1.
Paper
–
Paper is a thin material produced by pressing together moist fibres of cellulose pulp derived from wood, rags or grasses, and drying them into flexible sheets. It is a material with many uses, including writing, printing, packaging, cleaning. The modern pulp and paper industry is global, with China leading its production, the oldest known archaeological fragments of the immediate precursor to modern paper, date to the 2nd century BC in China. The pulp papermaking process is ascribed to Cai Lun, a 2nd-century AD Han court eunuch, with paper as an effective substitute for silk in many applications, China could export silk in greater quantity, contributing to a Golden Age. Because of papers introduction to the West through the city of Baghdad, in the 19th century, industrial manufacture greatly lowered its cost, enabling mass exchange of information and contributing to significant cultural shifts. In 1844, the Canadian inventor Charles Fenerty and the German F. G. Keller independently developed processes for pulping wood fibres, before the industrialisation of the paper production the most common fibre source was recycled fibres from used textiles, called rags. The rags were from hemp, linen and cotton, a process for removing printing inks from recycled paper was invented by German jurist Justus Claproth in 1774. Today this method is called deinking and it was not until the introduction of wood pulp in 1843 that paper production was not dependent on recycled materials from ragpickers. The word paper is etymologically derived from Latin papyrus, which comes from the Greek πάπυρος, although the word paper is etymologically derived from papyrus, the two are produced very differently and the development of the first is distinct from the development of the second. Papyrus is a lamination of natural plant fibres, while paper is manufactured from fibres whose properties have changed by maceration. To make pulp from wood, a chemical pulping process separates lignin from cellulose fibres and this is accomplished by dissolving lignin in a cooking liquor, so that it may be washed from the cellulose, this preserves the length of the cellulose fibres. Paper made from chemical pulps are also known as wood-free papers–not to be confused with paper, this is because they do not contain lignin. The pulp can also be bleached to produce paper, but this consumes 5% of the fibres, chemical pulping processes are not used to make paper made from cotton. There are three main chemical pulping processes, the process dates back to the 1840s and it was the dominant method extent before the second world war. Most pulping operations using the process are net contributors to the electricity grid or use the electricity to run an adjacent paper mill. Another advantage is that this process recovers and reuses all inorganic chemical reagents, soda pulping is another specialty process used to pulp straws, bagasse and hardwoods with high silicate content. There are two major mechanical pulps, thermomechanical pulp and groundwood pulp, in the TMP process, wood is chipped and then fed into steam heated refiners, where the chips are squeezed and converted to fibres between two steel discs. In the groundwood process, debarked logs are fed into grinders where they are pressed against rotating stones to be made into fibres
Paper
–
Different types of paper:
carton,
tissue paper
Paper
–
Hemp wrapping paper, China, circa 100 BC.
Paper
–
The microscopic structure of paper:
Micrograph of paper
autofluorescing under
ultraviolet illumination. The individual fibres in this sample are around 10
µm in diameter.
Paper
–
Card and paper stock for
crafts use comes in a wide variety of textures and colors.
2.
Pulp (paper)
–
Pulp is a lignocellulosic fibrous material prepared by chemically or mechanically separating cellulose fibres from wood, fiber crops or waste paper. The wood fiber sources required for pulping are 45% sawmill residue, 21% logs and chips, many kinds of paper are made from wood with nothing else mixed into them. This includes newspaper, magazines and even toilet paper, Pulp is one of the most abundant raw materials worldwide. Using wood to make paper is a recent innovation. The ancient Egyptians were the first to make paper from reeds, papermaking using cotton and linen fibers spread to Europe in the 13th century, and the increasing use of fabric brought more rag paper, which was a factor in the development of printing. By the 1800s, fibre crops such as flax, which provided linen fibres, were still the material source. Chemical processes quickly followed, first with J. Roths use of acid to treat wood, then by Benjamin Tilghmans U. S. patent on the use of calcium bisulfite, Ca2. Almost a decade later, the first commercial sulfite pulp mill was built and it used magnesium as the counter ion and was based on work by Carl Daniel Ekman. By 1900, sulfite pulping had become the dominant means of producing wood pulp, the competing chemical pulping process, the sulfate, or kraft, process, was developed by Carl F. Dahl in 1879, the first kraft mill started, in Sweden, in 1890. The invention of the boiler, by G. H. Tomlinson in the early 1930s, allowed kraft mills to recycle almost all of their pulping chemicals, global production of wood pulp in 2006 was 175 million tons. In the previous year,63 million tons of market pulp was sold, with Canada being the largest source at 21 percent of the total, chemical pulp made up 93 percent of market pulp. The timber resources used to make wood pulp are referred to as pulpwood, wood pulp comes from softwood trees such as spruce, pine, fir, larch and hemlock, and hardwoods such as eucalyptus, aspen and birch. A pulp mill is a facility that converts wood chips or other plant fibre source into a thick fiberboard which can be shipped to a paper mill for further processing. Pulp can be manufactured using mechanical, semi-chemical or fully chemical methods, the finished product may be either bleached or non-bleached, depending on the customer requirements. Wood and other plant materials used to make pulp contain three components, cellulose fibers, lignin and hemicelluloses. The aim of pulping is to break down the structure of the fibre source, be it chips, stems or other plant parts. The various mechanical pulping methods, such as groundwood and refiner mechanical pulping, much of the lignin remains adhering to the fibres
Pulp (paper)
–
Structure of fibres of pulp
Pulp (paper)
–
Pulp at a paper mill near Pensacola, 1947
Pulp (paper)
–
Fibres in wood pulp
Pulp (paper)
–
International Paper Company. Pulp mill that makes
fluff pulp for use in
absorbent products with the
kraft process.
3.
Fourdrinier machine
–
This article contains a glossary section at the end. After the forming section the wet web passes through a section to squeeze out excess water. The original Fourdrinier forming section used a horizontal drainage area, referred to as the drainage table, press section where the wet fibre web passes between large rolls loaded under high pressure to squeeze out as much water as possible. Drying section, where the pressed sheet passes partly around, in a serpentine manner, drying removes the water content down to a level of about 6%, where it will remain at typical indoor atmospheric conditions. Calender section where the paper is smoothened under high loading. Only one nip is necessary in order to hold the sheet, extra nips give more smoothing but at some expense to paper strength. Paper machines are long-lived assets that usually remain in service for several decades and it is common to rebuild machines periodically to increase production and improve quality or to change the paper grade. While still on the fabric in the mould the wet paper is pressed to remove excess water. In 1799, Louis-Nicolas Robert of Essonnes, France, was granted a patent for a paper making machine. At the time Robert was working for Saint-Léger Didot, with whom he quarrelled over the ownership of the invention, Didot thought that England was a better place to develop the machine. But during the times of the French Revolution, he could not go there himself, so he sent his brother in law, John Gamble. Through a chain of acquaintances, Gamble was introduced to the brothers Sealy and Henry Fourdrinier, stationers of London, Gamble was granted British patent 2487 on 20 October 1801. A third machine was installed at the Fourdriniers own mill at Two Waters, the Fourdriniers also bought a mill at St Neots intending to install two machines there and the process and machines continued to develop. Thomas Gilpin is most often credited for creating the first U. S cylinder type papermaking machine at Brandywine Creek and this machine was also developed in England, but it was a cylinder mould machine. The Fourdrinier machine wasnt introduced into the USA until 1827, however, records show Charles Kinsey of Patterson, NJ had already patented a continuous process papermaking machine in 1807. Kinsey’s machine was built locally by Daniel Sawn and by 1809 the Kinsey machine was successfully making paper at the Essex Mill in Paterson, gilpins 1817 patent was similar to Kinsey’s, as was the John Ames patent of 1822. The method of production demonstrated by the paper machine influenced the development of continuous rolling of iron and later steel. The plant fibres used for pulp are composed mostly of cellulose and hemi-cellulose, after the water evaporates the fibres remain bonded
Fourdrinier machine
–
A worker inspecting wet, bleached wood pulp
Fourdrinier machine
–
Diagram showing the sections of the Fourdrinier machine
Fourdrinier machine
–
Granite press roll at a granite quarry site
Fourdrinier machine
–
Dryer section of an older Fourdrinier-style paper-making machine. These narrow, small diameter dryers are not enclosed by a hood, dating the photo to before the 1970s.
4.
Paper pulp
–
Pulp is a lignocellulosic fibrous material prepared by chemically or mechanically separating cellulose fibres from wood, fiber crops or waste paper. The wood fiber sources required for pulping are 45% sawmill residue, 21% logs and chips, many kinds of paper are made from wood with nothing else mixed into them. This includes newspaper, magazines and even toilet paper, Pulp is one of the most abundant raw materials worldwide. Using wood to make paper is a recent innovation. The ancient Egyptians were the first to make paper from reeds, papermaking using cotton and linen fibers spread to Europe in the 13th century, and the increasing use of fabric brought more rag paper, which was a factor in the development of printing. By the 1800s, fibre crops such as flax, which provided linen fibres, were still the material source. Chemical processes quickly followed, first with J. Roths use of acid to treat wood, then by Benjamin Tilghmans U. S. patent on the use of calcium bisulfite, Ca2. Almost a decade later, the first commercial sulfite pulp mill was built and it used magnesium as the counter ion and was based on work by Carl Daniel Ekman. By 1900, sulfite pulping had become the dominant means of producing wood pulp, the competing chemical pulping process, the sulfate, or kraft, process, was developed by Carl F. Dahl in 1879, the first kraft mill started, in Sweden, in 1890. The invention of the boiler, by G. H. Tomlinson in the early 1930s, allowed kraft mills to recycle almost all of their pulping chemicals, global production of wood pulp in 2006 was 175 million tons. In the previous year,63 million tons of market pulp was sold, with Canada being the largest source at 21 percent of the total, chemical pulp made up 93 percent of market pulp. The timber resources used to make wood pulp are referred to as pulpwood, wood pulp comes from softwood trees such as spruce, pine, fir, larch and hemlock, and hardwoods such as eucalyptus, aspen and birch. A pulp mill is a facility that converts wood chips or other plant fibre source into a thick fiberboard which can be shipped to a paper mill for further processing. Pulp can be manufactured using mechanical, semi-chemical or fully chemical methods, the finished product may be either bleached or non-bleached, depending on the customer requirements. Wood and other plant materials used to make pulp contain three components, cellulose fibers, lignin and hemicelluloses. The aim of pulping is to break down the structure of the fibre source, be it chips, stems or other plant parts. The various mechanical pulping methods, such as groundwood and refiner mechanical pulping, much of the lignin remains adhering to the fibres
Paper pulp
–
Structure of fibres of pulp
Paper pulp
–
Pulp at a paper mill near Pensacola, 1947
Paper pulp
–
Fibres in wood pulp
Paper pulp
–
International Paper Company. Pulp mill that makes
fluff pulp for use in
absorbent products with the
kraft process.
5.
Adhesives
–
The use of adhesives offers many advantages over binding techniques such as sewing, mechanical fastening, thermal bonding, etc. Adhesives are typically organized by the method of adhesion and these are then organized into reactive and non-reactive adhesives, which refers to whether the adhesive chemically reacts in order to harden. Alternatively they can be organized by whether the raw stock is of natural or synthetic origin, Adhesives may be found naturally or produced synthetically. The earliest human use of substances was approximately 200,000 years ago. The first references to adhesives in literature first appeared in approximately 2000 BCE, the Greeks and Romans made great contributions to the development of adhesives. In Europe, glue was not widely used until the period 1500–1700 CE, from then until the 1900s increases in adhesive use and discovery were relatively gradual. Only since the last century has the development of synthetic adhesives accelerated rapidly, the earliest use of adhesives was discovered in central Italy when two stone flakes partially covered with birch-bark tar and a third uncovered stone from the Middle Pleistocene era were found. This is thought to be the oldest discovered human use of tar-hafted stones, the birch-bark-tar adhesive is a simple, one-component adhesive. Although sticky enough, plant-based adhesives are brittle and vulnerable to environmental conditions, the first use of compound adhesives was discovered in Sibudu, South Africa. The ability to produce stronger adhesives allowed middle stone age humans to attach stone segments to sticks in greater variations, more recent examples of adhesive use by prehistoric humans have been found at the burial sites of ancient tribes. Archaeologists studying the sites found that approximately 6,000 years ago the tribesmen had buried their dead together with food found in clay pots repaired with tree resins. The glue was analyzed as pitch, which requires the heating of tar during its production, the retrieval of this tar requires a transformation of birch bark by means of heat, in a process known as pyrolysis. The first references to adhesives in literature first appeared in approximately 2000 BCE, further historical records of adhesive use are found from the period spanning 1500–1000 BCE. Artifacts from this period include paintings depicting wood gluing operations and a made of wood. Other ancient Egyptian artifacts employ animal glue for bonding or lamination, such lamination of wood for bows and furniture is thought to have extended their life and was accomplished using casein -based glues. The ancient Egyptians also developed starch-based pastes for the bonding of papyrus to clothing, from 1 to 500 AD the Greeks and Romans made great contributions to the development of adhesives. Wood veneering and marquetry were developed, the production of animal and fish glues refined, egg-based pastes were used to bond gold leaves incorporated various natural ingredients such as blood, bone, hide, milk, cheese, vegetables, and grains. The Greeks began the use of slaked lime as mortar while the Romans furthered mortar development by mixing lime with volcanic ash and this material, known as pozzolanic cement, was used in the construction of the Roman Colosseum and Pantheon
Adhesives
–
Nitrocellulose adhesive outside a tube
Adhesives
–
A reconstruction of Ötzi's axe
Adhesives
–
Beeswax
Adhesives
–
Modern Slaked
Lime Factory in Ukraine
6.
Doctor blade
–
In rotogravure printing the doctor blade removes the excess ink from the smooth non-engraved portions of the image carrier and the land areas of the cell walls. Doctor blades are used in other printing and coating processes, such as flexo. It is believed that the name derives from the used in flatbed letterpress equipment for blades used to wipe ductor rolls. The doctor blade is cheap and disposable and the cylinder or flexo anilox is relatively expensive. Typical materials for the blade are steel or plastic, gravure cylinders are normally hard-chrome plated, fine adjustment of in-and-out position, independently on left and right, must also be possible, in order to compensate for any misalignment between blade geometry and cylinder axis. These requirements are fulfilled by a doctor blade assembly which includes a blade holder. In order to keep the wear pattern as even as possible, the entire doctor blade assembly oscillates from side to side. Of necessity, the blade must be easy and quick to replace
Doctor blade
–
A technician installs a doctor blade for flexographic printing.
7.
CTMP
–
A pulp mill is a manufacturing facility that converts wood chips or other plant fibre source into a thick fibre board which can be shipped to a paper mill for further processing. Pulp can be manufactured using mechanical, semi-chemical or fully chemical methods, the finished product may be either bleached or non-bleached, depending on the customer requirements. Wood and other plant materials used to make pulp contain three components, cellulose fibres, lignin and hemicelluloses. The aim of pulping is to break down the structure of the fibre source, be it chips, stems or other plant parts. The various mechanical pulping methods, such as groundwood and refiner mechanical pulping, much of the lignin remains adhering to the fibres. Strength is impaired because the fibres may be cut and these hybrid methods include thermomechanical pulping and chemithermomechanical pulping. The chemical and thermal treatments reduce the amount of energy required by the mechanical treatment. Much of the information about the technology in following subsections is from the book by C. J. Biermann, the chemistry of the various pulping processes can be found in Sjöströms book. The most common source for pulp mills is pulpwood. Other common sources are bagasse and fibre crops, the first step in all mills using wood as the fibre source is to remove the bark. Bark contains relatively few usable fibres and darkens the pulp, the removed bark is burned, along with other unusable plant material, to generate steam to run the mill. Almost all wood is then chipped before being processed further in order to free the fibres, removal of the bark is done in a barker. The bark adhesion is about 3–5 kg/cm2 in the growing season, the bark of frozen logs is even more difficult to remove. In chemical pulp mills, the bark introduces unwanted contaminants such as calcium, silica and aluminium that cause scaling, birch bark contains betulin, a terpenoid that easily creates deposits in a pulp mill. The pulp made by this process is known as stone groundwood pulp, if the wood is ground in a pressurized, sealed grinder the pulp is classified as pressure groundwood pulp. Most modern mills use chips rather than logs and ridged metal discs called refiner plates instead of grindstones. If the chips are just ground up with the plates, the pulp is called refiner mechanical pulp, steam treatment significantly reduces the total energy needed to make the pulp and decreases the damage to fibers. Mechanical pulp mills use large amounts of energy, mostly electricity to power motors which turn the grinders, the kraft process does less damage to the cellulose fibres than the sulfite process, thereby producing stronger fibres, but the sulfite process makes pulp that is easier to bleach
CTMP
–
A pulp mill in
Äänekoski,
Central Finland
CTMP
–
International Paper Company, pulp mill
CTMP
–
Pulp mill at
Blankenstein (
Germany)
8.
Tissue-pack marketing
–
Tissue-pack marketing is a type of guerrilla marketing that is a phenomenon in Japan. Companies use small, portable tissue packages to move advertising copy directly into consumers hands, about 4 billion of these packages of tissues are distributed on the streets annually in Japan—largely outside of subway stations. This industry generates sales in the range of ¥75 billion annually, the concept of tissue-pack marketing was first developed in Japan. At the time, the most common marketing freebie in Japan was boxes of matches and these were often given away at banks and then used by women in the kitchen. Mori figured tissues would have wider appeal than the matches. The new product was marketed only as a form of advertising and was not sold to consumers, where the more traditional flyers are often discarded without being read or simply not accepted by the consumer, the same is not true of advertising tissue-packs. The most important reason for this is because the tissues add functionality to the advertisement and this functionality has several benefits, Gets the ad into consumers hands In an Internet survey of over 100,000 Japanese consumers conducted by Marsh Research, 76% said they accept free tissues. This is a higher rate than either fliers or leaflets. One possible reason for this increased statistic when compared to fliers is that consumers were hoping to find coupons or special offers packaged inside with the tissues. Helps consumers to retain the ad and its message The advertisement on the package is more likely to be retained by the consumer because they are being exposed to it. Japan is still the market for tissue-pack advertising, but the practice has begun to spread overseas. Pocket tissue advertising was introduced in Montreal, Canada, in December 2000 by Promotion Par Main, in April 2005, this marketing method was also used in Ontario, Canada, by Holdem Promotions Inc. after the companys founders saw tissue advertising during a trip to China. In the United States, a subsidiary of the Japanese trading company Itochu, AdPack USA, introduced tissue-pack marketing in New York in 2005, in 2012, the tissue marketing company Adtishoo launched operations in the United Kingdom. Tissue paper Out-of-home advertising Communications in Japan Marketing strategies
Tissue-pack marketing
–
A man handing out advertising tissues to passersby in Tokyo
Tissue-pack marketing
–
A variety of advertising tissue packages
9.
Napkins
–
A napkin, serviette or face towelette is a rectangle of cloth used at the table for wiping the mouth and fingers while eating. It is usually small and folded, sometimes in intricate designs, the word comes from Middle English, borrowing the French nappe—a cloth covering for a table—and adding -kin, the diminutive suffix. Serviette can be heard in the United Kingdom, Ireland, some parts of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Kenya, in Australia and New Zealand, serviette generally refers to the paper variety and napkin refers to the cloth variety. The same distinction is used in Canada although paper napkin may be used interchangeably with serviette, in the UK, the term napkin is traditionally U and serviette is non-U. Conventionally, the napkin is often folded and placed to the left of the place setting, in a restaurant setting or a caterers hall, it may be folded into more elaborate shapes and displayed on the empty plate. Origami techniques can be used to create a three-dimensional design, a napkin may also be held together in a bundle with cutlery by a napkin ring. Alternatively, paper napkins may be contained with a napkin holder, napkins were used in ancient Roman times. One of the earliest references to table napkins in English dates to 1384–85, summaries of napkin history often say that the ancient Greeks used bread to wipe their hands. This is suggested by a passage in one of Alciphrons letters, the bread in both texts is referred to as apomagdalia, which simply means bread from inside the crust known as the crumb, and not special napkin bread. The use of paper napkins is documented in ancient China, where paper was invented in the 2nd century BC, paper napkins were known as chih pha, folded in squares, and used for the serving of tea. Textual evidence of paper appears in a description of the possessions of the Yu family
Napkins
–
A rolled napkin in a
napkin ring
Napkins
–
A folded napkin
10.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
United States
–
Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764
United States
–
Flag
United States
–
The signing of the
Mayflower Compact, 1620.
United States
–
The
Declaration of Independence: the
Committee of Five presenting their draft to the
Second Continental Congress in 1776
11.
Western Europe
–
Western Europe, or West Europe, is the region comprising the western part of Europe. Below, some different geographic and geopolitical definitions of the term are outlined, prior to the Roman conquest, a large part of Western Europe had adopted the newly developed La Tène culture. This cultural and linguistic division was reinforced by the later political east-west division of the Roman Empire. The division between these two was enhanced during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages by a number of events, the Western Roman Empire collapsed, starting the Early Middle Ages. By contrast, the Eastern Roman Empire, mostly known as the Greek or Byzantine Empire, survived, in East Asia, Western Europe was historically known as taixi in China and taisei in Japan, which literally translates as the Far West. The term Far West became synonymous with Western Europe in China during the Ming dynasty, the Italian Jesuit priest Matteo Ricci was one of the first writers in China to use the Far West as an Asian counterpart to the European concept of the Far East. In his writings, Ricci referred to himself as Matteo of the Far West, the term was still in use in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Post-war Europe would be divided into two spheres, the West, influenced by the United States, and the Eastern Bloc. With the onset of the Cold War, Europe was divided by the Iron Curtain, behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Although some countries were neutral, they were classified according to the nature of their political. This division largely defined the popular perception and understanding of Western Europe, the world changed dramatically with the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989. The Federal Republic of Germany peacefully absorbed the German Democratic Republic, COMECON and the Warsaw Pact were dissolved, and in 1991, the Soviet Union ceased to exist. Several countries which had part of the Soviet Union regained full independence. Although the term Western Europe was more prominent during the Cold War, it remains much in use, in 1948 the Treaty of Brussels was signed between Belgium, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. It was further revisited in 1954 at the Paris Conference, when the Western European Union was established and it was declared defunct in 2011, after the Treaty of Lisbon, and the Treaty of Brussels was terminated. When the Western European Union was dissolved, it had 10 member countries, six member countries, five observer countries. The CIA divides Western Europe into two smaller subregions, regional voting blocs were formed in 1961 to encourage voting to various UN bodies from different regional groups. The European Union is an economic and political union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe, some Western and Northern European countries of Iceland, Norway, Switzerland and Liechtenstein are members of EFTA, though cooperating to varying degree with the European Union
Western Europe
–
The Great Schism in
Christianity, the predominant religion in Western Europe at the time.
Western Europe
Western Europe
–
Geopolitical Occident of Europe
12.
Facial tissue
–
Facial tissue and paper handkerchief refers to a class of soft, absorbent, disposable papers that are suitable for use on the face. They are disposable alternatives for cloth handkerchiefs, facial tissue is often referred to as a tissue, or by the genericized trademark Kleenex which popularized the invention and its use. Facial tissue and paper handkerchiefs are made from the lowest basis weights tissue paper, the surface is often made smoother by light calendering. These paper types consist usually of 2–3 plies, because of high quality requirements the base tissue is normally made entirely from pure chemical pulp, but might contain added selected recycled fiber. The tissue paper might be treated with softeners, lotions or added perfume to get the right properties or feeling, the finished facial tissues or handkerchiefs are folded and put in pocket-size packages or a box dispenser. In 1924, facial tissues as they are today were first introduced by Kimberly-Clark as Kleenex. It was invented as a means to remove cold cream, early advertisements linked Kleenex to Hollywood makeup departments and sometimes included endorsements from movie stars who used Kleenex to remove their theatrical makeup with cold cream. The other 40% used it for reasons, including napkins. Kimberly-Clark also introduced pop-up, colored, printed, pocket, and 3-ply facial tissues
Facial tissue
–
A box of tissues
13.
Paper towel
–
A paper towel is an absorbent towel made from tissue paper instead of cloth. Unlike cloth towels, paper towels are disposable and intended to be used only once, Paper towels soak up water because they are loosely woven which enables water to travel between them, even against gravity. Paper towels can be packed or come in rolls. Paper towels have similar purposes to conventional towels, such as drying hands, wiping windows and other surfaces, dusting, in 1907, the Scott Paper Company of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, introduced paper tissues to help prevent the spread of colds from cloth towels in restrooms. Popular belief is that this was accidental and was the solution to a railroad car full of long paper rolls meant for toilet paper that were unsuitable to cut into rolls of toilet paper. In 1919, William E. Corbin, Henry Chase, and Harold Titus began experimenting with paper towels in the Research and Development building of the Brown Company in Berlin, by 1922, Corbin perfected their product and began mass-producing it at the Cascade Mill on the Berlin/Gorham line. This product was called Nibroc Paper Towels, in 1931, the Scott Paper Company of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, introduced their paper towel rolls for kitchens, they are now the leading manufacturer of paper towels. Paper is made from virgin or recycled paper pulp which is extracted from wood or fiber crops. They are sometimes bleached during the process to lighten the papers coloration. It is not uncommon for rolls of paper towels to include intricate colored images on each square, resin size is used to improve the wet strength. Paper towels are packed individually and sold as stacks, or are held on a continuous roll, many companies produce paper towels some of which include, but are not limited to, Charmin, Bounty, Seventh Generation, Scott, and Viva among many others. Commercial usage, or otherwise any use outside of the North American household, the growth in commercial use of paper towels can be attributed to the migration from folded towels to roll towel dispensers, which reduces the amount of paper towels used by each patron. Within the forest products industry, paper towels are a part of the tissue market. Paper towels are a product with rising production and consumption. Better alternatives are still conventional towels or - for hand drying - hand dryers, though paper towels are more efficient, after only ten seconds, paper towels achieve 90% dryness. Hot air dryers, on the hand, take 40 seconds to achieve a similar dryness. Dirt can almost as well be wiped up using old newspapers, handle-o-Meter Is tissue becoming a safe haven for the global pulp and paper industry. Global paper and board industry is in transition, media related to paper towels at Wikimedia Commons
Paper towel
–
Early paper towels
Paper towel
–
Made out of Paper Towels
14.
Chemical pulp
–
Pulp is a lignocellulosic fibrous material prepared by chemically or mechanically separating cellulose fibres from wood, fiber crops or waste paper. The wood fiber sources required for pulping are 45% sawmill residue, 21% logs and chips, many kinds of paper are made from wood with nothing else mixed into them. This includes newspaper, magazines and even toilet paper, Pulp is one of the most abundant raw materials worldwide. Using wood to make paper is a recent innovation. The ancient Egyptians were the first to make paper from reeds, papermaking using cotton and linen fibers spread to Europe in the 13th century, and the increasing use of fabric brought more rag paper, which was a factor in the development of printing. By the 1800s, fibre crops such as flax, which provided linen fibres, were still the material source. Chemical processes quickly followed, first with J. Roths use of acid to treat wood, then by Benjamin Tilghmans U. S. patent on the use of calcium bisulfite, Ca2. Almost a decade later, the first commercial sulfite pulp mill was built and it used magnesium as the counter ion and was based on work by Carl Daniel Ekman. By 1900, sulfite pulping had become the dominant means of producing wood pulp, the competing chemical pulping process, the sulfate, or kraft, process, was developed by Carl F. Dahl in 1879, the first kraft mill started, in Sweden, in 1890. The invention of the boiler, by G. H. Tomlinson in the early 1930s, allowed kraft mills to recycle almost all of their pulping chemicals, global production of wood pulp in 2006 was 175 million tons. In the previous year,63 million tons of market pulp was sold, with Canada being the largest source at 21 percent of the total, chemical pulp made up 93 percent of market pulp. The timber resources used to make wood pulp are referred to as pulpwood, wood pulp comes from softwood trees such as spruce, pine, fir, larch and hemlock, and hardwoods such as eucalyptus, aspen and birch. A pulp mill is a facility that converts wood chips or other plant fibre source into a thick fiberboard which can be shipped to a paper mill for further processing. Pulp can be manufactured using mechanical, semi-chemical or fully chemical methods, the finished product may be either bleached or non-bleached, depending on the customer requirements. Wood and other plant materials used to make pulp contain three components, cellulose fibers, lignin and hemicelluloses. The aim of pulping is to break down the structure of the fibre source, be it chips, stems or other plant parts. The various mechanical pulping methods, such as groundwood and refiner mechanical pulping, much of the lignin remains adhering to the fibres
Chemical pulp
–
Structure of fibres of pulp
Chemical pulp
–
Pulp at a paper mill near Pensacola, 1947
Chemical pulp
–
Fibres in wood pulp
Chemical pulp
–
International Paper Company. Pulp mill that makes
fluff pulp for use in
absorbent products with the
kraft process.
15.
Deinked pulp
–
Pulp is a lignocellulosic fibrous material prepared by chemically or mechanically separating cellulose fibres from wood, fiber crops or waste paper. The wood fiber sources required for pulping are 45% sawmill residue, 21% logs and chips, many kinds of paper are made from wood with nothing else mixed into them. This includes newspaper, magazines and even toilet paper, Pulp is one of the most abundant raw materials worldwide. Using wood to make paper is a recent innovation. The ancient Egyptians were the first to make paper from reeds, papermaking using cotton and linen fibers spread to Europe in the 13th century, and the increasing use of fabric brought more rag paper, which was a factor in the development of printing. By the 1800s, fibre crops such as flax, which provided linen fibres, were still the material source. Chemical processes quickly followed, first with J. Roths use of acid to treat wood, then by Benjamin Tilghmans U. S. patent on the use of calcium bisulfite, Ca2. Almost a decade later, the first commercial sulfite pulp mill was built and it used magnesium as the counter ion and was based on work by Carl Daniel Ekman. By 1900, sulfite pulping had become the dominant means of producing wood pulp, the competing chemical pulping process, the sulfate, or kraft, process, was developed by Carl F. Dahl in 1879, the first kraft mill started, in Sweden, in 1890. The invention of the boiler, by G. H. Tomlinson in the early 1930s, allowed kraft mills to recycle almost all of their pulping chemicals, global production of wood pulp in 2006 was 175 million tons. In the previous year,63 million tons of market pulp was sold, with Canada being the largest source at 21 percent of the total, chemical pulp made up 93 percent of market pulp. The timber resources used to make wood pulp are referred to as pulpwood, wood pulp comes from softwood trees such as spruce, pine, fir, larch and hemlock, and hardwoods such as eucalyptus, aspen and birch. A pulp mill is a facility that converts wood chips or other plant fibre source into a thick fiberboard which can be shipped to a paper mill for further processing. Pulp can be manufactured using mechanical, semi-chemical or fully chemical methods, the finished product may be either bleached or non-bleached, depending on the customer requirements. Wood and other plant materials used to make pulp contain three components, cellulose fibers, lignin and hemicelluloses. The aim of pulping is to break down the structure of the fibre source, be it chips, stems or other plant parts. The various mechanical pulping methods, such as groundwood and refiner mechanical pulping, much of the lignin remains adhering to the fibres
Deinked pulp
–
Structure of fibres of pulp
Deinked pulp
–
Pulp at a paper mill near Pensacola, 1947
Deinked pulp
–
Fibres in wood pulp
Deinked pulp
–
International Paper Company. Pulp mill that makes
fluff pulp for use in
absorbent products with the
kraft process.
16.
Toilet paper
–
It also acts as a layer of protection for the hands during these processes. It is sold as a strip of perforated paper wrapped around a paperboard core for storage in a dispenser near a toilet. Most modern toilet paper in the world is designed to decompose in septic tanks, whereas some other bathroom. The use of paper for hygiene purposes has been recorded in China in the 6th century AD, modern commercial toilet paper originated in the 19th century, with a patent for roll-based dispensers being made in 1883. During the Ming dynasty, it was recorded in 1393 that a supply of 720,000 sheets of toilet paper were produced for the general use of the imperial court at the capital of Nanjing. In Ancient Rome, a sponge on a stick was commonly used and these are all cited in the classic Biblical and Talmudic Medicine by the German physician Julius Preuss. Gargantua dismisses the use of paper as ineffective, rhyming that, Who his foul tail with paper wipes and he concludes that the neck of a goose, that is well downed provides an optimum cleansing medium. The rise of publishing by the century led to the use of newspapers. In many parts of the world, especially where toilet paper or the necessary plumbing for disposal may be unavailable or unaffordable, also, in many parts of the world such as India, people consider using water a much cleaner and more sanitary practice than using paper. Joseph Gayetty is widely credited with being the inventor of modern commercially available toilet paper in the United States, gayettys paper, first introduced in 1857, was available as late as the 1920s. Gayettys Medicated Paper was sold in packages of flat sheets, watermarked with the inventors name, original advertisements for the product used the tagline The greatest necessity of the age. Gayettys medicated paper for the water-closet, seth Wheeler of Albany, New York, obtained the earliest United States patents for toilet paper and dispensers, the types of which eventually were in common use in that country, in 1883. Moist toilet paper, called wet wipes, was first introduced in the United Kingdom by Andrex in the 1990s and it has been promoted as being a better method of cleaning than dry toilet paper after defecation, and may be useful for women during menstruation. It was promoted as a product but it has been implicated in the creation of fatbergs. By 2016, some municipalities had begun education campaigns advising people not to flush used wet wipes, more than seven billion rolls of toilet paper are sold yearly in the U. S. alone. Americans use an average of 23.6 rolls per capita per year, the average measures of a modern roll of toilet paper is ~10 cm wide, ø12 cm and weighs about 227 grams. An alternative method of packing the sheets uses interleaved sheets in boxes, hard single ply paper has been used as well as soft multi-ply. Manufactured toilet paper sheet in the United States was sized 4 1/2 x 4 1/2, since 1999 the size of a sheet has been shrinking, Kimberly-Clark reduced the length of a sheet to 4.1
Toilet paper
–
A roll of toilet paper.
Toilet paper
–
Toilet paper and toilet paper holder.
Toilet paper
–
Anal cleansing instruments known as
chūgi from the
Nara period (710 to 784) in
Japan. The modern rolls in the background are for size comparison.
Toilet paper
–
" Le Troubadour " (French) - 1960s package of toilet paper
17.
Napkin
–
A napkin, serviette or face towelette is a rectangle of cloth used at the table for wiping the mouth and fingers while eating. It is usually small and folded, sometimes in intricate designs, the word comes from Middle English, borrowing the French nappe—a cloth covering for a table—and adding -kin, the diminutive suffix. Serviette can be heard in the United Kingdom, Ireland, some parts of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Kenya, in Australia and New Zealand, serviette generally refers to the paper variety and napkin refers to the cloth variety. The same distinction is used in Canada although paper napkin may be used interchangeably with serviette, in the UK, the term napkin is traditionally U and serviette is non-U. Conventionally, the napkin is often folded and placed to the left of the place setting, in a restaurant setting or a caterers hall, it may be folded into more elaborate shapes and displayed on the empty plate. Origami techniques can be used to create a three-dimensional design, a napkin may also be held together in a bundle with cutlery by a napkin ring. Alternatively, paper napkins may be contained with a napkin holder, napkins were used in ancient Roman times. One of the earliest references to table napkins in English dates to 1384–85, summaries of napkin history often say that the ancient Greeks used bread to wipe their hands. This is suggested by a passage in one of Alciphrons letters, the bread in both texts is referred to as apomagdalia, which simply means bread from inside the crust known as the crumb, and not special napkin bread. The use of paper napkins is documented in ancient China, where paper was invented in the 2nd century BC, paper napkins were known as chih pha, folded in squares, and used for the serving of tea. Textual evidence of paper appears in a description of the possessions of the Yu family
Napkin
–
A rolled napkin in a
napkin ring
Napkin
–
A folded napkin
18.
Carcinogenic
–
A carcinogen is any substance, radionuclide, or radiation that is an agent directly involved in causing cancer. This may be due to the ability to damage the genome or to the disruption of cellular metabolic processes, several radioactive substances are considered carcinogens, but their carcinogenic activity is attributed to the radiation, for example gamma rays and alpha particles, which they emit. Common examples of non-radioactive carcinogens are inhaled asbestos, certain dioxins, although the public generally associates carcinogenicity with synthetic chemicals, it is equally likely to arise in both natural and synthetic substances. Carcinogens are not necessarily immediately toxic, thus their effect can be insidious, Cancer is any disease in which normal cells are damaged and do not undergo programmed cell death as fast as they divide via mitosis. Usually, severe DNA damage leads to apoptosis, but if the cell death pathway is damaged. Aflatoxin B1, which is produced by the fungus Aspergillus flavus growing on stored grains, nuts and peanut butter, is an example of a potent, certain viruses such as hepatitis B and human papilloma virus have been found to cause cancer in humans. The first one shown to cause cancer in animals is Rous sarcoma virus, other infectious organisms which cause cancer in humans include some bacteria and helminths. Dioxins and dioxin-like compounds, benzene, kepone, EDB, vinyl chloride, from which PVC is manufactured, is a carcinogen and thus a hazard in PVC production. Co-carcinogens are chemicals that do not necessarily cause cancer on their own, after the carcinogen enters the body, the body makes an attempt to eliminate it through a process called biotransformation. The purpose of these reactions is to make the carcinogen more water-soluble so that it can be removed from the body, however, in some cases, these reactions can also convert a less toxic carcinogen into a more toxic carcinogen. DNA is nucleophilic, therefore soluble carbon electrophiles are carcinogenic, because DNA attacks them, for example, some alkenes are toxicated by human enzymes to produce an electrophilic epoxide. DNA attacks the epoxide, and is bound permanently to it and this is the mechanism behind the carcinogenicity of benzopyrene in tobacco smoke, other aromatics, aflatoxin and mustard gas. Carcinogenicity of radiation depends on the type of radiation, type of exposure, for example, alpha radiation has low penetration and is not a hazard outside the body, but emitters are carcinogenic when inhaled or ingested. Low-level ionizing radiation may induce irreparable DNA damage leading to pre-mature aging, not all types of electromagnetic radiation are carcinogenic. Higher-energy radiation, including radiation, x-rays, and gamma radiation, generally is carcinogenic. For most people, ultraviolet radiations from sunlight is the most common cause of skin cancer, in Australia, where people with pale skin are often exposed to strong sunlight, melanoma is the most common cancer diagnosed in people aged 15–44 years. Substances or foods irradiated with electrons or electromagnetic radiation are not carcinogenic, in contrast, non-electromagnetic neutron radiation produced inside nuclear reactors can produce secondary radiation through nuclear transmutation. Chemicals used in processed and cured such as some brands of bacon, sausages
Carcinogenic
–
The
international pictogram for chemicals that are sensitising,
mutagenic, carcinogenic or
toxic to reproduction.
19.
Aromatic amine
–
An aromatic amine is an organic compound consisting of an aromatic ring attached to an amine. It is a class of compounds that encompasses anilines, but also many more complex aromatic rings. Aromatic amines are used as precursor to pesticides, pharmaceuticals. It had been approved by the European Committee for Standardization and supersedes the test standards EN 14362-1,2003. The standard describes a procedure to detect EU banned aromatic amines derived from azo colorants in textile fibres, including natural, man-made, regenerated, the standard is also relevant for all coloured textiles, e. g. dyed, printed, and coated textiles
Aromatic amine
20.
Azo compound
–
Azo compounds are compounds bearing the functional group R–N=N–R′, in which R and R′ can be either aryl or alkyl. IUPAC defines azo compounds as, Derivatives of diazene, HN=NH, the more stable derivatives contain two aryl groups. The N=N group is called an azo group, the name azo comes from azote, the French name for nitrogen that is derived from the Greek ἀ- + ζωή. Most colored textile and leather articles are treated with azo dyes, as a consequence of п-delocalization, aryl azo compounds have vivid colors, especially reds, oranges, and yellows. Therefore, they are used as dyes, and are known as azo dyes. Some azo compounds, e. g. methyl orange, are used as acid-base indicators due to the different colors of their acid, most DVD-R/+R and some CD-R discs use blue azo dye as the recording layer. The development of azo dyes was an important step in the development of the chemical industry, azo pigments consist of colorless particles colored using an azo compound. Azo pigments are important in a variety of paints including artists paints and they have excellent coloring properties, again mainly in the yellow to red range, as well as good lightfastness. The lightfastness depends not only on the properties of the azo compound. Aryl azo compounds are stable, crystalline species. Azobenzene is the prototypical aromatic azo compound and it exists mainly as the trans isomer, but upon photolysis, converts to the cis isomer. The oxidation of hydrazines also gives azo compounds, typical aniline partners are shown below. Illustrative azo compounds that are precursors to dyes Aliphatic azo compounds are commonly encountered than the aryl azo compounds. A commercially important alkyl azo compound is azobisisobutyronitrile, which is used as an initiator in free radical polymerizations. A simple dialkyl diazo compound is diethyldiazene, EtN=NEt, because of their instability, aliphatic azo compounds pose the risk of explosion. Likewise, several studies have linked azo pigments with basal cell carcinoma. Azo dyes derived from benzidine are carcinogens, exposure to them has classically been associated with bladder cancer, accordingly, the production of benzidine azo dyes was discontinued in the 1980s in the most important western industrialized countries. Certain azo dyes can break down under reductive conditions to any of a group of defined aromatic amines
Azo compound
–
General chemical formula of azo compounds
21.
Yamaha NS-10
–
The Yamaha NS-10 is a loudspeaker that became a standard nearfield studio monitor in the music industry among rock and pop recording engineers. Launched in 1978, the NS-10 started life as a bookshelf speaker destined for the domestic environment and it was poorly received but eventually became a valuable tool with which to mix rock recordings. The speaker has a characteristic white-coloured mid–bass drive unit, technically, it is known as a speaker that easily reveals poor quality in recordings. Recording engineers sought to dull its treble response by hanging tissue paper in front of it, resulting in what known as the tissue paper effect. The NS-10 has been used to monitor a number of successful recordings by numerous artists. Originally conceived as a domestic hi-fi speaker, the NS-10 was designed by Akira Nakamura, recording engineers came to rely on the NS-10 as a benchmark. The model was discontinued in 2001, the NS-10 displaced the Auratone 5C Sound Cube as the nearfield monitor of choice in the 1980s and was recognised for its ability to reveal shortcomings in recordings. It probably first reached American shores through a recording engineers visit to Japan, the engineer, likely to have been Greg Ladanyi, monitored a recording session through the speaker in a Japanese studio and brought a pair back on his return to the US. Ladanyi then began using the speakers in a Los Angeles studio, other engineers heard the NS-10 for the first time and were impressed by its sound. Its use spread to New York where the NS-10 was adopted at The Power Station, early use of the NS-10 among engineers include Bob Clearmountain, Rhett Davies, and Bill Scheniman in the US, and Nigel Jopson in the UK. It became a legend that Clearmountain had chosen it because it was the worst speaker he could find, recording studios around the world, particularly those specialising in rock and pop music, adopted the speaker as the standard. In excess of 200,000 pairs were sold throughout the world, Gizmodo referred to it as the most important loudspeaker you never heard of. Yamaha stopped manufacturing the speaker in 2001, citing problems sourcing the wood pulp for the drivers, even years after it was discontinued, the speaker continued to be found in studios everywhere. Mix reported in 2008 that variants of the NS-10 were still available in the Japanese consumer market. The NS-10 is an 8-ohm two-way loudspeaker with a 10. 4-litre Sealed cabinet measuring 382 ×215 ×199 millimetres and its 2.5 cm particle-board cabinet has a wood veneer skin with seven black finishing layers. The domestic version of the speaker was vertically orientated, and came fitted with a grille. Its two drivers are a 180 mm paper woofer and a 35 mm soft-domed tweeter, the woofers diaphragm, weighing 3.7 g, is manufactured from a flat sheet of pressed pulp paper. Unconventionally, it is formed into conical shape not through moulding or pressure, against the black finish of the cabinet, the white bass/mid driver cone is a distinctive and iconic feature of the product
Yamaha NS-10
–
The Yamaha NS-10 studio monitor, identifiable by its horizontal lettering and distinctive white cone.
Yamaha NS-10
–
The NS-10 in Studio C,
Ardent Studios
Yamaha NS-10
–
The NS-10 in a Tokyo studio
22.
Comb filter
–
In signal processing, a comb filter adds a delayed version of a signal to itself, causing constructive and destructive interference. The frequency response of a filter consists of a series of regularly spaced notches. Comb filters are used in a variety of processing applications. These include, Cascaded integrator–comb filters, commonly used for anti-aliasing during interpolation and decimation operations that change the rate of a discrete-time system. 2D and 3D comb filters implemented in hardware for PAL and NTSC television decoders, the filters work to reduce artifacts such as dot crawl. Audio effects, including echo, flanging, and digital waveguide synthesis, for instance, if the delay is set to a few milliseconds, a comb filter can be used to model the effect of acoustic standing waves in a cylindrical cavity or in a vibrating string. In astronomy the astro-comb promises to increase the precision of existing spectrographs by nearly a hundredfold, in acoustics, comb filtering can arise in some unwanted ways. For instance, when two loudspeakers are playing the same signal at different distances from the listener, there is a comb filtering effect on the signal, in any enclosed space, listeners hear a mixture of direct sound and reflected sound. Because the reflected sound takes a path, it constitutes a delayed version of the direct sound. Comb filters exist in two different forms, feedforward and feedback, the names refer to the direction in which signals are delayed before they are added to the input. Comb filters may be implemented in time or continuous time, this article will focus on discrete-time implementations. The general structure of a comb filter is shown on the right. It may be described by the difference equation, y = x + α x where K is the delay length. Hence the magnitude response of the filter is periodic. The graphs to the show the magnitude response for various values of α. Some important properties, The response periodically drops to a local minimum, and periodically rises to a local maximum. For positive values of α, the first minimum occurs at half the period and repeat at even multiples of the delay frequency thereafter. The levels of the maxima and minima are always equidistant from 1, when α = ±1, the minima have zero amplitude
Comb filter
–
Feedforward magnitude response for various positive values of and K=1
23.
Minnesota Department of Transportation
–
The Minnesota Department of Transportation oversees transportation by land, water, and air in the U. S. state of Minnesota. The cabinet-level agency is responsible for maintaining the trunk highway system, funding municipal airports and maintaining radio navigation aids. Thomas K. Tom Sorel succeeded her as commissioner and was reappointed when Mark Dayton became governor, Sorel has resigned from his position effective December 1,2012, and his deputy commissioner, Bernard J. Bernie Arseneau, was appointed to act as interim commissioner. On December 15,2012, Governor Mark Dayton announced that Charlie Zelle, CEO of Jefferson Lines, would be MnDOTs next commissioner, effective January 15,2013. The agencys history can be traced to the states Railroad and Warehouse Commission which emerged slowly from 1871 to 1905, however, the Highway Commission was abolished in 1917 and replaced by a Department of Highways. The Minnesota Highway Department has been credited with numerous works listed on the U. S. National Register of Historic Places, for air transport, the Minnesota Aeronautics Commission was created in 1933. Much of the oversight was transferred to the Minnesota Department of Public Service in 1967. Two years later in 1969, the Minnesota Department of Public Safety was established and took over the Highway Patrol, Mn/DOT operates networks of ramp meters and traffic cameras in the Minneapolis-St. Paul metropolitan area in order to manage traffic flow. In 2000, the meters were turned off for a study period mandated by the Minnesota Legislature. The bill was backed by Republican State Senator Dick Day of Owatonna, Minnesota, the study showed that ramp meters reduce the number of crashes on highways, and marginally reduce travel time in many cases. However, the study showed some places where the meters were more of a hindrance. There are about 430 ramp meters and more than 450 traffic cameras in the Twin Cities metro area, the department has also put up informational electronic signage along highways to provide alert messages. Message boards have been in Rochester, Duluth and the Twin Cities for some time, part of the reason for the Rochester signs is occasional flooding of U. S. Highway 52. The department expanded use of the signs after Amber Alert legislation allocated funding for larger networks, in the Twin Cities, Mn/DOT began using them to display freeway travel times in 2003 or 2004 to help drivers plan alternate routes to avoid heavy traffic if necessary. Twin Cities Public Television station KTCI channel 17 has been used for years to display weather-related information that is funded by Mn/DOT. This service is continued on channel 2-4 following the digital transition, the department also had a long-standing partnership with KBEM-FM radio in Minneapolis to relay area traffic information, although that relationship is coming to an end. After public outcry, the term was extended, but it is unclear how long the two organizations will continue the relationship, Mn/DOT paid KBEM-FM US$400,000 per year to provide the information, about half of the stations annual budget. Video from traffic cameras is shown on cable television systems in the metro area
Minnesota Department of Transportation
–
Minnesota Department of Transportation (Mn/DOT)
24.
Packing industry
–
The meat packing industry handles the slaughtering, processing, packaging, and distribution of animals such as cattle, pigs, sheep and other livestock. An abattoir is a place where animals are slaughtered for food, the meat packing industry grew with the construction of the railroads and methods of refrigeration for meat preservation. Railroads made possible the transport of stock to central points for processing, in the early part of the 19th century, they used the most recent immigrants and migrants as strikebreakers in labor actions taken by other workers, also usually immigrants or early descendants. Meat packing plants, like many industries in the early 20th century, were known to overwork their employees, failed to maintain adequate safety measures, and actively fought unionization. Before the Meat Inspection Act and the Pure Food and Drug Act, workers were exposed to chemicals, sharp machinery. In the 1920s and early 1930s, workers achieved unionization under the CIOs United Packinghouse Workers of America, UPWA workers made important gains in wages, hours and benefits. In 1957 the stockyards and meat packing employed half the workers of Omaha, the union supported a progressive agenda, including the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s. While the work was difficult, for a few decades workers achieved blue-collar. It has been difficult for labor to organize in such locations, in addition, the number of jobs fell through sharply due to technology and other changes. Wages fell during the part of the 20th century, and eventually. Though the meat packing industry has made many improvements since the early 1900s, the meatpacking industry continues to employ many immigrant laborers, including some who are undocumented workers. In the early 20th century the workers were immigrants from eastern and southern Europe, today many are Hispanic, from Mexico, Central and South America. Many are from Peru, leading to the formation of a large Peruvian community, the more isolated areas in which the plants are located put workers at greater risk due to their limited ability to organize and to seek redress for work-related injuries. A. Competition and Regulation, The Development of Oligopoly in the Meat Packing Industry, NOW on PBS – Meatpacking in the U. S. Meat Packing Industry Has Responsibility to Reform Beefs Raw Edges
Packing industry
–
The
William Davies Company facilities in Toronto, Canada, circa 1920. This facility was then the second largest pork-packing plant in North America.
Packing industry
–
Pork packing in Cincinnati, 1873
25.
Brussels
–
Brussels, officially the Brussels-Capital Region, is a region of Belgium comprising 19 municipalities, including the City of Brussels which is the capital of Belgium. The Brussels-Capital Region is a part of both the French Community of Belgium and the Flemish Community, but is separate from the region of Flanders or Wallonia. The region has a population of 1.2 million and an area with a population of over 1.8 million. Brussels is the de facto capital of the European Union as it hosts a number of principal EU institutions, the secretariat of the Benelux and the headquarters of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization are also located in Brussels. Today, it is considered an Alpha global city, historically a Dutch-speaking city, Brussels has seen a language shift to French from the late 19th century onwards. Today, the majority language is French, and the Brussels-Capital Region is a bilingual enclave within the Flemish Region. All road signs, street names, and many advertisements and services are shown in both languages, Brussels is increasingly becoming multilingual with increasing numbers of migrants, expatriates and minority groups speaking their own languages. The most common theory of the origin of Brussels name is that it derives from the Old Dutch Broekzele or Broeksel, meaning marsh, Saint Vindicianus, the bishop of Cambrai made the first recorded reference to the place Brosella in 695 when it was still a hamlet. The origin of the settlement that was to become Brussels lies in Saint Gaugericus construction of a chapel on an island in the river Senne around 580. The official founding of Brussels is usually situated around 979, when Duke Charles of Lower Lotharingia transferred the relics of Saint Gudula from Moorsel to the Saint Gaugericus chapel, Charles would construct the first permanent fortification in the city, doing so on that same island. Lambert I of Leuven, Count of Leuven gained the County of Brussels around 1000 by marrying Charles daughter, as it grew to a population of around 30,000, the surrounding marshes were drained to allow for further expansion. The Counts of Leuven became Dukes of Brabant at about this time, in the 13th century, the city got its first walls. After the construction of the city walls in the early 13th century, to let the city expand, a second set of walls was erected between 1356 and 1383. Today, traces of it can still be seen, mostly because the small ring, Brabant had lost its independence, but Brussels became the Princely Capital of the prosperous Low Countries, and flourished. In 1516 Charles V, who had been heir of the Low Countries since 1506, was declared King of Spain in St. Michael and St. Gudula Cathedral in Brussels. Upon the death of his grandfather, Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor in 1519 and it was in the Palace complex at Coudenberg that Charles V abdicated in 1555. This impressive palace, famous all over Europe, had expanded since it had first become the seat of the Dukes of Brabant. In 1695, during the Nine Years War, King Louis XIV of France sent troops to bombard Brussels with artillery, together with the resulting fire, it was the most destructive event in the entire history of Brussels
Brussels
–
A
collage with several views of Brussels, Top: View of the
Northern Quarter business district, 2nd left: Floral carpet event in the
Grand Place, 2nd right:
Brussels City Hall and
Mont des Arts area, 3rd:
Cinquantenaire Park, 4th left:
Manneken Pis, 4th middle:
St. Michael and St. Gudula Cathedral, 4th right:
Congress Column, Bottom:
Royal Palace of Brussels
Brussels
–
Charles of Lorraine founded what would become Brussels c. 979
Brussels
–
Grand Place after
the 1695 bombardment by the French army
Brussels
–
Episode of the
Belgian Revolution of 1830,
Wappers (1834)
26.
Economic growth
–
Economic growth is the increase in the inflation-adjusted market value of the goods and services produced by an economy over time. It is conventionally measured as the percent rate of increase in gross domestic product, or real GDP. Growth is usually calculated in real terms – i. e. inflation-adjusted terms – to eliminate the effect of inflation on the price of goods produced. Measurement of economic growth uses national income accounting, since economic growth is measured as the annual percent change of gross domestic product, it has all the advantages and drawbacks of that measure. The rate of economic growth refers to the annual rate of growth in GDP between the first and the last year over a period of time. Implicitly, this rate is the trend in the average level of GDP over the period. An increase in economic growth caused by efficient use of inputs is referred to as intensive growth. GDP growth caused only by increases in the amount of available for use is called extensive growth. The economic growth rate is calculated from data on GDP estimated by countries´statistical agencies, the rate of growth of GDP/capita is calculated from data on GDP and people for the initial and final periods included in the analysis. The rate of change of GDP/population is the sum of the rates of change of four variables plus their cross products. Increases in labor productivity have historically been the most important source of real per capita economic growth, increases in productivity lower the real cost of goods. Over the 20th century the price of many goods fell by over 90%. Economic growth has traditionally been attributed to the accumulation of human and physical capital, the rapid economic growth that occurred during the Industrial Revolution was remarkable because it was in excess of population growth, providing an escape from the Malthusian trap. Countries that industrialized eventually saw their population growth slow down, a known as the demographic transition. Increases in productivity are the factor responsible for per capita economic growth – this has been especially evident since the mid-19th century. Most of the growth in the 20th century was due to increased output per unit of labor, materials, energy. The balance of the growth in output has come from using more inputs, both of these changes increase output. The increased output included more of the goods produced previously and new goods
Economic growth
–
Productivity lowered the cost of most items in terms of work time required to purchase. Real food prices fell due to improvements in transportation and trade,
mechanized agriculture,
fertilizers, scientific farming and the
Green Revolution.
Economic growth
–
GDP real growth rates, 1990–1998 and 1990–2006, in selected countries.
Economic growth
–
Forest in
Indonesia being cut for
palm oil plantation.
27.
Urbanization
–
Urbanization refers to the population shift from rural to urban areas, the gradual increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas, and the ways in which each society adapts to the change. It is predominantly the process by which towns and cities are formed, the United Nations projected that half of the worlds population would live in urban areas at the end of 2008. It is predicted that by 2050 about 64% of the developing world and that is equivalent to approximately 3 billion urbanites by 2050, much of which will occur in Africa and Asia. Notably, the United Nations has also projected that nearly all global population growth from 2017 to 2030 will be absorbed by cities. Urbanization is relevant to a range of disciplines, including geography, sociology, economics, urban planning, the phenomenon has been closely linked to modernization, industrialization, and the sociological process of rationalization. Urbanization can be seen as a condition at a set time or as an increase in that condition over time. The first major change in settlement patterns was the accumulation of hunter-gatherers into villages many years ago. This unprecedented movement of people is forecast to continue and intensify during the few decades. Outside Asia, Mexico City, São Paulo, London, New York City, Lagos, in England the proportion of the population living in cities jumped from 17% in 1801 to 72% in 1891. Growing trade around the world also allowed cereals to be imported from North America and refrigerated meat from Australasia, spatially, cities also expanded due to the development of public transport systems, which facilitated commutes of longer distances to the city centre for the working class. Urbanization rapidly spread across the Western world and, since the 1950s, at the turn of the 20th century, just 15% of the world population lived in cities. According to the UN the year 2007 witnessed the turning point when more than 50% of the population were living in cities. Living in a city can provide opportunities of proximity, diversity, as against this, there may be alienation issues, stress, increased cost of living, and negative social aspects that result from mass marginalization. In cities, money, services, wealth and opportunities are centralized, many rural inhabitants come to the city to seek their fortune and alter their social position. Businesses, which provide jobs and exchange capital, are concentrated in urban areas. Whether the source is trade or tourism, it is also through the ports or banking systems, commonly located in cities, many people move into cities for the economic opportunities, but this does not fully explain the very high recent urbanization rates in places like China and India. Rural flight is a factor to urbanization. Farm living has always been susceptible to environmental conditions, and in times of drought, flood or pestilence
Urbanization
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Guangzhou, a city of 12.7 million people, is one of the 8 adjacent metropolises located in the largest single agglomeration on earth, ringing the
Pearl River Delta of China.
Urbanization
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Mumbai is the
most populous city in India, and the fourth
most populous city in the world, with a total
metropolitan area population of approximately 23.9 million.
Urbanization
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Centre of
São Paulo, one of the largest
metropolises in the world.
Urbanization
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Population age comparison between rural
Pocahontas County, Iowa and urban
Johnson County, Iowa, illustrating the flight of young adults (red) to urban centres in
Iowa.
28.
Kimberly-Clark
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Kimberly-Clark Corporation is an American multinational personal care corporation that produces mostly paper-based consumer products. Founded in Neenah, Wisconsin, in 1872 and based in Irving, Texas, since 1985, Kimberly-Clark UK holds Royal Warrants from Queen Elizabeth II and from the Prince of Wales in the United Kingdom. Kimberly-Clark is also listed among the Fortune 500, subsidiaries under Kimberly-Clark include Kimberly-Clark Professional. Kimberly, Clark and Co. was founded in 1872 by John A. Kimberly, Havilah Babcock, Clark, and Franklyn C. Shattuck in Neenah, Wisconsin, with $42,000 of capital. The groups first business was operating paper mills, which the collective expanded throughout the following decades, Kleenex, a disposable handkerchief, followed in 1924. Kimberly & Clark joined with The New York Times Company in 1926 to build a newsprint mill in Kapuskasing, Ontario, two years later, the company went public as Kimberly-Clark. The firm expanded internationally during the 1950s, opening plants in Mexico, West Germany, and it began operations in 17 more foreign locations in the 1960s. The company formed Midwest Express Airlines from its corporate department in 1984. Kimberly-Clarks headquarters moved from Neenah, Wisconsin to Irving, Texas the following year, under the leadership of Darwin Smith as CEO from 1971 to 1991, the company went from being a business paper company to a consumer paper products company. In 1991, Kimberly-Clark and The New York Times Company sold their jointly owned paper mill in Kapuskasing, Kimberly-Clark bought Scott Paper in 1995 for $9.4 billion. Augmenting its presence in Germany, Switzerland, and Austria, in 1999 the company paid $365 million for the business of Swiss-based Attisholz Holding. Adding to its offerings of medical products, the company bought Ballard Medical Products in 1999 for $774 million and examination glove maker Safeskin in 2000 for about $800 million. Also in 2000, the company bought all of Taiwans S-K Corporation. The company later purchased Taiwan Scott Paper Corporation for about $40 million, in 2001, Kimberly-Clark bought Italian diaper maker, Linostar, and announced it was closing four Latin American manufacturing plants. Kimberly-Clark Sub-Saharan Africas vision is ambitious – nothing less than turning the $250 million business into a $1 billion business by 2015, in 2002, Kimberly-Clark purchased paper-packaging rival Amcors stake in an Australian joint venture. Adding to its global consumer business, in 2003 Kimberly-Clark acquired the Polish tissue-maker Klucze. In early 2004, Chairman and Chief Executive Officer Thomas Falk began implementation of the business plan the company detailed in July 2003. Current members of the board of directors of the Kimberly-Clark Corporation are, abelanrdo Bru Pastora Caffeutrty Robert Decherd Thomas J. Falk Claudio X. Gonzalez Mae Jemison Linda Rice Marc Shapiro Craig Sullivan
Kimberly-Clark
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The Kimberly-Clark paper plant on the
Everett, Washington, waterfront.
Kimberly-Clark
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Cottonelle
hygienic paper.
Kimberly-Clark
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Suavel toilet paper pack
29.
Georgia-Pacific
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As of Fall 2010, the company employed more than 40,000 people at more than 300 locations in North America, South America and Europe. It is an independently operated and managed company of Koch Industries, Georgia-Pacific was founded by Owen Robertson Cheatham in 1927 in Augusta, Georgia, as the Georgia Hardwood Lumber Co. Over the years it expanded, adding sawmills and plywood plants, the company acquired its first West Coast facility in 1947 and changed its name to Georgia-Pacific Plywood & Lumber Co. in 1948. In 1956, the changed its name to Georgia-Pacific Corp. In 1957 the company entered the pulp and paper business by building a pulp and linerboard mill at Toledo. The company continued to make a series of acquisitions, including US Plywood in 1987, Great Northern Nekoosa in 1990, the Fort James Corporation was the result of a series of mergers of enterprises that included the Fort Howard Corporation, the James River Corporation and Crown-Zellerbach. In August 2001, Georgia-Pacific completed the sale of four un-coated paper mills and their associated businesses and it was announced on November 13,2005 that Georgia-Pacific would be acquired by Koch Industries. On December 23,2005, Koch Industries finalized the $21 billion acquisition of Georgia-Pacific, Georgia-Pacific was removed from the NYSE and shareholders surrendered their shares for about $48 per share. The Georgia-Pacific Tower in Atlanta continues to house the companys headquarters, the Crown Zellerbach Building was built as the headquarters of Crown Zellerbach in San Francisco in 1959. The transaction closed in July 2013, following Canadian regulatory review, on June 19,2014, Georgia-Pacific announced it will acquire SPG Holdings. Georgia-Pacific operates under different brand names. Angel Soft, Quilted Northern, and Soft n Gentle are toilet paper, brawny, Dixie, Insulair, Mardi Gras, PerfecTouch, Sparkle, Ultra, and Vanity Fair are tableware, paper towel and napkin brands. Advantage, Image Plus, and Spectrum are office paper brands, stephen Engelberg of the New York Times wrote that in 1995, Georgia-Pacific persuaded the U. S. Senate Judiciary Committee to approve an amendment that derailed a pending E. P. A. Test method overstated the emissions from wood products factories, Georgia-Pacifics opponents believed the measure could allow Georgia-Pacific avoid installing pollution gear at many of its plants. Engelberg wrote, Nonetheless, said they would install controls at plants that need them, Georgia-Pacific is also involved in several remediation sites, many of which were landfills used by other manufacturers, municipalities and other businesses, and individuals. Two of the primary remediation sites - the Fox River in Wisconsin, Georgia Pacific is contributing to dam removal work as part of an effort to clean up PCB contamination in Kalamazoo. For the 2006 period – the company showed a 12 percent decrease in these releases from 2005, between 2000 and 2006, Georgia-Pacific reduced its total releases and transfers of these specified compounds by 26 percent. Georgia-Pacific publicly reports on its performance through its Environmental and Social Responsibility report
Georgia-Pacific
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Georgia-Pacific, Broadway facility, in
Green Bay,
Wisconsin, was formerly owned and operated by Fort Howard.
Georgia-Pacific
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Georgia-Pacific LLC
Georgia-Pacific
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Georgia-Pacific offices in
Diboll, south of
Lufkin,
Texas
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