock. Bristols modern economy is built on the media, electronics and aerospace industries. The city has the largest circulating community currency in the U. K. - the Bristol pound, which is pegged to the Pound sterling. It is connected to London and other major UK cities by road, rail, sea and air by the M5 and M4, Bristol Temple Meads and Bristol Parkway mainline rail stations, and Bristol Airport. The Sunday Times named it as the best city in Britain in which to live in 2014 and 2017, the most ancient recorded name for Bristol is the archaic Welsh Caer Odor, which is consistent with modern understanding that early Bristol developed between the River Frome and Avon Gorge. It is most commonly stated that the Saxon name Bricstow was a calque of the existing Celtic name, with Bric a literal translation of Odor. Alternative etymologies are supported with the numerous variations in Medieval documents with Samuel Seyer enumerating 47 alternative forms. The Old English form Brycgstow is commonly used to derive the meaning place at the bridge, utilizing another form, Brastuile, Rev. Dr. Shaw derived the name from the Celtic words bras, or braos and tuile. The poet Thomas Chatterton popularised a derivation from Brictricstow linking the town to Brictric and it appears that the form Bricstow prevailed until 1204, and the Bristolian L is what eventually changed the name to Bristol. Iron Age hill forts near the city are at Leigh Woods and Clifton Down, on the side of the Avon Gorge, a Roman settlement, Abona, existed at what is now Sea Mills, another was at the present-day Inns Court. Isolated Roman villas and small forts and settlements were scattered throughout the area. Bristol was founded by 1000, by about 1020, it was a centre with a mint producing silver pennies bearing its name
Bristol
–
Bristol
Bristol
Bristol
–
Black and white etching showing the towers of
St Stephen's Church,
St Augustine the Less Church and
Bristol Cathedral, published c.1850
Bristol
–
West front of Bristol Cathedral
23.
Greenwich
–
Greenwich is an early-established district of todays London, England, centred 5.5 miles east south-east of Charing Cross. The town lends its name to the Royal Borough of Greenwich, Greenwich is generally described as being part of South-east London and sometimes as being part of East London. Greenwich is notable for its history and for giving its name to the Greenwich Meridian. The town became the site of a palace, the Palace of Placentia from the 15th century. The palace fell into disrepair during the English Civil War and was rebuilt as the Royal Naval Hospital for Sailors by Sir Christopher Wren and his assistant Nicholas Hawksmoor. These buildings became the Royal Naval College in 1873, and they remained an establishment for military education until 1998 when they passed into the hands of the Greenwich Foundation. The historic rooms within these buildings remain open to the public, other buildings are used by University of Greenwich and Trinity Laban Conservatoire of Music and Dance. The town became a resort in the 18th century and many grand houses were built there, such as Vanbrugh Castle established on Maze Hill. From the Georgian period estates of houses were constructed above the town centre, Greenwich formed part of Kent until 1889 when the County of London was created. The place-name Greenwich is first attested in a Saxon charter of 918 and it is recorded as Grenewic in 964, and as Grenawic in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for 1013. It is Grenviz in the Domesday Book of 1086, and Grenewych in the Taxatio Ecclesiastica of 1291, the name means green wic or settlement. An article in The Times of 13 October 1967 stated, East Greenwich, gateway to the Blackwall Tunnel, remains solidly working class, the manpower for one eighth of Londons heavy industry. West Greenwich is a hybrid, the spirit of Nelson, the Cutty Sark, the Maritime Museum, an industrial waterfront and a number of elegant houses, ripe for development. Royal charters granted to English colonists in North America, often used the name of the manor of East Greenwich for describing the tenure as that of free socage, New England charters provided that the grantees should hold their lands as of his Majesty’s manor of East Greenwich. Grants named the castle of Windsor, places in North America that have taken the name East Greenwich include a township in Gloucester County, New Jersey, a hamlet in Washington County, New York, and a town in Kent County, Rhode Island. Tumuli to the south-west of Flamsteed House, in Greenwich Park, are thought to be early Bronze Age barrows re-used by the Saxons in the 6th century as burial grounds, to the east between the Vanbrugh and Maze Hill Gates is the site of a Roman villa or temple. A small area of red paving tesserae protected by railings marks the spot and it was excavated in 1902 and 300 coins were found dating from the emperors Claudius and Honorius to the 5th century. This was excavated by the Channel 4 television programme Time Team in 1999, broadcast in 2000, the Roman road from London to Dover, Watling Street crossed the high ground to the south of Greenwich, through Blackheath
Greenwich
–
Royal Observatory, Greenwich
Greenwich
–
The view from
Greenwich Park, with the
Queen's House and the wings of the
National Maritime Museum in the foreground
Greenwich
–
Boats at Greenwich at the end of the Great River Race
Greenwich
–
The Royal Navy
Type 45 destroyer HMS Defender moored on the riverfront at Greenwich in 2015
24.
London
–
London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
London
–
Palace of Westminster,
Buckingham Palace and
Central London skyline
London
London
London
–
The name London may derive from the
River Thames
25.
History of rail transport in Great Britain
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This article is part of the history of rail transport by country series. The railway system of Great Britain, the territory of the United Kingdom, is the oldest in the world. The system was built as a patchwork of local rail links operated by small private railway companies. These isolated links developed during the boom of the 1840s into a national network. Over the course of the 19th and early 20th centuries, these amalgamated or were bought by competitors until only a handful of companies remained. The entire network was brought under government control during the First World War, however, the government resisted calls for the nationalisation of the network. The Big Four were joint-stock public companies and they continued to run the system until 31 December 1947. From the start of 1948, the big four were nationalised to form British Railways, though there were few initial changes to the service, usage increased and the network became profitable. Declining passenger numbers and financial losses in the late 1950s and early 1960s prompted the closure of branch and main lines. Passenger services experienced a renaissance with the introduction of high-speed inter-city trains in the 1970s, the 1980s saw severe cuts in rail subsidies and above-inflation increases in fares and the service became more cost-effective. Railway operations were privatised during 1994-1997, ownership of the track and infrastructure passed to Railtrack, whilst passenger operations were franchised to individual private sector operators and the freight services sold outright. Since privatisation, passenger levels have increased to their highest ever level. The Hatfield accident set in motion the series of events resulted in the ultimate collapse of Railtrack and its replacement with Network Rail. Although the idea of wooden-railed wagonways originated in Germany in the 16th century and its earliest railways were straight and were constructed from parallel rails of timber on which ran horse-drawn carts. These were succeeded in 1793 when Benjamin Outram constructed a tramway with L-shaped cast iron rails. These rails became obsolete when William Jessop began to manufacture cast iron rails without guiding ledges - the wheels of the carts had flanges instead, cast iron is brittle and so the rails tended to break easily. Consequently, in 1820, John Birkenshaw introduced a method of rolling wrought iron rails, the first passenger-carrying public railway was opened by the Oystermouth Railway in 1807, using horse-drawn carriages on an existing tramline. In 1804, Richard Trevithick designed and built the first steam locomotive to run on smooth rails, the first commercially successful steam locomotive was Salamanca, built in 1812 by John Blenkinsop and Matthew Murray for the 4 ft gauge Middleton Railway
History of rail transport in Great Britain
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Class 87 electric locomotive and
Mark 3 coaches franchised by
Virgin Trains.
History of rail transport in Great Britain
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Rail Passengers in Great Britain from 1829-2014
History of rail transport in Great Britain
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The first passenger service was at
Oystermouth in 1807
History of rail transport in Great Britain
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Salamanca of 1812
26.
Marine chronometer
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A marine chronometer is a timepiece that is precise and accurate enough to be used as a portable time standard, it can therefore be used to determine longitude by means of celestial navigation. Timepieces made in Switzerland may display the word chronometer only if certified by the COSC, to determine a position on the Earths surface, it is necessary and sufficient to know the latitude, longitude, and altitude. Altitude considerations can, of course, be ignored for vessels operating at sea level, until the mid-1750s, accurate navigation at sea out of sight of land was an unsolved problem due to the difficulty in calculating longitude. Navigators could determine their latitude by measuring the angle at noon or, in the Northern Hemisphere. To find their longitude, however, they needed a standard that would work aboard a ship. Observation of regular celestial motions, such as Galileos method based on observing Jupiters natural satellites, was not possible at sea due to the ships motion. The lunar distances method, initially proposed by Johannes Werner in 1514, was developed in parallel with the marine chronometer, the Dutch scientist Gemma Frisius was the first to propose the use of a chronometer to determine longitude in 1530. The purpose of a chronometer is to measure accurately the time of a fixed location. This is particularly important for navigation, knowing GMT at local noon allows a navigator to use the time difference between the ships position and the Greenwich Meridian to determine the ships longitude. The creation of a timepiece which would work reliably at sea was difficult, christiaan Huygens, following his invention of the pendulum clock in 1656, made the first attempt at a marine chronometer in 1673 in France, under the sponsorship of Jean-Baptiste Colbert. He obtained a patent for his invention from Colbert, but his clock remained imprecise at sea, the first published use of the term was in 1684 in Arcanum Navarchicum, a theoretical work by Kiel professor Matthias Wasmuth. This was followed by a theoretical description of a chronometer in works published by English scientist William Derham in 1713. Attempts to construct a marine chronometer were begun by Jeremy Thacker in England in 1714. In 1714, the British government offered a prize for a method of determining longitude at sea. His first two sea timepieces H1 and H2 used this system, but he realised that they had a sensitivity to centrifugal force. However, H3s circular balances still proved too inaccurate and he abandoned the large machines. Harrison solved the problems with his much smaller H4 chronometer design in 1761. H4 looked much like a large five-inch diameter pocket watch, in 1761, Harrison submitted H4 for the £20,000 longitude prize
Marine chronometer
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Breguet twin barrel box chronometer.
Marine chronometer
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The marine "Chronometer" of
Jeremy Thacker used
gimbals and a
vacuum in a bell jar.
Marine chronometer
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Henry Sully (1680-1729) presented a first marine chronometer in 1716.
Marine chronometer
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John Harrison 's H1 marine chronometer of 1735.
27.
Great Western Railway
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The Great Western Railway was a British railway company that linked London with the south-west and west of England, the Midlands, and most of Wales. It was founded in 1833, received its enabling Act of Parliament on 31 August 1835, Goods wagons were painted red but this was later changed to mid-grey. Great Western trains included long-distance express services such as the Flying Dutchman, the Cornish Riviera Express and it also operated many suburban and rural services, some operated by steam railmotors or autotrains. The company pioneered the use of larger, more economic goods wagons than were usual in Britain and it operated a network of road motor routes, was a part of the Railway Air Services, and owned ships, docks and hotels. The Great Western Railway originated from the desire of Bristol merchants to maintain their city as the port of the country. The company was founded at a meeting in Bristol in 1833 and was incorporated by Act of Parliament in 1835. Isambard Kingdom Brunel, then aged twenty-nine, was appointed engineer and this was by far Brunels largest contract to date. Firstly, he chose to use a gauge of 7 ft to allow for the possibility of large wheels outside the bodies of the rolling stock which could give smoother running at high speeds. Secondly, he selected a route, north of the Marlborough Downs and this meant the line was not direct from to London to Bristol. From Reading heading west, the line would curve in a northerly sweep back to Bath, the first 22.5 miles of line, from Paddington station in London to Maidenhead Bridge station, opened on 4 June 1838. When Maidenhead Railway Bridge was ready the line was extended to Twyford on 1 July 1839, the cutting was the scene of a railway disaster two years later when a goods train ran into a landslip, ten passengers who were travelling in open trucks were killed. This accident prompted Parliament to pass the 1844 Railway Regulation Act requiring railway companies to provide carriages for passengers. The next section, from Reading to Steventon crossed the Thames twice, a 7. 25-mile extension took the line to Faringdon Road on 20 July 1840. Meanwhile, work had started at the Bristol end of the line, on 17 December 1840, the line from London reached a temporary terminus at Wootton Bassett Road west of Swindon and 80.25 miles from Paddington. The section from Wootton Bassett Road to Chippenham was opened on 31 May 1841, as was Swindon Junction station where the Cheltenham and Great Western Union Railway to Cirencester connected. That was an independent line worked by the GWR, as was the Bristol and Exeter Railway, in 1851, the GWR purchased the Kennet and Avon Canal, which was a competing carrier between London, Reading, Bath and Bristol. The GWR was closely involved with the C&GWUR and the B&ER, the South Wales Railway had opened between Chepstow and Swansea in 1850 and became connected to the GWR by Brunels Chepstow Bridge in 1852. It was completed to Neyland in 1856, where a port was established
Great Western Railway
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The interior of Brunel's train-shed at Temple Meads, the first Bristol terminus of the GWR, from an engraving by
J. C. Bourne.
Great Western Railway
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Coat-of-arms of the Great Western Railway, incorporating the
shields,
crests and
mottoes of the cities of
London (left) and
Bristol (right)
Great Western Railway
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The
Sonning Cutting in 1846
Great Western Railway
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Route of the Great Western Railway on
Cheffin's Map, 1850
28.
Railway time
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Railway time was progressively taken up by all railway companies in Great Britain over the following two to three years. The railway companies sometimes faced concerted resistance from local people who refused to adjust their public clocks to bring them into line with London Time, some contemporary commentators referred to the influence of railway time on encouraging greater precision in daily tasks and the demand for punctuality. Until the latter part of the 18th century, time was determined in each town by a local sundial. Solar time is calculated with reference to the position of the sun. This provided only an approximation as to time due to variations in orbits and had become unsuitable for day-to-day purposes and it was replaced by local mean time, which eliminated the variation due to seasonal differences and anomalies. It also took account of the longitude of a location and enabled a precise time correction to be applied, such new-found precision did not overcome a different problem, the differences between the local time of neighbouring towns. In Britain, local time differed by up to 20 minutes from that of London, for example, Oxford Time was 5 minutes behind Greenwich Time, Leeds Time 6 minutes behind, Carnforth,11 minutes behind, and Barrow almost 13 minutes behind. In India and North America these differences could be 60 minutes or more, almanacs containing tables were published and instructions attached to sundials to enable the differences between local times to be computed. In Britain, the coaching companies published schedules providing details of the corrections required, however, this variation in local times was large enough to present problems for the railway schedules. For instance, Leeds time was six minutes behind London, whilst Bristol was ten minutes behind and it soon became apparent that even such small discrepancies in times caused confusion, disruption, or even accidents. By 1852 a telegraph link had been constructed between a new electro-magnetic clock at Greenwich and initially Lewisham, and shortly after this London Bridge stations, by 1855 time signals from Greenwich could be sent through wires alongside the railway lines across the length and breadth of Britain. This technology was used in India to synchronise railway time. Before the advent of the telegraph, stationmasters adjusted their clocks using tables supplied by the company to convert local time to London Time. In turn, train guards set their chronometers against those clocks, the introduction of railway time was in the end swift despite not being straightforward. The Great Western Railway was the first to standardise its timetable on Greenwich Mean Time, the Midland Railway adopted London Time at all of its stations on 1 January 1846. From 1 December 1847, the London and North Western and the Caledonian Railways switched over and it was reported that by 1855 that 98 percent of towns and cities had transferred to GMT. On the other hand, not all railway companies convinced the local dignitaries to bring their clocks on buildings in line without stern resistance. In Exeter this situation due to the reluctance of the Dean of Exeter Cathedral to concede to the demands of the railway company
Railway time
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The
station clock at
Paddington.
Railway time
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Exchange Clock at
Bristol showing two minute hands
29.
Telegraph
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Telegraphy is the long-distance transmission of textual or symbolic messages without the physical exchange of an object bearing the message. Thus semaphore is a method of telegraphy, whereas pigeon post is not, telegraphy requires that the method used for encoding the message be known to both sender and receiver. Such methods are designed according to the limits of the medium used. The use of signals, beacons, reflected light signals. In the 19th century, the harnessing of electricity led to the invention of electrical telegraphy, the advent of radio in the early 20th century brought about radiotelegraphy and other forms of wireless telegraphy. The word telegraph was first coined by the French inventor of the Semaphore line, Claude Chappe, a telegraph is a device for transmitting and receiving messages over long distances, i. e. for telegraphy. The word telegraph alone now generally refers to an electrical telegraph, Wireless telegraphy is also known as CW, for continuous wave, as opposed to the earlier radio technique of using a spark gap. Contrary to the definition used by Chappe, Morse argued that the term telegraph can strictly be applied only to systems that transmit. This is to be distinguished from semaphore, which transmits messages. Smoke signals, for instance, are to be considered semaphore, according to Morse, telegraph dates only from 1832 when Pavel Schilling invented one of the earliest electrical telegraphs. A telegraph message sent by a telegraph operator or telegrapher using Morse code was known as a telegram. A cablegram was a sent by a submarine telegraph cable. Later, a Telex was a sent by a Telex network. A wire picture or wire photo was a picture that was sent from a remote location by a facsimile telegraph. A diplomatic telegram, also known as a cable, is the term given to a confidential communication between a diplomatic mission and the foreign ministry of its parent country. These continue to be called telegrams or cables regardless of the used for transmission. Commercial electrical telegraphs were introduced from 1837, the first telegraphs came in the form of optical telegraph, including the use of smoke signals, beacons, or reflected light, which have existed since ancient times. Early proposals for a telegraph system were made to the Royal Society by Robert Hooke in 1684 and were first implemented on an experimental level by Sir Richard Lovell Edgeworth in 1767
Telegraph
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Replica of
Claude Chappe 's optical telegraph on the Litermont near
Nalbach, Germany
Telegraph
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Demonstration of the semaphore
Telegraph
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Pavel Schilling, an early pioneer of electrical telegraphy
Telegraph
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Cooke and Wheatstone's five-needle, six-wire telegraph
30.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
Washington, D.C.
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Clockwise from top left:
Smithsonian Institution Building,
Rock Creek Park,
National Mall (including the
Lincoln Memorial in the foreground),
Howard Theatre and the
Frederick Douglass National Historic Site
Washington, D.C.
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Map of the District of Columbia in 1835, prior to the
retrocession
Washington, D.C.
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Ford's Theatre in the 19th century, site of the 1865
assassination of
President Lincoln
Washington, D.C.
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Crowds surrounding the
Reflecting Pool during the 1963
March on Washington
.png)
Media related to Time zones at Wikimedia Commons
