1.
Wrought iron
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Wrought iron is an iron alloy with a very low carbon content in contrast to cast iron. It is a mass of iron with fibrous slag inclusions which gives it a grain resembling wood. Wrought iron is tough, malleable, ductile, corrosion-resistant and easily welded, before the development of effective methods of steelmaking and the availability of large quantities of steel, wrought iron was the most common form of malleable iron. A wrought product is one that has been worked by forging, extruding, rolling, hammering, etcetera, to change its form. Wrought iron is a worked iron product that is seldom produced today as other cheaper. Historically, a modest amount of iron was refined into steel. The demand for wrought iron reached its peak in the 1860s with the adaptation of ironclad warships, however, as properties such as brittleness of mild steel improved, it became less costly and more widely available than wrought iron, whose usage then declined. Wrought iron is no longer produced on a commercial scale, many products described as wrought iron, such as guard rails, garden furniture and gates, are actually made of mild steel. They retain that description because they are made to resemble objects which in the past were wrought by hand by a blacksmith, the word wrought is an archaic past participle of the verb to work, and so wrought iron literally means worked iron. Wrought iron is a term for the commodity, but is also used more specifically for finished iron goods. It was used in that sense in British Customs records. Cast iron, unlike wrought iron, is brittle and cannot be worked either hot or cold, Cast iron can break if struck with a hammer. In the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, wrought iron went by a variety of terms according to its form, origin. While the bloomery process produced wrought iron directly from ore, cast iron or pig iron were the materials used in the finery forge. Pig iron and cast iron have higher content than wrought iron. Cast and especially pig iron have excess slag which must be at least partially removed to produce quality wrought iron, at foundries it was common to blend scrap wrought iron with cast iron to improve the physical properties of castings. Fusion eventually became accepted as relatively more important than composition below a given low carbon concentration. Another difference is that steel can be hardened by heat treating, historically, wrought iron was known as commercially pure iron, however, it no longer qualifies because current standards for commercially pure iron require a carbon content of less than 0.008 wt%
2.
Steel
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Steel is an alloy of iron and other elements, primarily carbon, that is widely used in construction and other applications because of its high tensile strength and low cost. Steels base metal is iron, which is able to take on two forms, body centered cubic and face centered cubic, depending on its temperature. It is the interaction of those allotropes with the elements, primarily carbon. In the body-centred cubic arrangement, there is an atom in the centre of each cube. Carbon, other elements, and inclusions within iron act as hardening agents that prevent the movement of dislocations that otherwise occur in the lattices of iron atoms. The carbon in steel alloys may contribute up to 2. 1% of its weight. Steels strength compared to pure iron is possible at the expense of irons ductility. With the invention of the Bessemer process in the mid-19th century and this was followed by Siemens-Martin process and then Gilchrist-Thomas process that refined the quality of steel. With their introductions, mild steel replaced wrought iron, further refinements in the process, such as basic oxygen steelmaking, largely replaced earlier methods by further lowering the cost of production and increasing the quality of the product. Today, steel is one of the most common materials in the world and it is a major component in buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships, automobiles, machines, appliances, and weapons. Modern steel is generally identified by various grades defined by assorted standards organizations, the noun steel originates from the Proto-Germanic adjective stakhlijan, which is related to stakhla. The carbon content of steel is between 0. 002% and 2. 1% by weight for plain iron–carbon alloys and these values vary depending on alloying elements such as manganese, chromium, nickel, iron, tungsten, carbon and so on. Basically, steel is an alloy that does not undergo eutectic reaction. In contrast, cast iron does undergo eutectic reaction, too little carbon content leaves iron quite soft, ductile, and weak. Carbon contents higher than those of steel make an alloy, commonly called pig iron, while iron alloyed with carbon is called carbon steel, alloy steel is steel to which other alloying elements have been intentionally added to modify the characteristics of steel. Common alloying elements include, manganese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, boron, titanium, vanadium, tungsten, cobalt, and niobium. Additional elements are important in steel, phosphorus, sulfur, silicon, and traces of oxygen, nitrogen, and copper. Alloys with a higher than 2. 1% carbon content, depending on other element content, cast iron is not malleable even when hot, but it can be formed by casting as it has a lower melting point than steel and good castability properties
3.
Tin
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Tin is a chemical element with symbol Sn and atomic number 50. It is a metal in group 14 of the periodic table. It is obtained chiefly from the mineral cassiterite, which contains tin dioxide, Tin shows a chemical similarity to both of its neighbors in group 14, germanium and lead, and has two main oxidation states, +2 and the slightly more stable +4. Tin is the 49th most abundant element and has, with 10 stable isotopes, metallic tin is not easily oxidized in air. The first alloy used on a scale was bronze, made of tin and copper. After 600 BC, pure metallic tin was produced, pewter, which is an alloy of 85–90% tin with the remainder commonly consisting of copper, antimony, and lead, was used for flatware from the Bronze Age until the 20th century. In modern times, tin is used in alloys, most notably tin/lead soft solders. Another large application for tin is corrosion-resistant tin plating of steel, inorganic tin compounds are rather non-toxic. Because of its low toxicity, tin-plated metal was used for packaging as tin cans. However, overexposure to tin may cause problems with metabolizing essential trace elements such as copper and zinc, Tin is a soft, malleable, ductile and highly crystalline silvery-white metal. When a bar of tin is bent, a sound known as the tin cry can be heard from the twinning of the crystals. Tin melts at the low temperature of about 232 °C, the lowest in group 14, the melting point is further lowered to 177.3 °C for 11 nm particles. β-tin, which is stable at and above room temperature, is malleable, in contrast, α-tin, which is stable below 13.2 °C, is brittle. α-tin has a cubic crystal structure, similar to diamond. α-tin has no properties at all because its atoms form a covalent structure in which electrons cannot move freely. It is a dull-gray powdery material with no common uses other than a few specialized semiconductor applications and these two allotropes, α-tin and β-tin, are more commonly known as gray tin and white tin, respectively. Two more allotropes, γ and σ, exist at temperatures above 161 °C, in cold conditions, β-tin tends to transform spontaneously into α-tin, a phenomenon known as tin pest. Commercial grades of tin resist transformation because of the effect of the small amounts of bismuth, antimony, lead
4.
Rust
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Rust is an iron oxide, usually red oxide formed by the redox reaction of iron and oxygen in the presence of water or air moisture. Several forms of rust are distinguishable both visually and by spectroscopy, and form under different circumstances, Rust consists of hydrated iron oxides Fe2O3·nH2O and iron oxide-hydroxide. Given sufficient time, oxygen, and water, any iron mass will eventually convert entirely to rust, surface rust is flaky and friable, and it provides no protection to the underlying iron, unlike the formation of patina on copper surfaces. Rusting is the term for corrosion of iron and its alloys. Many other metals undergo similar corrosion, but the resulting oxides are not commonly called rust, other forms of rust exist, like the result of reactions between iron and chloride in an environment deprived of oxygen. Rebar used in concrete pillars, which generates green rust, is an example. Rust is another name for iron oxide, which occurs when iron or an alloy that contains iron, like steel, is exposed to oxygen and moisture for a long period of time. Over time, the oxygen combines with the metal at a level, forming a new compound called an oxide. Although some people refer to rust generally as oxidation, that term is more general, although rust forms when iron undergoes oxidation. Only iron or alloys that contain iron can rust, but other metals can corrode in similar ways, the main catalyst for the rusting process is water. Iron or steel structures might appear to be solid, but water molecules can penetrate the microscopic pits, the hydrogen atoms present in water molecules can combine with other elements to form acids, which will eventually cause more metal to be exposed. If chloride ions are present, as is the case with saltwater, meanwhile, the oxygen atoms combine with metallic atoms to form the destructive oxide compound. As the atoms combine, they weaken the metal, making the structure brittle, when impure iron is in contact with water, oxygen, other strong oxidants, or acids, it rusts. If salt is present, for example in seawater or salt spray, iron metal is relatively unaffected by pure water or by dry oxygen. As with other metals, like aluminium, a tightly adhering oxide coating, the conversion of the passivating ferrous oxide layer to rust results from the combined action of two agents, usually oxygen and water. Other degrading solutions are sulfur dioxide in water and carbon dioxide in water, under these corrosive conditions, iron hydroxide species are formed. Unlike ferrous oxides, the hydroxides do not adhere to the bulk metal, when iron rusts, the oxides take up more volume than the original metal, this expansion can generate enormous forces, damaging structures made with iron. See Economic effect for more details, the rusting of iron is an electrochemical process that begins with the transfer of electrons from iron to oxygen
5.
Wire
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A wire is a single, usually cylindrical, flexible strand or rod of metal. Wires are used to bear mechanical loads or electricity and telecommunications signals, Wire is commonly formed by drawing the metal through a hole in a die or draw plate. Wire gauges come in standard sizes, as expressed in terms of a gauge number. The term wire is used more loosely to refer to a bundle of such strands, as in multistranded wire. Wire comes in solid core, stranded, or braided forms, edge-wound coil springs, such as the Slinky toy, are made of special flattened wire. In some cases, strips cut from metal sheet were made into wire by pulling them through perforations in stone beads and this causes the strips to fold round on themselves to form thin tubes. This strip drawing technique was in use in Egypt by the 2nd Dynasty, from the middle of the 2nd millennium BCE most of the gold wires in jewellery are characterised by seam lines that follow a spiral path along the wire. Such twisted strips can be converted into solid round wires by rolling them between flat surfaces or the wire drawing method. The strip twist wire manufacturing method was superseded by drawing in the ancient Old World sometime between about the 8th and 10th centuries AD, there is some evidence for the use of drawing further East prior to this period. Square and hexagonal wires were made using a swaging technique. In this method a metal rod was struck between grooved metal blocks, or between a punch and a grooved metal anvil. Swaging is of great antiquity, possibly dating to the beginning of the 2nd millennium BCE in Egypt and in the Bronze and Iron Ages in Europe for torcs, twisted square-section wires are a very common filigree decoration in early Etruscan jewelry. In about the middle of the 2nd millennium BCE, a new category of decorative tube was introduced which imitated a line of granules. True beaded wire, produced by mechanically distorting a round-section wire, appeared in the Eastern Mediterranean and Italy in the seventh century BCE, a forerunner to beaded wire may be the notched strips and wires which first occur from around 2000 BCE in Anatolia. Wire was drawn in England from the medieval period, the wire was used to make wool cards and pins, manufactured goods whose import was prohibited by Edward IV in 1463. The first wire mill in Great Britain was established at Tintern in about 1568 by the founders of the Company of Mineral and Battery Works, apart from their second wire mill at nearby Whitebrook, there were no other wire mills before the second half of the 17th century. Despite the existence of mills, the drawing of wire down to fine sizes continued to be done manually. Wire is usually drawn of cylindrical form, but it may be made of any desired section by varying the outline of the holes in the draw-plate through which it is passed in the process of manufacture
6.
Electrical conductor
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In physics and electrical engineering, a conductor is an object or type of material that allows the flow of an electrical current in one or more directions. Materials made of metal are common electrical conductors, Electrical current is generated by the flow of negatively charged electrons, positively charged holes, and positive or negative ions in some cases. In order for current to flow, it is not necessary for one charged particle to travel from the producing the current to that consuming it. Instead, the particle simply needs to nudge its neighbor a finite amount who will nudge its neighbor and on and on until a particle is nudged into the consumer. Essentially what is occurring here is a chain of momentum transfer between mobile charge carriers, the Drude model of conduction describes this process more rigorously. Insulators are non-conducting materials with few mobile charges that support only insignificant electric currents, the resistance of a given conductor depends on the material it is made of, and on its dimensions. For a given material, the resistance is proportional to the cross-sectional area. For example, a copper wire has lower resistance than an otherwise-identical thin copper wire. Also, for a material, the resistance is proportional to the length, for example. The resistance R and conductance G of a conductor of uniform cross section, therefore, the resistivity and conductivity are proportionality constants, and therefore depend only on the material the wire is made of, not the geometry of the wire. Resistivity and conductivity are reciprocals, ρ =1 / σ, resistivity is a measure of the materials ability to oppose electric current. This formula is not exact, It assumes the current density is uniform in the conductor. However, this still provides a good approximation for long thin conductors such as wires. Another situation this formula is not exact for is with alternating current, then, the geometrical cross-section is different from the effective cross-section in which current actually flows, so the resistance is higher than expected. Similarly, if two conductors are each other carrying AC current, their resistances increase due to the proximity effect. Aside from the geometry of the wire, temperature also has a significant effect on the efficacy of conductors, temperature affects conductors in two main ways, the first is that materials may expand under the application of heat. The amount that the material will expand is governed by the expansion coefficient specific to the material. Such an expansion will change the geometry of the conductor and therefore its characteristic resistance, however, this effect is generally small, on the order of 10−6
7.
Redox
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Redox is a chemical reaction in which the oxidation states of atoms are changed. Any such reaction involves both a process and a complementary oxidation process, two key concepts involved with electron transfer processes. Redox reactions include all chemical reactions in which atoms have their oxidation state changed, in general, the chemical species from which the electron is stripped is said to have been oxidized, while the chemical species to which the electron is added is said to have been reduced. It can be explained in terms, Oxidation is the loss of electrons or an increase in oxidation state by a molecule, atom. Reduction is the gain of electrons or a decrease in state by a molecule, atom. As an example, during the combustion of wood, oxygen from the air is reduced, the reaction can occur relatively slowly, as in the case of rust, or more quickly, as in the case of fire. Redox is a portmanteau of reduction and oxidation, the word oxidation originally implied reaction with oxygen to form an oxide, since dioxygen was historically the first recognized oxidizing agent. Later, the term was expanded to encompass oxygen-like substances that accomplished parallel chemical reactions, ultimately, the meaning was generalized to include all processes involving loss of electrons. The word reduction originally referred to the loss in weight upon heating a metallic ore such as an oxide to extract the metal. In other words, ore was reduced to metal, antoine Lavoisier showed that this loss of weight was due to the loss of oxygen as a gas. Later, scientists realized that the atom gains electrons in this process. The meaning of reduction then became generalized to all processes involving gain of electrons. Even though reduction seems counter-intuitive when speaking of the gain of electrons, it help to think of reduction as the loss of oxygen. Since electrons are charged, it is also helpful to think of this as reduction in electrical charge. The electrochemist John Bockris has used the words electronation and deelectronation to describe reduction and oxidation processes respectively when they occur at electrodes and these words are analogous to protonation and deprotonation, but they have not been widely adopted by chemists. The term hydrogenation could be used instead of reduction, since hydrogen is the agent in a large number of reactions. But, unlike oxidation, which has been generalized beyond its root element, the word redox was first used in 1928. The processes of oxidation and reduction occur simultaneously and cannot happen independently of one another, the oxidation alone and the reduction alone are each called a half-reaction, because two half-reactions always occur together to form a whole reaction
8.
Wire connector
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An electrical connector, is an electro-mechanical device used to join electrical terminations and create an electrical circuit. Electrical connectors consist of plugs and jacks, the connection may be temporary, as for portable equipment, require a tool for assembly and removal, or serve as a permanent electrical joint between two wires or devices. An adapter can be used to bring together dissimilar connectors. There are hundreds of types of electrical connectors, connectors may join two lengths of flexible copper wire or cable, or connect a wire or cable to an electrical terminal. In computing, a connector can also be known as a physical interface. Cable glands, known as cable connectors in the US, connect wires to devices rather than electrically and are distinct from quick-disconnects performing the latter. It is usually desirable for a connector to be easy to visually, rapid to assemble, require only simple tooling. In some cases an equipment manufacturer might choose a connector specifically because it is not compatible with those other sources. No single connector has all the properties, the proliferation of types is a reflection of differing requirements. Fretting is a failure mode in electrical connectors that have not been specifically designed to prevent it. Many connectors are keyed, with some mechanical component which prevents mating except with a correctly oriented matching connector, some connector housings are designed with locking mechanisms to prevent inadvertent disconnection or poor environmental sealing. Locking mechanism designs include locking levers of various sorts, screw locking, a terminal is a simple type of electrical connector that connects two or more wires to a single connection point. Wire nuts are another type of single point connector, terminal blocks provide a convenient means of connecting individual electrical wires without a splice or physically joining the ends. They are usually used to connect wiring among various items of equipment within an enclosure or to make connections among individually enclosed items. Since terminal blocks are available for a wide range of wire sizes and terminal quantity. One type of terminal block accepts wires that are prepared only by removing a short length of insulation from the end, another type accepts wires that have ring or spade terminal lugs crimped onto the wires. Printed circuit board mounted terminal blocks allow individual wires to be connected to the circuit board, a general type of connector that simply screws or clamps bare wire to a post, such connectors are frequently used in electronic test equipment and audio. Many, but not all binding posts will also accept a banana connector plug, since stripping the insulation from wires is time-consuming, many connectors intended for rapid assembly use insulation-displacement connectors so that insulation need not be removed from the wire
9.
Twist-on wire connector
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Twist-on wire connectors are a type of electrical connector used to fasten two or more low-voltage electrical conductors. They are widely used in North America, twist-on connectors are also known as wire nuts, wire connectors, cone connectors, or thimble connectors. One trade name for such connectors, Marrette, is derived from the name of their inventor, in the UK, items similar to those used in North America, but made from ceramic materials, were sold under the brand Scruit. Such ceramic connectors are currently sold in South Africa under the name Porcelain Scruits, twist-on wire connectors are available in a variety of sizes and shapes. While their exterior covering is made from insulating plastic, their means of connection is a tapered coiled metal insert. When such a connector is twisted onto the stripped and twisted-together ends of wires, Electrical continuity is maintained by both the direct twisted wire-to-wire contact and by contact with the metal insert. Twist-on wire connectors are typically installed by hand and they may have external grooves to make them easier to handle and apply. Winglike extensions are commonly molded into higher quality connectors to reduce muscle fatigue when installing a large number of the connectors. Such extensions also allow these connectors to be installed with a common nut driver or a specialized tool, twist-on wire connectors are commonly color-coded to indicate the connector size and, hence, their capacity. Twist-on connectors are not often used on wire gauges thicker than AWG #10, instead, set screw connectors, clamps or crimp connectors are used. Ceramic twist-on connectors are made for applications, such as heating appliances. Ordinary twist-on connectors are not rated for wet use, special gel-filled connectors must be used in this circumstance. Twist-on wire connectors are not generally recommended for use with aluminum wire, the US Consumer Product Safety Commission does not approve of their use with aluminum wire, and approves of only two methods of connection. In spite of this, several companies manufacture twist-on connectors which they claim are designed specifically for, special feedthrough twist-on wire connectors differ from standard wire connectors in that they have an additional opening at the top of the insulated cap. This allows a single-conductor bare wire to be pushed through the hole and these feedthrough connectors are typically green, and are also called screw-on grounding connectors. Another specialized connector version has an attached wire pigtail protruding from the top of the insulated cap. The pigtail may be unterminated, or it may end in a preinstalled spade lug, if colored white, it typically may be used for splicing neutral wires in a device box, while leaving a pigtail free for connection to a device. If colored green, the assembly is intended to be used as a grounding pigtail, william P. Marr emigrated from Scotland to Ontario, Canada early in the twentieth century
10.
Binding post
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A binding post is a connector commonly used on electronic test equipment to terminate a single wire or test lead. They are also found on loudspeakers and audio amplifiers as well as electrical equipment. A binding post contains a central threaded metal rod and a cap that screws down on that rod. The cap is commonly insulated with plastic and color-coded, red commonly means an active or positive terminal, black indicates an inactive or negative terminal, bare wire inserted through the same hole and clamped, or Wrapped around the metal post and clamped. A lug terminal, with a 1/4-inch inner diameter, inserted around the metal post, the binding post was a commercial invention of the General Radio Corporation. Even so-called isolated binding posts are not sufficiently isolated to protect users from coming into contact with their metal parts carrying voltage. As such they are not suitable to be used for carrying dangerous voltages, on several types of equipment it has been becoming common to no longer use the traditional binding posts, but safety banana jacks. The universal property of binding posts is lost here, since safety banana jacks can only be used with traditional and safety banana plugs. But this also impaired safety as two wires or pin connectors could be inserted from opposite sides of two binding posts and the tips of the wires or probes might inadvertently short together, holes are now normally aligned in such a fashion that such shorts cannot occur. In order to permit the use of double banana plugs, the distance between the positive and negative plugs should be 3/4 inch, fahnestock clip — an earlier device, now largely supplanted by binding posts Banana connector About. com glossary definition
11.
Terminal block
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A screw terminal is a type of electrical connector where a wire is held by the tightening of a screw. The wire may be stripped of insulation and inserted under the head of a screw or into the terminal. Otherwise, it may be either inserted first into a ferrule, depending on the design, a flat-blade screwdriver, a cross-blade screwdriver, hex key, Torx key, or other tool may be required to properly tighten the connection for reliable operation. Screw terminals are used to connect a chassis ground, such as on a record player or surge protector. Most public address systems in buildings also use them for speakers, alarm systems and building sensor and control systems have traditionally used large numbers of screw terminations. Grounding screws are often color-coded green and, when used on consumer electronics and these are known as connector strips or chocolate blocks in the UK. These are often used to light fixtures and are shown at the right. Alternatively, terminals can also be arranged as a strip or terminal block. This creates a bus bar for power distribution, and so may include a master input connector. Assembly of a screw connection requires some care in workmanship to ensure removal of insulation, containment of all wire strands. If the wire diameter is small in relation to the size of the screw and this is less likely to occur when a wire is clamped between two plates by the action of a screw. Screw connectors sometimes come loose if not done up tightly enough at fitting time, verifying adequate tightening torque requires calibrated installation tools and proper training. In the UK, all screw connectors on fixed mains installations are required to be accessible for servicing, the terminals easily can be re-used in the field, allowing for the replacement of wires or equipment, generally with standard hand tools. Screw terminals usually avoid the requirement for a mating connector to be applied to the ends of wires. When properly tightened, the connections are physically and electrically secure because they firmly contact a large section of wire, the terminals are relatively low cost compared with other types of connector, and a screw terminal can easily be integrated into the design of a building wiring device. This procedure is time consuming than using a plug-in connector - thus making screw connections uncommon for portable equipment. The screw mechanism limits the physical size of a terminal. It is difficult to automate multiple terminations with screw connections, vibration or corrosion can cause a screw connection to deteriorate over time
12.
Short circuit
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A short circuit is an electrical circuit that allows a current to travel along an unintended path with no or a very low electrical impedance. The electrical opposite of a circuit is an open circuit. It is common to misuse short circuit to describe any electrical malfunction, a short circuit is an abnormal connection between two nodes of an electric circuit intended to be at different voltages. This results in an electric current limited only by the Thévenin equivalent resistance of the rest of the network and potentially causes circuit damage, overheating. Although usually the result of a fault, there are cases where short circuits are caused intentionally, for example, in circuit analysis, a short circuit is a connection between two nodes that forces them to be at the same voltage. In an ideal circuit, this means there is no resistance. In real circuits, the result is a connection with almost no resistance, in such a case, the current is limited by the rest of the circuit. A common type of short circuit occurs when the positive and negative terminals of a battery are connected with a low-resistance conductor, with low resistance in the connection, a high current exists, causing the cell to deliver a large amount of energy in a short time. Overloaded wires can also overheat, sometimes causing damage to the wires insulation, in mains circuits, short circuits may occur between two phases, between a phase and neutral or between a phase and earth. Such short circuits are likely to result in a high current. However, it is possible for circuits to arise between neutral and earth conductors, and between two conductors of the same phase. Such short circuits can be dangerous, particularly as they may not immediately result in a current and are therefore less likely to be detected. Possible effects include unexpected energisation of a circuit presumed to be isolated, to help reduce the negative effects of short circuits, power distribution transformers are deliberately designed to have a certain amount of leakage reactance. The leakage reactance helps limit both the magnitude and rate of rise of the fault current, a short circuit may lead to formation of an electric arc. The arc, a channel of hot ionized plasma, is highly conductive, surface erosion is a typical sign of electric arc damage. Even short arcs can remove significant amount of materials from the electrodes, a short circuit fault current can, within milliseconds, be thousands of times larger than the normal operating current of the system. Damage from short circuits can be reduced or prevented by employing fuses, circuit breakers, or other overload protection, overload protection must be chosen according to the current rating of the circuit. Circuits for large home appliances require protective devices set or rated for higher currents than lighting circuits, wire gauges specified in building and electrical codes are chosen to ensure safe operation in conjunction with the overload protection
13.
Tin can
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A tin can, tin, steel can, steel packaging or a can, is a container for the distribution or storage of goods, composed of thin metal. Many cans require opening by cutting the end open, others have removable covers, cans hold diverse contents, foods, beverages, oil, chemicals, etc. Steel cans are made of tinplate or of tin-free steel, in some locations, even aluminum cans are called tin cans. The tin canning process was created by Frenchman Philippe de Girard. The canning concept was based on food preservation work in glass containers the year before by the French inventor Nicholas Appert. By 1813 they were producing their first tin canned goods for the Royal Navy, early tin cans were sealed by soldering with a tin-lead alloy, which could lead to lead poisoning. Infamously, in the 1845 Arctic expedition of Sir John Franklin, crew members suffered from lead poisoning. More recent research suggests the lead poisoning was likely to have been caused by the water pipe system on the two ships. In 1901 in the United States, the American Can Company was founded, most cans are right circular cylinders with identical and parallel round tops and bottoms with vertical sides. However, where the volume to be contained and/or the shape of the contents suggests it. Other contents may justify a can that is somewhat conical in shape. The fabrication of most cans results in at least one rim, such cans have a single rim at the top. Some cans have a cover that slides onto the top or sometimes is hinged. Two piece steel cans can be made by drawing to form the bottom and sides and adding an end at the top, cans can be fabricated with separate slip-on, or friction fit covers and with covers attached by hinges. Various easy opening methods are available, concern arose that the milk contained unsafe levels of lead leached from this solder plug. Depending on the contents and available coatings, in some locations any metal can, even aluminium, might be called a tin can. Use of aluminium in cans began in 1957, a can usually has a printed paper or plastic label glued to the outside of the curved surface, indicating its contents. Some labels contain additional information, such as recipes, on the reverse side, a label can also be printed directly onto the metal
14.
Holloware
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Holloware is constructed to last a long time. It differs from some other silverplated items in being made with thicker walls, dining car holloware is a type of railroad collectible. The relative value of pieces depends on their scarcity, age and condition, holloware is the traditional gift in the UK and the modern gift in the US for the 16th wedding anniversary. Holloware is the gift for jubilee or wedding in Russia
15.
Tinware
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Tinware is any item made of prefabricated tinplate. Usually tinware refers to kitchenware made of tinplate, often crafted by tinsmiths, many cans used for canned food are tinware as well. Something that is tinned after being shaped and fabricated is not considered tinware, tinware is strong, easily shaped, solder able, and is non-toxic. In addition, it has an appearance which can be further enhanced by lacquering it. Of extreme importance is its property of corrosion resistance, especially against attack by food products and these properties are due to the properties of tinplate, as tinware is made of tinplate. Tinplate originated in Bohemia in the Middle Ages, sources differ as to when this happened, ranging from the late thirteenth century to the fourteenth century. The technique for how to make tinplate spread to regions of Germany. Tinsmiths throughout Europe were dependent on German suppliers of tinplate, and this caused many European nations, including Great Britain, to attempt to start tinplate manufacturing industries. Successful creation of a non-German tinplate industry was hampered by technical difficulties and the cheapness of German tinplate. Tinplate became a British dominated industry until 1890, with an output exceeding 13 million boxes of plate and this may help explain why the United States passed the McKinley Tariff bill, which placed a tariff of 2.2 cents per pound on tinplate. After this tariff, and with other causes, the US tinplate industry became the largest in the world, tinware production in the United States is widely acclaimed to have started when a Scottish immigrant named Edward Pattison settled in Berlin, Hartford Country, Connecticut. During the Industrial Revolution, many turned their attention to tinware. A good example of this is the invention of the circular shears by Calvin Whiting in 1804, tinware was often sold by traveling salesmen called Yankee Peddlers. These Yankee Peddlers were both employees of tinware shops and independent, often, tinware was traded for “Truck”, or bartered items, which were sold at the tinware shop. In fact, it was preferable for Yankee Peddlers to get truck, as written by Harvey Filley in 1822, “I don’t take but a little cash when I can get truck. Most all the truck is in demand, more can be made by having quantities and knowing the market. ”Most kitchenware items that are made of aluminum and plastic in the 20th and its uses range from ale tasters and coffee pots to cookie cutters and boxes. There is an advertisement for tinware posted by Thomas Passmore on November 30,1793 in the Federal Gazette that is unique because of the arrangement of his tinware goods. 19 letters of the alphabet are represented in this list, showcasing the variety of tinware goods
16.
Bessemer process
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The Bessemer process was the first inexpensive industrial process for the mass-production of steel from molten pig iron before the development of the open hearth furnace. The key principle is removal of impurities from the iron by oxidation with air being blown through the molten iron, the oxidation also raises the temperature of the iron mass and keeps it molten. Related decarburizing with air processes had been used outside Europe for hundreds of years, one such process has existed since the 11th century in East Asia, where the scholar Shen Kuo describes its use in the Chinese iron and steel industry. In the 17th century, accounts by European travelers detailed its possible use by the Japanese, the modern process is named after its inventor, the Englishman Henry Bessemer, who took out a patent on the process in 1856. The process was said to be discovered in 1851 by the American inventor William Kelly. The process using a basic refractory lining is known as the basic Bessemer process or Gilchrist–Thomas process after the English discoverers Percy Gilchrist and these oxides either escape as gas or form a solid slag. The refractory lining of the converter also plays a role in the conversion — clay linings are used there is little phosphorus in the raw material - this is known as the acid Bessemer process. When the phosphorus content is high, dolomite, or sometimes magnesite and these are also known as Gilchrist-Thomas converters, after their inventor, Sidney Gilchrist Thomas. In order to produce steel with desired properties, additives such as spiegeleisen, when the required steel had been formed, it was poured into ladles and then transferred into moulds while the lighter slag was left behind. The conversion process, called the blow, was completed in approximately 20 minutes, during this period the progress of the oxidation of the impurities was judged by the appearance of the flame issuing from the mouth of the converter. The modern use of methods of recording the characteristics of the flame greatly aided the blower in controlling final product quality. After the blow, the metal was recarburized to the desired point and other alloying materials were added. A Bessemer converter could treat a heat of 5 to 30 tons at a time and they were usually operated in pairs, one being blown while another was being filled or tapped. Before the Bessemer process, Western Europe and the United States relied on the process to reduce the carbon content of white cast iron. It was possible to make low-quality puddled steel, but the process was difficult to control, high-quality steel was made by the reverse process of adding carbon to carbon-free wrought iron, usually imported from Sweden. The manufacturing process, called the process, consisted of heating bars of wrought iron together with charcoal for periods of up to a week in a long stone box. The blister steel was put in a crucible with wrought iron and melted, up to 3 tons of expensive coke was burnt for each ton of steel produced. Such steel when rolled into bars was sold at £50 to £60 a long ton, the most difficult and work-intensive part of the process, however, was the production of wrought iron done in finery forges in Sweden
17.
Coke (fuel)
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Coke is a fuel with few impurities and a high carbon content, usually made from coal. It is the carbonaceous material derived from destructive distillation of low-ash. Cokes made from coal are grey, hard, and porous, while coke can be formed naturally, the commonly used form is man-made. The form known as coke, or pet coke, is derived from oil refinery coker units or other cracking processes. Coke is used in preparation of producer gas which is a mixture of carbon monoxide, producer gas is produced by passing air over red-hot coke. Coke is also used to water gas. Historical sources dating to the 4th century describe the production of coke in ancient China, the Chinese first used coke for heating and cooking no later than the ninth century. By the first decades of the century, Chinese ironworkers in the Yellow River valley began to fuel their furnaces with coke. In 1589 a patent was granted to Thomas Proctor and William Peterson for making iron and steel and melting lead with earth-coal, sea-coal, turf, the patent contains a distinct allusion to the preparation of coal by cooking. In 1590 a patent was granted to the Dean of York to purify pit-coal, in 1620 a patent was granted to a company composed of William St. John, Robert Follensbee and other knights, mentioning the use of coke in smelting ores and manufacturing metals. In 1627 a patent was granted to Sir John Hacket and Octavius de Strada for a method of rendering sea-coal and pit-coal as useful as charcoal for burning in houses, without offense by smell or smoke. In 1603 Hugh Plat suggested that coal might be charred in an analogous to the way charcoal is produced from wood. In 1709 Abraham Darby I established a coke-fired blast furnace to produce cast iron, cokes superior crushing strength allowed blast furnaces to become taller and larger. The ensuing availability of iron was one of the factors leading to the Industrial Revolution. Before this time, iron-making used large quantities of charcoal, produced by burning wood, in the late 18th century, brick beehive ovens were developed, which allowed more control over the burning process. In 1768 John Wilkinson built a more practical oven for converting coal into coke, with greater skill in the firing, covering and quenching of the heaps, yields were increased from about 33 per cent to 65 per cent by the middle of the 19th century. The Scottish iron industry expanded rapidly in the second quarter of the 19th century. In 1802 a battery of beehives was set up near Sheffield, by 1870, there were 14,000 beehive ovens in operation on the West Durham coalfields, capable of producing 4.2 million tons of coke
18.
Meat
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Meat is animal flesh that is eaten as food. Humans have hunted and killed animals for meat since prehistoric times, the advent of civilization allowed the domestication of animals such as chickens, sheep, pigs and cattle. This eventually led to their use in production on an industrial scale with the aid of slaughterhouses. Meat is mainly composed of water, protein, and fat and it is edible raw, but is normally eaten after it has been cooked and seasoned or processed in a variety of ways. Unprocessed meat will spoil or rot within hours or days as a result of infection with and decomposition by bacteria, most often, meat refers to skeletal muscle and associated fat and other tissues, but it may also describe other edible tissues such as offal. The word meat comes from the Old English word mete, which referred to food in general, the term is related to mad in Danish, mat in Swedish and Norwegian, and matur in Icelandic and Faroese, which also mean food. The word mete also exists in Old Frisian to denote important food, differentiating it from swiets, paleontological evidence suggests that meat constituted a substantial proportion of the diet of even the earliest humans. Early hunter-gatherers depended on the hunting of large animals such as bison. Several breeds of sheep were established in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt by 3500–3000 BC, today, more than 200 sheep-breeds exist. Cattle were domesticated in Mesopotamia after settled agriculture was established about 5000 BC, modern domesticated cattle fall into the groups Bos taurus and Bos indicus, both descended from the now-extinct aurochs. The breeding of cattle, cattle optimized for meat production as opposed to animals best suited for draught or dairy purposes. Domestic pigs, which are descended from boars, are known to have existed about 2500 BC in modern-day Hungary and in Troy, earlier pottery from Jericho. Pork sausages and hams were of commercial importance in Greco-Roman times. Pigs continue to be bred intensively as they are being optimized to produce meat best suited for meat products. Other animals are or have raised or hunted for their flesh. The type of meat consumed varies much between different cultures, changes over time, depending on such as tradition and the availability of the animals. The amount and kind of meat consumed also varies by income, horses are commonly eaten in France, Italy, Germany and Japan, among other countries. Horses and other mammals such as reindeer were hunted during the late Paleolithic in western Europe
19.
Fish
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A fish is any member of a group of animals that consist of all gill-bearing aquatic craniate animals that lack limbs with digits. They form a group to the tunicates, together forming the olfactores. Included in this definition are the living hagfish, lampreys, and cartilaginous, tetrapods emerged within lobe-finned fishes, so cladistically they are fish as well. However, traditionally fish are rendered obsolete or paraphyletic by excluding the tetrapods, because in this manner the term fish is defined negatively as a paraphyletic group, it is not considered a formal taxonomic grouping in systematic biology. The traditional term pisces is considered a typological, but not a phylogenetic classification, the earliest organisms that can be classified as fish were soft-bodied chordates that first appeared during the Cambrian period. Although they lacked a true spine, they possessed notochords which allowed them to be more agile than their invertebrate counterparts, fish would continue to evolve through the Paleozoic era, diversifying into a wide variety of forms. Many fish of the Paleozoic developed external armor that protected them from predators, the first fish with jaws appeared in the Silurian period, after which many became formidable marine predators rather than just the prey of arthropods. Fish are abundant in most bodies of water and they can be found in nearly all aquatic environments, from high mountain streams to the abyssal and even hadal depths of the deepest oceans. With 33,100 described species, fish exhibit greater species diversity than any group of vertebrates. Fish are an important resource for humans worldwide, especially as food, commercial and subsistence fishers hunt fish in wild fisheries or farm them in ponds or in cages in the ocean. They are also caught by fishers, kept as pets, raised by fishkeepers. Fish have had a role in culture through the ages, serving as deities, religious symbols, fish do not represent a monophyletic group, and therefore the evolution of fish is not studied as a single event. Early fish from the record are represented by a group of small, jawless. Jawless fish lineages are mostly extinct, an extant clade, the lampreys may approximate ancient pre-jawed fish. The first jaws are found in Placodermi fossils, the diversity of jawed vertebrates may indicate the evolutionary advantage of a jawed mouth. It is unclear if the advantage of a hinged jaw is greater biting force, improved respiration, fish may have evolved from a creature similar to a coral-like sea squirt, whose larvae resemble primitive fish in important ways. The first ancestors of fish may have kept the form into adulthood. Fish are a group, that is, any clade containing all fish also contains the tetrapods
20.
Fruit
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In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants formed from the ovary after flowering. Fruits are the means by which angiosperms disseminate seeds, accordingly, fruits account for a substantial fraction of the worlds agricultural output, and some have acquired extensive cultural and symbolic meanings. On the other hand, in usage, fruit includes many structures that are not commonly called fruits, such as bean pods, corn kernels, tomatoes. The section of a fungus that produces spores is called a fruiting body. Many common terms for seeds and fruit do not correspond to the botanical classifications, however, in botany, a fruit is the ripened ovary or carpel that contains seeds, a nut is a type of fruit and not a seed, and a seed is a ripened ovule. Examples of culinary vegetables and nuts that are botanically fruit include corn, cucurbits, eggplant, legumes, sweet pepper, in addition, some spices, such as allspice and chili pepper, are fruits, botanically speaking. g. Botanically, a grain, such as corn, rice, or wheat, is also a kind of fruit. However, the wall is very thin and is fused to the seed coat. The outer, often edible layer, is the pericarp, formed from the ovary and surrounding the seeds, the pericarp may be described in three layers from outer to inner, the epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp. Fruit that bears a prominent pointed terminal projection is said to be beaked, a fruit results from maturation of one or more flowers, and the gynoecium of the flower forms all or part of the fruit. Inside the ovary/ovaries are one or more ovules where the megagametophyte contains the egg cell, after double fertilization, these ovules will become seeds. The ovules are fertilized in a process starts with pollination. After pollination, a tube grows from the pollen through the stigma into the ovary to the ovule, later the zygote will give rise to the embryo of the seed, and the endosperm mother cell will give rise to endosperm, a nutritive tissue used by the embryo. As the ovules develop into seeds, the ovary begins to ripen and the ovary wall, in some multiseeded fruits, the extent to which the flesh develops is proportional to the number of fertilized ovules. The pericarp is often differentiated into two or three distinct layers called the exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp, in some fruits, especially simple fruits derived from an inferior ovary, other parts of the flower, fuse with the ovary and ripen with it. In other cases, the sepals, petals and/or stamens and style of the fall off. When such other floral parts are a significant part of the fruit, it is called an accessory fruit, since other parts of the flower may contribute to the structure of the fruit, it is important to study flower structure to understand how a particular fruit forms. There are three modes of fruit development, Apocarpous fruits develop from a single flower having one or more separate carpels
21.
Biscuit
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Biscuit is a term used for a diverse variety of baked, commonly flour-based food products. The term is applied to two products in North America and the Commonwealth of Nations and Europe. The North American biscuit is typically a soft, leavened quick bread and this article covers the other type of biscuit, which is typically hard, flat and unleavened. In Commonwealth English and Hiberno-English, a biscuit is a baked product that would be called either a cookie or a cracker in the United States. Biscuits in the United Kingdom, the Isle of Man and Ireland are hard and may be savoury or sweet, such as biscuits, digestives, hobnobs, ginger nuts, rich tea, bourbons. In the Commonwealth Nations and Ireland, the term typically refers to only one type of biscuit, however. In the United States and some parts of English Canada, a biscuit is a bread, somewhat similar to a scone. Leavening is achieved through the use of baking powder or when using buttermilk baking soda, biscuits are usually referred to as either baking powder biscuits or buttermilk biscuits if buttermilk is used rather than milk as a liquid. A Southern regional variation using the term beaten biscuit is closer to hardtack than soft dough biscuits, the Old French word bescuit is derived from the Latin words bis and coquere, coctus, and, hence, means twice-cooked. This is because biscuits were originally cooked in a process, first baked. This term was adapted into English in the 14th century during the Middle Ages, in the Middle English word bisquite, to represent a hard. The Dutch language from around 1703 had adopted the word koekje to have a meaning for a similar hard. When continental Europeans began to emigrate to colonial North America, the two words and their same but different meanings began to clash, the words cookie or cracker became the words of choice to mean a hard, baked product. Further confusion has been added by the adoption of the word biscuit for a small leavened bread popular in the United States, according to the American English dictionary Merriam-Webster, a cookie is a small flat or slightly raised cake. In modern Italian usage, the term biscotto is used to refer to any type of hard twice-baked biscuit, and not only to the cantuccini as in the past. The need for nutritious, easy-to-store, easy-to-carry, and long-lasting foods on long journeys, however, this took up additional space on what were either horse-powered treks or small ships, reducing the time of travel before additional food was required. This resulted in early armies adopting the style of hunter-foraging, the introduction of the baking of processed cereals including the creation of flour provided a more reliable source of food. Egyptian sailors carried a flat, brittle loaf of bread called dhourra cake while the Romans had a biscuit called buccellum
22.
Cigarette
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A cigarette, or cigaret, is a small cylinder of finely cut tobacco leaves rolled in thin paper for smoking. Most modern manufactured cigarettes are filtered, and also include reconstituted tobacco, the term cigarette, as commonly used, refers to a tobacco cigarette, but can apply to similar devices other substances, such as cannabis. A cigarette is distinguished from a cigar by its size, use of processed leaf, and paper wrapping. Cigars are typically composed entirely of whole-leaf tobacco, rates of cigarette smoking vary widely throughout the world and have changed considerably since cigarettes were first widely used in the mid-19th century. While rates of smoking have over time leveled off or declined in the developed world, Cigarettes carry serious health risks, which are more prevalent than with other tobacco products. Nicotine, the psychoactive chemical in tobacco and therefore cigarettes, is very addictive. About half of cigarette smokers die of tobacco-related disease and lose on average 14 years of life, cigarette use by pregnant women has also been shown to cause birth defects, including low birth weight, fetal abnormalities, and premature birth. Second-hand smoke from cigarettes has been shown to be injurious to bystanders, Cigarettes produce an aerosol containing over 4,000 chemical compounds, including nicotine, carbon monoxide, acrolein, and other harmful substances. Over 50 of these are carcinogenic, the earliest forms of cigarettes were similar to their predecessor, the cigar. Cigarettes appear to have had antecedents in Mexico and Central America around the 9th century in the form of reeds, the Maya, and later the Aztecs, smoked tobacco and other psychoactive drugs in religious rituals and frequently depicted priests and deities smoking on pottery and temple engravings. The cigarette and the cigar were the most common methods of smoking in the Caribbean, Mexico, and Central and South America until recent times. The North American, Central American, and South American cigarette used various plant wrappers, when it was back to Spain, maize wrappers were introduced. The resulting product was called papelate and is documented in Goyas paintings La Cometa, La Merienda en el Manzanares, by 1830, the cigarette had crossed into France, where it received the name cigarette, and in 1845, the French state tobacco monopoly began manufacturing them. The first patented cigarette machine was by Juan Nepomuceno Adorno of Mexico in 1847 and this was helped by the development of tobaccos suitable for cigarette use, and by the development of the Egyptian cigarette export industry. Cigarettes may have initially used in a manner similar to pipes, cigars. As cigarette tobacco became milder and more acidic, inhaling may have perceived as more agreeable. However, Moltke noticed in the 1830s that Ottomans inhaled the Turkish tobacco, the widespread smoking of cigarettes in the Western world is largely a 20th-century phenomenon. At the start of the 20th century, the per capita consumption in the USA was 54 cigarettes
23.
Tinsmith
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A tinsmith, sometimes known as a whitesmith, tinner, tinker, tinman, or tinplate worker is a person who makes and repairs things made of tinware, or other light metals. By extension it can refer to the person who deals in tinware. A whitesmith may work with tin, pewter, or other materials, unlike blacksmiths, tinsmiths do the majority of their work on cold metal. The term is applied to metalworkers who do only finishing work – such as filing or polishing – on iron. Whitesmiths fabricate items such as tin or pewter cups, water pitchers, forks, spoons, the tinsmith, or white smith, learned his trade, like many other artisans, by serving an apprenticeship of 4 to 6 years with a master tinsmith. He learned first to make cake stamps, pill boxes and other simple items, next, he formed objects such as milk pails, basins, cake and pie pans. Later he tackled more complicated pieces such as chandeliers and crooked-spout coffee pots, after his apprenticeship was completed, he then became a journeyman, not yet being a master smith employing others. Many young tinsmiths took to the road as peddlers or tinkers in an effort to save money to open a shop in town. Tinplate consists of iron coated with tin and then run through rollers. This process was first discovered in the 16th century, but was not introduced to England until about the 1720s, previously Great Britain had imported most tinplate from Hamburg. The British Iron Act of 1750 prohibited the erection of new rolling mills, pure tin is an expensive and soft metal and it is not practical to use it alone. However it could be alloyed with lead and copper to make pewter or alloyed with copper alone to produce bronze, todays tinplate is mild steel electroplated with tin. Its non-rusting qualities make it an invaluable coating, however, its quality depends on the iron or steel being free from rust and the surface tin an unbroken coating. When you see rust on a piece of tinware it is because the tin coating has worn away or been cut in the metal, the respective properties of the metals mean that corrosion once started is likely to be rapid. The simple shapes made by the tinsmith required only a few basic tools, in addition to the big shears anchored in a hole in his bench he used hand snips and nippers for cutting. The tin was flattened on a made of a block of steel. Straight and curved anvils were used to turn and roll the edges of the tin, solder was then used to join the pieces together, a soldering iron and fire pot were needed to do this. Tinwares were being produced in London by the 1630s, being known as Crooked Lane Wares, the Worshipful Company of Tin Plate Workers were incorporated as a separate London Livery Company in 1670
24.
Monopoly
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A monopoly exists when a specific person or enterprise is the only supplier of a particular commodity. The verb monopolise or monopolize refers to the process by which a company gains the ability to raise prices or exclude competitors, in economics, a monopoly is a single seller. In law, a monopoly is an entity that has significant market power, that is. Although monopolies may be big businesses, size is not a characteristic of a monopoly, a small business may still have the power to raise prices in a small industry. A monopoly is distinguished from a monopsony, in there is only one buyer of a product or service. Likewise, a monopoly should be distinguished from a cartel, in which several providers act together to coordinate services, prices or sale of goods. Monopolies, monopsonies and oligopolies are all situations in one or a few entities have market power and therefore interact with their customers. Monopolies can be established by a government, form naturally, or form by integration, in many jurisdictions, competition laws restrict monopolies. A government-granted monopoly or legal monopoly, by contrast, is sanctioned by the state, patents, copyrights, and trademarks are sometimes used as examples of government-granted monopolies. The government may also reserve the venture for itself, thus forming a government monopoly, There are four basic types of market structures in traditional economic analysis, perfect competition, monopolistic competition, oligopoly and monopoly. A monopoly is a structure in which a single supplier produces, if there is a single seller in a certain market and there are no close substitutes for the product, then the market structure is that of a pure monopoly. Sometimes, there are many sellers in an industry and/or there exist many close substitutes for the goods being produced and this is termed monopolistic competition, whereas in oligopoly the companies interact strategically. Most economic textbooks follow the practice of explaining the perfect competition model. The boundaries of what constitutes a market and what does not are relevant distinctions to make in economic analysis, in a general equilibrium context, a good is a specific concept including geographical and time-related characteristics. Most studies of market structure relax a little their definition of a good, price Maker, Decides the price of the good or product to be sold, but does so by determining the quantity in order to demand the price desired by the firm. High Barriers, Other sellers are unable to enter the market of the monopoly, single seller, In a monopoly, there is one seller of the good, who produces all the output. Therefore, the market is being served by a single company, and for practical purposes. Price Discrimination, A monopolist can change the price or quantity of the product and he or she sells higher quantities at a lower price in a very elastic market, and sells lower quantities at a higher price in a less elastic market
25.
Bohemia
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Bohemia is the westernmost and largest historical region of the Czech lands in the present-day Czech Republic. Bohemia was a duchy of Great Moravia, later an independent principality, a kingdom in the Holy Roman Empire, and subsequently a part of the Habsburg Monarchy, after World War I and the establishment of an independent Czechoslovak state, Bohemia became a part of Czechoslovakia. Between 1938 and 1945, border regions with sizeable German-speaking minorities of all three Czech lands were joined to Nazi Germany as the Sudetenland, in 1990, the name was changed to the Czech Republic, which become a separate state in 1993 with the dissolution of Czechoslovakia. Until 1948, Bohemia was a unit of Czechoslovakia as one of its lands. Bohemia was bordered in the south by Upper and Lower Austria, in the west by Bavaria and in the north by Saxony and Lusatia, in the northeast by Silesia, and in the east by Moravia. In the 2nd century BC, the Romans were competing for dominance in northern Italy, the Romans defeated the Boii at the Battle of Placentia and the Battle of Mutina. After this, many of the Boii retreated north across the Alps, much later Roman authors refer to the area they had once occupied as Boiohaemum. The earliest mention was by Tacitus Germania 28, and later mentions of the name are in Strabo. The name appears to include the tribal name Boi- plus the Germanic element *haimaz home and this Boiohaemum was apparently isolated to the area where King Marobods kingdom was centred, within the Hercynian forest. The Czech name Čechy is derived from the name of the Slavic ethnic group, the Czechs, Bohemia, like neighbouring Bavaria, is named after the Boii, who were a large Celtic nation known to the Romans for their migrations and settlement in northern Italy and other places. Another part of the nation moved west with the Helvetii into southern France, to the south, over the Danube, the Romans extended their empire, and to the southeast in Hungaria, were Sarmatian peoples. In the area of modern Bohemia the Marcomanni and other Suebic groups were led by their king Marobodus and he took advantage of the natural defenses provided by its mountains and forests. In late classical times and the early Middle Ages, two new Suebic groupings appeared to the west of Bohemia in southern Germany, the Alemanni, many Suebic tribes from the Bohemian region took part in such movements westwards, even settling as far away as Spain and Portugal. With them were also tribes who had pushed from the east, such as the Vandals, other groups pushed southwards towards Pannonia. These are precursors of todays Czechs, though the amount of Slavic immigration is a subject of debate. The Slavic influx was divided into two or three waves, the first wave came from the southeast and east, when the Germanic Lombards left Bohemia. Soon after, from the 630s to 660s, the territory was taken by Samos tribal confederation and his death marked the end of the old Slavonic confederation, the second attempt to establish such a Slavonic union after Carantania in Carinthia. Other sources divide the population of Bohemia at this time into the Merehani, Marharaii, Beheimare, Christianity first appeared in the early 9th century, but only became dominant much later, in the 10th or 11th century
26.
Saxony
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Its capital is Dresden, and its largest city is Leipzig. Saxony is the tenth largest of Germanys sixteen states, with an area of 18,413 square kilometres, located in the middle of a large, formerly all German-speaking part of Europe, the history of the state of Saxony spans more than a millennium. It has been a medieval duchy, an electorate of the Holy Roman Empire, a kingdom, the area of the modern state of Saxony should not be confused with Old Saxony, the area inhabited by Saxons. Old Saxony corresponds approximately to the modern German states of Lower Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, Saxony is divided into 10 districts,1. After a reform in 2008, these regions - with some alterations of their respective areas - were called Direktionsbezirke, in 2012, the authorities of these regions were merged into one central authority, the Landesdirektion Sachsen. The Erzgebirgskreis district includes the Ore Mountains, and the Schweiz-Osterzgebirge district includes Saxon Switzerland, the largest cities in Saxony according to the 31 December 2015 estimate. To this can be added that Leipzig forms a metropolitan region with Halle. The latter city is located just across the border to Saxony-Anhalt, Leipzig shares for instance an S-train system and an airport with Halle. Saxony has, after Saxony Anhalt, the most vibrant economy of the states of the former East Germany and its economy grew by 1. 9% in 2010. Nonetheless, unemployment remains above the German average, the eastern part of Germany, excluding Berlin, qualifies as an Objective 1 development-region within the European Union, and is eligible to receive investment subsidies of up to 30% until 2013. FutureSAX, a business competition and entrepreneurial support organisation, has been in operation since 2002. Microchip makers near Dresden have given the region the nickname Silicon Saxony, the publishing and porcelain industries of the region are well known, although their contributions to the regional economy are no longer significant. Today the automobile industry, machinery production and services contribute to the development of the region. Saxony is also one of the most renowned tourist destinations in Germany - especially the cities of Leipzig and Dresden, new tourist destinations are developing, notably in the lake district of Lausitz. Saxony reported an unemployment of 8. 8% in 2014. By comparison the average in the former GDR was 9. 8% and 6. 7% for Germany overall, the unemployment rate reached 8. 2% in May 2015. The Leipzig area, which recently was among the regions with the highest unemployment rate, could benefit greatly from investments by Porsche. With the VW Phaeton factory in Dresden, and many part suppliers, zwickau is another major Volkswagen location
27.
Engineer
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Engineers design materials, structures, and systems while considering the limitations imposed by practicality, regulation, safety, and cost. The word engineer is derived from the Latin words ingeniare and ingenium, the work of engineers forms the link between scientific discoveries and their subsequent applications to human and business needs and quality of life. His/her work is predominantly intellectual and varied and not of a mental or physical character. It requires the exercise of original thought and judgement and the ability to supervise the technical, he/she is thus placed in a position to make contributions to the development of engineering science or its applications. In due time he/she will be able to give authoritative technical advice, much of an engineers time is spent on researching, locating, applying, and transferring information. Indeed, research suggests engineers spend 56% of their time engaged in various information behaviours, Engineers must weigh different design choices on their merits and choose the solution that best matches the requirements. Their crucial and unique task is to identify, understand, Engineers apply techniques of engineering analysis in testing, production, or maintenance. Analytical engineers may supervise production in factories and elsewhere, determine the causes of a process failure and they also estimate the time and cost required to complete projects. Supervisory engineers are responsible for major components or entire projects, Engineering analysis involves the application of scientific analytic principles and processes to reveal the properties and state of the system, device or mechanism under study. Most engineers specialize in one or more engineering disciplines, numerous specialties are recognized by professional societies, and each of the major branches of engineering has numerous subdivisions. Civil engineering, for example, includes structural and transportation engineering and materials engineering include ceramic, metallurgical, mechanical engineering cuts across just about every discipline since its core essence is applied physics. Engineers also may specialize in one industry, such as vehicles, or in one type of technology. Several recent studies have investigated how engineers spend their time, that is, research suggests that there are several key themes present in engineers’ work, technical work, social work, computer-based work, information behaviours. Amongst other more detailed findings, a recent work sampling study found that engineers spend 62. 92% of their time engaged in work,40. 37% in social work. The time engineers spend engaged in activities is also reflected in the competencies required in engineering roles. There are many branches of engineering, each of which specializes in specific technologies, typically engineers will have deep knowledge in one area and basic knowledge in related areas. When developing a product, engineers work in interdisciplinary teams. For example, when building robots an engineering team will typically have at least three types of engineers, a mechanical engineer would design the body and actuators
28.
Ironmaster
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An ironmaster is the manager, and usually owner, of a forge or blast furnace for the processing of iron. It is a term associated with the period of the Industrial Revolution. The ironmaster was usually a large scale entrepreneur and thus an important member of a community and he would have a large country house or mansion as his residence. The organization of operations surrounding the smelting, refining and casting of iron was labour-intensive, there were ironmasters from the 17th century onwards, but they became more prominent with the great expansion in the British iron industry during the Industrial Revolution. An early ironmaster was John Winter who owned substantial holdings in the Forest of Dean, during the English Civil War he cast cannons for Charles I. Following the Restoration, Winter developed his interest in the iron industry and this was a precursor to the later work of Abraham Darby I who successfully used coke to smelt iron. Three successive generations of the family all bearing the name Abraham Darby are renowned for their contributions to the development of the English iron industry. One of the best known ironmasters of the part of the industrial revolution was John Wilkinson. Lowthian Bell was, like Abraham Darby, the patriarch of an ironmaking dynasty. Both his son Hugh Bell and his grandson Maurice Bell were directors of the Bell iron and his father, Thomas Bell, was a founder of Losh, Wilson and Bell, an iron and alkali company. The firm had works at Walker, near Newcastle upon Tyne, Bell accumulated a large fortune, with mansions including Washington New Hall, Rounton Grange near Northallerton, and the mediaeval Mount Grace Priory near Osmotherley. Henry Bolckow and John Vaughan were lifelong business partners, friends and they established what became the largest of all Victorian era iron and steel companies, Bolckow Vaughan, in Middlesbrough. Bolckow brought financial acumen, and Vaughan brought ironmaking and engineering expertise, the two men trusted each other implicitly and never interfered in the slightest degree with each others work. Mr. Bolckow had the management of the financial department. At its peak the firm was the largest steel producer in Britain, possibly in the world
29.
River Stour, Worcestershire
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The Stour /ˈstaʊər/ is a river flowing through the counties of Worcestershire, the West Midlands and Staffordshire in the West Midlands region of England. The Stour is a tributary of the River Severn. It has played a part in the economic history of the region. The river-name Stour, common in England, does not occur at all in Wales, in Germany the Stoer is a tributary of the River Elbe. The Stour is pronounced differently in different cases, the Kentish and East Anglian Stours rhyme with tour, the Oxfordshire Stour is sometimes rhymes with mower, sometimes with hour. The Worcestershire Stour always rhymes with hour, the name is of ambiguous and disputed origin. However, stour is a Middle English word with two meanings and derivations, still current enough to appear in most substantial dictionaries. As an adjective, with Germanic roots, it signifies large, as a noun, from medieval French roots, it signifies tumult, commotion, confusion or a armed battle or conflict. The primary definition in the Concise Oxford Dictionary is blowing or deposit of dust, however, Margaret Gelling, a specialist in Midland toponyms, emphasises the importance of situating place-names in the landscape. It is hard to see the river in dramatic terms, the Victorian etymologist Isaac Taylor, now long discredited on many counts, proposed a very simple solution, that Stour derives from dŵr, the Welsh word for water. Certainly Celtic origins are likely in the West Midlands and Worcestershire. It is possible that the various Stours do not share an origin or significant characteristics. Certainly there is currently no universally-accepted explanation, the river rises in the north of Worcestershire in the Clent Hills, near St Kenelms Church in Romsley. It collects water from many small streams from the Clent Hills as it descends, following a generally north-easterly course. It flows through Cradley and Lye and then between Stourbridge, to which it gives its name, and Amblecote, historically an important centre of the glass industry. Here it passes half-concealed through industrial estates that have replaced traditional heavy industry and it leaves the conurbation via the suburb of Wollaston, descending fairly rapidly from the West Midlands plateau to Prestwood. The Stour flows south to Stourton and then loops along the edge of the large village of Kinver. Passing through the villages of Caunsall, Cookley and Wolverley, it is joined by the Horse Brook, which drains an area extending northward into Shropshire, further south, the Wannerton Brook brings in water from the Blakedown area, on the western fringe of the Clent Hills
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Wolverley
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Wolverley is a village, and with nearby Cookley forms a civil parish in the Wyre Forest District of Worcestershire, England. It is located 2 miles north of Kidderminster and lies on the River Stour, at the time of the 2001 census it had a population of 2,096. There are 13 Listed Buildings within Wolverley, three of which are grade II*, one of the unusual features of the area are rooms cut into the sandstone cliffs behind some of the houses. In the centre of the village, next to the Queens Head Public House car-park are some caves which reflect this usage, Wolverley has one of the few remaining animal pounds in the area. Woverleys Church of England and parish church is dedicated to St. John and it is claimed as a tradition that there has been a church or chapel on the site since Anglo-Saxon times. The first documented evidence of a church was the mention of a parish priest in the village in the Domesday Book, a church on the site of the current parish church site has been in deanery of Kidderminster since the 13th Century. The current building was consecrated on 20 September 1772, and belongs to the Church of England, Wolverley was recorded in the Doomsday Book under an ancient spelling of Ulwardelie. John Atte Wode is recorded as holding land at Wolverley prior to 1357, according to ancient legend a crusading member of the Attwood family was rescued from a dungeon and returned to his home Wolverley Court by a swan. The site of the original Wolverley Grammar School is still in the centre of the village, the new school was opened by Bewdley-born Stanley Baldwin. Between 1948 and 1970 Sebright was a school, and from 1965 to 1969 the sculptor Fritz Steller was the Head of Art. Sebright School closed in 1970 and reopened as Wolverley High School, now called Wolverley C E Secondary School, however, the junior wing, Heathfield School, continued in existence and now includes pupils up to 16. Wolverley Lower Mill, which was established in 1670 by Philip Foley and Joshua Newborough, the village was also the birthplace of John Baskerville, the celebrated printer. During the Second World War the US Army Medical Corps opened its award winning 52nd general hospital at Wolverley Camp, castle Hill, Wolverley, the site of Medieval ruins. The monument is a Grade II listed structure and resides on a hilltop on Blakeshall Common
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Rolling (metalworking)
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In metalworking, rolling is a metal forming process in which metal stock is passed through one or more pairs of rolls to reduce the thickness and to make the thickness uniform. The concept is similar to the rolling of dough, Rolling is classified according to the temperature of the metal rolled. If the temperature of the metal is above its recrystallization temperature, if the temperature of the metal is below its recrystallization temperature, the process is known as cold rolling. In terms of usage, hot rolling processes more tonnage than any other manufacturing process, Roll stands holding pairs of rolls are grouped together into rolling mills that can quickly process metal, typically steel, into products such as structural steel, bar stock, and rails. Most steel mills have rolling mill divisions that convert the semi-finished casting products into finished products, there are many types of rolling processes, including ring rolling, roll bending, roll forming, profile rolling, and controlled rolling. The invention of the mill in Europe may be attributed to Leonardo da Vinci in his drawings. The earliest rolling mills in crude form but the basic principles were found in Middle East. Earliest rolling mills were slitting mills, which were introduced from what is now Belgium to England in 1590 and these passed flat bars between rolls to form a plate of iron, which was then passed between grooved rolls to produce rods of iron. The first experiments at rolling iron for tinplate took place about 1670, in 1697, Major John Hanbury erected a mill at Pontypool to roll Pontypool plates—blackplate. Later this began to be rerolled and tinned to make tinplate, the earlier production of plate iron in Europe had been in forges, not rolling mills. The slitting mill was adapted to producing hoops and iron with a half-round or other sections by means that were the subject of two patents of c. Some of the earliest literature on rolling mills can be traced back to Christopher Polhem in 1761 in Patriotista Testamente and he also explains how rolling mills can save on time and labor because a rolling mill can produce 10 to 20 or more bars at the same time. A patent was granted to Thomas Blockley of England in 1759 for the polishing and rolling of metals, another patent was granted in 1766 to Richard Ford of England for the first tandem mill. A tandem mill is one in which the metal is rolled in successive stands, Fords tandem mill was for hot rolling of wire rods, Rolling mills for lead seem to have existed by the late 17th century. Copper and brass were also rolled by the late 18th century, modern rolling practice can be attributed to the pioneering efforts of Henry Cort of Funtley Iron Mills, near Fareham, England. In 1783 a patent was issued to Henry Cort for his use of grooved rolls for rolling iron bars, with this new design mills were able to produce 15 times more output per day than with a hammer. Although Cort was not the first to use grooved rolls, he was first to combine the use of many of the best features of various ironmaking and shaping processes known at the time, thus modern writers have called him father of modern rolling. The first rail rolling mill was established by John Birkenshaw in 1820, with the advancement of technology in rolling mills the size of rolling mills grew rapidly along with the size products being rolled
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Frying pan
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A frying pan, frypan, or skillet is a flat-bottomed pan used for frying, searing, and browning foods. It is typically 200 to 300 mm in diameter with relatively low sides that flare outwards, a long handle, larger pans may have a small grab handle opposite the main handle. A pan of similar dimensions, but with less flared vertical sides, while a sauté pan can be used like a frying pan, it is designed for lower heat cooking methods, namely sautéing. Copper frying pans were used in ancient Mesopotamia, frying pans were also known in ancient Greece where they were called tagēnon and Rome, where they were called patella or sartago. The word pan derives from the Old English panna, cooking pots and pans with legless, flat bottoms were designed when cooking stoves became popular, this period of the late 19th century saw the introduction of the flat cast iron skillet. A versatile pan that combines the best of both the pan and the frying pan has higher, sloping sides that are often slightly curved. This pan is called a sauteuse, an evasée, or a fait-tout, most professional kitchens have several of these utensils in varying sizes. A grill pan is a pan with very low sides. A grill pan cooks food with radiant heat on a stovetop and it is referred to as a griddle pan in British English. A rappie pan is a pan used to make rappie pie, the pan is made from Aluminum or Stainless Steel. Traditionally, frying pans were made of cast iron, although cast iron is still popular today, especially for outdoor cooking, most frying pans are now made from metals such as aluminium or stainless steel. Frying pans made from bare cast iron or carbon steel can also gain non-stick properties through seasoning, a process for bonding Teflon to chemically roughened aluminum was patented in France by Marc Gregoire in 1954. In 1956 he formed a company to market non-stick cookware under the Tefal brand name, the durability of the early coatings were poor, but improvements in manufacturing have made these products a kitchen standard. The surface is not as tough as metal and the use of metal utensils can permanently mar the coating and degrade its non-stick property. For some cooking preparations a non-stick frying pan is inappropriate, especially for deglazing, since little or no residue can stick to the surface, the sauce will fail for lack of its primary flavoring agent. Non-stick frying pans featuring teflon coatings may give off toxic fumes, such temperatures can be reached within minutes on gas or electric ranges using high heat. An electric frying pan or electric skillet incorporates an electric heating element into the pan itself. Accordingly, it has heat-insulated legs for standing on a countertop, electric frying pans are common in shapes that are unusual for unpowered frying pans, notably square and rectangular
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Semi-finished casting products
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Semi-finished casting products are intermediate castings produced in a foundry that need further processing before being a finished good. There are four types, ingots, blooms, billets, ingots are large rough castings designed for storage and transportation. The shape usually resembles a rectangle or square with generous fillets and they are tapered, usually with the big-end-down. In the era of commercial wrought iron, blooms were slag-riddled iron castings poured in a bloomery before being worked into wrought iron, blooms are usually further processed via rotary piercing, structural shape rolling and profile rolling. Common final products include structural shapes, rails, rods, a billet is a length of metal that has a round or square cross-section, with an area less than 36 in2. Billets are created directly via continuous casting or extrusion or indirectly via hot rolling an ingot or bloom, billets are further processed via profile rolling and drawing. Final products include bar stock and wire, centrifugal casting is also used to produce short circular tubes as billets, usually to achieve a precise metallurgical structure. They are commonly used as cylinder sleeves where the inner and outer diameters are ground, because their size is not modified significantly, they are not always classified as semi-finished casting products. In copper production, a billet is a 30 long, about 8 diameter, a slab is a length of metal that is rectangular in cross-section. It is created directly by casting or indirectly by rolling an ingot on a slabbing mill. Slabs are usually further processed via flat rolling, skelping, common final products include sheet metal, plates, strip metal, pipes, and tubes
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Finery forge
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A finery forge is a hearth used to fine wrought iron, through the decarburization of the pig iron. The fining process involved liquifying cast iron in a fining hearth, Finery forges were used as early as 3rd century BC, based on archaeological evidence found at a site in Tieshengguo, China. The finery forge process was replaced by puddling process and the roller mill, in Europe, the concept of the finery forge may have been evident as early as the 13th century. The finery forge process began to be replaced in Europe from the late 18th century by others, of which puddling was the most successful, the new methods used mineral fuel, and freed the iron industry from its dependence on wood to make charcoal. There were several types of finery forges, the dominant type in Sweden was the German forge, which had a single hearth that was used for all processes. Its purity depended on the use of ore from the Dannemora mine, the Walloon forge was virtually the only kind used in Great Britain. The forge had two kinds of hearths, the finery to finish the product and the chafery to reheat the bloom that was the raw material of the process, in the finery, a workman known as the finer remelted pig iron so as to oxidise the carbon. This produced a lump of iron known as a bloom and this was consolidated using a water-powered hammer and returned to the finery. The next stages were undertaken by the hammerman, who in some iron-making areas such as South Yorkshire was also known as the stringsmith, in order to do this, he had to reheat the iron, for which he used the chafery. The fuel used in the finery had to be charcoal, as impurities in any mineral fuel would affect the quality of the iron, the waste product was allowed to cool in the hearth and removed as a mosser. In the Furness district they were left as the capstone of a wall, particularly near Spark Bridge. H. Schubert, History of British Iron and Steel Industry c.450 BC to AD1775, a. den Ouden, The Production of Wrought Iron in Finery Hearths, Historical Metallurgy 15, 63–87 and 16, 29–33. Hildebrand, Swedish Iron in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries, Export Industry Before Industrialization, P. King, The Cartel in Oregrounds Iron, Trading in the Raw Material for Steel During the 18th century, Journal of Industrial History 6, 25–48. Media related to Finery forges at Wikimedia Commons
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Patent
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A patent is a set of exclusive rights granted by a sovereign state to an inventor or assignee for a limited period of time in exchange for detailed public disclosure of an invention. An invention is a solution to a technological problem and is a product or a process. Patents are a form of intellectual property, the procedure for granting patents, requirements placed on the patentee, and the extent of the exclusive rights vary widely between countries according to national laws and international agreements. Typically, however, a patent application must include one or more claims that define the invention. A patent may include many claims, each of which defines a specific property right and these claims must meet relevant patentability requirements, such as novelty, usefulness, and non-obviousness. Nevertheless, there are variations on what is patentable subject matter from country to country, the word patent originates from the Latin patere, which means to lay open. More directly, it is a version of the term letters patent. Similar grants included land patents, which were land grants by early state governments in the USA, and printing patents, a precursor of modern copyright. In modern usage, the term patent usually refers to the granted to anyone who invents any new, useful. The additional qualification utility patent is used to distinguish the primary meaning from these other types of patents. Particular species of patents for inventions include biological patents, business method patents, chemical patents, the period of protection was 10 years. These were mostly in the field of glass making, as Venetians emigrated, they sought similar patent protection in their new homes. This led to the diffusion of patent systems to other countries, by the 16th century, the English Crown would habitually abuse the granting of letters patent for monopolies. After public outcry, King James I of England was forced to revoke all existing monopolies, the Statute became the foundation for later developments in patent law in England and elsewhere. Important developments in patent law emerged during the 18th century through a process of judicial interpretation of the law. During the reign of Queen Anne, patent applications were required to supply a complete specification of the principles of operation of the invention for public access. Influenced by the philosophy of John Locke, the granting of patents began to be viewed as a form of property right. The English legal system became the foundation for patent law in countries with a common law heritage, including the United States, New Zealand, in the Thirteen Colonies, inventors could obtain patents through petition to a given colonys legislature
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Dud Dudley
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Dudd Dudley was an English metallurgist, who fought on the Royalist side in the English Civil War as a soldier, military engineer, and supplier of munitions. He was one of the first Englishmen to smelt iron ore using coke, Dudley was the illegitimate son of Edward Sutton, 5th Baron Dudley of Dudley Castle, and grandson of Edward Sutton, 4th Baron Dudley. Dudd was the fourth of Lord Dudleys eleven children by his concubine Elizabeth, strictly, he was called Dudd Dudley otherwise Tomlinson. His eldest brother was Robert Dudley of Netherton Hall, Dudd married Eleanor Heaton, on 12 October 1626, at St. Helens Church, Worcester. Lord Dudley seems to have attended to the up-bringing of his children by Elizabeth Tomlinson. On the other hand, he failed to support his wife, Dudd was raised at Himley Hall. As a youth, he began his study of the processes of iron manufacture at his fathers iron works near Dudley. His speculations in the improvement of production were encouraged by his father. In 1618, at the age of 20, Dud left Balliol College, Oxford, to charge of his fathers furnace. Later he referred to wood and charcoal growing then scant and pit-coles, abounding, so began to use the latter. He turned the coal into coke, a hard, foam-like mass of almost pure carbon made from bituminous coal, Dudley probably modified his furnace to accommodate the new process, but the quantity of iron initially produced was reduced to about three tons a week from a furnace. Dudd wrote to his father, then in London, informing him of his success, Dudleys patent, dated 22 February 1622, was taken out by his father Edward, Lord Dudley. Under the Kings command, many experiments were made with it, its qualities were fairly tested, the Black Country, including Dudley, was already a major centre of iron manufacture in England. The new works had been in successful operation little more than a year, when a flood swept away Dudleys principal works at Cradley, and otherwise caused considerable damage downstream. Dudd, undaunted and with a passion, set to work repairing his furnaces and forges at some great cost, did him much prejudice, not only by detaining his stock, but disparaging the iron. However, this report on his iron did not prevent him being outed of his works. By the charcoal ironmasters and others, overlong to relate and this certainly applies to his second furnace, at Himley, which his father let this to Richard Foley in 1625, and may well apply to Cradley, which was later in Foleys hands. Afterwards he built a new furnace, Hasco or Hascod Furnace and he did not make more on an average than five tons a week, with seven tons at the outside
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Pontypool
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Pontypool is a town of approximately 36,000 people in the county borough of Torfaen, within the historic boundaries of Monmouthshire in South Wales. It is situated on the Afon Lwyd river in the county borough of Torfaen, situated on the eastern edge of the South Wales coalfields, Pontypool grew around industries including iron and steel production, coal mining and the growth of the railways. A rather artistic manufacturing industry also flourished here alongside heavy industry was Japanning. Pontypool has a history as one of the earliest industrial towns in Wales. The Afon Lwyd valley, in which Pontypool is situated, provided an abundance of resources for the manufacturing of iron, including coal, iron ore, charcoal and waterpower. The wider technological developments of the Tudor period, such as the utilisation of blast furnaces to produce iron, allowed for the greater exploitation of the mineral resources of south Wales. A blast furnace was in use at Monkswood, near Pontypool, an ironworks was established in what later became Pontypool Park in c. Furthermore, he secured the rights to extract coal and iron-ore on Lord Abergavenny’s Hills in, the Hanburys were also active at Cwmlickey, Lower Race and Blaendare during the seventeenth century as the demand for coal was met. Tinplate was being produced at Pontypool from c,1706, with an important tin mill in operation at Pontymoile during the early eighteenth century. During the 1660s, Thomas Allgood of Northamptonshire, was appointed manager of the Pontypool Ironworks, Allgood developed the Pontypool ‘japanning’ process, whereby metal plate could be treated in a way that generated a lacquered and decorative finish. There was a demand for these artistic, luxury products and Allgood’s sons, Edward and Thomas, established a japanworks in Pontypool. The brothers produced a range of products, including decorative bread baskets, tea trays, dishes and other items, following the death of Edward Allgood in 1761 there was a family quarrel between his two sons and a rival japanning factory was established in Usk. Both the Pontypool and Usk concerns had ceased production by the early 1820s, from the mid to late eighteenth century, as the industrial revolution took hold, there was a massive expansion in the economic development of south Wales. Iron-making flourished in emerging towns and settlements, notably at Merthyr Tydfil, Tredegar, by the early nineteenth century, south Wales was the most important centre of iron production in the world. Whilst Pontypool was not as competitive as some of the larger towns, it retained a niche in the metallurgical market. The twentieth century witnessed a decline in the industries of south Wales. The growth of Pontypool accompanied the development of industry, originally a dispersed, rural settlement, the first centres of growth took place in the hamlets of Trosnant and Pontymoile. However, as the focus of industry and investment became increasingly centred on Pontypool, Pontypool was little village within old Trevethin parish in the ancient hundred of Abergavenny of the County of Monmouth
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Edward Lhuyd
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Edward Lhuyd was a Welsh naturalist, botanist, linguist, geographer and antiquary. He is also known by the Latinized form of his name, Lhuyd attended grammar school in Oswestry and went up to Jesus College, Oxford in 1682, but dropped out before his graduation. In 1684, he was appointed assistant to Robert Plot, the Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum and replaced him as Keeper in 1690, whilst employed by the Ashmolean he travelled extensively. A visit to Snowdonia in 1688 allowed him to construct for John Rays Synopsis Methodica Stirpium Britannicorum a list of local to that region. After 1697, Lhuyd visited every county in Wales, and then travelled to Scotland, Ireland, Cornwall, and Brittany, in 1701, Lhuyd was made MA honoris causa by the University of Oxford, and he was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1708. Lhuyd died of pleurisy in Oxford in 1709 and he was responsible for the first scientific description and naming of what we would now recognize as a dinosaur, the sauropod tooth Rutellum implicatum. Early Modern Cornish was the subject of a study published by Lhuyd in 1702, it differs from the language in having a considerably simpler structure. This book is an important source for its description of Cornish. Lhuyd noted the similarity between the two Celtic language families, Brythonic or P–Celtic, and Goidelic or Q–Celtic and he argued that the Brythonic languages originated in Gaul, and that the Goidelic languages originated in the Iberian Peninsula. Lhuyd concluded that as the languages had been of Celtic origin, from the 18th century, the peoples of Brittany, Cornwall, Ireland, Isle of Man, Scotland and Wales were known increasingly as Celts, and are regarded as the modern Celtic nations today. The Snowdon lily was at one time called Lloydia serotina after Lhuyd, cymdeithas Edward Llwyd, the National Naturalists Society of Wales, is named after him. The sculptor was John Meirion Morris and the inscription on the plinth, carved by Ieuan Rees, delair, Justin B. and William A. S. The earliest discoveries of dinosaurs, the records re-examined, proceedings of the Geologists Association 113, 185–197. Evans, Dewi W. and Brynley F. Roberts, the Life and Letters of Edward Lhuyd. Roberts, Brynley F. Edward Lhuyd, the Making of a Scientist, williams, Derek R. Prying into every hole and corner, Edward Lhuyd in Cornwall in 1700. Williams, Derek R. Edward Lhuyd, 1660–1709, A Shropshire Welshman, never at rest A biography of Isaac Newton by Richard S. Westfall ISBN0521274354 pp581, Archaeologia Britannica. Downloadable pdf at The Internet Archive, biography of Edward Lhuyd from the Canolfan Edward Llwyd, a centre for the study of science through Welsh. Lithophylacii Britannici ichnographia – full digital facsimile from Linda Hall Library
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Hammer
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A hammer is a tool or device that delivers a blow to an object. Most hammers are hand tools used to drive nails, fit parts, forge metal, hammers vary in shape, size, and structure, depending on their purposes. Hammers are basic tools in many trades, the usual features are a head and a handle. Although most hammers are hand tools, powered versions exist, they are known as powered hammers, types of power hammer include steam hammers and trip hammers, often for heavier uses, such as forging. Some hammers have other names, such as sledgehammer, mallet, the term hammer also applies to devices that deliver blows, such as the hammer of a firearm or the hammer of a piano or the hammer ice scraper. The use of simple hammers dates to about 2,600,000 BCE when various shaped stones were used to strike wood, bone, or other stones to break them apart and shape them. Stones attached to sticks with strips of leather or animal sinew were being used as hammers with handles by about 30,000 BCE during the middle of the Paleolithic Stone Age. The hammers archeological record shows that it may be the oldest tool for which evidence exists of its early existence. A traditional hand-held hammer consists of a head and a handle, fastened together by means of a special wedge made for the purpose, or by glue. This two-piece design is used, to combine a dense metallic striking head with a non-metallic mechanical-shock-absorbing handle. If wood is used for the handle, it is often hickory or ash, rigid fiberglass resin may be used for the handle, this material does not absorb water or decay, but does not dissipate shock as well as wood. A loose hammer head is hazardous because it can fly off the handle when in use. Wooden handles can often be replaced when worn or damaged, specialized kits are available covering a range of sizes and designs. Some hammers are one-piece designs made primarily of a single material, a one-piece metallic hammer may optionally have its handle coated or wrapped in a resilient material such as rubber, for improved grip and reduced user fatigue. The hammer head may be surfaced with a variety of materials, including brass, bronze, wood, plastic, rubber, some hammers have interchangeable striking surfaces, which can be selected as needed or replaced when worn out. A large hammer-like tool is a maul, a wood- or rubber-headed hammer is a mallet, the essential part of a hammer is the head, a compact solid mass that is able to deliver a blow to the intended target without itself deforming. The impacting surface of the tool is usually flat or slightly rounded, some upholstery hammers have a magnetized face, to pick up tacks. In the hatchet, the hammer head may be secondary to the cutting edge of the tool
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Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
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Glamorgan
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Glamorgan or, sometimes, Glamorganshire is one of the thirteen historic counties of Wales and a former administrative county of Wales. It was originally a medieval petty kingdom of varying boundaries known as Glywysing until taken over by the Normans as a lordship. Glamorgan is latterly represented by the three preserved counties of Mid Glamorgan, South Glamorgan and West Glamorgan, the name also survives in that of Vale of Glamorgan, a county borough. After falling under English rule in the 16th century, Glamorgan became a more stable county, the county of Glamorgan comprised several distinct regions, the industrial valleys, the agricultural Vale of Glamorgan, and the scenic Gower Peninsula. The county was bounded to the north by Brecknockshire, east by Monmouthshire, south by the Bristol Channel and its total area was 2,100 km2, and the total population of the three preserved counties of Glamorgan in 1991 was 1,288,309. From 1974 Glamorgan contained two cities, Cardiff, the county town and from 1955 the capital city of Wales, the highest point in the county is Craig y Llyn which is situated near the village of Rhigos in the Cynon Valley. Glamorgans terrain has been inhabited by humankind for over 200,000 years, climate fluctuation caused the formation, disappearance, and reformation of glaciers which, in turn, caused sea levels to rise and fall. At various times life has flourished, at others the area is likely to have been completely uninhabitable, evidence of the presence of Neanderthals has been discovered on the Gower Peninsula. Whether they remained in the area during periods of cold is unclear. Sea levels have been 150 metres lower and 8 metres higher than at present, archaeological evidence shows that humans settled in the area during an interstadial period. The oldest known burial in Great Britain – the Red Lady of Paviland – was discovered in a coastal cave between Port Eynon and Rhossili, on the Gower Peninsula. The lady has been dated to c.29,000 years before present – during the Late Pleistocene – at which time the cave overlooked an area of plain. From the end of the last ice age Mesolithic hunter-gatherers began to migrate to the British Peninsula – through Doggerland – from the European mainland. Human lifestyles in North-West Europe changed around 6000 BP, from the Mesolithic nomadic lives of hunting and gathering, to the Neolithic agrarian life of agriculture and they cleared the forests to establish pasture and to cultivate the land and developed new technologies such as ceramics and textile production. A tradition of long construction began in continental Europe during the 7th millennium BP – the free standing megalithic structures supporting a sloping capstone. Nineteen Neolithic chambered tombs and five possible henges have been identified in Glamorgan, two major groups of Neolithic architectural traditions are represented in the area, portal dolmens, and Severn-Cotswold chamber tombs, as well as tombs that do not fall easily into either group. Such massive constructions would have needed a large labour force – up to 200 men – suggestive of large communities nearby, archaeological evidence from some Neolithic sites has shown the continued use of cromlechi in the Bronze Age. The Bronze Age – defined by the use of metal – has made an impression on the area
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This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Tin-plate and Terne-plate". Encyclopædia Britannica. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the