1.
Indonesia
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Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is the worlds 14th-largest country in terms of area and worlds 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea. It has an population of over 260 million people and is the worlds fourth most populous country. The worlds most populous island, Java, contains more than half of the countrys population, Indonesias republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president. Indonesia has 34 provinces, of which five have Special Administrative status and its capital and countrys most populous city is Jakarta, which is also the most populous city in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, tin, copper, agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices and rubber. Indonesias major trading partners are Japan, United States, China, the Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Indonesia consists of hundreds of native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese, a shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesias national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, articulates the diversity that shapes the country, Indonesias economy is the worlds 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP, the largest in Southeast Asia, and is considered an emerging market and newly industrialised country. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia is a member of the G20 major economies and World Trade Organization. The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indós, the name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, in the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia, they preferred Malay Archipelago, the Netherlands East Indies, popularly Indië, the East, and Insulinde
2.
East Timor
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East Timor or Timor-Leste, officially the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste, is a sovereign state in Maritime Southeast Asia. It comprises the half of the island of Timor, the nearby islands of Atauro and Jaco, and Oecusse. The countrys size is about 15,410 km2, nine days later, it was invaded and occupied by Indonesia and was declared Indonesias 27th province the following year. The Indonesian occupation of East Timor was characterised by a highly violent decades-long conflict between separatist groups and the Indonesian military, in 1999, following the United Nations-sponsored act of self-determination, Indonesia relinquished control of the territory. East Timor became the first new state of the 21st century on 20 May 2002 and joined the United Nations. In 2011, East Timor announced its intention to gain status in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations by applying to become its eleventh member. It is one of two predominantly Christian nations in Southeast Asia, the other being the Philippines. In Indonesian, the country is called Timor Timur, thus using the Portuguese name for the island followed by the word for east, the official names under the Constitution are Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste in English, República Democrática de Timor-Leste in Portuguese and Repúblika Demokrátika Timór-Leste in Tetum. Humans first settled in East Timor 42,000 years ago, descendants of at least three waves of migration are believed still to live in East Timor. The first is described by anthropologists as people of the Veddo-Australoid type, around 3000 BC, a second migration brought Melanesians. The earlier Veddo-Australoid peoples withdrew at this time to the mountainous interior, finally, proto-Malays arrived from south China and north Indochina. Hakka traders are among those descended from this final group, Timorese origin myths tell of ancestors that sailed around the eastern end of Timor arriving on land in the south. Some stories recount Timorese ancestors journeying from the Malay Peninsula or the Minangkabau highlands of Sumatra, austronesians migrated to Timor, and are thought to be associated with the development of agriculture on the island. Thirdly, Proto-Malays arrived from south China and north Indochina, before European colonialism, Timor was included in Chinese and Indian trading networks, and in the 14th century was an exporter of aromatic sandalwood, slaves, honey, and wax. It was the abundance of sandalwood in Timor that attracted European explorers to the island in the early 16th century. During that time, European explorers reported that the island had a number of small chiefdoms or princedoms, the Portuguese established outposts in Timor and Maluku. Effective European occupation of a part of the territory began in 1769, when the city of Dili was founded. For the Portuguese, East Timor remained little more than a trading post until the late nineteenth century, with minimal investment in infrastructure, health
3.
Southeast Asia
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Southeast Asia or Southeastern Asia is a subregion of Asia, consisting of the countries that are geographically south of China, east of India, west of New Guinea and north of Australia. The region lies near the intersection of geological plates, with seismic and volcanic activity. Southeast Asia consists of two regions, Mainland Southeast Asia, also known historically as Indochina, comprising Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Myanmar. Maritime Southeast Asia, comprising Indonesia, East Malaysia, Singapore, Philippines, East Timor, Brunei, Cocos Islands, definitions of Southeast Asia vary, but most definitions include the area represented by the countries listed below. All of the states are members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the area, together with part of South Asia, was widely known as the East Indies or simply the Indies until the 20th century. Sovereignty issues exist over some territories in the South China Sea, Papua New Guinea has stated that it might join ASEAN, and is currently an observer. Southeast Asia is geographically divided into two subregions, namely Mainland Southeast Asia and Maritime Southeast Asia, Mainland Southeast Asia includes, Maritime Southeast Asia includes, The Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India are geographically considered part of Southeast Asia. Eastern Bangladesh and the Seven Sister States of India are culturally part of Southeast Asia, the eastern half of Indonesia and East Timor are considered to be biogeographically part of Oceania. Homo sapiens reached the region by around 45,000 years ago, homo floresiensis also lived in the area up until 12,000 years ago, when they became extinct. Austronesian people, who form the majority of the population in Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, East Timor. Solheim and others have shown evidence for a Nusantao maritime trading network ranging from Vietnam to the rest of the archipelago as early as 5000 BC to 1 AD. The peoples of Southeast Asia, especially those of Austronesian descent, have been seafarers for thousands of years and their vessels, such as the vinta, were ocean-worthy. Magellans voyage records how much more manoeuvrable their vessels were, as compared to the European ships, Passage through the Indian Ocean aided the colonisation of Madagascar by the Austronesian people, as well as commerce between West Asia and Southeast Asia. Gold from Sumatra is thought to have reached as far west as Rome and this was later replaced by Hinduism. Theravada Buddhism soon followed in 525, in the 15th century, Islamic influences began to enter. This forced the last Hindu court in Indonesia to retreat to Bali, in Mainland Southeast Asia, Burma, Cambodia and Thailand retained the Theravada form of Buddhism, brought to them from Sri Lanka. This type of Buddhism was fused with the Hindu-influenced Khmer culture, very little is known about Southeast Asian religious beliefs and practices before the advent of Indian merchants and religious influences from the 2nd century BCE onwards. Prior to the 13th century CE, Hinduism and Buddhism were the religions in Southeast Asia
4.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
5.
Tatamailau
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Tatamailau, or Tata Mailau, sometimes referred as Mount Ramelau, is the highest mountain in East Timor and also of Timor island at 2,986 m. The mountain is located approximately 70 km south of the capital Dili in the district of Ainaro, while East Timor was a Portuguese colony it was called the highest mountain of Portugal in the twentieth century, since the highest mountain of Portugal proper is of a more modest height. The name Tatamailau is Mambai-origin, the language and means Grandfather of all. Ramelau is the name of the massif of the mountain, the Tatamailau is dedicated to the Virgin Mary and the subject of an annual pilgrimage commemorating the Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin Mary, on or around 25 March. There is a three metre high statue of the Virgin Mary on the peak, which came from Italy and was erected during Indonesian occupation in 1997, since then there has been considerable environmental modification with very little natural tree cover remaining. Deforestation for grazing has left only a few patches of original forest, the lower slopes are mainly grass covered, with the upper slopes characterised by eucalypt regrowth. Tatamailau can be climbed from the town of Hato Bulico 3 km to the northeast or from the village of Aimeta 6 km to the north, a map is not required once on the track. The track is now very severely degraded with massive washouts requiring major detours to negotiate, because the track was cut for vehicular access the constant gradient is monotonous, the poor engineering has caused major environmental damage and the route affords few views of note. The route from Aimeta is via a network of goat herders tracks, it not appear on current maps. However, the Aimeta track is varied, traverses unspoilt country, is interesting with many unfolding mountain views. A fit person should allow four hours from Hato Bulico to the summit, six hours from Aimeta, assume no water is available en route. There is no human habitation above Hato Bulico or Aimeta and it is possible to camp on the saddle below the summit in the dry season and experience the sunset and sunrise from the same location. The summit can freeze in the dry season, in the wet season the summit can be cold, wet. Hato Bulico is a 1½ -2 hour drive from Maubisse on a sealed road, in the wet season it can be dangerous and periodically impassable but never for long. There is an excellent resting place at Hato Bulico close to the start of the track, Aimeta can be reached from Letefoho in about 1½ hours. Shelter, but not food, may be negotiated at Aimeta with local assistance, the nearest accommodation is at the Saint Bakhita, Eraulo, via Vila Ermera and an excellent, easy walk is to be had from there to Aimeta in about four hours. Horses for baggage can be hired at Aimeta and this is useful if camping on the summit or to assist stragglers. An ideal route is to do the summit from Aimeta to Hato Bulico taking in both sides of the mountain, local assistance is essential for those without fluent Tetum and local knowledge, list of Ultras of Malay Archipelago
6.
Dili
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Dili is the capital, largest city, chief port and commercial centre of East Timor. Dili lies on the northern coast of Timor island, the easternmost of the Lesser Sunda Islands. It is the seat of the administration of the district of Dili, the city is divided into the subdistricts of Nain Feto, Vera Cruz, Dom Aleixo and Cristo Rei and is divided into several sucos, which are headed by an elected chefe de suco. 18 of the 26 sucos of the four subdistricts are categorised as urban, there is no city administration beside the district administrator, who was appointed by state government. The East Timorese government started to plan in 2009 to change the status of districts into municipalities and these will have an elected mayor and council. Dili is a pot of the different ethnic groups of East Timor. This has led to an imbalance, with the male population significantly larger than the female. Between 2001 and 2004, the population of Dili district grew by 12. 58%, 7% were born in Baucau, 5% each in Viqueque and Bobonaro 4% in Ermera, and the remainder in other districts or overseas. Dili has a Tropical wet and dry climate under the Köppen climate classification, Dili was settled about 1520 by the Portuguese, who made it the capital of Portuguese Timor in 1769. It was proclaimed a city in January 1864, in the night of 19 February 1942, the Japanese attacked with a force of around 20,000 men, and occupied Dili before spreading out across the rest of the colony. On 26 September 1945, control of the island was returned to Portugal by the Japanese. East Timor unilaterally declared independence from Portugal on 28 November 1975, however, nine days later, on 7 December, Indonesian forces invaded Dili. On 17 July 1976, Indonesia annexed East Timor, which it designated the 27th province of Indonesia, Timor Timur, a guerrilla war ensued from 1975 to 1999 between Indonesian and pro-independence forces, during which tens of thousands of East Timorese and some foreign civilians were killed. Media coverage of the 1991 Dili Massacre helped revitalise international support for the East Timorese independence movement, in 1999, East Timor was placed under UN supervision and on 20 May 2002, Dili became the capital of the newly independent Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste. In May 2006, fighting and rioting sparked by conflict between elements of the military caused significant damage to the city and led to military intervention to restore order. Most buildings were damaged or destroyed in the violence of 1999, orchestrated by the Indonesian military, however, the city still has many buildings from the Portuguese era. E. g. the former Market Hall built around 1930 which is used as a Congress Centre nowerdays, the former Portuguese Governors office is now the office of the Prime Minister. It was previously used by the Indonesian-appointed Governor, and by the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor
7.
East Nusa Tenggara
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East Nusa Tenggara is the southernmost province of Indonesia. It is located in the part of the Lesser Sunda Islands. It has an area of 48,718.1 km2, and the population at the 2010 Census was 4,683,827. The provincial capital is Kupang on West Timor, the province consists of more than 500 islands, the three largest being Flores, Sumba, and the western half of Timor. The eastern part of Timor is the independent country of East Timor, East Nusa Tenggara is the only province in Indonesia where Roman Catholicism is the predominant religion. Nusa Tenggara Timur, in Indonesian, means eastern southeastern islands, compare to Nusa Tenggara Barat, after the declaration of Indonesian independence in 1945, the eastern part of Indonesia declared the State of East Indonesia. The state was included in the United States of Indonesia as part of the agreement with the Dutch contained in the transfer its sovereignty to Indonesia in 1949. In 1950, United States of Indonesia dissolved itself into a unitary state, in 1958, by Indonesian law No. 64/1958, three provinces were established in the Lesser Sunda Islands, namely Bali, West Nusa Tenggara, the area of East Nusa Tenggara province included the western part of Timor island, Flores, Sumba and other several small islands in the region. The province was sub-divided into twelve regencies and the City of Kupang, following the fall of the Suharto regime in 1998 and the passage of a new regional autonomy law, there was a dramatic proliferation of regional governments across Indonesia. Several new regencies were created in East Nusa Tenggara by the division of existing regencies, In 1999, in 2002, Rote and Ndao Islands were split off from Kupang Regency, to form a new Rote Ndao Regency. In 2003, Manggarai Regency was split into two and a new West Manggarai Regency was established, in 2007, the administration of East Nusa Tenggara province was expanded by the establishment of four new regencies - Central Sumba and Southwest Sumba, Nagekeo and East Manggarai. In October 2008 a further regency - Sabu Raijua - was formed part of the remaining Kupang Regency. In December 2012 yet another regency - Malaka - was created out of the half of Belu Regency. Therefore, as of early 2013, there were twenty-one regencies plus the one city in the province. Located in the east of Lesser Sunda Islands, East Nusa Tenggara faces the Indian Ocean in the south, the province is bordered by other provinces, West Nusa Tenggara in the west. In the east, the province is bordered by East Timor, the province consists of about 566 islands, the largest and most dominant are Flores, Sumba, and the western part of Timor. The other is smaller islands include Adonara, Alor, Komodo, Lembata, Menipo, Raijua, Rincah, Rote Island, Savu, Semau, the highest point in the province is Mount Mutis in the South Central Timor Regency,2,427 meters above sea level
8.
Kupang
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Not to be confused with Tanjung Kupang in Johore Kupang is the capital of the Indonesian province of East Nusa Tenggara, and has an estimated population in 2011 of 349,344. It is the biggest city and port on the island of Timor, Kupang was an important port and trading point during the Portuguese and Dutch colonial eras. There are ruins and remnant signs of the presence in the city. Representatives of the Dutch East India Company approached Kupang in 1613 after having conquered the Portuguese fort on Solor, at this time the place and its hinterland was governed by a raja of the Helong tribe which claimed descent from Ceram in Maluku. Kupang was well situated for strategic control over parts of Timor, moreover, the Koinino River provided fresh water for the inhabitants. A VOC-Helong agreement was made, but due to the lack of VOC commitment on Timor, Kupang was later influenced by the Portuguese mestizo population of Flores, a Portuguese stronghold was established by the 1640s. However, the VOC was firmly established on Solor in 1646, in January 1653 a Dutch fortification, Fort Concordia, was built on a height to the left of the river estuary. Kupang became the base of the Dutch struggle against the Portuguese and they were followed by two other groups, Amfoan and Taebenu. The Helong raja remained the lord of the land but was dependent on the VOC authorities. Apart from the old Helong territory, Timor was largely dominated by the Portuguese up to 1749, the Dutch set up a European administration with a chief executive and a council. Affairs with the populations were regulated through regular meetings. The Kupang administration handled affairs with the VOC-allied islands Rote, Savu, Chinese traders and artisans settled by the early 18th century and soon became indispensable for the economic life. The town area was settled by various indigenous groups from the region. In 1752 the population was 827 Christians and an number of non-Christians. Nevertheless, some of this influence contracted after 1761 due to incompetence, Kupang was the final destination of William Bligh who was set adrift in an open boat during the Mutiny on the Bounty. The Mutiny on the Bounty took place about 30 nautical miles from Tofua in the Tonga islands and he recorded the distance as 3,618 nautical miles. He passed through the difficult Torres Strait along the way and landed on 14 June, the only casualty of his voyage was a crewman named John Norton who was stoned to death by the natives of Tofua, the first island they tried to land on. News of the journey of Captain Bligh inspired the escape of a party of convicts from the colony at Sydney Cove
9.
West Timor
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West Timor is the western and Indonesian portion of the island of Timor and part of the province of East Nusa Tenggara. During the colonial period it was known as Dutch Timor and was a centre of Dutch loyalists during the Indonesian National Revolution, from 1949 to 1975 it was known as Indonesian Timor. European colonization of Timor began in the 16th century, although the Portuguese claimed the island of Timor in 1520, the Dutch settled West Timor in 1640, forcing the Portuguese out to East Timor. The subsequent collapse of the company meant that in 1799, the returned to official Dutch rule. Finally, in 1914, the border between East and West Timor was finalized by a treaty between Portugal and the Netherlands that was signed in 1859 and modified in 1893. West Timor had the status of residentie within the Dutch East Indies, japan conquered the island during World War II in early 1942. Upon Indonesian independence, West Timor became part of the new Republic of Indonesia, West Timor is a political region that comprises the western half of Timor island with the exception of Oecusse district and forms a part of the Indonesian province of Nusa Tenggara Timur. The land area of West Timor is 15,850 square kilometres, the highest point of West Timor is Mount Mutis, at 2,427 metres. Rote Island, the southernmost island of Indonesia, is southwest of West Timor, West Timors largest town and chief port is Kupang, the capital of Nusa Tenggara Timur province. West Timor is part of the East Nusa Tenggara province and it was formerly split into the City of Kupang and four regencies, from west to east these are, Kupang, Timor Tengah Selatan, Timor Tengah Utara and Belu. However, a fifth regency – Malaka – was in 2012 formed from the half of Belu Regency. Note the administrative area has shrunk as Rote Ndao Regency and Sabu Raijua Regency were split off in 2002 and 2009 respectively from Kupang Regency, the island accounts for 35. 5% of the provincial population. Note that the figues for Belu Regency include those for Malaka Regency, there were approximately 1.8 million inhabitants in 2008, some of them refugees who had fled the 1999 violence in East Timor. In addition to the language, Indonesian, native languages belonging to the Fabronic Stock of the Austronesian group of languages are spoken in West Timor. These languages include Uab Meto, Tetum, Ndaonese, Rotinese, knowledge of Dutch is now limited to the older generations. West Timors main religions/faiths are Catholicism, Protestantism and Islam, from the Catholic missionary Apostolic Vicariate of Dutch Timor stem the Metropolitan Archdiocese of Kupang and its suffragan Diocese of Atambua. West Timor has an unemployment rate of 2. 39%. 30% of the population lived below the poverty line in 1998, as of 2012, the economy is mainly agricultural, using slash-and-burn methods to produce corn, rice, coffee, copra and fruit
10.
Island
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An island or isle is any piece of sub-continental land that is surrounded by water. Very small islands such as emergent land features on atolls can be called islets, skerries, an island in a river or a lake island may be called an eyot or ait, and a small island off the coast may be called a holm. A grouping of geographically or geologically related islands is called an archipelago, an island may be described as such, despite the presence of an artificial land bridge. Example, Singapore and its causeway, or the various Dutch delta islands, there are two main types of islands in the sea, continental and oceanic. The word island derives from Middle English iland, from Old English igland, Old English ieg is actually a cognate of Swedish ö and German Aue, and related to Latin aqua. There is a difference between islands and continents in terms of geology, continents sit on continental lithosphere which is part of tectonic plates floating high on Earths mantle. Oceanic crust is also part of tectonic plates, but it is denser than continental lithosphere, Islands are either extensions of the oceanic crust or geologically they are part of some continent sitting on continental lithosphere. This holds true for Australia, which sits on its own continental lithosphere, continental islands are bodies of land that lie on the continental shelf of a continent. A special type of island is the microcontinental island, which is created when a continent is rifted. Examples are Madagascar and Socotra off Africa, the Kerguelen Islands, New Caledonia, New Zealand, another subtype is an island or bar formed by deposition of tiny rocks where water current loses some of its carrying capacity. While some are transitory and may disappear if the volume or speed of the current changes, others are stable, oceanic islands are islands that do not sit on continental shelves. The vast majority are volcanic in origin, such as Saint Helena in the South Atlantic Ocean, the few oceanic islands that are not volcanic are tectonic in origin and arise where plate movements have lifted up the ocean floor above the surface. Examples are Saint Peter and Paul Rocks in the Atlantic Ocean, one type of volcanic oceanic island is found in a volcanic island arc. These islands arise from volcanoes where the subduction of one plate under another is occurring, examples are the Aleutian Islands, the Mariana Islands, and most of Tonga in the Pacific Ocean. The only examples in the Atlantic Ocean are some of the Lesser Antilles, another type of volcanic oceanic island occurs where an oceanic rift reaches the surface. There are two examples, Iceland, which is the second largest volcanic island, and Jan Mayen. A third type of oceanic island is formed over volcanic hotspots. A hotspot is more or less stationary relative to the tectonic plate above it
11.
Timor Sea
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The Timor Sea is a relatively shallow sea bounded to the north by the island of Timor, to the east by the Arafura Sea, to the west of Australia. The sea contains a number of reefs, uninhabited islands and significant hydrocarbon reserves, International disputes emerged after the reserves were discovered resulting in the signing of the Timor Sea Treaty. The Timor Sea was hit by the worst oil spill for 25 years in 2009 and it is possible that Australias first inhabitants crossed the Timor Sea from Indonesia at a time when sea levels were lower. The waters to the east are known as the Arafura Sea, the Timor Sea is adjacent to three substantial inlets on the north Australian coast, the Joseph Bonaparte Gulf, Beagle Gulf and the Van Diemen Gulf. The Australian city of Darwin is the large city to adjoin the sea. The small town of Wyndham is located on the west arm of Cambridge Gulf, Rivers that enter the Timor Sea from the Northern Territory include Fish River, King River, Dry River, Victoria River and the Alligator Rivers. Rivers in the Kimberley region that flow into the Timor Sea include the Ord River, Forrest River, Pentecost River, the sea is about 480 km wide, covering an area of about 610,000 km². Its deepest point is the Timor Trough, located in the part of the sea. The remainder of the sea is shallower, much of it averaging less than 200 m deep, as it overlies the Sahul Shelf. The Big Bank Shoals is an area on the seabed between the continental shelf and the Timor Trough where a number of submerged banks are located. The ecosystem of the shoals is significantly different to the waters surrounding them. In May 2010, it was announced that a crater about 50 km wide has been discovered on the seabed of the Timor Sea, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the Timor Sea as being one of the waters of the East Indian Archipelago. The IHO defines its limits as follows, On the North The Southeastern limit of the Savu Sea the Southeastern coast of Timor, the Western of the Arafura Sea. The North coast of Australia from Cape Don to Cape Londonderry, a line from Cape Londonderry to the Southwest point of Roti Island. Many tropical storms and cyclones originate or pass through the Timor Sea, in February 2005, Tropical Cyclone Vivienne disrupted oil and gas production facilities in the area, and the next month, Severe Tropical Cyclone Willy interrupted production. A number of significant islands are located in the sea, notably Melville Island, part of the Tiwi Islands, off Australia and it is thought that early humans reached Australia by island-hopping across the Timor Sea. Scott and Seringapatam Reefs formed in the area and to the west on the same platform is the Rowley Shoals. The Timor Current is a current that runs south-west in the Timor Sea between the Indonesia archipelago and Australia
12.
Sovereign state
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A sovereign state is, in international law, a nonphysical juridical entity that is represented by one centralized government that has sovereignty over a geographic area. International law defines sovereign states as having a permanent population, defined territory, one government, and it is also normally understood that a sovereign state is neither dependent on nor subjected to any other power or state. The existence or disappearance of a state is a question of fact, States came into existence as people gradually transferred their allegiance from an individual sovereign to an intangible but territorial political entity, of the state. States are but one of political orders that emerged from feudal Europe, others being city states, leagues. Westphalian sovereignty is the concept of sovereignty based on territoriality. It is a system of states, multinational corporations. Sovereignty is a term that is frequently misused and that position was reflected and constituted in the notion that their sovereignty was either completely lacking, or at least of an inferior character when compared to that of civilised people. Lassa Oppenheim said There exists perhaps no conception the meaning of which is more controversial than that of sovereignty. It is a fact that this conception, from the moment when it was introduced into political science until the present day, has never had a meaning which was universally agreed upon. In the opinion of H. V. Evatt of the High Court of Australia, sovereignty is neither a question of fact, nor a question of law, but a question that does not arise at all. The right of nations to determine their own status and exercise permanent sovereignty within the limits of their territorial jurisdictions is widely recognized. The Westphalian model of sovereignty has increasingly come under fire from the non-west as a system imposed solely by Western Colonialism. What this model did was make religion a subordinate to politics and this system does not fit in the Islamic world because concepts such as separation of church and state and individual conscience are not recognised in the Islamic religion as social systems. Nation denotes a people who are believed to or deemed to share common customs, religion, language, origins, however, the adjectives national and international are frequently used to refer to matters pertaining to what are strictly sovereign states, as in national capital, international law. State refers to the set of governing and supportive institutions that have sovereignty over a definite territory, State recognition signifies the decision of a sovereign state to treat another entity as also being a sovereign state. Recognition can be expressed or implied and is usually retroactive in its effects. It does not necessarily signify a desire to establish or maintain diplomatic relations, There is no definition that is binding on all the members of the community of nations on the criteria for statehood. In actual practice, the criteria are mainly political, not legal, in international law, however, there are several theories of when a state should be recognised as sovereign
13.
Provinces of Indonesia
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Indonesian territory is composed of 34 provinces. A province is the highest tier of the local government divisions of Indonesia, provinces are further divided into regencies and cities, which are in turn subdivided into sub-districts. Each province has its own government, headed by a governor. The governor and members of representative bodies are elected by popular vote for five-year terms. Five provinces have special status, Aceh, for the use of the law as the regional law of the province. Special Region of Yogyakarta, a sovereign monarchy within Indonesia with the sultan Hamengkubuwono as hereditary Governor, SR Yogyakarta refused to call themselves as the province according to Law No. 12/2012 about The Speciality of Special Region of Yogyakarta, Papua, for implementation of sustainable development. West Papua, for granting implementation of sustainable development, the provinces are officially grouped into seven geographical units. This clickable map shows provinces of Indonesia as of 25 October 2012, click on a province name to go to its main article. A considerable number of new provinces have been proposed in addition to the 34 existing provinces of Indonesia, as of 2013, the government has targeted the creation of eight new provinces by 2020, by splitting several of the existing provinces. On 25 October 2013, the Indonesian House of Representatives began reviewing draft laws on the establishment of 57 prospective regencies and 8 new provinces
14.
Enclave and exclave
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An enclave is a territory, or a part of a territory, that is entirely surrounded by the territory of one other state. Territorial waters have the same attributes as land, and enclaves may therefore exist within territorial waters. An exclave is a portion of a state or territory geographically separated from the part by surrounding alien territory. Enclave is sometimes used improperly to denote a territory that is partly surrounded by another state. Vatican City and San Marino, enclaved by Italy, and Lesotho, unlike an enclave, an exclave can be surrounded by several states. The Azeri exclave of Naxçıvan is an example of an exclave. Semi-enclaves and semi-exclaves are areas that, except for possessing an unsurrounded sea border, Enclaves and semi-enclaves can exist as independent states, while exclaves always constitute just a part of a sovereign state. A pene-enclave is a part of the territory of one country that can be approached conveniently — in particular by wheeled traffic — only through the territory of another country, pene-enclaves are also called functional enclaves or practical enclaves. Many pene-exclaves partially border their own territorial waters, a pene-enclave can also exist entirely on land, such as when intervening mountains render a territory inaccessible from other parts of a country except through alien territory. A commonly cited example is the Kleinwalsertal, a part of Vorarlberg, Austria. The word enclave is French and first appeared in the century as a derivative of the verb enclaver. In law, this created a servitude of passage for the benefit of the owner of the surrounded land, the first diplomatic document to contain the word enclave was the Treaty of Madrid, signed in 1526. Later, the term began to be used also to refer to parcels of countries, counties, fiefs, communes, towns, parishes. This French word eventually entered the English and other languages to denote the same concept although local terms have continued to be used, in India, the word pocket is often used as a synonym for enclave. In British administrative history, subnational enclaves were usually called detachments or detached parts, in English ecclesiastic history, subnational enclaves were known as peculiars. The word exclave, modeled on enclave, is a extension of the concept of enclave. Enclaves exist for a variety of historical, political and geographical reasons, in particular, this state of affairs persisted into the 19th century in the Holy Roman Empire, and these domains exhibited many of the characteristics of sovereign states. Prior to 1866 Prussia alone consisted of more than 270 discontiguous pieces of territory, thus, over time enclaves have tended to be eliminated. This exchange thus effectively de-enclaved another two dozen second-order enclaves and one third-order enclave, eliminating 197 of the Indo-Bangladesh enclaves in all, the residents in these enclaves had complained of being effectively stateless
15.
Oecusse District
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Oecusse, formerly Ambeno and Oecussi-Ambeno, is a district of East Timor. The capital of the district is Pante Macassar, also called Oecussi Town, or formerly, in Portuguese Timor, originally Ambeno was the name of the district and Oecussi its capital. The district has an area of 814 km², Oecusse and Ambeno are the names of the two original kingdoms, of which Ambeno existed before the colonial period. Oecusse was among the first parts of the island of Timor on which the Portuguese established themselves, in about 1556, the Dominican friar António Taveiro, operating from a base on Solor, started missionary work on the north coast of Timor. Shortly after this, in 1569, the village of Alifao is mentioned on a European map and it was situated five kilometres to the west of modern Pante Macassar. For the Portuguese traders in sandalwood, Lifau was a convenient place to land since it was situated to the south of their base in the Solor Archipelago, the area was dominated by the Ambeno kingdom, which was sometimes referred as the kingdom of Lifau. In 1641 the Dominican priests baptised the royal families of the Ambeno, Mena and Amanuban kingdoms, migration of Topasses rose in the 1650s from Larantuka on Flores, a Eurasian population. After 1664 they were governed by officers belonging to the Hornay and Da Costa families, the Topass leaders used Lifau as their main stronghold on Timor, but still resided much of their time in Larantuka. In the second half of the century they made great profits through the sandalwood trade, attracting merchants from Siam, Batavia, Macao. The precious wood was brought to Lifau and sold to external traders under Topass supervision, in 1702, Lifau became the authorised capital of the colony when it received the first governor from Goa. The following period saw frequent clashes between the governor and the independent-minded Topasses, who had their strongholds in Tulicão west of Lifau, the capital of the governor was transferred from Lifau to Dili in 1769, because of the frequent attacks from the Topass leader Francisco Hornay III. Most of West Timor was left to Dutch forces, who were conquering what is today Indonesia, the Eurasian leadership of Oecusse by and by turned into a Timorese kingship, and members of the Hornay and Da Costa families reigned as Liurai until modern times. They regularly intermarried with the Ambeno royalty, in the 1780s a reconciliation took place between the governor in Dili and the Topasses, who henceforth usually supported the Portuguese government. In 1859, with the Treaty of Lisbon, Portugal and the Netherlands divided the island between them, West Timor became Dutch, with its colonial seat at Kupang, and East Timor became Portuguese, with its seat in Dili. This left Oecusse and Noimuti as enclaves surrounded by Dutch territory, in 1912 the Liurai of Ambeno, João da Cruz, staged a revolt against the Portuguese. It was quickly put down, after which the Ambeno kingdom lapsed, the Liurai of Oecusse became dominant in the entire Oecusse exclave. The definitive border was drawn by the Hague in 1916, apart from Japanese occupation during World War II, the border remained the same until the end of the colonial period. The region was given the status of county, named Oecússi, by the Portuguese government in August 1973, Indonesian forces invaded Oecusse on 6 June 1975
16.
Malay language
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Malay is a major language of the Austronesian family. It has a status in Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia. As the Bahasa Kebangsaan or Bahasa Nasional of several states, Standard Malay has various official names, in Singapore and Brunei it is called Bahasa Melayu, in Malaysia, Bahasa Malaysia, and in Indonesia, Bahasa Indonesia and is designated the Bahasa Persatuan/Pemersatu. However, in areas of central to southern Sumatra where the language is indigenous, Indonesians refer to it as Bahasa Melayu and consider it one of their regional languages. There are also several Malay trade and creole languages which are based on a lingua franca derived from Classical Malay, as well as Macassar Malay, Malay historical linguists agree on the likelihood of the Malay homeland being in western Borneo stretching to the Bruneian coast. A form known as Proto-Malay language was spoken in Borneo at least by 1000 BCE and was, it has been argued, the ancestral language of all subsequent Malayan languages. The history of the Malay language can be divided into five periods, Old Malay, the Transitional Period, the Malacca Period, Late Modern Malay and it is not clear that Old Malay was actually the ancestor of Classical Malay, but this is thought to be quite possible. Old Malay was influenced by Sanskrit literary language of Classical India, Sanskrit loanwords can be found in Old Malay vocabulary. Batenburg on November 29,1920 at Kedukan Bukit, South Sumatra, on the banks of the Tatang and it is a small stone of 45 by 80 centimetres. The earliest surviving manuscript in Malay is the Tanjong Tanah Law in post-Pallava letters and this 14th-century pre-Islamic legal text produced in the Adityawarman era of Dharmasraya, a Hindu-Buddhist kingdom that arose after the end of Srivijayan rule in Sumatra. The laws were for the Minangkabau people, who still live in the highlands of Sumatra. The Malay language came into use as the lingua franca of the Malacca Sultanate. During this period, the Malay language developed rapidly under the influence of Islamic literature, the development changed the nature of the language with massive infusion of Arabic, Malayalam and Sanskrit vocabularies, called Classical Malay. Under the Sultanate of Malacca the language evolved into a form recognisable to speakers of modern Malay, however, there is no connection between Malaccan Malay as used on Riau and the Riau vernacular. One of the oldest surviving letters written in Malay is a letter from Sultan Abu Hayat of Ternate, Maluku Islands in present-day Indonesia, the letter is addressed to the king of Portugal, following contact with Portuguese explorer Francisco Serrão. The letters show sign of non-native usage, the Ternateans used the unrelated Ternate language, Malay was used solely as a lingua franca for inter-ethnic communications. Malay is a member of the Austronesian family of languages, which includes languages from Southeast Asia, malagasy, a geographic outlier spoken in Madagascar in the Indian Ocean, is also a member of this language family. Although each language of the family is mutually unintelligible, their similarities are rather striking, many roots have come virtually unchanged from their common ancestor, Proto-Austronesian language
17.
Lesser Sunda Islands
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The Lesser Sunda Islands or Kepulauan Nusa Tenggara or Kepulauan Sunda Kecil are a group of islands in Maritime Southeast Asia, north of Australia. Together with the Greater Sunda Islands to the west they make up the Sunda Islands, the islands are part of a volcanic arc, the Sunda Arc, formed by subduction along the Sunda Trench in the Java Sea. The main Lesser Sunda Islands are, from west to east, Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, Sumba, Timor, Alor archipelago, Barat Daya Islands, and Tanimbar Islands. The Lesser Sundas comprise many islands, most of which are part of Indonesia and are administered as the provinces of Bali, West Nusa Tenggara, East Nusa Tenggara, the eastern half of Timor is part of East Timor. The Lesser Sunda Islands consist of two geologically distinct archipelagos, the northern archipelago, which includes Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores and Wetar, is volcanic in origin. A number of volcanoes, like Mount Rinjani on Lombok, are still active while others. The northern archipelago began to be formed during the Pliocene, about 15 million years ago, the islands of the southern archipelago, including Sumba, Timor and Babar, are non-volcanic and appear to belong to the Australian plate. The geology and ecology of the northern archipelago share a history, characteristics and processes with the southern Maluku Islands. Lying at the collision of two plates, the Lesser Sunda Islands comprise some of the most geologically complex and active regions in the world. There are a number of volcanoes located on the Lesser Sunda Islands, the Lesser Sunda Islands differ from the large islands of Java or Sumatra in consisting of many small islands, sometimes divided by deep oceanic trenches. Movement of flora and fauna between islands is limited, leading to the evolution of a rate of localized species. The islands east of the Lombok Strait are part of Wallacea and these islands have the driest climate in Indonesia. Thorn trees used to be common in coastal areas of the islands but have largely been cleared. These islands are home to species including seventeen endemic birds. More than half of the vegetation of the islands has been cleared for planting of rice and other crops, for settlement. Only Sumbawa now contains an area of intact natural forest, while Komodo, Rincah. While many ecological problems affect both small islands and large landmasses, small islands suffer their particular problems and are exposed to external forces. Development pressures on small islands are increasing, although their effects are not always anticipated, although Indonesia is richly endowed with natural resources, the resources of the small islands of Nusa Tenggara are limited and specialised, furthermore human resources in particular are limited
18.
Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
19.
Languages of East Timor
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The languages of East Timor include both Austronesian and Papuan languages. The lingua franca and national language of East Timor is Tetum, the language of the Ocussi exclave is Uab Meto. Fataluku is a Papuan language widely used in the part of the country. The rise of lingua francas in the linguistically diverse East Timor, however, some of them are still in use as ritual languages or cants. In 2007, Van Engelenhoven discovered the existence of language that was essentially extinct. Under Portuguese rule, all education was through the medium of Portuguese, although it coexisted with Tetum and other languages. Portuguese particularly influenced the dialect of Tetum spoken in the capital, Dili, known as Tetun Prasa, as opposed to the traditional version spoken in rural areas. Tetun Prasa is the more widely used, and is now taught in schools. Under Indonesian rule, Indonesian was the official language, along with English, it has the status of a working language under the Constitution. Portuguese was also a language of the resistance against Indonesia. Many foreign observers, especially from Australia and Southeast Asia have also been critical about the reinstatement of Portuguese, in spite of this, many Australian linguists have been closely involved with the official language policy, including the promotion of Portuguese. Portugal and other Portuguese language countries such as Brazil have supported the teaching of Portuguese in East Timor. Some people in East Timor have complained that teachers from Portugal and Brazil are poorly equipped to teach in the country, as they do not know local languages, or understand the local culture
20.
Tetum
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Tetum /ˈtɛtʊm/, also Tetun, is an Austronesian language spoken on the island of Timor. It is spoken in Belu Regency in Indonesian West Timor, and across the border in East Timor, in East Timor a creolized form, Tetun Dili, is widely spoken fluently as a second language, without previous contact, Tetum and Tetun Dili are not mutually intelligible. Besides the grammatical simplification involved in creolization, Tetun Dili has been influenced by the vocabulary of Portuguese. Tetum has four dialects, Tetun-Dili, or Tetun-Prasa, is spoken in the capital, Dili, ethnologue classifies it as a Tetun-based creole. Tetun-Terik is spoken in the south and southwestern coastal regions, the Nanaek dialect is spoken in the village of Metinaro, on the coastal road between Dili and Manatuto. Tetun-Belu and Tetun-Terik are not spoken or well understood outside their home territories, Tetun-Prasa is the form of Tetum that is spoken throughout East Timor. Although Portuguese was the language of Portuguese Timor until 1975. When East Timor gained its independence on 20 May 2002, Tetum, in addition to regional varieties of Tetum in East Timor, there are variations in vocabulary and pronunciation, partly due to Portuguese and Indonesian influence. The Tetum spoken by East Timorese migrants in Portugal and Australia is more Portuguese-influenced, as many of those speakers were not educated in Indonesian. The Tetum name for East Timor is Timór Lorosae, which means Timor of the sun, or, less poetically, East Timor, lorosae comes from loro sun and sae to rise. The noun for word is liafuan, from lia voice and fuan fruit, Tetum has many hybrid words, which are combinations of indigenous and Portuguese words. These often include an indigenous Tetum verb, with a Portuguese suffix -dór, for example, han handór – glutton. Hateten hatetendór – chatterbox, talkative person, obrigadu/Obrigada – Thank you, said by a male/female. Examples, A common occurrence is to use such as Senhora for a woman or names rather than pronouns when addressing people. Example, The second person singular pronoun Ó is used generously with children or if the speaker intends to address someone of high social status, example, The plural is not normally marked on nouns, but the word sira they can express it when necessary. Feto woman/women → feto sira women However, the plural ending -s of nouns of Portuguese origin is retained. g. g, I and they, and ita, which is inclusive, e. g. you, I, and they. Ami-nia karreta – our car ita-nia rain – our country Nouns derived from verbs or adjectives are formed with affixes, for example the suffix -nain. Hakerek write → hakerek-nain writer The suffix -nain can also be used with nouns, uma house → uma-nain householder In more traditional forms of Tetum, the circumfix ma- -k is used instead of -nain
21.
Ethnolinguistic group
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An ethnolinguistic group is one of the types of group identity that defines membership of an ethnic group. Members are unified by a common language, herodotus enumerated shared language, homoglōsson, as one of the four pillars of ethnic identity. Encyclopedia of Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, handbook of Language and Ethnic Identity. Language, Identity and Conflict, A Comparative Study of Language in Ethnic Conflict in Europe, Language and ethnolinguistic identity, The bilingualism question. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 1979.20, 23-36, social identity theory, Constructive and critical advances 211,229. Towards a theory of language in group relations. Language, ethnicity and intergroup relations 307348, Language in ethnic interaction, A social psychological approach
22.
Atoni
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The Atoni people are an ethnic group on Timor, in Indonesian West Timor and the East Timorese enclave of Oecussi-Ambeno. The Atoni live in villages consisting of 50 to 60 people, each village is surrounded with stone fence or shrubs, with fields, the houses usually form a circular cluster, or following the road after the introduction of a road. According to ethnographer Clarke Cunningham, their culture is notable for its spatial symbolism, male-female principle is important, as with the duality of sun-earth, light-dark, open-close, dry season-wet season, outer-inner, central-periphery, secular-sacral, right-left, and so on. This in turn affects the spatial configuration of an Atoni house, the right side of the house is always male, whereas the left is female. The center of the house is male, while the periphery of the house is female, the interior of the house is female, the terrace is male. The house is female and the yard is male and this principle conceived the Atoni house as a microcosmos. The house also expresses social order, a more elaborate house is called Ume Atoni. The house is male in quality. The Atoni entertains their guest in a house called Lopo. A Lopo is always located in front of a house and is oriented to the road, furthermore, each cardinal direction is associated with a gender, as are different parts of a house. Sex and gender do not always line up, as an important lord is called a female-man, and is always a man. Clarke E. Cunningham, Atoni Borrowing Of Children, An Aspect Of Mediation, in, Spiro, american Ethnological Society Proceedings, Annual Spring Meeting, Seattle,1965. Clarke E. Cunningham, Categories Of Descent Groups In A Timorese Village, in, Oceania 37,1966, herbert W. Jardner, Textilien der Atoni. Variationen eines Stils in West-Timor, unpubl, herbert W. Jardner, Die Kuan Fatu-Chronik. Form und Kontext der mümdlichen Dichtung der Atoin Meto, Veröffentlichungen des Seminars für Indonesische und Südseesprachen der Unsiversität Hamburg, Band 23, herbert W. und Heidrun Jardner, Eingefangene Fäden. Textile Verzierungstechniken in West-Timor, Indonesien, Austronesia Bd.1, andrew R. McWilliam, Harvest of the nakaf, A Study of Headhunting Among the Atoni of West Timor, B. Litt. thesis, Australian National University,1982. Andrew R. McWilliam, Narrating the gate and the path, place and precedence in South West Timor, Ph. D. thesis Australian National University,1989. The Political System Of The Atoni Of Timor, Verhandelingen Koninklijk Instituut 60,1971, media related to Atoin Meto at Wikimedia Commons
23.
Austronesian languages
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The Austronesian languages are a language family that is widely dispersed throughout Maritime Southeast Asia, Madagascar and the islands of the Pacific Ocean, with a few members in continental Asia. It is on par with Indo-European, Niger–Congo, and Afroasiatic as one of the language families. Major Austronesian languages with the highest number of speakers are Malay, Javanese, the family contains 1,257 languages, which is the second most of any language family. Otto Dempwolff was the first researcher to extensively explore Austronesian using the comparative method, another German, Wilhelm Schmidt, coined the German word austronesisch which comes from Latin auster south wind plus Greek nêsos island. The name Austronesian was formed from the same roots, the family is aptly named, as the vast majority of Austronesian languages are spoken on islands, only a few languages, such as Malay and the Chamic languages, are indigenous to mainland Asia. Twenty or so Austronesian languages are official in their respective countries, hawaiian, Rapa Nui, and Malagasy are the geographic outliers of the Austronesian family. According to Robert Blust, Austronesian is divided in several branches, all. The Formosan languages of Taiwan are grouped into as many as nine first-order subgroups of Austronesian, all Austronesian languages spoken outside Taiwan belong to the Malayo-Polynesian branch, sometimes called Extra-Formosan. Most Austronesian languages lack a long history of attestation, making the feat of reconstructing earlier stages – up to distant Proto-Austronesian – all the more remarkable. The oldest inscription in the Cham language, the Đông Yên Châu inscription and it is difficult to make generalizations about the languages that make up a family as diverse as Austronesian. The phenomenon has frequently referred to as focus. Furthermore, the choice of voice is influenced by the definiteness of the participants, the word order has a strong tendency to be verb-initial. They are also characterized by the presence of preposed clitic pronouns, unlike the Philippine type, these languages mostly tend towards verb-second word-orders. A number of languages, such as the Batak languages, Old Javanese, Balinese, Sasak, finally, in some languages, which Ross calls post-Indonesian, the original voice system has broken down completely and the voice-marking affixes no longer preserve their functions. The Austronesian languages tend to use reduplication, like many East and Southeast Asian languages, most Austronesian languages have highly restrictive phonotactics, with generally small numbers of phonemes and predominantly consonant–vowel syllables. Some cognate sets are very stable, the word for eye in many Austronesian languages is mata. Other words are harder to reconstruct, the word for two is also stable, in that it appears over the entire range of the Austronesian family, but the forms require some linguistic expertise to recognise. The Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database gives word lists for approximately 1000 Austronesian languages, the internal structure of the Austronesian languages is complex
24.
Papuan languages
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The Papuan languages are a subset of Languages of Papua New Guinea of the western Pacific island of New Guinea, and neighbouring islands, that are neither Austronesian nor Australian. The term does not presuppose a genetic relationship, the concept of Papuan peoples as distinct from Melanesians was first suggested and named by Sidney Herbert Ray in 1892. New Guinea is one of the most linguistically diverse regions in the world, the westernmost language, Tambora in Sumbawa, is extinct. One Papuan language, Meriam Mir, is spoken within the borders of Australia. The only Papuan languages with official recognition are those of East Timor, most Papuan languages are spoken by hundreds to thousands of people, the most populous are found in the New Guinea highlands, where a few exceed a hundred thousand. These include Western Dani and Ekari in the highlands, and Enga, Huli. To the west of New Guinea, the largest languages are Makasai in East Timor, to the east, Terei and Naasioi are spoken on Bougainville. The largest family posited for the Papuan region is the Trans–New Guinea phylum, consisting of the majority of Papuan languages, the various high-level families may represent distinct migrations into New Guinea, presumably from the west. Since perhaps only a quarter of Papuan languages have been studied in detail, the Great Andamanese languages may be related to some western Papuan languages, but are not themselves covered by the term Papuan. Joseph Greenberg proposed an Indo-Pacific phylum containing the Andamanese languages, all Papuan languages, and the Tasmanian languages, very few linguists accept his grouping. It is distinct from the Trans–New Guinea phylum of the classifications below, the most widely used classification of Papuan languages is that of Wurm, listed below with the approximate number of languages in each family in parentheses. This was the used by Ethnologue prior to Rosss classification. It is based on preliminary work, much of it typological. Other linguists, including William A. Foley divides Papuan languages into over sixty small language families, however, more recently Foley has accepted the broad outline if not the details of Wurms classification, as he and Ross have substantiated a large portion of Wurms Trans–New Guinea phylum. According to Ross, the problem with Wurms classification is that he did not take contact-induced change into account. However, there are also many Austronesian languages that are similar to Trans–New Guinea languages due to the influence of contact. Similarly, several groups that do have basic vocabulary in common with Trans–New Guinea languages are excluded from the phylum because they do not resemble it grammatically. Malcolm Ross re-evaluated Wurms proposal on purely lexical grounds and that is, he looked at shared vocabulary, and especially shared idiosyncrasies analogous to English I and me vs. German ich and mich
25.
Halmahera
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Halmahera, formerly known as Jilolo, Gilolo, or Jailolo, is the largest island in the Maluku Islands. It is part of the North Maluku province of Indonesia and Sofifi, the capital of the province, is located on the west coast of the island. Halmahera has an area of 17,780 km2 and a population in 1995 of 162,728. Approximately half of the inhabitants are Muslim and half are Christian. Sparsely-populated Halmaheras fortunes have long been tied to those of the smaller islands of Ternate and Tidore. These islands were both the sites of major kingdoms in the era before Dutch East India Company colonized the entire archipelago, during World War II, Halmahera was the site of a Japanese naval base at Kao Bay. Thousands of people on Halmahera were killed in the fighting between religious militias, in June 2000, about five hundred people were killed when a ferry carrying refugees from the fighting on Halmahera sank off the northeast tip of Sulawesi island. Conspiracy theories about this event abound, a memorial to this tragedy can be found in Duma village in North Halmahera district. Particularly since the inauguration of the first ever directly elected Bupati, as it is surrounded by flat land, Tobelo has the potential for expansion. Ternate is limited by its size, being an island which can be driven around in forty-five minutes. Also, in 2010 the provincial government has moved the capital from Ternate City to Sofifi. North Maluku Province consists of seven regencies and two municipalities,6 of which include a part of Halmahera island. The regencies are, North Halmahera, West Halmahera, East Halmahera, Central Halmahera, South Hamahera, Ternate Municipality, Tidore City and Islands, Morotai, only Ternate Municipality, Morotai and Sula Islands do not include any part of Halmahera. The volcanic island lies on an arc that includes the Raja Ampat Islands, all uplifted by the northward migration of the continent of Australia. Dukono is a volcano at the north end of the island. Mount Ibu is a volcano on the islands northwest coast. The flightless invisible rail is endemic to the island, the naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace visited Halmahera, as described in his 1869 book The Malay Archipelago. He considered the bird of paradise, Semioptera wallacei, to be his greatest prize
26.
Western New Guinea
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Western New Guinea, formerly known as Irian Jaya, is the Indonesian part of the island of New Guinea, lying to the west of the nation of Papua New Guinea. The territory is considered to include smaller nearby islands including Biak, the region is predominantly dense forest where numerous traditional tribes live such as the Dani of the Baliem Valley, although the majority of the population live in or near coastal areas. The largest city in the region is Jayapura, the official and most commonly spoken language is Indonesian. Estimates of the number of languages in the region range from 200 to over 700, with the most widely spoken including Dani, Yali, Ekari. The predominant religion is Christianity followed by Islam, the main industries include agriculture, fishing, oil production, and mining. The territory has been part of Indonesia since May 1963, human habitation is estimated to have begun between 42,000 and 48,000 years ago. The Netherlands claimed the region and commenced work in the nineteenth century. The region was annexed by Indonesia in the 1960s, following the 1998 commencement of reforms across Indonesia, Papua and other Indonesian provinces received greater regional autonomy. In 2001, Special Autonomy status was granted to Papua province, although to date, implementation has been partial, the region was administered as a single province until 2003, when it was split into the provinces of Papua and West Papua. Speakers align themselves with a political orientation when choosing a name for the half of the island of New Guinea. West Papua, which is not the name for the western half of the island, is preferred by ethnic Papuans. The region has had the names of Netherlands New Guinea, West New Guinea, West Irian, Irian Jaya. Indonesian president Abdurrahman Wahid considered his use of the name Papua in 2002 as a concession to the West Papuans. Since 2003, western New Guinea has had two provinces, the province of West Papua on the west, and the province of Papua on the east, officials and administrators refer to the province when they say West Papua, independence activists mean the whole of western New Guinea. The region is 1,200 kilometres from east to west and 736 kilometres from north to south and it has an area of 420,540 square kilometres, which equates to approximately 22% of Indonesias land area. The border with Papua New Guinea mostly follows the 141st meridian east, the island of New Guinea was once part of the Australian landmass and lie on the Sahul. The collision between the Indo-Australian Plate and Pacific plate resulting in the Maoke Mountains run through the centre of the region and are 600 km long and 100 km across. The range includes about ten peaks over 4,000 metres, including Puncak Jaya, Puncak Mandala, the range ensures a steady supply of rain from the tropical atmosphere
27.
Portuguese language
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Portuguese is a Romance language and the sole official language of Portugal, Brazil, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Angola, and São Tomé and Príncipe. It also has co-official language status in East Timor, Equatorial Guinea, Portuguese is part of the Ibero-Romance group that evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in the medieval Kingdom of Galicia, and has kept some Celtic phonology. Portuguese is also termed the language of Camões, after Luís Vaz de Camões, one of the greatest literary figures in the Portuguese language and author of the Portuguese epic poem, the museum is the first of its kind in the world. In 2015 the museum was destroyed in a fire, but there are plans to reconstruct it, when the Romans arrived in the Iberian Peninsula in 216 BCE, they brought the Latin language with them, from which all Romance languages descend. Between 409 CE and 711 CE, as the Roman Empire collapsed in Western Europe, Portuguese evolved from the medieval language, known today by linguists as Galician-Portuguese, Old Portuguese or Old Galician, of the northwestern medieval Kingdom of Galicia. It is in Latin administrative documents of the 9th century that written Galician-Portuguese words and this phase is known as Proto-Portuguese, which lasted from the 9th century until the 12th-century independence of the County of Portugal from the Kingdom of León, by then reigning over Galicia. In the first part of the Galician-Portuguese period, the language was used for documents. For some time, it was the language of preference for poetry in Christian Hispania. Portugal became an independent kingdom in 1139, under King Afonso I of Portugal, in the second period of Old Portuguese, in the 15th and 16th centuries, with the Portuguese discoveries, the language was taken to many regions of Africa, Asia and the Americas. The language continued to be popular in parts of Asia until the 19th century, some Portuguese-speaking Christian communities in India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, and Indonesia preserved their language even after they were isolated from Portugal. The end of the Old Portuguese period was marked by the publication of the Cancioneiro Geral by Garcia de Resende, Most literate Portuguese speakers were also literate in Latin, and thus they easily adopted Latin words into their writing—and eventually speech—in Portuguese. Portuguese is the language of the majority of people in Brazil and Portugal, perhaps 75% of the population of Angola speaks Portuguese natively, and 85% are fluent. Just over 40% of the population of Mozambique are native speakers of Portuguese, Portuguese is also spoken natively by 30% of the population in Guinea-Bissau, and a Portuguese-based creole is understood by all. No data is available for Cape Verde, but almost all the population is bilingual, there are also significant Portuguese speaking immigrant communities in many countries including Andorra, Bermuda, Canada, France, Japan, Jersey, Namibia, Paraguay, Macau, Switzerland, Venezuela. In some parts of former Portuguese India, namely Goa and Daman and Diu, in 2014, an estimated 1,500 students were learning Portuguese in Goa. Equatorial Guinea made an application for full membership to the CPLP in June 2010. In 2011, Portuguese became its official language and, in July 2014. Portuguese is a subject in The school curriculum in Uruguay
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Indonesian language
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Indonesian is the official language of Indonesia. It is a register of Malay, an Austronesian language that has been used as a lingua franca in the multilingual Indonesian archipelago for centuries. Indonesia is the fourth most populous nation in the world, of its large population, the majority speak Indonesian, making it one of the most widely spoken languages in the world. However, most formal education, and nearly all national mass media, governance, administration, judiciary, the Indonesian name for the language is Bahasa Indonesia or sometimes simplified as Bahasa. This term is occasionally found in English and other languages. Indonesian is a register of Riau Malay, which despite its common name is not the Malay dialect native to Riau. Originally spoken in Northeast Sumatra, Malay has been used as a lingua franca in the Indonesian archipelago for half a millennium and it might be attributed to its ancestor, the Old Malay language. The Kedukan Bukit Inscription is the oldest surviving specimen of Old Malay, trade contacts carried on by various ethnic peoples at the time were the main vehicle for spreading the Old Malay language, which was the main communications medium among the traders. Ultimately, the Old Malay language became a lingua franca and was spoken widely by most people in the archipelago, Indonesian is essentially the same language as the official Malaysian, Singaporean and Brunei standards of Malay. However, it does differ from Malaysian in several respects, with differences in pronunciation and these differences are due mainly to the Dutch and Javanese influences on Indonesian. Indonesian was also influenced by the Melayu pasar, which was the lingua franca of the archipelago in colonial times, and thus indirectly by other spoken languages of the islands. Malaysian Malay claims to be closer to the classical Malay of earlier centuries, even though modern Malaysian has been influenced, in lexicon as well as in syntax. The question of whether High Malay or Low Malay was the parent of the Indonesian language is still in debate. Some linguists have argued that it was the more common Low Malay that formed the base of the Indonesian language, however, the language had never been dominant among the population of the Indonesian archipelago as it was limited to mercantile activity. The VOC adopted the Malay language as the language of their trading outpost in the east. Following the bankruptcy of the VOC the Dutch crown took control of the colony in 1799 and it was then that education in. Even then, Dutch administrators were reluctant to promote the use of Dutch compared to other colonial regimes. Dutch thus remained the language of a elite, in 1940
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Christianity
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Christianity is a Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ, who serves as the focal point for the religion. It is the worlds largest religion, with over 2.4 billion followers, or 33% of the global population, Christians believe that Jesus is the Son of God and the savior of humanity whose coming as the Messiah was prophesied in the Old Testament. Christian theology is summarized in creeds such as the Apostles Creed and his incarnation, earthly ministry, crucifixion, and resurrection are often referred to as the gospel, meaning good news. The term gospel also refers to accounts of Jesuss life and teaching, four of which—Matthew, Mark, Luke. Christianity is an Abrahamic religion that began as a Second Temple Judaic sect in the mid-1st century, following the Age of Discovery, Christianity spread to the Americas, Australasia, sub-Saharan Africa, and the rest of the world through missionary work and colonization. Christianity has played a prominent role in the shaping of Western civilization, throughout its history, Christianity has weathered schisms and theological disputes that have resulted in many distinct churches and denominations. Worldwide, the three largest branches of Christianity are the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the denominations of Protestantism. There are many important differences of interpretation and opinion of the Bible, concise doctrinal statements or confessions of religious beliefs are known as creeds. They began as baptismal formulae and were expanded during the Christological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries to become statements of faith. Many evangelical Protestants reject creeds as definitive statements of faith, even agreeing with some or all of the substance of the creeds. The Baptists have been non-creedal in that they have not sought to establish binding authoritative confessions of faith on one another. Also rejecting creeds are groups with roots in the Restoration Movement, such as the Christian Church, the Evangelical Christian Church in Canada, the Apostles Creed is the most widely accepted statement of the articles of Christian faith. It is also used by Presbyterians, Methodists, and Congregationalists and this particular creed was developed between the 2nd and 9th centuries. Its central doctrines are those of the Trinity and God the Creator, each of the doctrines found in this creed can be traced to statements current in the apostolic period. The creed was used as a summary of Christian doctrine for baptismal candidates in the churches of Rome. Most Christians accept the use of creeds, and subscribe to at least one of the mentioned above. The central tenet of Christianity is the belief in Jesus as the Son of God, Christians believe that Jesus, as the Messiah, was anointed by God as savior of humanity, and hold that Jesus coming was the fulfillment of messianic prophecies of the Old Testament. The Christian concept of the Messiah differs significantly from the contemporary Jewish concept, Jesus, having become fully human, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, but did not sin
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Islam
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Islam is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion which professes that there is only one and incomparable God and that Muhammad is the last messenger of God. It is the worlds second-largest religion and the major religion in the world, with over 1.7 billion followers or 23% of the global population. Islam teaches that God is merciful, all-powerful, and unique, and He has guided mankind through revealed scriptures, natural signs, and a line of prophets sealed by Muhammad. The primary scriptures of Islam are the Quran, viewed by Muslims as the word of God. Muslims believe that Islam is the original, complete and universal version of a faith that was revealed many times before through prophets including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses. As for the Quran, Muslims consider it to be the unaltered, certain religious rites and customs are observed by the Muslims in their family and social life, while social responsibilities to parents, relatives, and neighbors have also been defined. Besides, the Quran and the sunnah of Muhammad prescribe a comprehensive body of moral guidelines for Muslims to be followed in their personal, social, political, Islam began in the early 7th century. Originating in Mecca, it spread in the Arabian Peninsula. The expansion of the Muslim world involved various caliphates and empires, traders, most Muslims are of one of two denominations, Sunni or Shia. Islam is the dominant religion in the Middle East, North Africa, sizable Muslim communities are also found in Horn of Africa, Europe, China, Russia, Mainland Southeast Asia, Philippines, Northern Borneo, Caucasus and the Americas. Converts and immigrant communities are found in almost every part of the world, Islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, submission, safeness and peace. In a religious context it means voluntary submission to God, Islām is the verbal noun of Form IV of the root, and means submission or surrender. Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of the verb form. The word sometimes has connotations in its various occurrences in the Quran. In some verses, there is stress on the quality of Islam as a state, Whomsoever God desires to guide. Other verses connect Islām and dīn, Today, I have perfected your religion for you, I have completed My blessing upon you, still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith. In the Hadith of Gabriel, islām is presented as one part of a triad that also includes imān, Islam was historically called Muhammadanism in Anglophone societies. This term has fallen out of use and is said to be offensive because it suggests that a human being rather than God is central to Muslims religion
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Animism
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Animism is the worlds oldest religion. Animism teaches that objects, places, and creatures all possess distinctive spiritual qualities, potentially, animism perceives all things—animals, plants, rocks, rivers, weather systems, human handiwork, and perhaps even words—as animate and alive. Animism is the oldest known type of system in the world that even predates paganism. It is still practiced in a variety of forms in traditional societies. Although each culture has its own different mythologies and rituals, animism is said to describe the most common, foundational thread of indigenous peoples spiritual or supernatural perspectives. The currently accepted definition of animism was only developed in the late 19th century by Sir Edward Tylor, Animism may further attribute souls to abstract concepts such as words, true names, or metaphors in mythology. Some members of the world also consider themselves animists. Earlier anthropological perspectives – since termed the old animism – were concerned with knowledge surrounding what is alive, the old animism assumed that animists were individuals who were unable to understand the difference between persons and things. Critics of the old animism have accused it of preserving colonialist and dualist worldviews, according to Tylor, animism often includes an idea of pervading life and will in nature, i. e. a belief that natural objects other than humans have souls. This formulation was little different from that proposed by Auguste Comte as fetishism, thus, for Tylor, animism was fundamentally seen as a mistake, a basic error from which all religion grew. The earliest known usage in English appeared in 1819, Tylors definition of animism was a part of a growing international debate on the nature of primitive society by lawyers, theologians, and philologists. The debate defined the field of research of a new science – anthropology and their religion was animism – the belief that natural species and objects had souls. With the development of property, these descent groups were displaced by the emergence of the territorial state. These rituals and beliefs eventually evolved over time into the vast array of developed religions, in 1869, the Edinburgh lawyer, John Ferguson McLellan, argued that the animistic thinking evident in fetishism gave rise to a religion he named Totemism. Primitive people believed, he argued, that they were descended of the species as their totemic animal. Subsequent debate by the armchair anthropologists remained focused on totemism rather than animism, indeed, anthropologists have commonly avoided the issue of Animism and even the term itself rather than revisit this prevalent notion in light of their new and rich ethnographies. Certain indigenous religious groups such as the Australian Aboriginals are more typically totemic, stewart Guthrie saw animism – or attribution as he preferred it – as an evolutionary strategy to aid survival. He argued that humans and other animal species view inanimate objects as potentially alive as a means of being constantly on guard against potential threats
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Sumba
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Sumba is an island in eastern Indonesia. It is one of the Lesser Sunda Islands and is in the province of East Nusa Tenggara, Sumba has an area of 11,153 square kilometres, and the population was 656,259 at the 2010 Census. Before colonization by western Europeans in the 1500s, Sumba was inhabited by Melanesian and Austronesian people, in 1522, through the Portuguese, the first ships from Europe arrived. By 1866 Sumba belonged to the Dutch East Indies, although the island did not come under real Dutch administration until the 20th century, jesuits opened a mission in Laura, West Sumba in 1866. Historically, this island exported sandalwood and was known as Sandalwood Island, despite contact with western cultures, Sumba is one of the few places in the world where megalithic burials are used as a living tradition to inter prominent individuals when they die. Burial in megaliths is a practice that was used in parts of the world during the Neolithic. It has survived to this day in Sumba and has raised significant interest from scholars, at Anakalang, for instance, quadrangular adzes have been unearthed. Another long-lasting tradition is the sometimes lethal game of pasola, in teams of often several hundred horse-riders fight with spears. On August 19,1977, an earthquake measuring 7.0 on the Richter scale occurred and caused a tsunami,316 people were killed on the island and islands off the west coast. The largest town on the island is the port of Waingapu. The landscape is low, limestone hills, rather than the steep volcanoes of many Indonesian islands, there is a dry season from May to November and a rainy season from December to April. The western side of the island is fertile and more heavily populated than the east. Due to its flora and fauna Sumba has been categorised by the World Wildlife Fund as the Sumba deciduous forests ecoregion. Although generally thought to be part of the Gondwana southern hemisphere supercontinent, recent research suggests that it might have detached from the South East Asia margin. Sumba is in the Wallacea ecozone, having a mixture of plants, most of the island was originally covered in deciduous monsoon forest while the south-facing slopes, which remain moist during the dry season, were evergreen rainforest. Saltwater crocodiles can still be found in some areas, the Sumba hornbill or Julang Sumba is under increasing threat of extinction. Indiscriminate deforestation is threatening their survival, the population is estimated at less than 4,000 with an average density of six individuals per square kilometer. A hornbill can fly to and fro over an area of up to 100 square kilometers, most of the original forest has been cleared for the planting of maize, cassava, and other crops so only small isolated patches remain
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Babar Islands
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Tepa is the capital of the Babar Islands municipality actually now reduced in size to encompass only the western half of Babar Island, Wetang Island and Dai Island. The islands take their name from the central island of Babar which is roughly 32 km across. Water action on the base over the millennia has created many caves. Rain is plentiful from December to July so corn, plantains, bananas, cassava, various tubers, fish is the main source of protein. Sufficient potable water on Babar Island is provided by year round springs, coconut oil is important for consumption while the oily meat called copra, is sold. Other items harvested and sold for export are sea shells, sea weed, sea cucumbers, shark fins, live lizards and birds, cattle, cashews, nutmeg, cloves and this situation contrasts markedly with the much smaller islands ringing Babar Island. These are low-lying, uplifted reef and limestone, infertile, not heavily forested, the more difficult environment leads the indigenous inhabitants to focus more of their energies on fishing and hand-crafts which are then traded for garden produce from Babar Island. The people collect rain water in large above ground cisterns which can last them through the driest time of the year, people camp overnight beside the well waiting their turn. The Indonesian government has provided funds for many more tanks for rain water. There is no airport or landing strip in the Babar Islands, small freighters that have contracts to carry passengers service the islands. It is a minimum twelve-hour ride to the nearest city with an airport where one can catch a flight to other towns in Maluku being Tual, Larat, Wonreli. Most indigenous Babar Islanders are baptised into the Protestant Church of Maluku, the GPMs roots are in the Dutch Reformed Church started by the Dutch colonists. Due undoubtedly to the aridity of the islands and the lack of natural resources, in Tepa, there are 3 other denominations with church buildings, a Catholic church, a Seventh-day Adventist church, and a Pentecostal church. There is also a mosque in Tepa that serves the community of Muslims. All the other towns have one GPM church each, totaling 56 GPM churches in the entire GPM diocese of Babar islands, while these world faiths are represented, there is much hybridization with the preexisting animist beliefs and practices. The traditional dance of Babar is Seka, weber Line Babar Island Dai Island Dawelor Dawera Masela Wetang Languages of Indonesia
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Archipelago
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An archipelago, sometimes called an island group or island chain, is a chain, cluster or collection of islands. The word archipelago is derived from the Greek ἄρχι- – arkhi-, in Italian, possibly following a tradition of antiquity, the Archipelago was the proper name for the Aegean Sea and, later, usage shifted to refer to the Aegean Islands. It is now used to refer to any group or, sometimes. Archipelagos may be isolated in large amounts of water or neighbouring a large land mass. For example, Scotland has more than 700 islands surrounding its mainland which form an archipelago, archipelagos are often volcanic, forming along island arcs generated by subduction zones or hotspots, but may also be the result of erosion, deposition, and land elevation. Depending on their origin, islands forming archipelagos can be referred to as oceanic islands, continental fragments. Oceanic islands are mainly of volcanic origin, continental fragments correspond to land masses that have separated from a continental mass due to tectonic displacement. Indonesia, Japan, Taiwan, the Philippines, New Zealand, Maldives, the Bahamas, Greece, Hawaii, the largest archipelagic state in the world by area and population is Indonesia. Island arc List of landforms List of archipelagos by number of islands List of archipelagos List of islands Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Archipelago
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Flores
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Flores is one of the Lesser Sunda Islands, a group of islands in the eastern half of Indonesia. The population was 1,831,000 in the 2010 census, the name Flores is derived from the Portuguese for flowers. Flores is located east of Sumbawa and Komodo and west of Lembata, to the south, across the Sumba Strait, is Sumba island and to the north, beyond the Flores Sea, is Sulawesi. Unlike most islands in the Indonesian archipelago, the name Flores was given by the Portuguese, from Cabo de Flores and this part of the island, originally called Kopondai, was so named by the Portuguese because of the flowering Delonix regia trees found there. The original name of Flores was Nipa, referring to the serpent, Portuguese traders and missionaries came to Flores in the 16th century, mainly to Larantuka and Sikka. Their influence is still discernible in Sikkas language, culture and religion, the first Portuguese visit took place in 1511, through the expedition of António de Abreu and his vice-captain Francisco Serrão, en route through the Sunda islands. The Dominican order was important in this island, as well as in the neighbouring islands of Timor and Solor. When in 1613 the Dutch attacked the Fortress of Solor, the population of this fort, led by the Dominicans, moved to the town of Larantuka. This population was mixed, of Portuguese and local islanders descent and Larantuqueiros, Topasses or, as Dutch knew them, the Larantuqueiros or Topasses became the dominant sandalwood trading people of the region for the next 200 years. This group used Portuguese as the language for worship, Malay as the language of trade and their Language is Portuguese, and the religion they have, is Romish. They seem in Words to acknowledge the King of Portugal for their Sovereign and they speak indifferently the Malayan and their own native Languages, as well as Portuguese. In 1846, Dutch and Portuguese initiated negotiations towards delimiting the territories, lima Lopes did so without the consent of Lisbon and was dismissed in disgrace, but his agreement was not rescinded and in 1854 Portugal ceded all its historical claims on Flores. After this, Flores became part of the territory of Dutch East Indies, during World War II a Japanese invasion force landed at Reo on 14 May 1942 and occupied Flores. After the war Flores became part of independent Indonesia, on 12 December 1992, an earthquake measuring 7.8 on the Richter scale occurred, killing 2,500 people in and around Maumere, including islands off the North coast. Flores is part of the East Nusa Tenggara province, Flores has 39. 1% of the East Nusa Tenggara provincial population as of 2010, and the most Indonesians of all islands in the province. Kelimutu National Park is the national park designated on Flores to protect endangered species. The Flores giant rat is endemic to the island. These giant rodents are considered examples of island gigantism, Flores was also the habitat of several extinct dwarf forms of the proboscidean Stegodon, the most recent disappearing approximately 12,000 years ago and the diminutive Homo floresiensis
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Alor Island
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Alor is the largest island in the Alor Archipelago and is one of the 92 officially listed outlying islands of Indonesia. It is located at the eastern Lesser Sunda Islands that runs through southeastern Indonesia, which from the west include such islands as Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Komodo, and Flores. To the east of the island across the Ombai Strait lie the islands of Wetar and Atauro, to the south, across the Strait of Alor, lies the western part of Timor. To the north lies the Banda Sea, to the west lies Pantar and the other islands of the Alor archipelago, and further yet the rest of the Sunda Islands. Alor Island, as well as the rest of its archipelago, is part of East Nusa Tenggara province, Alor has an area of about 2800 km², making it the largest island of the Alor archipelago. Kalabahi is the town on the island of Alor, with a metropolitan population of about 60,000. The variety of goods obtainable in Kalabahi is surprising considering its size, the 2010 census population of the island is 145,299 out of 190,000 in the regency. Alor is of volcanic origin and has rugged terrain. The region near Kalabahi is the flat area. This may be why the Dutch chose the location as the capital, on 12 November 2004, an earthquake occurred, killing 34 people, and injuring 400. The shock had a moment magnitude of 7.5 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII, the islands infrastructure is only weakly built. The inhabitants practice mainly subsistence agriculture, the government seeks to change this with the help of international organizations. In the villages, vanilla, tamarind, almonds and other nuts are cultivated, in the forests sandalwood is cut down for trade. The latest geological explorations have discovered valuable resources such as gypsum, kaolin, petroleum, natural gas, tin, gold, alors snorkelling and diving may promise an increase in tourism in the future. Depletion of the fisheries has however damaged the reefs in recent years. Over 168,000 people live on Alor, three-fourths are Protestants, the rest are either Muslims or in a few villages Roman Catholics. Animistic rites and traditions are still strongly practiced, more than 15 different indigenous languages are spoken on Alor, the majority of them classified as Papuan or non-Austronesian. These include Abui, Adang, Hamap, Kabola, Kafoa, Woisika, Kelon, in addition, Alorese is a Malayo-Polynesian language which is spoken along the coast of the western and southern Birds Head of Alor Island and in places on surrounding islands
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Wetar
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Wetar is a tropical island which belongs to the Indonesian province of Maluku and is the largest island of the Barat Daya Islands. It lies east of the Lesser Sunda Islands, which include nearby Alor and Timor, to the south, across the Wetar Strait, lies the island of Timor, at its closest it is 50 km away. To the west, across the Ombai Strait, lies the island of Alor, to the southwest is the very small island of Liran, which is also part of Wetar district and, further southwest, the small East Timorese island of Atauro. To the north is the Banda Sea and to the east lie Romang and Damar Islands, Wetar is one of the 92 officially listed outlying islands of Indonesia. The principal towns on Wetar are Lioppa in the northwest, Ilwaki in the south, Wasiri in the north, Masapun in the east, Wetar is 130 km wide east-to-west, and 45 km north-to-south. It has an area of 3600 km2 and it is surrounded by coral reefs and deep seas. The highest point on the island is 1412 m, Wetar is part of a volcanic island arc which includes the other Barat Daya Islands and the Banda Islands, created by the collision of the Indo-Australian Plate and the Eurasian Plate. It is not, however, principally of volcanic origin, being instead mainly oceanic crust that has lifted by the plate collision. The stratovolcano Gunungapi Wetar forms an island to the north of Wetar. There are a number of mines on Wetar, which have been poorly managed. Along with other islands, it formed part of Wallacea. This region is known for its fauna, and Wetar is no exception. It has 162 species of birds, three of which are endemic, and four of which are endangered and it forms part of the Timor and Wetar deciduous forests ecoregion. There are a number of Malayo-Polynesian languages endemic to Wetar and the islands of Liran. Called Wetarese, they are Aputai, Iliuun, Perai, there is also Talur, a dialect of Galoli of East Timor. These are spoken by groups of about 1,000 people each. The national language Indonesian and regional Ambonese Malay are commonly used, the main economic activity on Wetar is subsistence agriculture, principally of sago. Tortoise shells are also gathered and exported to countries where the trade is not banned, Wetar ground-dove Wetar figbird Wetar Island python Wetar lorikeet Wetarese languages Wetar Strait ENWetar Ground-dove Gallicolumba hoedtii
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Sulawesi
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Sulawesi, formerly known as Celebes, is an island in Indonesia. One of the four Greater Sunda Islands, and the worlds eleventh-largest island, within Indonesia, only Sumatra, Borneo and Papua are larger in territory, and only Java and Sumatra have larger populations. The landmass of Sulawesi includes four peninsulas, the northern Minahasa Peninsula, the East Peninsula, the South Peninsula, the Strait of Makassar runs along the western side of the island and separates the island from Borneo. The name Sulawesi possibly comes from the words sula and besi, the term sula also means tines, horn or spikes, derived from Sanskrit, as trishula refer to trident. Thus sulawesi means iron spikes, which suggested that the island was also a producer of iron edged weapons, the name came into common use in English following Indonesian independence. The name Celebes was originally given to the island by Portuguese explorers and it is widely considered a Portuguese rendering of the native name Sulawesi. Sulawesi is the worlds eleventh-largest island, covering an area of 174,600 km2, the central part of the island is ruggedly mountainous, such that the islands peninsulas have traditionally been remote from each other, with better connections by sea than by road. The three bays that divide Sulawesis peninsulas are, from north to south, the Tomini, the Tolo and these separate the Minahassa or Northern Peninsula, the East Peninsula, the Southeast Peninsula and the South Peninsula. The Strait of Makassar runs along the side of the island. The island is surrounded by Borneo to the west, by the Philippines to the north, by Maluku to the east, the Selayar Islands make up a peninsula stretching southwards from Southwest Sulawesi into the Flores Sea are administratively part of Sulawesi. All the above-mentioned islands, and many smaller ones, are part of Sulawesis six provinces. The island slopes up from the shores of the seas surrounding the island to a high, mostly non-volcanic. Active volcanoes are found in the northern Minahassa Peninsula, stretching north to the Sangihe Islands, the northern peninsula contains several active volcanoes such as Mount Lokon, Mount Awu, Soputan and Karangetang. Because of its several tectonic origin, faults scar the land, as a result, Sulawesi, in contrast to most of the other islands in the biogeographical region of Wallacea, is not truly oceanic, but a composite island at the centre of the Asia-Australia collision zone. Parts of the island were attached to either the Asian or Australian continental margin. In the west, the opening of the Makassar Strait separated West Sulawesi from Sundaland in the Eocene c.45 Mya. Before October 2014, the settlement of South Sulawesi by modern humans had been dated to c.30,000 BC on the basis of dates obtained from rock shelters in Maros. Initial settlement was probably around the mouth of the Sadan river, on the northwest coast of the peninsula, although the south coast has also been suggested
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Banda Arc
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The Banda Arc is a set of island arcs that exist in eastern Indonesia. It manifests the collision of a continent and an island arc. The presently active arc is located on what appears to be oceanic crust whereas the associated subduction trench is underlain by continental crust, the convergence of the Indo-Australian plates and Eurasia and resulted in the formation of the Sunda and Banda island arcs. The transitional zone between the arcs is located south of Flores Island and is characterized by the change in the tectonic regime along the boundary. It is a complex setting, with possibly the largest fold on Earth, extending to a depth of about 650 km. The Banda Arc is an island arc formed by the collision of the Indo-Australian plate with the Eurasian plate. Principal islands include Timor, Flores, and Seram, the Inner Banda Arc consists of a string of recent and active volcanic islands from Komodo to Kekeh-besar of the Barat Daya Islands, including Flores, Solor, Alor, Wetar, and Damar. The Outer Banda Arc is older and non-volcanic and it overlies the margin of the Pre-Cambrian craton that makes up much of the continent of Australia. It stretches from Savu through Rote, Timor, Leti, Babar, Tanimbar, and the Kai Islands, before turning west to Seram, Ambon, the outer arc is geologically associated with the Australian continent, though it is a more recent accretion than the neighbouring Aru Islands. The feature they apparently formed is a 180-degree arc, which is more than 1,000 kilometres long, geographically, it stretches across eastern Indonesia, and is delimited by an active inner volcanic arc. The outer arc contains numerous islands, and its structure contains young oceanic crust exclusively
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Australia (continent)
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It is the smallest of the seven traditional continents in the English conception. When sea levels were lower during the Pleistocene ice age, including the Last Glacial Maximum about 18,000 BC, geologically, a continent extends to the edge of its continental shelf, so the now-separate islands are considered part of the continent. Due to the spread of animals, fungi and plants across the single Pleistocene landmass the separate lands have a related biota, New Zealand is not part of the continent of Australia, but of the separate, submerged continent of Zealandia. New Zealand and Australia are both part of the regions known as Australasia and Oceania. The term Oceania is often used to denote the region encompassing the Australian continent, with a total land area of 8.56 million square kilometres, the Australian continent is the smallest and lowest human inhabited continent on Earth. The continental shelf connecting the islands, half of which is less than 50 metres deep, covers some 2.5 million square kilometres, including the Sahul Shelf and Bass Strait. As the country of Australia is mostly on a single landmass, archaeological terminology for this region has changed repeatedly. In the early 1970s, the term Greater Australia was introduced for the Pleistocene continent, then at a 1975 conference and consequent publication, the name Sahul was extended from its previous use for just the Sahul Shelf to cover the continent. Others have used Meganesia with different meanings, travel writer Paul Theroux included New Zealand in his definition and others have used it for Australia, New Zealand, another biologist, Richard Dawkins, coined the name Australinea in 2004. Australia-New Guinea has also been used, the continent primarily sits on the Indo-Australian Plate. Because of its location on its tectonic plate Australia doesnt have any active volcanic regions. The lands were joined with Antarctica as part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana until the plate began to drift north about 96 million years ago, for most of the time since then, Australia–New Guinea remained a continuous landmass. When the last glacial period ended in about 10,000 BC, rising sea levels formed Bass Strait, separating Tasmania from the mainland. Then between about 8,000 and 6,500 BC, the lowlands in the north were flooded by the sea, separating New Guinea, the Aru Islands, and the Australian mainland. A northern arc consisting of the New Guinea Highlands, the Raja Ampat Islands, the Outer Banda Arc was accreted along the northwestern edge the continent, it includes the islands of Timor, Tanimbar, and Seram. As the continent drifted north from Antarctica, a fauna, flora. Marsupials and monotremes also existed on other continents, but only in Australia–New Guinea did they out-compete the placental mammals, animal groups such as macropods, monotremes, and cassowaries are endemic to Australia. There were three reasons for the enormous diversity that developed in animal, fungal and plant life
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Eurasian Plate
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It also includes oceanic crust extending westward to the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and northward to the Gakkel Ridge. The eastern side is a boundary with the North American Plate to the north and a boundary with the Philippine Sea Plate to the south, and possibly with the Okhotsk Plate and the Amurian Plate. The southerly side is a boundary with the African Plate to the west, the Arabian Plate in the middle, the westerly side is a divergent boundary with the North American Plate forming the northernmost part of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which is straddled by Iceland. The geodynamics of central Asia is dominated by the interaction between the Eurasian and Indian Plates, in this area, many subplates or crust blocks have been recognized, which form the Central Asian and the East Asian transit zones
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Baucau
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Baucau is the second-largest city in East Timor, after Dili, the capital, which lies 122 km east of Dili. Baucau has about 16,000 inhabitants, and is the capital of Baucau, in the times of Portuguese Timor, Baucau was called Vila Salazar, after the Portuguese dictator António de Oliveira Salazar. Much of the infrastructure of the city and the area was damaged or destroyed. Nevertheless, in the old part of Baucau there survive a few relics from the Portuguese colonial era, such as large houses, churches. One of these is the Pousada de Baucau, a pink hotel whose restaurant offers a magnificent view of the ocean. The shops, restaurants, and street market stalls conduct business, although unemployment, the convent next to the Pousada de Baucau has a small retail outlet selling locally produced hand crafts. The Instituto Catholico para a Formacao de Professores - the Catholic Teachers College - is a preeminent organisation in Bacau and it is owned by the Diocese and is responsible for training future and untrained teachers for Timor-Leste. Baucau also has a hospital, a school and a swimming pool owned by the Pousada de Baucau. Baucau is the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Baucau and it was founded on 30 November 1996, when the bishopric in Dili split. Its bishop is Basilio do Nascimento, six kilometers from the city lies the Cakung Airport, a. k. a. It has what is currently the countrys longest airport runway, as Dilis Lobato International Airport can only serve small aircraft like the Boeing 737 and it served as the countrys principal airport before the Indonesian invasion in 1975, when it was taken over by the Indonesian military
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Atauro Island
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Atauro Island is a small island situated 25 km north of Dili, East Timor, on the extinct Wetar segment of the volcanic Inner Banda Arc, between the Indonesian islands of Alor and Wetar. Politically it comprises one of the subdistricts of the Dili District of East Timor and it is about 25 km long and 9 km wide, about 105 km2 in area, and is inhabited by about 8,000 people. The nearest island is the Indonesian island of Liran,12 km to the northeast, the name means goat in the local language, and it is also known as Kambing Island by the Indonesians. It was so named because of the number of goats kept there. Vila Maumeta is the largest town, other major towns include Pala, Uaroana, Arlo, Adara, and Berau. One bitumen road connects Vila Maumeta to Pala, and there are walking paths to the villages on the island. During Indonesian rule, there was a north of Vila Maumeta. At 999 m above sea level, Mount Manucoco is the islands highest point, the ocean strait between Atauro and Timor drops 3500m below sea level, conversely, it is much shallower along the ridge leading to Wetar. The Berlin Nakroma, a gift from Germany, is a ferry connects the island to the capital Dili. Dili can also be reached by fishermens boats, Atauro is also being considered as a destination for eco-tourism, and its coral reefs are being discovered by scuba enthusiasts. Atauro is a small, unstable island with a landscape, plagued by frequent landslides, as well as a shortage of fresh water. Fresh water springs are present approximately 2 km north of Berau, with minor reservoirs around Macadade, wells along the coast provide poor quality water to most coastal townships. In 2004, Portugal funded a project to improve the availability of water and its distribution infrastructure, the landscape of the island is a result of the erosion of uplifted, originally submarine, volcanos from the Neogene period creating narrow, dissected ridges and steep slopes. Up to an elevation of about 600 m there are extensive areas of uplifted coralline limestone. The climate is seasonal, with wet and dry seasons. The island has suffered from extensive clearing of its native vegetation for swidden agriculture, the upper levels of Mount Manucoco still carry patches of tropical semi-evergreen mountain forest in sheltered valleys, covering about 40 km2. Lower down there are remnants of drier forest and Eucalyptus alba dominated savanna woodlands, especially on limestone outcrops, the island has a fringing reef 30–150 m in width, it generally lacks freshwater wetlands, estuaries and mangroves. Atauro is unusual in East Timor because many of the inhabitants are Protestants
