1.
History of Senegal
–
The history of Senegal is commonly divided into a number of periods, encompassing the prehistoric era, the precolonial period, colonialism, and the contemporary era. The earliest evidence of life is found in the valley of the Falémé in the south-east. There were also found stones shaped by the Levallois technique, characteristic of the Middle Paleolithic, mousterian Industry is represented mainly by scrapers found in the peninsula of Cap-Vert, as well in the low and middle valleys of the Senegal and the Falémé. In the Senegambia the period when humans became hunters, fishermen and this is when more elaborate objects and ceramics emerged. Although the characteristics and manifestations of civilization from the Neolithic have been identified their origins, what can be distinguished is, The dig of Cape Manuel, the Neolithic deposit Manueline Dakar was discovered in 1940. Basalt rocks including ankaramite were used for making tools such as axes or planes. Such tools have been found at Gorée and the Magdalen Islands, the dig of Bel-Air, Neolithic Bélarien tools, usually made out of flint, are present in the dunes of the west, near the current capital. This deposit is on the list of closed sites and monuments of Senegal, grinding equipment and pottery from the period are well represented at the site. The Neolithic civilization of the Senegal River valley and the Ferlo are the least well known due to not always being separated, in the case of Senegal, the periodization of prehistory remains controversial. It is often described as beginning with the age of metallurgy, funerary sites or tumuli were built there during the 8th to 16th centuries. They are also found in the north near Saint-Louis, and in the estuary of the Casamance. The West is rich in burial mounds of sand that the Wolof refer to as mbanaar, two of these sites are located within the territory of Senegal, Sine Ngayène and Sine Wanar, both located in the Department of Nioro Rip. Sine Ngayène has 52 stone circles including a double circle, at Wanar, they number 24 and the stones are smaller. There are stone-carved lyre in the laterite, Y- or A-shaped, the existence of proto-historic ruins in the middle Senegal River valley was confirmed in the late 1970s. Pottery, perforated ceramic discs or ornaments have been unearthed, excavations at thé site of Sinthiou Bara, near Matam, have proved particularly fruitful. They have revealed, for example, the flow of trade from distant parts of North Africa. The region of modern Senegal was a part of the region called Upper Guinea by European traders. Combining these data suggests that Senegal was first populated from the north and east in several waves of migration, the last being that of the Wolof, the Fulani and the Serer
History of Senegal
–
A map by
Guillaume Delisle (1770)
History of Senegal
–
Megalithic alignments in Senegal
History of Senegal
–
Maad a Sinig Kumba Ndoffene Fa Ndeb Joof. King of
Sine.
The Royal House of Boureh Gnilane Joof.
History of Senegal
–
Wolof of
Waalo, in "war costume" (1846)
2.
Ghana Empire
–
The Ghana Empire, properly known as Awkar was located in what is now southeastern Mauritania and western Mali. By the time of the Muslim conquest of North Africa in the 7th century the camel had changed the ancient more irregular trade routes into a trade running from Morocco to the Niger river. The Ghana Empire grew rich from this increased trade in gold. It furthermore encouraged territorial expansion to gain control over the different trade-routes, when Ghanas ruling dynasty began is uncertain, it as mentioned for the first time in written records by Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī in 830. In the 11th century the Cordoban scholar Abu Ubayd al-Bakri collected stories from a number of travelers to the region, and gave a detailed description of the kingdom. He claimed that the Ghana could put 200,000 men into the field, more than 40,000 of them archers, as the empire declined it was finally made a vassal to the rising Mali Empire at some point in the 13th century. The origins of Ghana have often been obscured by fights between ethno-historic accounts and interpretations and archaeology, the earliest discussions of its origins are found in the Sudanese chronicles of Mahmud Kati and Abd al-Rahman as-Sadi. In addressing the origin, the Tarikh al-Fettash provides three different opinions, one that they were Black, another that they were Wangara, which are a Soninke group. Al-Kati favored another interpretation in view of the fact that their genealogies linked them to this group and he says that 22 kings ruled before the Hijra and 22 after. While these early views lead to many interpretations of a foreign origin of Wagadu. In addition, the archaeologist and historian Raymond Mauny argues that al-Katis and al-Sadis view of a foreign origin cannot be regarded as reliable, modern scholars, particularly African Muslim scholars, have argued about the extension of the Ghana Empire and tenure of its reign. Islamic religion was very well around the Asian-African-European area. Several such traditions were recorded and published, while there are variants, these traditions called the most ancient polity they knew of Wagadu, or the place of the Wago the term current in the nineteenth century for the local nobility. Upon Dingas death, his two sons Khine and Dyabe contested the kingship, and Dyabe was victorious, founding the kingdom. While Delafosse produced a theory of an invasion by Judeo-Syrians. Raymond Mauny, synthesizing early archaeology, various traditions, and the Arabic materials in 1961 concluded that trade was vital to the empires foundation. While there has not been much study of either traditions or documents, archaeologists have added considerable nuance to the ultimate play of forces. Archaeological research was slow to enter the picture, the Dar Tichitt site had clearly become a complex civilization by 1600 BCE and had architectural and material culture elements that seemed to match the site at Koumbi-Saleh
Ghana Empire
–
The Western Nile according to
al-Bakri (1068)
Ghana Empire
–
Ghana Empire at its Greatest Extent
Ghana Empire
–
The Western Nile according to
Muhammad al-Idrisi (1154)
3.
Takrur
–
Takrur, Tekrur, or Tekrour was an ancient state of West Africa, which flourished roughly parallel to the Ghana Empire. Takrur was the name of the capital of the state which flourished on the lower Senegal River, takruri was a term, like Bilad-ul-Sudan, that was used to refer to all people of West African ancestry. The formation of the state may have taken place as an influx of Fulani from the east settled in the Senegal valley, john Donnelly Fage suggests that Takrur was formed through the interaction of Berbers from the Sahara and Negro agricultural peoples who were essentially Serer. Located in the Senegal Valley, along the border of present-day Senegal and Mauritania, it was a trading center and it was rival of the Ghana Empire and the two states clashed from time to time with the Soninké usually winning. Despite these clashes, Takrur prospered throughout the 9th and 10th centuries, according to Levtzion, It is significant that the cotton tree and the manufacture of cloth were first reported from Takrur. The kings of Takrur eventually adopted Islam, in 1035 that War Jabi introduced Sharia law in the Kingdom. The Fulani of Tarkur became independent after Ghanaian power faded, Takrur in turn set out to conquer the kingdom of Diara, which was a Ghanaian province before. Then in 1203, Takrur leader Sumanguru took control of Kumbi Saleh, thus, Takrur became the sole power in the region. Among these were the Susu who carved out the sizeable though short-lived Kaniaga, waalo, the first Wolof state, emerged out its south. By the time Mandinka tribes united to form the Mali Empire in 1235, the state was finally conquered by the usurper emperor Sabakoura of Mali in the 1280s. Takrur was later conquered by Mali, it was conquered by Jolof in the 15th century. Serer people Fula people Toucouleur people J. F. Ade Ajayi, columbia University ISBN 0-231-03628-0 J. Hunwick. Takrur, Encyclopaedia of Islam, Leiden 2000, X, 142-3, medieval West Africa Before 1400, Ghana, Takrur, Gao and Mali. The Cambridge History of Africa, vol, the Wind of Change in the Western Sahara. The Geographical Journal, Vol.130, No, general history of Africa, Africa from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century. University of California Press,1999, ISBN 0-520-06700-2, p 146, the Cambridge history of Africa, From c.1600 to c. ISBN 0-521-20981-1, p484 African Kingdoms About – Takrur Empire Takrur — webPulaaku
Takrur
–
Takrur
4.
Serer people
–
The Serer people are a West African ethnoreligious group. They are the third largest ethnic group in Senegal making up 15% of the Senegalese population and they are also found in northern Gambia and southern Mauritania. They have had a sedentary settled culture and have known for their farming expertise. In the 20th century, most of them converted to Islam, the Serer society, like other ethnic groups in Senegal, has had social stratification featuring endogamous castes and slaves. The Serer people are referred to as Sérère, Sereer, Serere, Sarer, Kegueme, Seereer. The Serer people are found in contemporary Senegal, particularly in the west-central part of the country. In The Gambia, they occupy parts of old Nuimi and Baddibu as well as the Gambian Kombo, the Serer-Noon occupy the ancient area of Thiès in modern-day Senegal. The Serer-Ndut are found in southern Cayor and north west of ancient Thiès, the Serer-Njeghen occupy old Baol, the Serer-Palor occupies the west central, west southwest of Thiès and the Serer-Laalaa occupy west central, north of Thiès and the Tambacounda area. Senegal,1.84 million The Gambia,31,900 Mauritania,3500 The Serer occupy the Sine, the Serer people include the Seex, Serer-Noon, Serer-Ndut, Serer-Njeghene, Serer-Safene, Serer-Niominka, Serer-Palor, and the Serer-Laalaa. Each group speaks Serer or a Cangin language, Serer is the standard English spelling. Seereer or Sereer reflects the Serer pronunciation of the name and are used by Senegalese Serer historians or scholars. The meaning of the word Serer is uncertain, issa Laye Thiaw views it as possibly pre-Islamic and suggests four possible derivations,1. From the Serer Wolof word reer meaning misplaced, i. e. doubting the truth of Islam, from the Serer Wolof expression seer reer meaning to find something hidden or lost. From the Arabic word seereer meaning sahir magician or one who practices magic, from a Pulaar word, meaning separation, divorce, or break, again referring to refusing Islam. Professor Cheikh Anta Diop citing the work of the 19th century French archeologist and egyptologist - Paul Pierret, Diop went on to write, That would be consistent with their present religious position, they are one of the rare Senegalese populations who still reject Islam. Their route is marked by the stones found at about the same latitude from Ethiopia all the way to the Sine-Salum. Over generations these people, possibly Pulaar speaking herders originally, migrated through Wolof areas and entered the Siin and this lengthy period of Wolof-Serer contact has left us unsure of the origins of shared terminology, institutions, political structures, and practices. The actual Sereer ethnic group is a mixture of the two groups, and this may explain their complex bilinear kinship system and their own oral traditions recite legends on they being part of, or related to the Toucouleur people in the Senegal River valley area
Serer people
–
Fatou Diome •
Léopold Senghor
Serer people
–
Carte des peuplades du Sénégal de l'abbé Boilat (1853): an ethnic map of Senegal at the time of French colonialism. The pre-colonial states of Baol, Sine and Saloum are arrayed along the southwest coast, with the inland areas marked " Peuple Sérère ".
Serer people
Serer people
–
Kings of
Sine:
Maad a Sinig Ama Joof Gnilane Faye Joof. Reign: c. 1825 - 1853.
5.
Mali Empire
–
The Mali Empire, also historically referred to as the Manden Kurufaba, was an empire in West Africa from c.1230 to c. The empire was founded by Sundiata Keita and became renowned for the wealth of its rulers, the Manding languages were spoken in the empire. The Mali Empire was the largest in West Africa and profoundly influenced the culture of West Africa through the spread of its language, laws and customs. Rock art in the Sahara suggests that northern Mali has been inhabited since 10,000 BC, by 300 BC, large organised settlements had developed, most notable near Djenné, one of West Africas oldest cities. By the 6th century AD, the lucrative trade in gold, salt and slaves had begun. There are a few references to Mali in early written literature and this area was composed of mountains, savannah and forest providing ideal protection and resources for the population of hunters. Those not living in the mountains formed small city-states such as Toron, Ka-Ba, yet African Muslim scholars like the London-based Nigerian-British cleric, Sheikh Dr. Adelabu. During the height of Sundiatas power, the land of Manden became one of its provinces, the Manden city-state of Ka-ba served as the capital and name of this province. From at least the beginning of the 11th century, Mandinka kings known as faamas ruled Manden from Ka-ba in the name of the Ghanas, wagadous control over Manden came to a halt after internal instability lead to its decline. The Kangaba province, free of Soninké influence, splintered into twelve kingdoms with their own maghan or faama, Manden was split in half with the Dodougou territory to the northeast and the Kri territory to the southwest. The tiny kingdom of Niani was one of several in the Kri area of Manden, in approximately 1140 the Sosso kingdom of Kaniaga, a former vassal of Wagadou, began conquering the lands of its old masters. By 1180 it had even subjugated Wagadou forcing the Soninké to pay tribute, in 1203, the Sosso king Soumaoro of the Kanté clan came to power and reportedly terrorized much of Manden stealing women and goods from both Dodougou and Kri. According to Nianes version of the epic, during the rise of Kaniaga and he was the son of Nianis faama, Nare Fa. Sundiatas mother was Maghan Kon Fattas second wife, Sogolon Kédjou and she was a hunchback from the land of Do, south of Mali. The child of this received the first name of his mother. Combined in the spoken language of the Mandinka, the names formed Sondjata, Sundjata or Sundiata Keita. The anglicized version of this name, Sunjata, is also popular, in Ibn Khalduns account, Sundjata is recorded as Mari Djata with Mari meaning Amir or Prince. He also states that Djata or Jatah means lion, Prince Sundjata was prophesized to become a great conqueror
Mali Empire
–
Mansa Musa depicted holding a
gold nugget, from the 1375
Catalan Atlas
Mali Empire
–
Extent of the Mali Empire (c. 1350)
Mali Empire
–
Mali Terracotta horseman figure from 13th to 15th centuries
Mali Empire
–
The
Great Mosque of Djenne, Mali (Malian).
6.
Jolof Empire
–
The Jolof Empire, also known as the Wolof or Wollof Empire, was a West African state that ruled parts of Senegal from 1350 to 1549. Following the 1549 battle of Danki, its states were fully or de facto independent, in this period. This was largely conquered by the imamate of Futa Jallon in 1875, traditional accounts among the Wolof agree that the founder of the state and later empire was the possibly mythical Ndiadiane Ndiaye. Traditional stories of the ancestry of this leader vary and this gives him an Almoravid lineage, ie a Berber and Islamic background, on his fathers side, and a link on his mothers side to the Takrur aristocracy. James Searing adds that In all versions of the myth, Njaajaan Njaay speaks his first words in Pulaar rather than Wolof, Ndiadiane was born Ahmad Abu Bakr also called Ahmadu Abubakar. The legend of Ndiadiane Ndiaye begins with a dispute over wood near a prominent lake and this almost led to bloodshed among the rulers but was stopped by the mysterious appearance of a stranger from the lake. The stranger divided the wood fairly and disappeared, leaving the people in awe, the people then feigned a second dispute and kidnapped the stranger when he returned. They offered him the kingship of their land and convinced him to do so, when these events were reported to the ruler of the Sine, also a great magician, he is reported to have exclaimed Ndiadiane Ndiaye in his native Serer language in amazement. A close examination of Jolofs societal and political structure reveals that at least some of its institutions may have borrowed directly or developed alongside those of its larger predecessor. Women could not marry upwards, and their children did not inherit the fathers superior status.26 However, women had some influence, the Linger or Queen Mother was head of all women and very influential in state politics. She owned a number of villages which cultivated farms and paid directly to her. There were also other female chiefs whose main task was judging cases involving women, all of these states were tributary to the land-locked state of Jolof. Once appointed, office holders went through elaborate rituals to both familiarize themselves with their new duties and elevate them to a divine status, from then on, they were expected to lead their states to greatness or risk being declared unfavored by the gods and being deposed. It further states that the Sine was never subjugated by Jolof, sylviane Diouf states that Each vassal kingdom—Walo, Takrur, Kayor, Baol, Sine, Salum, Wuli, and Niani—recognized the hegemony of Jolof and paid tribute. After an initially hostile start, peaceful relations were established between the Jolof Empire and the kingdom of Portugal. At this time Jolof was at the height of its power, in the 1480s, Prince Bemoi was ruling the empire in the name of his brother Bur Birao. Tempted by Portuguese trade, he moved the seat of government to the coast to take advantage of the new economic opportunities, other princes, opposed to this policy, deposed and murdered the bur in 1489. Prince Bemoi escaped and sought refuge with the Portuguese, who took him to Lisbon, there he exchanged gifts with King John II and was baptised
Jolof Empire
–
Constituent States of the Jolof Empire
7.
Kingdom of Sine
–
The Kingdom of Sine was a pre-colonial Serer kingdom along the north bank of the Saloum River delta in modern Senegal. The inhabitants are called Siin-Siin or Sine-Sine, over generations these people, possibly Pulaar speaking herders originally, migrated through Wolof areas and entered the Siin and Saluum river valleys. This lengthy period of Wolof-Serer contact has left us unsure of the origins of shared terminology, institutions, political structures, and practices. The actual Sereer ethnic group is a mixture of the two groups, and this may explain their complex bilinear kinship system. }The actual foundation of the Kingdom of Sine is unclear and they were led by a matrilineal clan known as the Gelwaar. Serer oral history says that after Maysa Wali assimilated into Serer culture and served as advisor to the laman council of electors, he was chosen by the lamans. Almost a decade later he elected the legendary Ndiadiane Ndiaye and founder of the Jolof Empire to rule the Kingdom of Jolof. He was the first Senegambian king to voluntarily gave his allegiance to Ndiadiane Ndiaye and asked others to do so and it is for this reason that scholars propose the Jolof Empire was not an empire founded by conquest but by voluntary confederacy of various states. Around early 1550, both Sine and its sister Serer Kingdom overthrew the Jolof and became independent Kingdoms, the historian Sylviane Diouf states that Each vassal kingdom—Walo, Takrur, Kayor, Baol, Sine, Salum, Wuli, and Niani—recognized the hegemony of Jolof and paid tribute. The rulers of Sine as well as Jolof continued to follow the Traditional African religion, the rulers of Sine retained their titles throughout the colonial period and did not lose all official recognition until 1969 after the death of Maad a Sinig Mahecor Joof. Since he had never set foot in Serer country, his accounts about the Serer people were based on what his Wolof interpreters were telling him. Barbacini is a corruption of the Wolof phrase Buur ba Sine meaning King of Sine, the economic base of Sine was agriculture and fishing. Millet and other crops were grown, Sine was very reluctant to grow groundnut for the French market, in spite of French colonial directives. It was less dependent on groundnut than other states and their religious philosophy of preserving the ecosystem affected groundnut production in Sine. Even after mass production was adopted, succession struggles in the late 19th century between the royal houses hampered production. However, the Kingdom of Sine was less susceptible to hunger and indebtedness and it was very common for people from other states to migrate to the Serer kingdoms of Sine and Saloum in search of a better life. The inhabitants of Sine rarely migrated, some of the kings government include, the Lamanes, the heir apparents such as the Buumi, Thilas and Loul, the Great Farba Kaba, the Farba Binda and the Great Jaraff. The following diagram gives a version of the political structure of Sine. Suivie de notes sur les traditions orales et les sources écrites concernant le royaume du Sine par Charles Becker et Victor Martin, bulletin de lIfan, Tome 34, Série B, n°4, Diop, Cheikh Anta & Modum, Egbuna P
Kingdom of Sine
–
Carte des peuplades du Sénégal de l'abbé Boilat (1853): an ethnic map of Senegal at the time of French colonialism. The pre-colonial states of
Baol, Sine and
Saloum are arrayed along the southwest coast, with the inland areas marked " Peuple Sérère ".
Kingdom of Sine
–
19th-century
junjung from Sine.
8.
Atlantic slave trade
–
The Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade took place across the Atlantic Ocean from the 15th through the 19th centuries. This was crucial to those western European countries which, in the late 17th and 18th centuries, were vying with each other to create overseas empires, the Portuguese were the first to engage in the New World slave trade in the 16th century. In 1526, the Portuguese completed the first transatlantic voyage from Africa to the Americas. The first Africans imported to the English colonies were classified as indentured servants, like coming from England. By the middle of the 17th century, slavery had hardened as a caste, they and their offspring were legally the property of their owners. As property, the people were considered merchandise or units of labour, the major Atlantic slave trading nations, ordered by trade volume, were, the Portuguese, the British, the French, the Spanish, and the Dutch Empire. Several had established outposts on the African coast where they purchased slaves from local African leaders and these slaves were managed by a factor who was established on or near the coast to expedite the shipping of slaves to the New World. Slaves were kept in a factory while awaiting shipment, current estimates are that about 12 million Africans were shipped across the Atlantic, although the number purchased by the traders is considerably higher, as the passage had a high death rate. Near the beginning of the century, various governments acted to ban the trade. In the early twenty-first century, several governments issued apologies for the slave trade. The Atlantic slave trade arose after trade contacts were first made between the continents of the Old World and those of the New World, between 1600 and 1800, approximately 300,000 sailors engaged in the slave trade visited West Africa. In doing so, they came into contact with societies living along the west African coast, historian John Thornton noted, A number of technical and geographical factors combined to make Europeans the most likely people to explore the Atlantic and develop its commerce. That leadership later gave rise to the myth that the Iberians were the leaders of the exploration. Slavery was practiced in parts of Africa, Europe, Asia. There is evidence that people from some African states were exported to other states in Africa, Europe. The African slave trade provided a number of slaves to Europeans. The Atlantic slave trade was not the slave trade from Africa, although it was the largest in volume. As Elikia M’bokolo wrote in Le Monde diplomatique, The African continent was bled of its resources via all possible routes
Atlantic slave trade
–
Reproduction of a handbill advertising a slave auction in
Charleston, South Carolina, in 1769.
Atlantic slave trade
–
Group of men, children, and women being taken to a slave market
Atlantic slave trade
–
The
Portuguese presenting themselves before the
Manikongo. The Portuguese initially fostered a good relationship with the
Kingdom of Kongo. Civil War within Kongo would lead to many of its subjects ending up as enslaved people in Portuguese and other European vessels.
Atlantic slave trade
–
Portrait of an African Slave Woman, probably painted by
Annibale Carracci in the 1580s
9.
Senegambia (Dutch West India Company)
–
Senegambia, also known in Dutch as Bovenkust, was the collective noun for the fortifications and trading posts owned by the Dutch West India Company in the region now known as Senegal. The main purpose of trading posts was to obtain slaves in order to ship them to the Americas. The government of the territory was based on Gorée, in 1677, the Dutch lost this island to France. The next year, the French also conquered all DWIC trading posts on the Senegalese coast as well as the island of Arguin, having lost almost all the trade in gum arabic, bezoar stone, ambergris and ostrich feathers, the DWIC wanted to regain its position. The Frenchman Jean du Casse, head of the Compagnie de Sénégal, reached an agreement with the leaders, who decided to destroy the Dutch trading posts. Gorée,1617 -1663,1664 -1677, with the fortifications, Nassau and Orange. Trading posts, Portudal,1633 -1678, here the DWIC bought slaves and ivory
Senegambia (Dutch West India Company)
Senegambia (Dutch West India Company)
–
Flag
Senegambia (Dutch West India Company)
–
Scheme of the fortifications on
Gorée in 1772 by
Jacobus van der Schley
10.
Royal African Company
–
The Royal African Company was a mercantile company set up by the Stuart family and London merchants to trade along the west coast of Africa. It was led by James, Duke of York, Charles IIs brother, however, it was soon engaged in the slave trade as well as with other commodities. Originally known as the Company of Royal Adventurers Trading to Africa, in the prize court, the King received half of the proceeds and the company half. In 1672, the original Company re-emerged, re-structured and with a new charter from the king, at the end of 1678, the license to the Gambia Adventurers expired and its Gambian trade was merged into the company. In the 1680s the Company was transporting about 5,000 slaves a year across the Atlantic, many were branded with the letters DY, for its Governor, the Duke of York, who succeeded his brother on the throne in 1685, becoming King James II. Other slaves were branded with the initials, RAC, on their chests. Between 1672 and 1689, the Company transported 90,000 to 100,000 slaves and its profits made a major contribution to the increase in the financial power of those who controlled the City of London. From 1694 to 1700, the company was a participant in the Komenda Wars in the port city Komenda in the Eguafo Kingdom in modern-day Ghana. The company allied with a merchant prince named John Cabess and various neighbouring African kingdoms to depose the king of Eguafo and establish a permanent fort, in 1689, the Company acknowledged that it had lost its monopoly with the end of royal power in the Glorious Revolution. In 1698, the change was enacted into law by an act and this development was advantageous for merchants in Bristol even if, like the Bristolian Edward Colston, they had already been involved in the trade. The number of slaves transported on English ships subsequently increased dramatically, the Company continued purchasing and transporting slaves until 1731, when it abandoned slaving in favour of ivory and gold dust. Charles Hayes, mathematician and chronologer, was sub-governor of Royal African Company until 1752, the Royal African Companys logo depicted an elephant and castle. From 1668 to 1722, the Royal African Company provided gold to the English Mint, coins made with such gold bear an elephant below the bust of the king and/or queen. This gold also gave the coinage its name, the guinea, the Royal African Company was dissolved by the African Company Act 1750 with its assets being transferred to the African Company of Merchants. List of trading companies Davies, Kenneth Gordon, freedoms Debt, The Royal African Company and the Politics of the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1672-1752. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Press,2014, archival material relating to Company of Royal Adventurers of England Trading with Africa. Archival material relating to Royal African Company, the Royal African Company by K. G. Davies
Royal African Company
–
Logo of the Royal African Company
Royal African Company
–
1686 guinea showing the company's logo, an elephant and castle, under bust of James II
11.
Code Noir
–
The Code Noir was a decree originally passed by Frances King Louis XIV in 1685. The code has been described by Tyler Stovall as one of the most extensive official documents on race, slavery, central to these goals was control of the slave trade. The Code aimed to provide a framework for slavery, to establish protocols governing the conditions of colonial inhabitants. Religious morals also governed the crafting of the Code Noir, it was in part a result of the influence of the influx of Catholic leaders arriving in Martinique between 1673 and 1685. The Code Noir was one of the many laws inspired by Jean-Baptiste Colbert, after Colberts 1683 death, his son, the Marquis de Seignelay, completed the document. It was ratified by Louis XIV and adopted by the Saint-Domingue sovereign council in 1687 after it was rejected by the parliament and it then was applied in the West Indies in 1687, Guyana in 1704, Réunion in 1723, and Louisiana in 1724. The second version of the code was passed by Louis XV at age 13 in 1724, in Canada, slavery received legal foundation from the king from 1689-1709. The Code Noir was not intended for or applied in New Frances Canadian colony, in Canada, there never was legislation regulating slavery, no doubt because of the small number of slaves. Nevertheless, the intendant Raudot issued an ordinance in 1709 that legalized slavery, see Virtual Museum of New France At this time in the Caribbean, Jews were mostly active in the Dutch colonies, so their presence was seen as an unwelcome Dutch influence in French colonial life. Furthermore, the majority of the population in French colonies were slaves, plantation owners largely governed their land and holdings in absentia, with subordinate workers dictating the day-to-day running of the plantations. Because of their enormous population, in addition to the conditions facing slaves. Despite some well-intentioned provisions, the Code Noir was never effectively or strictly enforced, in particular regarding protection for slaves and limitations on corporal punishment. If the man who engaged in relations with a slave was the master of the slave concubine. For another month their hamstring would be cut and they would be branded again, the Assassin Adéwalé, formerly an escaped slave turned pirate, aids local Maroons in freeing the slaves of Saint-Domingue. It is mentioned during the story and also has its own database entry in the game which provides background on the Code Noir. History of slavery in Louisiana Slavery in the British and French Caribbean Slavery in Canada Slavery in Haiti Slave codes Slave rebellions Black Codes Slave Trade Acts Le code noir ou Edit du roy, paris, Chez Claude Girard, dans la GrandSalle, vis-à-vis la GrandeChambre. Édit du Roi, Touchant la Police des Isles de lAmérique Française, Le Code noir The Code Noir, trans. John Garrigus Tyler Stovall, Race and the Making of the Nation, in Michael A. Gomez, ed. Diasporic Africa, A Reader
Code Noir
–
The Code Noir, 1742 edition.
Code Noir
–
Slavery
Code Noir
–
Code Noir of 1742,
Nantes history museum
12.
French conquest of Senegal
–
Probably as a result, an ivory-carving industry developed in Dieppe after 1364. These travels however were soon forgotten with the advent of the Hundred Years War in France, various European powers, such as Portugal, the Netherlands, and England then competed for trade in the area of Senegal from the 15th century onward. The Portuguese first established a post on the island of Gorée in 1444, the island was captured by the Dutch in 1588, where they established defensive forts and developed trade further. In 1659, France established the trading post of Saint-Louis, Senegal, the 19th century thus saw a decline in slave trade, and the rise of commodity production instead. The trade of acacia gum, used for dyes for high-quality textiles and for medicine production, Peanut cultivation also proved to be a valuable resource for the area. In the Franco-Trarzan War of 1825, the French started to control of the mouth of the Senegal river against the rival state of Trarza. In the 1850s, the French under the governor Louis Faidherbe, began to expand their foothold onto the Senegalese mainland, from 1854, Faidherbe started to establish a series of inland forts up the Senegal River. In 1855 he conquered the Kingdom of Waalo, a counter-attack by the Toucouleur in 1857 led to the Siege of Medina Fort in which the Toucouleur failed. Faidherbe also started the westernization of the area by developing banks, civil administration, expansion continued under Governor Louis Brière de lIsle from 1876 to 1881. Through diplomatic and military efforts, Briere reinforced French control on the Senegal river, the Peanut Basin and he also developed railroad projects that would facilitate further expansion as far as French Sudan. The construction of the Dakar-Niger Railway also began at the end of the 19th century under the direction of the French officer Gallieni, history of Senegal List of colonial heads of French Sénégal Kanya-Forstner, A. S. The Conquest of the Western Sudan, A Study in French Military Imperialism, le Sénégal sous le second Empire, Naissance dun empire colonial. The trade in gum arabic, prelude to French conquest in Senegal
French conquest of Senegal
–
French capture of
Gorée from the Dutch in 1677.
French conquest of Senegal
–
Monument near the
Maison des Esclaves on
Gorée Island
French conquest of Senegal
–
Saint-Louis in 1780
French conquest of Senegal
–
The Senegal River area, 1853.
13.
Mali Federation
–
The Mali Federation was a Federation in West Africa linking the French colonies of Senegal and the Sudanese Republic for a period of only two months in 1960. It was founded on 4 April 1959 as a territory with self-rule within the French Community, the Sudanese Republic officials resisted this dissolution, cut off diplomatic relations with Senegal, and defiantly changed the name of their country to Mali. After World War II, the colonies of French West Africa began pushing significantly for increased self-determination, following the May 1958 crisis, the colonies of French West Africa were given the chance to vote for immediate independence or to join a reorganized French Community. Only Guinea voted for independence and the other colonies of French West Africa voted to join the French Community. In the 1958 election to decide the issue of independence, two parties split the countries of west Africa, the African Democratic Rally and the African Regroupment Party. The two regional groupings of parties struggled against one another on the issue of independence and the extent of ties with France. The RDA was the party in the Ivory Coast colony, the French Sudan colony. The two parties also were part of governments in French Upper Volta, Niger, and French Dahomey. While the two struggled with one another to shape the political future of the region, Mauritania often became a neutral party which would break any deadlocks. The vote of 1958 revealed a number of divisions within the parties, the resulting deadlock was so severe that the meeting was officially said to have never taken place. In late November 1958, French Sudan, Senegal, Upper Volta and Dahomey all declared the intention to join the French Community, French Sudan called for representatives of each of the four countries to Bamako on 28 to 30 December to discuss the formation of the federation. The result is only the colonies of French Sudan and Senegal were engaged in the discussions of the formation of the federation by 1959. Elections in March 1959 in both French Sudan and Senegal cemented the power of the major parties pushing for the formation of a federation, although Senghor won the elections by a large margin, some conservative Islamist marabouts supported the candidacy of Cheikh Tidjane Sy. Sy was arrested on election day as a result of rioting which was blamed on his party. After the elections, the assemblies of Senegal and French Sudan approved the federation and this involved three different political projects with the principle of parity enshrined in each, A federal government, united social movements, and a shared political party for both countries. The federal government was going to have an assembly composed of 20 members from each of the colonies, a President, until the President was elected, the Premier of the Mali Federation was to be Keïta and the vice-Premier was to be Mamadou Dia from Senegal. Further, as part of the parity principle, any legislative initiatives required a signature by both the Premier and the responsible for that issue. The colonies were to share the import and export taxes raised in the port of Dakar between them and this sharing was to the advantage of French Sudan which had almost a third of its 1959 budget provided by this tax income
Mali Federation
Mali Federation
–
Flag
Mali Federation
Mali Federation
14.
Serer religion
–
The Serer religion, or a ƭat Roog, is the original religious beliefs, practices and teachings of the Serer people of Senegal in western Africa. The Serer people believe in a supreme deity called Roog. In the Cangin languages, Roog is referred to as Koox, Kopé Tiatie Cac, Kokh Kox, the Serer people are found throughout the Senegambia region. The Serer people believe in a deity called Roog and sometimes referred to as Roog Sene. Serer tradition deals with various dimensions of life, death, space and time, ancestral spirit communications, Roog is the creator deity and is neither the devil nor a genie, but the lord of the creature. However, Roog is always in watch of its children and always available to them, in Serer, Roog Sene is the lifeblood to which the incorruptible and sanctified soul returns to eternal peace after they depart the living world. Roog Sene sees, knows and hears everything, but does not interfere in the affairs of the living world. Instead, lesser gods and goddesses act as Roogs assistants in the physical world and those who live their lives contrary to the teachings will be rightfully in the afterlife. For the ordinary Serers, they addressed their prayers to the pangool as they are the intermediaries between the world and the divine. An orthodox Serer must remain faithful to the spirits as the soul is sanctified as a result of the ancestors intercession between the living world and the divine. The pangool have both a historical significance as well as a religious one, without them, the lamane exploits would not have been possible. In the religious sense, these ancient lamanes created shrines to these pangool, thereby becoming the priests, as such, they became the intermediaries among the land, the people and the pangool. Whenever any member of the lamanic lineage dies, the whole Serer community celebrates in honour of the lives they had lived on earth in accordance with the teachings of the Serer religion. Serer prayers are addressed to the pangool who act as intercessors between the world and the divine. In addressing their prayers to the pangool, the Serers chant ancient songs and offer such as bull, sheep, goat. There is no heaven or hell in the Serer religion, the immortality of the soul and reincarnation is a strongly held belief in Serer religion. The pangool are canonised as saints, and will be called upon and venerated. Acceptance by the ancestors who have departed and the ability to intercede with the divine is as close to heaven after one passes over
Serer religion
–
The symbol of the
Ndut initiation rite.
Serer religion
–
Serer final resting place with Serer grave diggers. The top points are directed towards the gods. (1821)
Serer religion
–
Senegambian stone circles.
15.
Senegal
–
Senegal, officially the Republic of Senegal, is a country in West Africa. Senegal is bordered by Mauritania in the north, Mali to the east, Guinea to the southeast, and Guinea-Bissau to the southwest. Senegal also borders The Gambia, a country occupying a narrow sliver of land along the banks of the Gambia River, Senegal also shares a maritime border with Cape Verde. Senegals economic and political capital is Dakar and it is the westernmost country in the mainland of the Old World, or Afro-Eurasia, and owes its name to the Senegal River, which borders it to the east and north. The name Senegal comes from the Wolof Sunuu Gaal, which means Our Boat, Senegal covers a land area of almost 197,000 square kilometres and has an estimated population of about 15 million. The climate is Sahelian, but there is a rainy season, the territory of modern Senegal has been inhabited by various ethnic groups since prehistory. Organized kingdoms emerged around the century, and parts of the country were ruled by prominent regional empires such as the Jolof Empire. The present state of Senegal has its roots in European colonialism, which began during the mid-15th century, the establishment of coastal trading posts gradually led to control of the mainland, culminating in French rule of the area by the 19th century, albeit amid much local resistance. Senegal peacefully attained independence from France in 1960, and has since been among the politically stable countries in Africa. Senegals economy is centered mostly on commodities and natural resources, major industries are fish processing, phosphate mining, fertilizer production, petroleum refining, construction materials, and ship construction and repair. As in most African nations, agriculture is a sector, with Senegal producing several important cash crops, including peanuts, sugarcane, cotton, green beans, tomatoes, melons. Owing to its stability, tourism and hospitality are also burgeoning sectors. A multiethnic and secular nation, Senegal is predominantly Sunni Muslim with Sufi, French is the official language, although many native languages are spoken and recognized. Since April 2012 Senegals president has been Macky Sall, Senegal has been a member of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie since 1970. Senegal is named after the Senegal River, the etymology of which is contested, one popular theory is that it stems from the Wolof phrase sunu gaal, which means our canoe, resulting from a miscommunication between 15th-century Portuguese sailors and Wolof fishermen. The our canoe theory has been embraced in modern Senegal for its charm. It is frequently used in appeals to national solidarity, frequently heard in the media, modern historians believe the name probably refers to the Sanhaja, Berbers who lived on the northern side of the river. A competing theory is that it derives from the town of Sanghana
Senegal
–
Slave traders in
Gorée, 18th century.
Senegal
–
Flag
Senegal
–
Colonial
Saint Louis c. 1900. Europeans and Africans on the Rue Lebon.
Senegal
–
Macky Sall, current president of Senegal (2012 until now)
16.
The Gambia
–
The Gambia, officially the Republic of The Gambia, is a country in West Africa that is entirely surrounded by Senegal except for its coastline on the Atlantic Ocean at its western end. It is the smallest country in mainland Africa, the Gambia is situated on either side of the Gambia River, the nations namesake, which flows through the centre of The Gambia and empties into the Atlantic Ocean. Its area is 10,689 square kilometres with a population of 1,882,450 at the April 2013 census, Banjul is the Gambian capital, and the largest cities are Serekunda and Brikama. Later, on 25 May 1765, The Gambia was made a part of the British Empire when the government formally assumed control, in 1965, The Gambia gained independence under the leadership of Dawda Jawara, who ruled until Yahya Jammeh seized power in a bloodless 1994 coup. Adama Barrow became The Gambias third president in January 2017, after defeating Jammeh in December 2016 elections, Jammeh initially refused to accept the results, which triggered a constitutional crisis and military intervention by the Economic Community of West African States, resulting in his exile. The Gambias economy is dominated by farming, fishing, and especially tourism, in 2008, about a third of the population lived below the international poverty line of US$1.25 per day. The name Gambia is derived from the Mandinka term Kambra/Kambaa, meaning Gambia river, upon independence as a Commonwealth realm, the country used the name The Gambia. Following the proclamation of a republic in 1970, the name of the country became Republic of The Gambia. The administration of Yahya Jammeh changed the name to Islamic Republic of The Gambia in December 2015. On 29 January 2017 the new President Adama Barrow said the name will go back to Republic of The Gambia. Arab traders provided the first written accounts of the Gambia area in the ninth and tenth centuries, during the tenth century, Muslim merchants and scholars established communities in several West African commercial centres. Both groups established trans-Saharan trade routes, leading to an export trade in slaves, gold and ivory. At the beginning of the 14th century, most of what is today called Gambia was part of the Mali Empire, the Portuguese reached this area by sea in the mid-15th century, and began to dominate overseas trade. In 1588, the claimant to the Portuguese throne, António, Prior of Crato, letters patent from Queen Elizabeth I confirmed the grant. In 1618, King James I of England granted a charter to an English company for trade with the Gambia, between 1651 and 1661, some parts of the Gambia were under the rule of the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia, and were bought by Prince Jacob Kettler. The British Empire occupied the Gambia when an expedition led by Augustus Keppel landed there following the Capture of Senegal in 1758. The 1783 First Treaty of Versailles gave Great Britain possession of the Gambia River and this was finally ceded to the United Kingdom in 1856. As many as three million slaves may have taken from this general region during the three centuries that the transatlantic slave trade operated
The Gambia
–
Serer civilisation
The Gambia
–
Flag
The Gambia
The Gambia
–
A map of
James Island and
Fort Gambia.
17.
Mauritania
–
Mauritania /mɔːrɪˈteɪniə/, officially the Islamic Republic of Mauritania, is a country in the Maghreb region of western Africa. The country derives its name from the ancient Berber Kingdom of Mauretania, approximately 90% of Mauritanias land is within the Sahara and consequently the population is concentrated in the south, where precipitation is slightly higher. The capital and largest city is Nouakchott, located on the Atlantic coast, the government was overthrown on 6 August 2008, in a military coup détat led by General Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz. On 16 April 2009, Aziz resigned from the military to run for president in the 19 July elections, about 20% of Mauritanians live on less than US$1.25 per day. Mauritania suffers from several human rights issues, including slavery, as at least 4% of the population are enslaved against their will, the Bafours were primarily agriculturalist, and among the first Saharan people to abandon their historically nomadic lifestyle. With the gradual desiccation of the Sahara, they headed south, many of the Berber tribes claimed Yemeni origins. There is little evidence to such claims, but a 2000 DNA study of Yemeni people suggested there might be some ancient connection between the peoples. Other peoples also migrated south past the Sahara to West Africa, in 1076, Moorish Islamic warrior monks attacked and conquered the large area of the ancient Ghana Empire. Over the next 500 years, Arabs overcame fierce resistance from the population to dominate Mauritania. The Char Bouba war was the final effort of the peoples to repel the Yemeni Maqil Arab invaders. The invaders were led by the Beni Hassan tribe, the descendants of the Beni Hassan warriors became the upper stratum of Moorish society. Hassaniya, a Berber-influenced Arabic dialect that derives its name from the Beni Hassan, berbers retained a niche influence by producing the majority of the regions marabouts, those who preserve and teach Islamic tradition. Imperial France gradually absorbed the territories of present-day Mauritania from the Senegal River area and upwards, in 1901, Xavier Coppolani took charge of the imperial mission. Through a combination of strategic alliances with Zawiya tribes, and military pressure on the Hassane warrior nomads, he managed to extend French rule over the Mauritanian emirates. Trarza, Brakna and Tagant quickly submitted to treaties with the colonial power, Adrar was finally defeated militarily in 1912, and incorporated into the territory of Mauritania, which had been drawn up and planned in 1904. Mauritania was part of French West Africa from 1920, French rule brought legal prohibitions against slavery and an end to inter-clan warfare. During the colonial period, 90% of the population remained nomadic, many sedentary peoples, whose ancestors had been expelled centuries earlier, began to trickle back into Mauritania. After gaining independence, larger numbers of indigenous Sub-Saharan African peoples entered Mauritania, educated in French language and customs, many of these recent arrivals became clerks, soldiers, and administrators in the new state
Mauritania
–
The
Dutch trading post of
Arguin in 1665
Mauritania
Mauritania
–
Chinguetti was a center of Islamic scholarship in West Africa.
Mauritania
–
Road from Nouakchott to the Mauritanian–Senegalese border
18.
Radiocarbon dating
–
Radiocarbon dating is a method for determining the age of an object containing organic material by using the properties of radiocarbon, a radioactive isotope of carbon. The method was developed by Willard Libby in the late 1940s, Libby received the Nobel Prize for his work in 1960. The radiocarbon dating method is based on the fact that radiocarbon is constantly being created in the atmosphere by the interaction of cosmic rays with atmospheric nitrogen. The resulting radiocarbon combines with oxygen to form radioactive carbon dioxide. When the animal or plant dies, it stops exchanging carbon with its environment, and from that point onwards the amount of 14C it contains begins to decrease as the 14C undergoes radioactive decay. Measuring the amount of 14C in a sample from a plant or animal such as a piece of wood or a fragment of bone provides information that can be used to calculate when the animal or plant died. The idea behind radiocarbon dating is straightforward, but years of work were required to develop the technique to the point where accurate dates could be obtained. Research has been ongoing since the 1960s to determine what the proportion of 14C in the atmosphere has been over the past fifty thousand years. The resulting data, in the form of a curve, is now used to convert a given measurement of radiocarbon in a sample into an estimate of the samples calendar age. Other corrections must be made to account for the proportion of 14C in different types of organisms, additional complications come from the burning of fossil fuels such as coal and oil, and from the above-ground nuclear tests done in the 1950s and 1960s. Conversely, nuclear testing increased the amount of 14C in the atmosphere, measurement of radiocarbon was originally done by beta-counting devices, which counted the amount of beta radiation emitted by decaying 14C atoms in a sample. The development of dating has had a profound impact on archaeology. In addition to permitting more accurate dating within archaeological sites than previous methods, histories of archaeology often refer to its impact as the radiocarbon revolution. Radiocarbon dating has allowed key transitions in prehistory to be dated, such as the end of the last ice age, and they synthesized 14C using the laboratorys cyclotron accelerator and soon discovered that the atoms half-life was far longer than had been previously thought. This was followed by a prediction by Serge A. Korff, then employed at the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia and it had previously been thought that 14C would be more likely to be created by deuterons interacting with 13C. At some time during World War II, Willard Libby, who was then at Berkeley, learned of Korffs research, in 1945, Libby moved to the University of Chicago where he began his work on radiocarbon dating. He published a paper in 1946 in which he proposed that the carbon in living matter might include 14C as well as non-radioactive carbon, by contrast, methane created from petroleum showed no radiocarbon activity because of its age. The results were summarized in a paper in Science in 1947, Libby and James Arnold proceeded to test the radiocarbon dating theory by analyzing samples with known ages
Radiocarbon dating
–
Sheep on the beach in
North Ronaldsay. In the winter, these sheep eat seaweed, which has a higher δ 13 C content than grass; samples from these sheep have a δ 13 C value of about −13‰, which is much higher than for sheep that feed on grasses.
Radiocarbon dating
–
Simplified version of the carbon exchange reservoir, showing proportions of carbon and relative activity of the 14 C in each reservoir
Radiocarbon dating
–
Measuring 14 C is now most commonly done with an accelerator mass spectrometer
Radiocarbon dating
–
The stump of a very old bristlecone pine. Tree rings from these trees (among others) are used in building calibration curves.
19.
Archaeology
–
Archaeology, or archeology, is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, Archaeology can be considered both a social science and a branch of the humanities. In North America, archaeology is considered a sub-field of anthropology, archaeologists study human prehistory and history, from the development of the first stone tools at Lomekwi in East Africa 3.3 million years ago up until recent decades. Archaeology as a field is distinct from the discipline of palaeontology, Archaeology is particularly important for learning about prehistoric societies, for whom there may be no written records to study. Prehistory includes over 99% of the human past, from the Paleolithic until the advent of literacy in societies across the world, Archaeology has various goals, which range from understanding culture history to reconstructing past lifeways to documenting and explaining changes in human societies through time. The discipline involves surveying, excavation and eventually analysis of data collected to learn more about the past, in broad scope, archaeology relies on cross-disciplinary research. Archaeology developed out of antiquarianism in Europe during the 19th century, Archaeology has been used by nation-states to create particular visions of the past. Nonetheless, today, archaeologists face many problems, such as dealing with pseudoarchaeology, the looting of artifacts, a lack of public interest, the science of archaeology grew out of the older multi-disciplinary study known as antiquarianism. Antiquarians studied history with attention to ancient artifacts and manuscripts. Tentative steps towards the systematization of archaeology as a science took place during the Enlightenment era in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, in Europe, philosophical interest in the remains of Greco-Roman civilization and the rediscovery of classical culture began in the late Middle Age. Antiquarians, including John Leland and William Camden, conducted surveys of the English countryside, one of the first sites to undergo archaeological excavation was Stonehenge and other megalithic monuments in England. John Aubrey was a pioneer archaeologist who recorded numerous megalithic and other monuments in southern England. He was also ahead of his time in the analysis of his findings and he attempted to chart the chronological stylistic evolution of handwriting, medieval architecture, costume, and shield-shapes. Excavations were also carried out in the ancient towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum and these excavations began in 1748 in Pompeii, while in Herculaneum they began in 1738. The discovery of entire towns, complete with utensils and even human shapes, however, prior to the development of modern techniques, excavations tended to be haphazard, the importance of concepts such as stratification and context were overlooked. The father of archaeological excavation was William Cunnington and he undertook excavations in Wiltshire from around 1798, funded by Sir Richard Colt Hoare. Cunnington made meticulous recordings of neolithic and Bronze Age barrows, one of the major achievements of 19th century archaeology was the development of stratigraphy. The idea of overlapping strata tracing back to successive periods was borrowed from the new geological and paleontological work of scholars like William Smith, James Hutton, the application of stratigraphy to archaeology first took place with the excavations of prehistorical and Bronze Age sites
Archaeology
–
Roman ruins,
Lausanne, Switzerland.
Archaeology
–
An early photograph of Stonehenge taken July 1877
Archaeology
–
Artifacts discovered at the 1808
Bush Barrow excavation by Sir
Richard Colt Hoare and
William Cunnington.
Archaeology
–
Mortimer Wheeler pioneered
systematic excavation in the early 20th century. Pictured, are his excavations at
Maiden Castle, Dorset, in October 1937.
20.
Common Era
–
Common Era or Current Era is a year-numbering system for the Julian and Gregorian calendars that refers to the years since the start of this era, i. e. since AD1. The preceding era is referred to as before the Common or Current Era, the Current Era notation system can be used as a secular alternative to the Dionysian era system, which distinguishes eras as AD and BC. The two notation systems are equivalent, thus 2017 CE corresponds to AD2017 and 400 BCE corresponds to 400 BC. The year-numbering system for the Gregorian calendar is the most widespread civil calendar used in the world today. For decades, it has been the standard, recognized by international institutions such as the United Nations. The expression has been traced back to Latin usage to 1615, as vulgaris aerae, the term Common Era can be found in English as early as 1708, and became more widely used in the mid-19th century by Jewish academics. He attempted to number years from a reference date, an event he referred to as the Incarnation of Jesus. Dionysius labeled the column of the table in which he introduced the new era as Anni Domini Nostri Jesu Christi, numbering years in this manner became more widespread in Europe with its usage by Bede in England in 731. Bede also introduced the practice of dating years before what he supposed was the year of birth of Jesus, in 1422, Portugal became the last Western European country to switch to the system begun by Dionysius. The first use of the Latin term vulgaris aerae discovered so far was in a 1615 book by Johannes Kepler, Kepler uses it again in a 1616 table of ephemerides, and again in 1617. A1635 English edition of that book has the title page in English – so far, a 1701 book edited by John LeClerc includes Before Christ according to the Vulgar Æra,6. A1716 book in English by Dean Humphrey Prideaux says, before the beginning of the vulgar æra, a 1796 book uses the term vulgar era of the nativity. The first so-far-discovered usage of Christian Era is as the Latin phrase aerae christianae on the page of a 1584 theology book. In 1649, the Latin phrase æræ Christianæ appeared in the title of an English almanac, a 1652 ephemeris is the first instance so-far-found for English usage of Christian Era. The English phrase common Era appears at least as early as 1708, a 1759 history book uses common æra in a generic sense, to refer to the common era of the Jews. The first-so-far found usage of the phrase before the era is in a 1770 work that also uses common era and vulgar era as synonyms. The 1797 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica uses the terms vulgar era, the Catholic Encyclopedia in at least one article reports all three terms being commonly understood by the early 20th century. Thus, the era of the Jews, the common era of the Mahometans, common era of the world
Common Era
–
Key concepts
21.
Serer creation myth
–
The Serer creation myth is the traditional creation myth of the Serer people of Senegal, the Gambia and Mauritania. Many Serers who adhere to the tenets of the Serer religion believe these narratives to be sacred, some aspects of Serer religious and Ndut traditions are included in the narratives contained herein but are not limited to them. The Serer people have many gods, goddesses and Pangool, but one supreme deity, Serer creation myth developed from Serer oral traditions, Serer religion, legends, cosmogonies. The specifics of the myth are found in two main Serer sources, A nax and A leep. The former is a narrative for a short myth or proverbial expression. Broadly, they are equivalent to verbs and logos respectively, especially when communicating fundamental religious education such as the supreme being, in addition to being fixed-Serer sources, they set the structure of the myth. The creation myth of the Serer people is linked to the first trees created on Planet Earth by Roog. Earths formation began with a swamp, the Earth was not formed until long after the creation of the first three worlds, the waters of the underworld, the air which included the higher world and earth. Roog is the creator and fashioner of the Universe and everything in it, the creation is based on a mythical cosmic egg and the principles of chaos. There are slightly different and competing versions of the myth, however, there are more similarities than differences, and the differences complement each other in the greater understanding of Serer creation mythology. They all posits that, the Universe and everything in it were created by Roog, the first three worlds created through a mythical egg and under the principles of chaos were, the waters of the underworld, the air including the higher world and earth. These three were the first primordial worlds created by the supreme being through thought, speech and action, Planet Earth was not created until long after the creation of these worlds. The contentious points are, which of the sacred trees in Serer society grew not just first. Somb - Prosopis africana a species of Prosopis 4, Nqual - Mitragyna inermis part of Rubiaceae family of the genus Mitragyna 5. Mbos - Gardenia ternifolia The importance of trees are crucial to the formation of Earth, at least in the Serer worldview. Being the first tree does not necessarily equate to being the first living thing on Earth, in the creation myth, animals such as the jackal, hyena, the serpent and ostrich figure prominently in the competing creation narrative. In some narratives, trees and animals merge in order to justify their legitimacy and these mythical animals may be seen as sacred and totems, in the Serer totemic and sentient worldly-view of animals and nature in general. The significance of trees in the Serer creation myth does not mean the place of the supreme deity
Serer creation myth
–
Nqaul: Known by various name, its current scientific name is Mitragyna inermis and is part of
Rubiaceae family of the Genus
Mitragyna (2012). The barks, leaves and roots of the tree are used in many parts of
West Africa for human and veterinary
medicine. Found in
Senegal to the
Congo mainly in frequently flooded
river banks and
flood plains.
Serer creation myth
–
A Serer
graveyard with Serer grave diggers (1821)
Serer creation myth
–
black-backed jackal at
Cape Cross,
Namibia.
22.
Serer prehistory
–
The prehistoric and ancient history of the Serer people of modern-day Senegambia has been extensively studied and documented over the years. Much of it comes from archaeological discoveries and Serer tradition rooted in the Serer religion, Some of these Serer relics included gold, silver and metals. The known objects found in Serer countries, are divided into two types,1 and these are the traces left by the proto-populations with which the Sereer were in contact when they came from the Fuuta. Laterite megaliths carved planted in circular structures with stones directed towards the east are found only in parts of the ancient Serer kingdom of Saloum. The sand tumulus, on the hand which resembles ancestral tombs still built by Serers are observed everywhere including the Kingdom of Sine, Jegem. The following table lists the sites in some of the Serer countries with their densities. Note, Some of these are now regions with their cities, towns and villages, Shell mounds are found in the islands. In the provinces of the Gandun, Numi, Saloum and south-western Sine around Joal,139 sites have been identified and these relics are very numerous and imposing. The graves of the ancestors were also very often sanctified as Fangool. Such relics associated with the ancestors are often venerated relics, for example, the relics evoking memories of migration or foundation of states are sometimes sacralised. The family relics in other Serer countries which are brought from Takrur or Kaabu by the founders were noted in places of worship of the village or province history. This may be stone, wood, musical instruments, ceremonial objects used by the Saltigue or Yaal Pangool and these relics kept by families since ancient times remain largely unknown. There are two types of Serer relics relating to two lineages that come into play in the organisation of the Serer people, kucarla - which means paternal lineage or paternal inheritance. ƭeen yaay - which means maternal lineage or maternal inheritance
Serer prehistory
–
Senegambian stone circles
Serer prehistory
–
West Saharan montane xeric woodlands
Serer prehistory
–
The archaeologist
Henri Lhote next to
rock art in modern-day Mauritania
23.
Serer history
–
Over generations these people, possibly Pulaar speaking herders originally, migrated through Wolof areas and entered the Siin and Saluum river valleys. This lengthy period of Wolof-Serer contact has left us unsure of the origins of shared terminology, institutions, political structures, the actual Sereer ethnic group is a mixture of the two groups, and this may explain their complex bilinear kinship system. After the Arab invasion of North Africa, the Berbers of the north advanced Islam via the Almoravid movement, penetrating parts of Africa, Europe, the Serer earned their living from agriculture, animal husbandry, fishing, boat building and transporting people over the river. The jihads that had affected Tekrur in the 11th century which led to the Serers of Tekrur exodus only affected those Serers living in Tekrur at the time and it did not apply to all Serer people. The Serer people are very diverse and spread throughout the Senegambia founding towns and villages, in the Senegambia region, the Serer people were ruled by Lamanes. The Serer who have migrated from Tekrur to join their distant Serer relatives created a southward migration for Mandinka migrants, godfrey Mwakikagile proposed that the Mandinkas were either defeated in battle or incorporated into Serer society. The Serers ruled over the Wolof kingdom of Jolof and they were ruling Jolof before the Jaw, Ngom, Mengue and Njie dynasties. However, these Serer and Lebou rulers of Jolof became assimilated into Wolof culture, the actual foundation of the Kingdom of Sine is unclear, but in the late 14th century Mandinka migrants entered the area. They were led by a clan known as the Gelwaar. Marriages between the Serer paternal clans such as Faye and Joof to the Guelwar women created the Serer paternal dynasties, according to Serer oral tradition a king named Maad a Sinig Maysa Wali Jaxateh Manneh – was the first Guelowar king of Sine. Having served for years as legal advisor to The Great Council of Lamans and assimilated into Serer culture. His sisters and nieces were married off to the Serer nobility, in reporting this tradition, Henry Gravrand did not notice that this is actually a description of the 1867 Battle of Kansala. Njaajan Njie (English spelling in Gambia, Ndiandiane Ndiaye or NDiadian NDiaye – French spelling in Senegal, or Njaajaan Njaay - in the Serer language, umar, is the traditional founder of the Jolof Empire by the Wolof people. Traditional stories of the ancestry of this leader vary, one suggests that he was the first and only son of a noble and saintly Arab father Abdu Darday and a Tukuler woman, Fatamatu Sail. This gives him an Almoravid lineage, ie a Berber and Islamic background, on his fathers side, and a link on his mothers side to Takrur. James Searing adds that In all versions of the myth, Njaajaan Njaay speaks his first words in Pulaar rather than Wolof, njaajan Njie was the founder of the first Wolof kingdom and claimed by the Wolof as their ancestor. In 1446, a Portuguese caravel carrying the Portuguese slave trader - Nuno Tristão, none of the adult passengers of that caravel survived. They all succumbed to Serer poisoned arrows except five young Portuguese, one of them was left with the task to charter the caravel back to Portugal
Serer history
–
A 19th-century war and ceremonial drum called
junjung from the
Kingdom of Sine.
24.
Waalo
–
The Kingdom of Waalo or Walo was a kingdom on the lower Senegal River in West Africa, in what are now Senegal and Mauritania. It included parts of the proper and areas north and south. To the north were Moorish emirates, to the south was the kingdom of Cayor, Waalo had a complicated political and social system, which has a continuing influence on Wolof culture in Senegal today, especially its highly formalized and rigid caste system. The kingdom was indirectly hereditary, ruled by three families, the Logar, the Tedyek and the Joos, all from different ethnic backgrounds. The Joos were of Serer origin and this Serer matriclan was established in Waalo by Lingeer Ndoye Demba of Sine. Her grandmother Lingeer Fatim Beye is the matriarch and early ancestor of this dynasty and these matrilinial families engaged in constant dynastic struggles to become Brak or king of Waalo, as well as warring with Waalos neighbors. The royal title Lingeer means queen or royal princess, used by the Serer, the semi-legendary figure NDiadiane Ndiaye, was from this kingdom. The mysterious figure went on to rule the kingdom of Jolof, under NDdiadian, Jolof made Waalo a vassal. Waalo was subject to constant raids for slaves not only from the Moors, the Brak ruled with a kind of legislature, the Seb Ak Baor, over a complicated hierarchy of officials and dignitaries. Women had high positions and figure promininently in the political and military history, Waalo had lucrative treaties with the French, who had established their base at the island of Saint-Louis near the mouth of the river. Waalo was paid fees for every boatload of gum arabic or slaves that was shipped on the river, vassals of Waalo, like Beetyo split off. Waalo was conquered in 1855 by the French, in a campaign of Governor Louis Faidherbe and this was the first major inland conquest by the French, by which they eventually obtained all of Mauritania, Senegal and French Sudan. In all, Waalo had 52 kings since its founding, Waalo had its own traditional African religion. The ruling class was slow to accept Islam, which had spread in the valley, Waalo fell to France in 1855. Ndete Yalla, dernière reine du Walo, extrait du portrait de cette reine sénégalaise du 19e siècle que nous dresse Sylvia Serbin dans son ouvrage « Reines d’Afrique et héroïnes de la diaspora noire » Par Sylvia Serbin. NDIOURBEL, Première capital du Waalo in Sites et Monuments historiques du Senegal, Center of Resources for the Emergence of Social Participation, Le Royaume du Waalo Le Sénégal avant la Conquête François Maspéro
Waalo
–
Senegambia c. 1707. Waalo marked as Re. D'Oualle in the upper left.
25.
Fula people
–
The Fula people or Fulani or Fulɓe, numbering between 20 and 25 million people in total, are one of the largest and a widely dispersed Muslim ethnic group in Sahel and West Africa. The Fula people are believed to have roots in the people from North Africa and the Middle East. As an ethnic group they are bound together by the Fula language, culture, history, their religious affiliation and their efforts to spread Islam in Sahel region and the West Africa. A significant proportion of the Fula – a third, or an estimated 7 to 8 million – are pastoral people, the majority of the Fula ethnic group consisted of semi-sedentary people, as well as sedentary settled farmers, artisans, merchants and nobility. Spread over many countries, they are mainly in West Africa and northern parts of Central Africa. Many Fulbe was also taken to the New World during 16th to 19th century Atlantic Slave Trade and they were largely captured from the Senegal and Guinea with a significant percentage also taken from Mali and Cameroon. Some of the Fulbe of note were Bilali Muhammad, Ayuba Diallo, Salih Bilali, Abdulrahman Ibrahim Ibn Sori, some of Bilali Muhammads known descendants still live on Salepo Island Georgia and he also left descendants in the Bahama Archipelago who are not known. Abdulrahman Ibrahim Ibn Sori and many others have many descendants in the USA, there are many names used in other languages to refer to the Fulɓe. Fulani in English is borrowed from the Hausa term, Fula, from Manding languages, is also used in English, and sometimes spelled Fulah or Fullah. Fula and Fulani are commonly used in English, including within Africa, the French borrowed the Wolof term Pël, which is variously spelled, Peul, Peulh, and even Peuhl. More recently the Fulfulde / Pulaar term Fulɓe, which is a noun has been Anglicised as Fulbe. In Portuguese, the terms Fula or Futafula are used, the terms Fallata Fallatah or Fellata are of Kanuri origins, and are often the ethnonyms by which Fulani people are identified by in Sudan. The Fula people are distributed, across the Sahel from the Atlantic coast to the Red Sea. Alongside, many speak other languages of the countries they inhabit. Such languages include Hausa, Bambara, Wolof, and Arabic and this is the area known as the Fombina, literally meaning The South in Adamawa Fulfulde, because it represented the most southern and eastern reaches of Fulɓe hegemonic dominance in West Africa. In this area, Fulfulde is the lingua franca. Further east of this area, Fulani communities become predominantly nomadic, the Fulani People occupy a vast geographical expanse located roughly in a longitudinal East-West band immediately south of the Sahara, and just north of the coastal rain forest and swamps. There are an estimated 20-25 million Fulani people, there are generally three different types of Fulani based on settlement patterns, viz, the Nomadic/Pastoral or Mbororo, The Semi-Nomadic and the Settled or Town Fulani
Fula people
–
Fulani, Fula, Fulɓe
Fula people
–
Fulani calabashes used for
cheese production
Fula people
–
Tassili rock art
26.
Lamane Jegan Joof
–
Lamane Jegan Joof, was a Serer lamane who according to Serer tradition founded the Serer village of Tukar now part of present-day Senegal. The Raan Festival takes place each year at Tukar, two weeks after the appearance of the new moon in April, according to the oral tradition of the Serer people, Jegan Joof migrated from Lambaye following a dispute with his cousin, the king of Lambaye. The dispute was about the governance of Lambaye and over-taxation, Jegan Joof who was also a mix-farmer and with a large cattle herd felt he was being overtaxed unjustly. They were former colanies of Tukar and part of Jegans estate, the Joof family reigned in Tukar for several centuries, inherited from their ancestor Lamane Jegan Joof. In the epic of Jegan Joof, he is reported to have had a son called Sosseh Joof who inherited his fathers estate, ndik Joof, brother of Jegan, is reported to have died in Tukar before Jegans own death. In 1937, a descendant of Jegan Joof called Biram Diouf pawned his familys estate to the Sene noble family of Sine and it took his descendants 50 years to pay off the debt and regained their family estate. In the Serer religion, the Raan Festival takes place once a year in Tukar, in this festival, the Serer high priests and priestesses known as the Saltigues make offering of millets and wine to the shrine of Saint Luguuñ Joof. This Holy Saint is said to have guided Lamane Jegan Joof when he migrated from Lambaye in search of new land to exploit, Serer people Joof family Lamane Kingdom of Baol Kingdom of Sine Kingdom of Saloum States headed by ancient Serer Lamanes Sarr, Alioune. Introduction, bibliographie et notes par Charles Becker, version légèrement remaniée par rapport à celle qui est parue en 1986-87 co 1985. Bressers, Hans & Rosenbaum, Walter A. II, Pangool, Nouvelles éditions africaines, Dakar,1990, African Studies Program, African economic history, Volume 25, University of Wisconsin, African Studies Program, p 28-9
Lamane Jegan Joof
–
Lamane Jegan Joof
27.
Serer history (medieval era to present)
–
Over generations these people, possibly Pulaar speaking herders originally, migrated through Wolof areas and entered the Siin and Saluum river valleys. This lengthy period of Wolof-Serer contact has left us unsure of the origins of shared terminology, institutions, political structures, the actual Sereer ethnic group is a mixture of the two groups, and this may explain their complex bilinear kinship system. After the Arab invasion of North Africa, the Berbers of the north advanced Islam via the Almoravid movement, penetrating parts of Africa, Europe, the Serer earned their living from agriculture, animal husbandry, fishing, boat building and transporting people over the river. The jihads that had affected Tekrur in the 11th century which led to the Serers of Tekrur exodus only affected those Serers living in Tekrur at the time and it did not apply to all Serer people. The Serer people are very diverse and spread throughout the Senegambia founding towns and villages, in the Senegambia region, the Serer people were ruled by Lamanes. The Serer who have migrated from Tekrur to join their distant Serer relatives created a southward migration for Mandinka migrants, godfrey Mwakikagile proposed that the Mandinkas were either defeated in battle or incorporated into Serer society. The Serers ruled over the Wolof kingdom of Jolof and they were ruling Jolof before the Jaw, Ngom, Mengue and Njie dynasties. However, these Serer and Lebou rulers of Jolof became assimilated into Wolof culture, the actual foundation of the Kingdom of Sine is unclear, but in the late 14th century Mandinka migrants entered the area. They were led by a clan known as the Gelwaar. Marriages between the Serer paternal clans such as Faye and Joof to the Guelwar women created the Serer paternal dynasties, according to Serer oral tradition a king named Maad a Sinig Maysa Wali Jaxateh Manneh – was the first Guelowar king of Sine. Having served for years as legal advisor to The Great Council of Lamans and assimilated into Serer culture. His sisters and nieces were married off to the Serer nobility, in reporting this tradition, Henry Gravrand did not notice that this is actually a description of the 1867 Battle of Kansala. Njaajan Njie (English spelling in Gambia, Ndiandiane Ndiaye or NDiadian NDiaye – French spelling in Senegal, or Njaajaan Njaay - in the Serer language, umar, is the traditional founder of the Jolof Empire by the Wolof people. Traditional stories of the ancestry of this leader vary, one suggests that he was the first and only son of a noble and saintly Arab father Abdu Darday and a Tukuler woman, Fatamatu Sail. This gives him an Almoravid lineage, ie a Berber and Islamic background, on his fathers side, and a link on his mothers side to Takrur. James Searing adds that In all versions of the myth, Njaajaan Njaay speaks his first words in Pulaar rather than Wolof, njaajan Njie was the founder of the first Wolof kingdom and claimed by the Wolof as their ancestor. In 1446, a Portuguese caravel carrying the Portuguese slave trader - Nuno Tristão, none of the adult passengers of that caravel survived. They all succumbed to Serer poisoned arrows except five young Portuguese, one of them was left with the task to charter the caravel back to Portugal
Serer history (medieval era to present)
–
A 19th-century war and ceremonial drum called
junjung from the
Kingdom of Sine.
28.
Religious persecution
–
Religious persecution is the systematic mistreatment of an individual or group of individuals as a response to their religious beliefs or affiliations or lack thereof. The tendency of societies or groups within society to alienate or repress different subcultures is a recurrent theme in human history, Religious persecution may be triggered by religious bigotry or by the state when it views a particular religious group as a threat to its interests or security. At a societal level, this dehumanisation of a religious group may readily turn into violence or other forms of persecution. Indeed, in countries, religious persecution has resulted in so much violence that it is considered a human rights problem. Religious persecution can be considered the opposite of freedom of religion, Religious persecution may also affect atheists in that they may be denounced as being amoral or be persecuted by the religious on the grounds that they are godless. Persecution in this case may refer to confiscation or destruction of property, incitement to hate, arrest, imprisonment, beatings, torture, denial of civil rights on the basis of religion is most often described as religious discrimination, rather than religious persecution. The difference between religious and ethnic identity might sometimes be obscure, cases of genocide in the 20th century cannot be explained in full by citing religious differences, the Holocaust made no distinction between secular Jews, atheistic Jews, orthodox Jews and Jews that had converted to Christianity. The descriptive use of the religious persecution is rather difficult. Religious persecution has taken place at least since the antiquity, and has happened in different historical, geographical and social contexts, until the 18th century, some groups were nearly universally persecuted for their views about religion, such as atheists, Jews and zoroastrians. One period of persecution which has been studied extensively is early modern England, since the rejection of religious persecution, now common in the Western world. The most ambitious chronicle of that time is W. K. Jordans magnum opus The Development of Religious Toleration in England, jordan wrote as the threat of fascism rose in Europe, and this work is seen as a defense of the fragile values of humanism and tolerance. More recent introductions to this period are Persecution and Toleration in Protestant England, 1558–1689 by John Coffey, tolerance and intolerance in England, 1500-1700 by Alexandra Walsham. To understand why religious persecution has occurred, historians like Coffey pay close attention to what the persecutors said they were doing, no religion is free from internal dissent, although the degree of dissent that is tolerated within a particular religious organization can strongly vary. This degree of diversity tolerated within a church is described as ecclesiastical tolerance. However, when people speak of religious tolerance, they most often mean civil tolerance. Before that, theologians like Joseph Hall had reasoned from the intolerance of the early Christian church in the New Testament to the civil intolerance of the Christian state. Before a vigorous debate about religious persecution took place in England, for centuries in Europe, in England there had been several Acts of Uniformity, in continental Europe the Latin phrase cuius regio, eius religio had been used. Concerning the church, he went on, A church, then, I take to be a society of men
Religious persecution
–
During Nazi rule, Jews were forced to wear
yellow stars identifying them as such. Jews are an ethno-religious group and Nazi persecution was based on their race
Religious persecution
–
Protestant Bishop
John Hooper was burned at the stake by Queen
Mary I of England
Religious persecution
–
Saint Peter, an apostle of Jesus, was executed by the Romans
Religious persecution
–
According to tradition, early Christians were fed to lions in the
Colosseum of Rome
29.
Forced conversion
–
Forced conversion is adoption of a different religion or irreligion under duress. Forced abandonment of religion has been described as conversion to atheism and those who convert may willingly embrace their new religion or irreligion, or may continue, covertly, with the beliefs and practices originally held, while outwardly behaving as converts. Crypto-Jews, crypto-Christians, crypto-Muslims and crypto-Pagans are historical examples of the latter, in general, anthropologists have shown that the relationship between religion and politics is complex, especially when viewed over the expanse of human history. While religious leaders and the state generally have different aims, both are concerned with power and order, both use reason and emotion to motivate behavior, the relationship is far from simple. But religion has often been used coercively, and has used coercion, Christianity was a minority religion during much of the Roman Empire, and the early Christians were persecuted during that time. When Constantine I converted to Christianity, it became the dominant religion in the Roman Empire, already under the reign of Constantine I, Christian heretics had been persecuted, beginning in the late 4th century, the ancient pagan religions were also actively suppressed. In the view of historians, the Constantinian shift turned Christianity from a persecuted religion into one capable of persecution. Forced conversions of Jews were carried out with support of rulers during Late Antiquity and the early Middle Ages in Gaul, the Iberian peninsula and in the Byzantine empire. During the Saxon Wars, Charlemagne, King of the Franks, forcibly Roman Catholicized the Saxons from their native Germanic paganism by way of warfare, and law upon conquest. Forced conversion that occurred after the seventh century generally took place during riots and massacres carried out by mobs, Jews were forced to convert to Christianity by the Crusaders in Lorraine, on the Lower Rhine, in Bavaria and Bohemia, in Mainz and in Worms. It is, to be sure, contrary to the Christian Faith that anyone who is unwilling and wholly opposed to it should be compelled to adopt, for this reason a valid distinction is made by some between kinds of unwilling ones and kinds of compelled ones. After the end of the Islamic control of Spain, Jews were expelled from Spain in 1492, in Portugal, following an order for their expulsion in 1496, only a handful were allowed to leave and the rest were forced to convert. Muslims were expelled from Portugal in 1497, and were forced to convert in the constituent kingdoms of Spain. The forced conversion of Muslims was implemented in the Crown of Castile from 1500–02, after the conversions, the so-called New Christians were those inhabitants who were baptized under coercion and in the face of execution, becoming forced converts from Islam or from Judaism. Jewish conversos still resided in Spain and often practiced Judaism cryptically and were suspected by the Old Christians of being Crypto-Jews, the Spanish Inquisition generated much wealth and income for the church and individual inquisitors by confiscating the property of the persecuted. The Ottoman Empire and Morocco absorbed most of the Jewish refugees, upon converting to Christianity in the 10th century, Vladimir the Great, the ruler of Kievan Rus, ordered Kievs citizens to undergo a mass baptism in the Dnieper river. After Ivan the Terribles conquest of the Khanate of Kazan, the Muslim population faced slaughter, expulsion, forced resettlement, in the 18th century, Elizabeth of Russia launched a campaign of forced conversion of Russias non-Orthodox subjects, including Muslims and Jews. The Portuguese practised religious persecution in Goa, India in the 16th and 17th centuries, the natives of Goa, most of them Hindus, were subjected to severe torture and oppression by the zealous Portuguese rulers and missionaries, and forcibly converted to Christianity
Forced conversion
–
A portrayal entitled The Taking of the Children on the 1999 Great Australian Clock,
Queen Victoria Building, Sydney, by artist Chris Cook.
Forced conversion
–
Registration of boys for the
devşirme.
Ottoman miniature painting from the Süleymanname, 1558.
Forced conversion
–
Cristeros hanged in
Jalisco.
Senegal portal._19th_Century._Jung-Jung_From_The_Kingdom_of_Sine_(in_modern_day_Senegal).jpg)
_by_Erling_Mandelmann.jpg)
