1.
Book
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A book is a set of written, printed, illustrated, or blank sheets, made of paper, parchment, or other materials, fastened together to hinge at one side, with text and/or images printed in ink. A single sheet within a book is a leaf, and each side of a leaf is a page, a set of text-filled or illustrated pages produced in electronic format for reading on a computer screen, smartphone or e-reader device is known as an electronic book, or e-book. The term books may refer the body of works of literature. In library and information science, a book is called a monograph, to distinguish it from serial periodicals such as magazines, journals, in novels and sometimes other types of books, a book may be divided into several large sections, also called books. An avid reader or collector of books or a lover is a bibliophile or colloquially. A shop where books are bought and sold is a bookshop or bookstore, Books are also sold in some department stores, drugstores and newspaper vendors. Books can also be borrowed from libraries, google has estimated that as of 2010, approximately 130,000,000 distinct titles had been published. In some wealthier nations, printed books are giving way to the usage of electronic or e-books, the word book comes from Old English bōc, which in turn comes from the Germanic root *bōk-, cognate to beech. Similarly, in Slavic languages буква is cognate with beech, in Russian and in Serbian and Macedonian, the word букварь or буквар refers specifically to a primary school textbook that helps young children master the techniques of reading and writing. It is thus conjectured that the earliest Indo-European writings may have been carved on beech wood, similarly, the Latin word codex, meaning a book in the modern sense, originally meant block of wood. When writing systems were created in ancient civilizations, a variety of objects, such as stone, clay, tree bark, metal sheets, the study of such inscriptions forms a major part of history. The study of inscriptions is known as epigraphy, the Ancient Egyptians would often write on papyrus, a plant grown along the Nile River. At first the words were not separated from other and there was no punctuation. Texts were written right to left, left to right. The technical term for that last type of writing is boustrophedon, a tablet might be defined as a physically robust writing medium, suitable for casual transport and writing. See also stylus, the instrument used to write on a tablet, clay tablets were flattened and mostly dry pieces of clay that could be easily carried, and impressed with a stylus. They were used as a medium, especially for writing in cuneiform, throughout the Bronze Age. Tablets were used by traders to record sales of such as bushels of grain
2.
Thesis
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A thesis or dissertation is a document submitted in support of candidature for an academic degree or professional qualification presenting the authors research and findings. In some contexts, the thesis or a cognate is used for part of a bachelors or masters course, while dissertation is normally applied to a doctorate, while in other contexts. The term graduate thesis is used to refer to both masters theses and doctoral dissertations. The required complexity or quality of research of a thesis or dissertation can vary by country, university, or program, the word dissertation can at times be used to describe a treatise without relation to obtaining an academic degree. The term thesis is used to refer to the general claim of an essay or similar work. The term thesis comes from the Greek θέσις, meaning something put forth, Dissertation comes from the Latin dissertātiō, meaning path. A thesis may be arranged as a thesis by publication or a monograph, with or without appended papers, an ordinary monograph has a title page, an abstract, a table of contents, comprising the various chapters, and a bibliography or a references section. They differ in their structure in accordance with the different areas of study. In a thesis by publication, the chapters constitute an introductory, Dissertations normally report on a research project or study, or an extended analysis of a topic. The structure of the thesis or dissertation explains the purpose, the research literature which impinges on the topic of the study, the methods used. Degree-awarding institutions often define their own style that candidates have to follow when preparing a thesis document. Other applicable international standards include ISO2145 on section numbers, ISO690 on bibliographic references, some older house styles specify that front matter uses a separate page-number sequence from the main text, using Roman numerals. They therefore avoid the traditional separate number sequence for front matter, however, strict standards are not always required. Most Italian universities, for example, have only general requirements on the size and the page formatting. A thesis or dissertation committee is a committee that supervises a students dissertation, the committee members are doctors in their field and have the task of reading the dissertation, making suggestions for changes and improvements, and sitting in on the defense. Sometimes, at least one member of the committee must be a professor in a department that is different from that of the student, all the dissertation referees must already have achieved at least the academic degree that the candidate is trying to reach. At English-speaking Canadian universities, writings presented in fulfillment of undergraduate coursework requirements are normally called papers, a longer paper or essay presented for completion of a 4-year bachelors degree is sometimes called a major paper. High-quality research papers presented as the study of a postgraduate consecutive bachelor with Honours or Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree are called thesis
3.
Book design
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Book design is the art of incorporating the content, style, format, design, and sequence of the various components and elements of a book into a coherent whole. In the words of Swiss typographer Jan Tschichold, book design, though largely forgotten today, methods, to produce perfect books, these rules have to be brought back to life and applied. Richard Hendel describes book design as a subject, and refers to the need for a context to understand what that means. Front matter, or preliminaries, is the first section of a book, the pages are numbered in lower-case Roman numerals. Each page is counted, but no folio or page number is expressed, or printed, front matter generally only appears in the first volume in a multi-volume work, although some elements may appear in each volume. The following table will help distinguish some of the different types of front matter, The structure of a work is often described hierarchically. Volumes A volume is a set of leaves that are bound together, thus each work is either a volume, or is divided into volumes. Books and parts A single volume may embody either a part of a book or the whole of a book, in works, parts include multiple books. Chapters and sections A chapter or section may be contained within a part and/or a book, when both chapters and sections are used in the same work, the sections are more often contained within chapters than the reverse. Modules and units In some books the chapters are grouped into bigger parts, the numbering of the chapters can begin again at the start of every module. In educational books, especially, the chapters are often called units, the first page of the actual text of a book is the opening page, which often incorporates special design features, such as initials. The following are two examples, The Lord of the Rings has three parts, with each part containing two books, each containing, in turn, multiple chapters. The front cover contains at least the title and/or author. On the inside of the page, extending to the facing page is the front endpaper sometimes referred as FEP. The free half of the end paper is called a flyleaf, traditionally, in hand-bound books, the endpaper was just a sheet of blank or ornamented paper physically masking and reinforcing the connection between the cover and the body of the book. These books have an audience and traditions of their own where the design and immediacy is especially important and publishing tradition. The spine is the edge of a book as it normally stands on a bookshelf. It is customary for it to have printed text on it, in books from continental Europe, vertical spine text traditionally runs from the bottom up, though this convention has been changing lately
4.
Recto and verso
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The terms recto and verso refer to the text written on the front and back sides of a leaf of paper in a bound item such as a codex, book, broadsheet, or pamphlet. The terms are shortened from Latin rectō foliō and versō foliō, translating to on the side of the page and on the turned side of the page. The page faces themselves are called folium rectum and folium versum in Latin, in codicology, each physical sheet of a manuscript is numbered and the sides are referred to as rectum and folium versum, abbreviated as r and v respectively. Editions of manuscripts will thus mark the position of text in the manuscript in the form fol. 1r, sometimes with the r and v in superscript, as in 1r, or with a superscript o indicating the ablative recto, verso and this terminology has been standard since the beginnings of modern codicology in the 17th century. The use of the recto and verso are also used in the codicology of manuscripts written in right-to-left scripts, like Syriac, Arabic. However, as these scripts are written in the direction to the scripts witnessed in European codices. The reading order of each folio remains first recto, then verso regardless of writing direction, the distinction between recto and verso can be convenient in the annotation of scholarly books, particularly in bilingual edition translations. The recto and verso terms can also be employed for the front and back of a one-sheet artwork, a recto-verso drawing is a sheet with drawings on both sides, for example in a sketchbook—although usually in these cases there is no obvious primary side. Some works are planned to exploit being on two sides of the piece of paper, but usually the works are not intended to be considered together. Paper was relatively expensive in the past, indeed good drawing paper still is more expensive than normal paper. In some early printed books, it is the rather than the pages. Thus each folium carries a number on its recto side. This was also common in e. g. internal company reports in the 20th century. Book design Obverse and reverse in coins Page spread
5.
Copyright
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Copyright is a legal right created by the law of a country that grants the creator of an original work exclusive rights for its use and distribution. This is usually only for a limited time, the exclusive rights are not absolute but limited by limitations and exceptions to copyright law, including fair use. A major limitation on copyright is that copyright protects only the expression of ideas. Copyright is a form of property, applicable to certain forms of creative work. Some, but not all jurisdictions require fixing copyrighted works in a tangible form and it is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders. These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public performance, copyrights are considered territorial rights, which means that they do not extend beyond the territory of a specific jurisdiction. While many aspects of copyright laws have been standardized through international copyright agreements. Typically, the duration of a copyright spans the authors life plus 50 to 100 years, some countries require certain copyright formalities to establishing copyright, but most recognize copyright in any completed work, without formal registration. Generally, copyright is enforced as a matter, though some jurisdictions do apply criminal sanctions. Most jurisdictions recognize copyright limitations, allowing fair exceptions to the exclusivity of copyright. Copyright came about with the invention of the press and with wider literacy. As a legal concept, its origins in Britain were from a reaction to printers monopolies at the beginning of the 18th century, Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized. Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, however, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights. The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of human activities that can be commodified. This parallels the ways in which led to the commodification of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se. Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British Statute of Anne gave the rights for a fixed period. The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist and it began, Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing. Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors. to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families
6.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
7.
Printer's key
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The printer’s key, also known as the number line, is a line of text printed on the copyright page of books, used to indicate the print run. Publishers began this convention about the middle of the 20th century, an example follows, This is how the printers key will appear in the first print run of a book. Numbers are removed with subsequent printings, so if 1 is seen then the book is the first printing of that edition, if it is the second printing then the 1 is removed, meaning that the lowest number seen will be 2. This format is shown in the page image accompanying this article. Sometimes number lines also include a line, This indicates a second printing. More specifically, it is this particular imprints second impression of the edition, bibliographers usually define a first edition as all printings from substantially the same type setting, no matter how many printings are done. Book collectors tend to define first edition as the first printing of the first edition, with each successive reprint, the publisher needs to instruct the printer to change the impression number. In practice, if the plates have been kept, a number can be erased, in this arrangement, all the printer must do is rub off the last number in sequence. Changing only the outer number requires the fewest possible changes to the page of characters, in the case of a Linotype slug, the lowest number could be filed off and the slug reused. For offset printing with metal plates, the number can be erased without damaging the rest of the plate, in each case, the change is minimal
8.
Edition (book)
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The bibliographical definition of an edition includes all copies of a book printed “from substantially the same setting of type, ” including all minor typographical variants. The numbering of editions is a special case of the wider field of revision control. The old and new aspects of book edition numbering are discussed below, however, book collectors generally use the term first edition to mean specifically the first print run of the first edition. Since World War II, books often include a line that indicates the print run. A first edition per se is not a collectible book. A popular work may be published and reprinted over time by many publishers, there will be a first edition of each, which the publisher may cite on the copyright page, such as, First mass market paperback edition. The first edition of a facsimile reprint is the reprint publishers first edition, the classic explanation of edition was given by Fredson Bowers in Principles of Bibliographical Description. ”Publishers often use the same typesetting for the hardcover and trade paperback versions of a book. These books have different covers, the page and copyright page may differ, and the page margin sizes may differ. From time to time, readers may observe an error in the text, the publisher typically keeps these reprint corrections in a file pending demand for a new print run of the edition, and before the new run is printed, they will be entered. The method of entry, obviously, depends on the method of typesetting, for letterpress metal, it typically meant resetting a few characters or a line or two. For linotype, it meant casting a new line for any line with a change in it, with film, it involved cutting out a bit of the film and inserting a new bit. In an electronic file, it means entering the changes digitally, such minor changes do not constitute a new edition, but introduce typographical variations within an edition, which are of interest to collectors. A common complaint of book collectors is that the definition is used in a book-collecting context. For example, J. D. Salingers The Catcher in the Rye as of 2016 remains in print in hardcover, the type is the same as the 1951 first printing, therefore all hardcover copies are, for the bibliographer, the first edition. Collectors would use the term for the first printing only, the term first trade edition, refers to the earliest edition of a book offered for sale to the general public in book stores. For example, Upton Sinclairs 1906 novel The Jungle was published in two variant forms, a Sustainers Edition, published by the Jungle Publishing Company, was sent to subscribers who had advanced funds to Sinclair. The first trade edition was published by Doubleday, Page to be sold in bookstores and it is true that these are rarer than the production copies, but given that these were not printed from a different setting of type, they are not different editions. Publishers use the term first edition for their own purposes, with little consistency, the first edition of a trade book may be the first edition by the current publisher, or the first edition with a particular set of illustrations or editorial commentary
9.
Incunable
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An incunable, or sometimes incunabulum, is a book, pamphlet, or broadside that was printed—not handwritten—before the year 1501 in Europe. Incunable is the singular form of incunabula, Latin for swaddling clothes or cradle. A former term for incunable is fifteener, referring to the 15th century, but since 2009 we know that this lexical invention should no more be assigned to Mallinckrodt, dated 1569, it has to be credited to the Dutch Physician Hadrianus Junius. The term came to denote the printed books themselves in the late 17th century, post-incunable typically refers to books printed after 1500 up to another arbitrary end date such as 1520 or 1540. As of 2014, there are about 30,000 distinct incunable editions known to be extant, many authors reserve the term incunabula for the typographic ones only. The spread of printing to cities both in the north and in Italy ensured that there was great variety in the chosen for printing. Printers congregated in urban centres where there were scholars, ecclesiastics, lawyers, nobles, standard works in Latin inherited from the medieval tradition formed the bulk of the earliest printing, but as books became cheaper, works in the various local vernaculars began to appear. Other printers of incunabula were Günther Zainer of Augsburg, Johannes Mentelin and Heinrich Eggestein of Strasbourg, Heinrich Gran of Haguenau and William Caxton of Bruges, the first incunable to have woodcut illustrations was Ulrich Boners Der Edelstein, printed by Albrecht Pfister in Bamberg in 1461. The data in this section were derived from the Incunabula Short-Title Catalogue, printing towns, The number of printing towns and cities stands at 282. These are situated in some 18 countries in terms of present-day boundaries, illustrations, Only about one edition in ten has any illustrations, woodcuts or metalcuts. Survival, The commonest incunable is Schedels Nuremberg Chronicle of 1493, very many incunabula are unique, but on average about 18 copies survive of each. This makes the Gutenberg Bible, at 48 or 49 known copies, a complete incunable may consist of a slip, or up to ten volumes. Formats, In terms of format, the 29, 000-odd editions comprise,2,000 broadsides,9,000 folios,15,000 quartos,3,000 octavos,18 12mos,230 16mos,20 32mos, and 3 64mos. Caxton, ISTC at present cites 528 extant copies of books printed by Caxton, dispersal, Apart from migration to mainly North American and Japanese universities, there has been remarkably little movement of incunabula in the last five centuries. None were printed in the Southern Hemisphere, and the latter appears to less than 2,000 copies – i. e. about 97. 75% remain north of the equator. However many incunabula are sold at auction or through the book trade every year. The British Librarys Incunabula Short Title Catalogue now records over 29,000 titles, studies of incunabula began in the 17th century. Hain was expanded in subsequent editions, by Walter A, North American holdings were listed by Frederick R. Goff and a worldwide union catalogue is provided by the Incunabula Short Title Catalogue
10.
Incipit
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The incipit of a text is the first few words of the text, employed as an identifying label. In a musical composition, an incipit is a sequence of notes. The word incipit comes from Latin and means it begins, before the development of titles, texts were often referred to by their incipits, as with for example Agnus Dei. Though the word incipit is Latin, the practice of the incipit predates classical antiquity by several millennia, although not always called by the name of incipit today, the practice of referring to texts by their initial words remains commonplace. In the clay archives of Sumer, catalogs of documents were kept by making special catalog tablets containing the incipits of a given collection of tablets. The catalog was meant to be used by the limited number of official scribes who had access to the archives. This is a Sumerian example from Lerner, Many books in the Hebrew Bible are named in Hebrew using incipits, for instance, the first book is called Bereshit and Lamentations, which begins How lonely sits the city. A readily recognized one is the Shema or Shema Yisrael in the Torah, – the first words of the prayer encapsulating Judaisms monotheism. All the names of Parashot are incipits, the coming from a word. The first in each book are, of course, called by the name as the book as a whole. Some of the Psalms are known by their incipits, most noticeably Psalm 51, in the Talmud, the chapters of the Gemara are titled in print and known by their first words, e. g. the first chapter of Mesekhet Berachot is called Me-ematai. This word is printed at the head of every subsequent page within that chapter of the tractate, Many religious songs and prayers are known by their opening words. Sometimes an entire monograph is known by its dibur hamathil, the published mystical and exegetical discourses of the Chabad-Lubavitch rebbes, derive their titles almost exclusively from the dibur ha-mathil of the individual works first chapter. e. Traditionally, papal bulls, documents issued under the authority of the Pope, are referenced by their Latin incipit, some of the mantras, suktas from the hymns of the Vedas, conform to this usage. The modern use of standardized titles, combined with the International Standard Bibliographic Description, have made the incipit obsolete as a tool for organizing information in libraries. That such a use is an incipit and not a title is most obvious when the line breaks off in the middle of a grammatical unit, Latin legal concepts are often designated by the first few words, for example, habeas corpus for habeas corpus ad subjiciendum. Many word processors propose the first few words of a document as a file name. The space-filling, or place-holding, text lorem ipsum is known as such from its incipit, musical incipits are printed in standard music notation
11.
Essay
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An essay is, generally, a piece of writing that gives the authors own argument — but the definition is vague, overlapping with those of an article, a pamphlet, and a short story. Essays have traditionally been sub-classified as formal and informal, Essays are commonly used as literary criticism, political manifestos, learned arguments, observations of daily life, recollections, and reflections of the author. Almost all modern essays are written in prose, but works in verse have been dubbed essays, while brevity usually defines an essay, voluminous works like John Lockes An Essay Concerning Human Understanding and Thomas Malthuss An Essay on the Principle of Population are counterexamples. In some countries, essays have become a part of formal education. The concept of an essay has been extended to other mediums beyond writing, a film essay is a movie that often incorporates documentary filmmaking styles, and focuses more on the evolution of a theme or idea. A photographic essay covers a topic with a series of photographs that may have accompanying text or captions. An essay has been defined in a variety of ways, one definition is a prose composition with a focused subject of discussion or a long, systematic discourse. It is difficult to define the genre into which essays fall, aldous Huxley, a leading essayist, gives guidance on the subject. He notes that the essay is a device for saying almost everything about almost anything, and adds that by tradition, almost by definition. Furthermore, Huxley argues that essays belong to a species whose extreme variability can be studied most effectively within a three-poled frame of reference. Their art consists of setting forth, passing judgment upon, the abstract-universal, In this pole we find those essayists who do their work in the world of high abstractions, who are never personal and who seldom mention the particular facts of experience. Huxley adds that the most satisfying essays. make the best not of one, the word essay derives from the French infinitive essayer, to try or to attempt. In English essay first meant a trial or an attempt, for the rest of his life, he continued revising previously published essays and composing new ones. Francis Bacons essays, published in form in 1597,1612. Ben Jonson first used the word essayist in English in 1609, English essayists included Robert Burton and Sir Thomas Browne. In France, Michel de Montaignes three volume Essais in the mid 1500s contain over 100 examples widely regarded as the predecessor of the modern essay, in Italy, Baldassare Castiglione wrote about courtly manners in his essay Il Libro del oregano. In the 17th century, the Jesuit Baltasar Gracián wrote about the theme of wisdom, in the 18th and 19th centuries, Edmund Burke and Samuel Taylor Coleridge wrote essays for the general public. In the 20th century, a number of essayists tried to explain the new movements in art, whereas some essayists used essays for strident political themes, Robert Louis Stevenson and Willa Cather wrote lighter essays
12.
Class (education)
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A class in education has a variety of related meanings. It can be the group of students which attends a course or lesson at a university, school, or other educational institution. It can refer to a course itself, e. g. a class in Shakespearean drama. It can be the group of students at the level in an institution, the freshman class, or the group of students which graduates from the institution at the same time. The term can be used in a more general context. It can also refer to the classroom, in the building or venue where such a lesson is conducted, in some countries educational systems, it can refer to a subdivision of the students in an academic department, consisting of a cohort of students of the same academic level. For example, a departments sophomores may be divided into three classes
13.
Professor
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Professor is an academic rank at universities and other post-secondary education and research institutions in most countries. Literally, professor derives from Latin as a person who professes being usually an expert in arts or sciences, in much of the world, the unqualified word professor is used formally to indicate the highest academic rank, informally known as full professor. Professors conduct original research and commonly teach undergraduate, graduate, or professional courses in their fields of expertise, in universities with graduate schools, professors may mentor and supervise graduate students conducting research for a thesis or dissertation. Professors typically hold a Ph. D. another doctorate or a different terminal degree, some professors hold a masters degree or a professional degree, such as an M. D. as their highest degree. The term professor was first used in the late 14th century to one who teaches a branch of knowledge. As a title that is prefixed to a name, it dates from 1706, the hort form prof is recorded from 1838. The term professor is used with a different meaning, ne professing religion. This canting use of the word comes down from the Elizabethan period, a professor is an accomplished and recognized academic. In most Commonwealth nations, as well as northern Europe, the professor is the highest academic rank at a university. In the United States and Canada, the title of professor is also the highest rank, in these areas, professors are scholars with doctorate degrees or equivalent qualifications who teach in four-year colleges and universities. An emeritus professor is a given to selected retired professors with whom the university wishes to continue to be associated due to their stature. Emeritus professors do not receive a salary, but they are often given office or lab space, and use of libraries, labs, the term professor is also used in the titles assistant professor and associate professor, which are not considered professor-level positions in some European countries. In Australia, the associate professor is used in place of reader, ranking above senior lecturer. However, such professors usually do not undertake academic work for the granting institution, in general, the title of professor is strictly used for academic positions rather than for those holding it on honorary basis. Other roles of professorial tasks depend on the institution, its legacy, protocols, place, a professor typically earns a base salary and a range of benefits. In addition, a professor who undertakes additional roles in her institution earns additional income, some professors also earn additional income by moonlighting in other jobs, such as consulting, publishing academic or popular press books, or giving speeches or coaching executives. Some fields give professors more opportunities for outside work, the anticipated average earnings with performance-related bonuses for a German professor is €71,500. The salaries of civil servant professors in Spain are fixed in a basis, but there are some bonus related to performance and seniority
14.
Information
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In other words, it is the answer to a question of some kind. It is thus related to data and knowledge, as data represents values attributed to parameters, as it regards data, the informations existence is not necessarily coupled to an observer, while in the case of knowledge, the information requires a cognitive observer. At its most fundamental, information is any propagation of cause, Information can be encoded into various forms for transmission and interpretation. It can also be encrypted for safe storage and communication, the uncertainty of an event is measured by its probability of occurrence and is inversely proportional to that. The more uncertain an event, the information is required to resolve uncertainty of that event. The bit is a unit of information, but other units such as the nat may be used. Example, information in one fair coin flip, log2 =1 bit, the concept that information is the message has different meanings in different contexts. The English word was derived from the Latin stem of the nominative. Inform itself comes from the Latin verb informare, which means to give form, eidos can also be associated with thought, proposition, or even concept. The ancient Greek word for information is πληροφορία, which transliterates from πλήρης fully and it literally means fully bears or conveys fully. In modern Greek language the word Πληροφορία is still in use and has the same meaning as the word information in English. In addition to its meaning, the word Πληροφορία as a symbol has deep roots in Aristotles semiotic triangle. In this regard it can be interpreted to communicate information to the one decoding that specific type of sign, from the stance of information theory, information is taken as an ordered sequence of symbols from an alphabet, say an input alphabet χ, and an output alphabet ϒ. Information processing consists of a function that maps any input sequence from χ into an output sequence from ϒ. The mapping may be probabilistic or deterministic and it may have memory or be memoryless. Often information can be viewed as a type of input to an organism or system, inputs are of two kinds, some inputs are important to the function of the organism or system by themselves. In his book Sensory Ecology Dusenbery called these causal inputs, other inputs are important only because they are associated with causal inputs and can be used to predict the occurrence of a causal input at a later time. Some information is important because of association with information but eventually there must be a connection to a causal input
15.
Roman numeral
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The numeric system represented by Roman numerals originated in ancient Rome and remained the usual way of writing numbers throughout Europe well into the Late Middle Ages. Numbers in this system are represented by combinations of letters from the Latin alphabet, Roman numerals, as used today, are based on seven symbols, The use of Roman numerals continued long after the decline of the Roman Empire. The numbers 1 to 10 are usually expressed in Roman numerals as follows, I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, Numbers are formed by combining symbols and adding the values, so II is two and XIII is thirteen. Symbols are placed left to right in order of value. Named after the year of its release,2014 as MMXIV, the year of the games of the XXII Olympic Winter Games The standard forms described above reflect typical modern usage rather than a universally accepted convention. Usage in ancient Rome varied greatly and remained inconsistent in medieval, Roman inscriptions, especially in official contexts, seem to show a preference for additive forms such as IIII and VIIII instead of subtractive forms such as IV and IX. Both methods appear in documents from the Roman era, even within the same document, double subtractives also occur, such as XIIX or even IIXX instead of XVIII. Sometimes V and L are not used, with such as IIIIII. Such variation and inconsistency continued through the period and into modern times. Clock faces that use Roman numerals normally show IIII for four o’clock but IX for nine o’clock, however, this is far from universal, for example, the clock on the Palace of Westminster in London uses IV. Similarly, at the beginning of the 20th century, different representations of 900 appeared in several inscribed dates. For instance,1910 is shown on Admiralty Arch, London, as MDCCCCX rather than MCMX, although Roman numerals came to be written with letters of the Roman alphabet, they were originally independent symbols. The Etruscans, for example, used
16.
Page layout
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Page layout is the part of graphic design that deals in the arrangement of visual elements on a page. It generally involves organizational principles of composition to achieve specific communication objectives, the high-level page layout involves deciding on the overall arrangement of text and images, and possibly on the size or shape of the medium. It requires intelligence, sentience, and creativity, and is informed by culture, psychology, low-level pagination and typesetting are more mechanical processes. Given certain parameters - boundaries of areas, the typeface, font size. Until desktop publishing became dominant, these processes were still done by people, the result might be published as-is or might be tweaked by a graphic designer. With manuscripts, all of the elements are added by hand, so the creator can determine the layout directly as they create the work, any images would be created by engraving. This process is called imposition, and potentially includes arranging multiple pages to be printed on the sheet of paper which will later be folded. An imposition proof might be created to check the final placement, the invention of hot metal typesetting in 1884 sped up the typesetting process by allowing workers to produce slugs - entire lines of text - using a keyboard. The slugs were the result of metal being poured into molds temporarily assembled by the typesetting machine. The layout process remained the same as with metal type. Offset lithography allows the bright and dark areas of an image to control ink placement on the printing press and this means that if a single copy of the page can be created on paper and photographed, then any number of copies could be printed. Type could be set with a typewriter, or to achieve results comparable to letterpress. The IBM Selectric Composer, for example, could produce type of different size, different fonts, with photoengraving and halftone, physical photographs could be transferred into print directly, rather than relying on hand-made engravings. Completed pages become known as camera-ready, mechanicals or mechanical art and these machines became increasingly sophisticated, with computer-driven models able to store text on magnetic tape. In addition to being used as devices for computer operators. Printers attached directly to computers allowed them to print documents directly, early dot matrix printing was sufficient for office documents, but was of too low a quality for professional typesetting. Inkjet printing and laser printing did produce sufficient quality type, with modern desktop publishing software such as flagship software Adobe Indesign and cloud-based Lucidpress, the layout process can occur entirely on-screen. A finished document can be printed as the camera-ready version
17.
Typography
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Typography is the art and technique of arranging type to make written language legible, readable, and appealing when displayed. The arrangement of type involves selecting typefaces, point sizes, line lengths, line-spacing, and letter-spacing, the term typography is also applied to the style, arrangement, and appearance of the letters, numbers, and symbols created by the process. Type design is a closely related craft, sometimes considered part of typography, most typographers do not design typefaces, Typography also may be used as a decorative device, unrelated to communication of information. Until the Digital Age, typography was a specialized occupation, as the capability to create typography has become ubiquitous, the application of principles and best practices developed over generations of skilled workers and professionals has diminished. Babylonian cylinder seals were used to create an impression on a surface by rolling the seal on wet clay, Typography also was implemented in the Phaistos Disc, an enigmatic Minoan printed item from Crete, which dates to between 1850 and 1600 B. C. It has been proposed that Roman lead pipe inscriptions were created with movable type printing, the essential criterion of type identity was met by medieval print artifacts such as the Latin Pruefening Abbey inscription of 1119 that was created by the same technique as the Phaistos Disc. The silver altarpiece of patriarch Pellegrinus II in the cathedral of Cividale was printed with individual letter punches, apparently, the same printing technique may be found in tenth to twelfth century Byzantine reliquaries. Other early examples include individual letter tiles where the words are formed by assembling single letter tiles in the desired order, Typography with movable type was invented during the eleventh-century Song dynasty in China by Bi Sheng. His movable type system was manufactured from ceramic materials, and clay type printing continued to be practiced in China until the Qing Dynasty, wang Zhen was one of the pioneers of wooden movable type. Although the wooden type was more durable under the mechanical rigors of handling, repeated printing wore the character faces down, metal movable type was first invented in Korea during the Goryeo Dynasty, approximately 1230. Hua Sui introduced bronze type printing to China in 1490 AD, the diffusion of both movable-type systems was limited and the technology did not spread beyond East and Central Asia, however. Modern lead-based movable type, along with the printing press, is most often attributed to the goldsmith Johannes Gutenberg in 1439. His type pieces, made from an alloy, suited printing purposes so well that the alloy is still used today. Gutenberg developed specialized techniques for casting and combining cheap copies of letter punches in the vast quantities required to print multiple copies of texts and this technical breakthrough was instrumental in starting the Printing Revolution and the first book printed with lead-based movable type was the Gutenberg Bible. Rapidly advancing technology revolutionized typography in the twentieth century. During the 1960s some camera-ready typesetting could be produced in any office or workshop with stand-alone machines such as introduced by IBM. During the mid-1980s personal computers such as the Macintosh allowed type designers to create typefaces digitally using commercial graphic design software, Digital technology also enabled designers to create more experimental typefaces as well as the practical typefaces of traditional typography. Designs for typefaces could be created faster with the new technology, the cost for developing typefaces was drastically lowered, becoming widely available to the masses
18.
Font
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In metal typesetting, a font is a particular size, weight and style of a typeface. Each font was a set of type, one piece for each glyph. In modern usage, with the advent of digital typography, font is frequently synonymous with typeface, in particular, the use of vector or outline fonts means that different sizes of a typeface can be dynamically generated from one design. The word font derives from Middle French fonte melted, a casting, the term refers to the process of casting metal type at a type foundry. In a manual printing house the word font would refer to a set of metal type that would be used to typeset an entire page. Unlike a digital typeface it would not include a definition of each character. A font when bought new would often be sold as 12pt 14A 34a, meaning that it would be a size 12-point font containing 14 uppercase As, given the name upper and lowercase because of which case the metal type was located in, otherwise known as majuscule and minuscule. The rest of the characters would be provided in quantities appropriate for the distribution of letters in that language. Some metal type characters required in typesetting, such as dashes, spaces and line-height spacers, were not part of a specific font, line spacing is still often called leading, because the strips used for line spacing were made of lead. In the 1880s–90s, hot lead typesetting was invented, in which type was cast as it was set, either piece by piece or in entire lines of type at one time. In European alphabetic scripts, i. e. Latin, Cyrillic and Greek, the main properties are the stroke width, called weight, the style or angle. The regular or standard font is sometimes labeled roman, both to distinguish it from bold or thin and from italic or oblique. The keyword for the default, regular case is often omitted for variants and never repeated, otherwise it would be Bulmer regular italic, Bulmer bold regular, Roman can also refer to the language coverage of a font, acting as a shorthand for Western European. Different fonts of the same typeface may be used in the work for various degrees of readability and emphasis. The weight of a font is the thickness of the character outlines relative to their height. A typeface may come in fonts of many weights, from ultra-light to extra-bold or black, four to six weights are not unusual, many typefaces for office, web and non-professional use come with just a normal and a bold weight which are linked together. If no bold weight is provided, many renderers support faking a bolder font by rendering the outline a second time at an offset, the base weight differs among typefaces, that means one normal font may appear bolder than some other normal font. For example, fonts intended to be used in posters are often quite bold by default while fonts for long runs of text are rather light, therefore, weight designations in font names may differ in regard to the actual absolute stroke weight or density of glyphs in the font
19.
Book cover
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A book cover is any protective covering used to bind together the pages of a book. This article is concerned with modern mechanically produced covers, before the early nineteenth century, books were hand-bound, in the case of luxury medieval manuscripts using materials such as gold, silver and jewels. For hundreds of years, book bindings had functioned as a device for the expensively printed or hand-made pages. In the 1820s great changes began to occur in how a book might be covered, not only were the new types of book-covers cheaper to produce, they were also printable, using multi-colour lithography, and later, half-tone illustration processes. Techniques borrowed from the nineteenth-century poster-artists gradually infiltrated the book industry, the book cover became more than just a protection for the pages, taking on the function of advertising, and communicating information about the text inside. Some of the first radically modern cover designs were produced in the Soviet Union during the 1920s by avant-gardists such as Alexander Rodchenko, another highly influential early book cover designer was Aubrey Beardsley, thanks to his striking covers for the first four volumes of The Yellow Book. In the post-war era, book covers have become important as the book industry has become commercially competitive. Covers now give detailed hints about the style, genre and subject of the book and this can differ from country to country because of other tastes of the markets. So translated books can also have different book-accessories such as belonging to childrens books. The era of internet sales has not diminished the importance of the book cover, as it now continues its role in a two-dimensional digital form, helping to identify. The Book Cover Archive *Decorated Publishers Bindings-Grand Valley State University Archives, on the topic of cover art
20.
Buckram
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Buckram is a stiff cloth, made of cotton, and still occasionally linen, which is used to cover and protect books. Buckram can also be used to stiffen clothes, modern buckrams have been stiffened by soaking in a substance, usually now pyroxylin, to fill the gaps between the fibres. In the Middle Ages, bokeram was fine cotton cloth, not stiff, the etymology of the term is uncertain, the commonly mentioned derivation from Bokhara is, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, uncertain. Millinery buckram is different from bookbinding buckram and it is impregnated with a starch, which allows it to be softened in water, pulled over a hat block, and left to dry into a hard shape. White buckram is most commonly used in hatmaking, though black is available as well, millinery buckram comes in three weights, baby buckram, single-ply buckram, and double buckram. American-made Buckram book cloth is a poly-cotton base cloth coated in aqueous acrylic and it was designed to withstand heavy use in libraries and offers strength, moisture resistance and mildew resistance. Buckram is available in different grades and it also can be used in electric boards for binding and is very stretchable. In the US, F grade buckram is offered in 15 glossy colors and it meets specifications for use in textbooks and exceeds performance specifications for library binding. Both grades are suitable for reference books, hymnals, textbooks, albums, looseleaf binders, menus and other editions that require an extra level of protection
21.
Leather
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Leather is a durable and flexible material created by tanning animal rawhide and skin, often cattle hide. It can be produced at manufacturing scales ranging from cottage industry to heavy industry, people use leather to make various goods—including clothing, bookbinding, leather wallpaper, and as a furniture covering. It is produced in a variety of types and styles. Several tanning processes transform hides and skins into leather, Chrome-tanned leather, invented in 1858, is tanned using chromium sulfate and it is more supple and pliable than vegetable-tanned leather and does not discolor or lose shape as drastically in water as vegetable-tanned. It is also known as wet-blue for its color derived from the chromium, more exotic colors are possible when using chrome tanning. The chrome tanning method usually only takes a day to finish, and it is reported that chrome-tanned leather adds up to 80% of the global leather supply. Vegetable-tanned leather is tanned using tannins and other found in different vegetable matter, such as tree bark prepared in bark mills, wood, leaves, fruits. It is supple and brown in color, with the exact shade depending on the mix of chemicals and it is the only form of leather suitable for use in leather carving or stamping. Vegetable-tanned leather is not stable in water, it tends to discolor, so if left to soak and then dried it shrinks, in hot water, it shrinks drastically and partly congeals—becoming rigid, and eventually brittle. Boiled leather is an example of this, where the leather has been hardened by being immersed in hot water, historically, it was occasionally used as armour after hardening, and it has also been used for book binding. Aldehyde-tanned leather is tanned using glutaraldehyde or oxazolidine compounds and this is the leather that most tanners refer to as wet-white leather due to its pale cream or white color. It is the type of chrome-free leather, often seen in shoes for infants. Formaldehyde tanning is another aldehyde tanning method, brain-tanned leathers fall into this category, and are exceptionally water absorbent. Brain tanned leathers are made by a process that uses emulsified oils, often those of animal brains such as deer, cattle. They are known for their softness and washability. Chamois leather also falls into the category of aldehyde tanning, and like brain tanning, produces a porous, chamois leather is made using marine oils that oxidize easily to produce the aldehydes that tan the leather to color it. Rose-tanned leather is a variation of oil tanning and brain tanning. Rose-tanned leather tanned leaves a powerful rose fragrance even years from when it is manufactured and it has been called the most valuable leather on earth, but this is mostly due to the high cost of rose otto and its labor-intensive tanning process
22.
Treasure binding
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The actual bookbinding technique is the same as for other medieval books, with the folios, normally of vellum, stitched together and bound to wooden cover boards. The metal framework of the binding is then fixed, normally by tacks. Treasure bindings appear to have existed from at least Late Antiquity, though there are no surviving examples from so early, and Early Medieval examples are very rare. They were less used by the end of the Middle Ages, but a few continued to be produced in the West even up to the present day, and many more in areas where Eastern Orthodoxy predominated. The bindings were used on grand illuminated manuscripts, especially Gospel books designed for the altar and use in church services. The vast majority of these bookbindings were later destroyed as their gold and jewels were removed by looters. Others survive without their jewels, and many are no longer attached to a book. Some survive in major libraries - for example the Morgan Library in New York City, the John Rylands Library in Manchester, the British Library in London and the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris. As the carved ivory reliefs often used could not usually be recycled, other examples are recorded in documentary sources but though the books survive the covers do not. The Book of Kells lost its binding after a robbery, in the Eastern Orthodox churches treasure bindings have continued to be produced, mainly for liturgical Gospel books, up to the present day, and exist in many different artistic styles. Other styles of binding using gems, and typically pearls, have a covering of velvet or other textile, to which the gems are sewn or otherwise fixed. These were more likely to be for the books of a grand person, especially the prayer books and books of hours of female royalty. The techniques for producing jewelled bookbinding have evolved over the course of history with the technologies and these thongs then came to be laced into the boards and covered entirely by leather. Boards afforded the opportunity for decorative ornamentation, with metal casings set into the wood for the installation of precious gems, stones, the cover material would then be laid over the casings by hand and cut around the rim of the casings to reveal the jewels. The books typically bound were Gospels and other religious books made for use within the church, decorative book clasps or straps were made with jewels or repoussé metal from the 12th century onward, particularly in Holland and Germany. These were even carried into battle as a kind of standard, jewelled slipcases or boxes were also used to house small editions of the Qur’an during this time period. These pieces can be seen in portraits from the period and records of jewels from the reigns of Henry VIII, some bindings were created to contain relics of saints, and these large books were sometimes seen suspended from golden rods and carried in the public processions of Byzantine emperors. Byzantine and Western medieval treasure bindings are not entirely unified in style
23.
Endpaper
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The endpapers or end-papers of a book are the pages that consist of a double-size sheet folded, with one half pasted against an inside cover, and the other serving as the first free page. Thus, the front endpapers precede the title page and the text, booksellers sometimes refer to the front end paper as FEP. Before mass printing in the 20th century it was common for the endpapers of books to have paper marbling, sometimes the endpapers are used for maps or other relevant information. They are the place to put bookplates, or an owners inscription. As of 2010 there are styles of endsheets or endpapers that are specifically designed for use with different bindings. For example, endsheets reinforced with cloth are used in sewn bindings, the cloth holds the stitches and prevents the paper from perforating and tearing. Other styles are designed for use with perfect binders, the Folded Tabbed End sheet is collated with the text pages, milled and bound along with the book block. There are also many styles of endpapers that are engineered to meet standards and library binding standards as well as endsheets for conservation
24.
Paper marbling
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Paper marbling is a method of aqueous surface design, which can produce patterns similar to smooth marble or other kinds of stone. The patterns are the result of color floated on either water or a viscous solution known as size. Through several centuries, people have applied marbled materials to a variety of surfaces and it is often employed as a writing surface for calligraphy, and especially book covers and endpapers in bookbinding and stationery. Part of its appeal is that each print is a unique monotype, there are several methods for making marbled papers. A shallow tray is filled with water, and various kinds of ink or paint colors are applied to the surface with an ink brush. Various additives or surfactant chemicals are used to float the colors. A drop of color made of plain water with the addition of surfactant is used to drive the drop of color into a ring. The process is repeated until the surface of the water is covered with concentric rings, the floating colors are then carefully manipulated either by blowing on them directly or through a straw, fanning the colors, or carefully using a human hair to stir the colors. In the 19th century, Tokutaro Yagi, the Kyoto master of Japanese marbling, developed a method that uses a piece of bamboo to gently stir the colors. A sheet of paper is then carefully laid onto the water surface to capture the floating design. The paper, which is made of kozo, must be unsized. Another method of marbling more familiar to Europeans and Americans is made on the surface of a viscous mucilage, the term Turkish was most likely used as a reference to the fact that many Europeans first encountered the art in Istanbul. Since the late 19th century, an extract of the carrageenan-rich alga known as Irish moss, has been employed for sizing. Today, many marblers use powdered carrageenan extracted from various seaweeds, another plant-derived mucilage is made from sodium alginate. In recent years, a size made from hydroxypropyl methylcellulose. In the size-based method, colors made from pigments are mixed with a surfactant such as ox gall, sometimes, oil or turpentine may be added to a color, to achieve special effects. The colors are then spattered or dropped onto the size, one color after another, straw from the broom corn was used to make a kind of whisk for sprinkling the paint, or horsehair to create a kind of drop-brush. Each successive layer of pigment spreads slightly less than the last, once the colors are laid down, various tools and implements such as rakes, combs and styluses are often used in a series of movements to create more intricate designs
25.
Book frontispiece
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A frontispiece in books generally refers to a decorative or informative illustration facing a books title page, being the verso opposite the recto title page. While some books depict thematic elements, other books feature the portrait as the frontispiece. In medieval illuminated manuscripts, a miniature showing the book or text being presented was often used as a frontispiece. The word comes from the French frontispice, or the late Latin frontispicium, from the Latin frons, in English, it was originally used as an architectural term, referring to the decorative facade of a building. By then, the English spelling had also morphed, by way of folk etymology, book design Prints & People, A Social History of Printed Pictures, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art, which contains material on book frontispieces
26.
Edition notice
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The edition notice is the page in a book containing information about the current edition, usually on the back of the title page. It often contains a notice, legal notices, publication information, printing history, cataloguing information from a national library. At the bottom of the edition notice one often finds a line of numbers, some of which may appear to be missing and these indicate the books print run. Sometimes, there also be a warning indicating that the book sold without a cover is a stripped book
27.
Dedication (publishing)
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A dedication is the expression of friendly connection or thanks by the author towards another person. The dedication has its own place on the page and is part of the front matter. In newer books, the dedication is located on a page on its own. It can occupy one or multiple lines depending on its importance and it can also be in a longer version as a dedication letter or dedication preface at the books beginning. Nowadays, the function is mainly part of the self-portrayal of the author in front of his or her readers. Evidence of dedications is provided back into the Classical antiquity, besides the wish to express their gratitude towards a certain person, the authors often had also other reasons to dedicate their work to a particular person. A typical writer dedicated their book to a high standing personality -- to Fürsts or bishops -- or to a city, in many cases the petitioner was lucky and received a gift from the patron. In some cases, the writer groveled before the patron and a formal dedication contained often a very elaborate, in some cases not only the authors tried to get some money, but also the printers tried through dedications to cover a part of their costs. A book dedication can provide a glimpse into the life. For example, Lord Byron engaged in a feud with Robert Southey. Throughout time, book dedications were used to political statements or to condemn war. Author Toni Morrison dedicated Beloved, her 1987 Pulitzer Prize-winning novel about a slave who killed her daughter, to Sixty Million. Furthermore, book dedications reflect the tastes and mores of society, whereas many Elizabethan dedications were erudite and witty, some modern authors have abandoned literary pretense, sometimes using profanity to shock or amuse their audiences. The dedication is not to be confounded with the dedication of a single copy. Homage Front matter Prologue Paratext Jost Hochuli, Buchgestaltung in der Schweiz, ISBN 3-908102-10-3 Reclams Sachlexikon des Buches. ISBN 3-15-010542-0 Diana Stört, Form- und Funktionswandel der Widmung, zur historischen Entwicklung und Typologisierung eines Paratextes. In, Aus meiner Hand dies Buch, hrsg. von Volker Kaukoreit, Marcel Atze und Michael Hansel. Wien, Turia + Kant 2007, S. 79-112, ISBN 3-85132-476-5 The dictionary definition of dedication at Wiktionary
28.
Epigraph (literature)
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In literature, an epigraph is a phrase, quotation, or poem that is set at the beginning of a document or component. The epigraph may serve as a preface, as a summary, as a counter-example, or to link the work to a literary canon. The long quotation from Dantes Inferno that prefaces T. S. Eliots The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock is part of a speech by one of the damned in Dantes Hell. Linking it to the monologue which forms Eliots poem adds a comment, the epigraph to Eliots Gerontion is a quotation from Shakespeares Measure for Measure. Eliots The Hollow Men uses the line Mistah Kurtz, he dead from Joseph Conrads Heart of Darkness as one of its two epigraphs, the epigraph to Theodore Herzls Altneuland is If you will it, it is no dream. Which became a slogan of the Zionist movement, the epigraph to Fyodor Dostoyevskys The Brothers Karamazov is John 12,24. Verily, verily, I say unto you, except a corn of wheat fall into the ground and die, it abideth alone, but if it die, it bringeth forth much fruit. The epigraphs to the preamble of Georges Perecs Life, A Users Manual and to the book as a whole warn the reader that tricks are going to be played and that all will not be what it seems. Jack London uses the first stanza of John Myers OHaras poem Atavism as the epigraph to The Call of the Wild, as an epigraph to The Sun Also Rises, Ernest Hemingway famously quotes Gertrude Stein, You are all a lost generation. The epigraph to E. L. Doctorows Ragtime quotes Scott Joplins instructions to those who play his music and it is never right to play Ragtime fast. This stands in contrast to the pace of American society at the turn of the 20th century. A Samuel Johnson quote is used as an epigraph in Hunter S. Thompsons novel Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, stephen King uses many epigraphs in his writing, usually to mark the beginning of another section in the novel. An unusual example is The Stand where he uses lyrics from songs to express the metaphor used in a particular part. J. K. Rowlings novels frequently begin with epigraphs relating to the themes explored, Harry Potter, some authors use fictional quotations that purport to be related to the fiction of the work itself. Examples include, John Greens The Fault in Our Stars has a quotation from a novel, An Imperial Affliction. F. Scott Fitzgeralds The Great Gatsby opens with a poem entitled Then Wear the Gold Hat, DInvilliers is a character in Fitzgeralds first novel, This Side of Paradise. This cliché is parodied by Diana Wynne Jones in The Tough Guide To Fantasyland, a poem at the beginning of J. R. R. Tolkiens The Lord of the Rings describes the Rings of Power, the central plot device of the trilogy. Fantasy literature may also include epigraphs, le Guins Earthsea series includes epigraphs supposedly quoted from the epic poetry of the Earthsea archipelago
29.
Table of contents
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Pliny the Elder credits Quintus Valerius Soranus as the first author to provide a table of contents to help readers navigate a lengthy work. Plinys own table of contents for his encyclopedic Historia naturalis may be viewed online in Latin and in English, the depth of detail in tables of contents depends on the length of the work, with longer works having less. Formal reports also have a table of contents, printed tables of contents indicate page numbers where each part starts, while digital ones offer links to go to each part. The format and location of the numbers is a matter of style for the publisher. In some cases, the number appears before the text. If a book or document contains chapters, articles, or stories by different authors, matter preceding the table of contents is generally not listed there. However, all pages except the cover are counted. Example with leaders, Chapter 1, Getting Started,3 Example without leaders, Chapter 1, Getting Started 1 Introduction 2 Next Steps 3 Example with authors,1. Introduction to Biology Arthur C. Smith 12, chang 24 Example with descriptive text, Chapter 13 In which we first meet our hero and heroine, attend a gala feast, and begin an unexpected journey. Chapter 212 The journey takes a turn, and new villains are discovered. The Chicago Manual of Style Gerald J. Alred, Charles T. Brusaw, Walter E. Oliu
30.
Table (information)
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A table is an arrangement of data in rows and columns, or possibly in a more complex structure. Tables are widely used in communication, research, and data analysis, Tables appear in print media, handwritten notes, computer software, architectural ornamentation, traffic signs, and many other places. The precise conventions and terminology for describing tables vary depending on the context, further, tables differ significantly in variety, structure, flexibility, notation, representation and use. In books and technical articles, tables are typically presented apart from the text in numbered and captioned floating blocks. A table consists of an arrangement of rows and columns. This is a description of the most basic kind of table. The elements of a table may be grouped, segmented, or arranged in different ways. Additionally, a table may include metadata, annotations, a header, the following illustrates a simple table with three columns and seven rows. The first row is not counted, because it is used to display the column names. This is called a header row, the concept of dimension is also a part of basic terminology. Any simple table can be represented as a table by normalizing the data values into ordered hierarchies. A common example of such a table is a multiplication table, in multi-dimensional tables, each cell in the body of the table relates to the values at the beginnings of the column, the row, and other structures in more complex tables. Tables can be described as wide or narrow in format, as a communication tool, a table allows a form of generalization of information from an unlimited number of different social or scientific contexts. It provides a way to convey information that might otherwise not be obvious or readily understood. For example, in the diagram, two alternate representations of the same information are presented side by side. On the left is the NFPA704 standard fire diamond with example values indicated and on the right is a table displaying the same values. Both representations convey essentially the same information, but the representation is arguably more comprehensible to someone who is not familiar with the NFPA704 standard. The tabular representation may not, however, be ideal for every circumstance, there are several specific situations in which tables are routinely used as a matter of custom or formal convention
31.
Foreword
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A foreword is a piece of writing sometimes placed at the beginning of a book or other piece of literature. Typically written by other than the primary author of the work. Later editions of a book sometimes have a new foreword prepended, unlike a preface, a foreword is always signed. Information essential to the text is generally placed in a set of explanatory notes, or perhaps in an introduction. The pages containing the foreword and preface are typically not numbered as part of the main work, if the front matter is paginated, it uses lowercase Roman numerals. If there is both a foreword and a preface, the foreword appears first, both appear before the introduction, which may be paginated either with the front matter or the main text, the word foreword was first used around the mid-17th century. It was possibly a translation of Dutch voorwoord or German Vorwort. Afterword Epigraph Introduction Preface Prologue The difference between a preface, foreword, and introduction – PatMcNees. com
32.
Preface
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A preface or proem is an introduction to a book or other literary work written by the works author. An introductory essay written by a different person is a foreword, the preface often closes with acknowledgments of those who assisted in the literary work. A preface is usually signed, a foreword by another person is always signed, information essential to the main text is generally placed in a set of explanatory notes, or perhaps in an Introduction that may be paginated with Arabic numerals, rather than in the preface. The term preface can also mean any preliminary or introductory statement, preface comes from the Latin, meaning either spoken before or made before. While the former source of the word could have meaning the same as prologue. With this meaning of stated intention, British publishing up to at least the middle of the twentieth century distinguished between preface and introduction, epigraph Exordium Introduction Postface Prologue A history of the preface in several languages is contained in, Tötösy de Zepetnek, Steven. The Social Dimensions of Fiction, On the Rhetoric and Function of Prefacing Novels in the Nineteenth-Century Canadas, the difference between a preface, foreword, and introduction, patmcnees. com Media related to Prefaces at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of proem at Wiktionary
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Introduction (writing)
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In an essay, article, or book, an introduction is a beginning section which states the purpose and goals of the following writing. This is generally followed by the body and conclusion, the introduction typically describes the scope of the document and gives the brief explanation or summary of the document. It may also explain certain elements that are important to the essay if explanations are not part of the main text, the readers can have an idea about the following text before they actually start reading it. Ln technical writing, the introduction typically includes one or more standard subsections, abstract or summary, preface, acknowledgments, alternatively, the section labeled introduction itself may be a brief section found side-by-side with abstract, foreword, etc. In this case the set of sections that come before the body of the book are known as the front matter, when the book is divided into numbered chapters, by convention the introduction and any other front-matter sections are unnumbered and precede chapter 1. Keeping the concept of the introduction the same, different documents have different styles to introduce the written text, for example, the introduction of a Functional Specification consists of information that the whole document is yet to explain. If a Userguide is written, the introduction is about the product, in a report, the introduction gives a summary about the report contents. Dramatic structure Lead paragraph Foreword Preamble Preface Prologue Epigraph Leora Freedman, Jerry Plotnick
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Prologue
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A prologue or prolog is an opening to a story that establishes the context and gives background details, often some earlier story that ties into the main one, and other miscellaneous information. The Ancient Greek prólogos included the meaning of prologue, but was of wider significance. The importance, therefore, of the prologue in Greek drama was very great, it sometimes almost took the place of a romance, to which, or to an episode in which, the play itself succeeded. It is believed that the prologue in this form was practically the invention of Euripides, the point precisely is that, to an Athenian audience, it was useful and pertinent, as supplying just what they needed to make the succeeding scenes intelligible. He seems, in such a typical prologue as that to the Hippolytus, to be accepting a conventional formula, many of the existing Greek prologues may be later in date than the plays they illustrate, or may contain large interpolations. Molière revived the Plautian prologue in the introduction to his Amphitryon, racine introduced Piety as the speaker of a prologue which opened his choral tragedy of Esther. The tradition of the ancients vividly affected our own early dramatists, though less prevalent in the Elizabethan than in the Classical or Restoration periods, prologues of Renaissance plays are an interesting composite of styles and forms. Bruster and Weimann further argue that the prologue of the Early Modern period serves as a liminal entity, firstly, a prologue is at once the text which is spoken, the actor who speaks that text, and the performance given by the actor in speaking. Ben Jonson has been credited with using the prologue as a means to remind the audience of the relationships between themselves and all aspects of the performance they are about to view. In performance, the actor appeared dressed all in black and this is in contrast to the costume of the play proper, where elaborate and colourful costumes were worn, in the fashion of the day. The prologue removed his hat and wore no makeup and he probably carried a book or scroll, or a placard displaying the title of the play. He was introduced by three short trumpet calls, on the third of which he entered and took a position downstage and he made three bows in the current fashion of the court, and then addressed the audience. The Elizabethan prologue was unique in incorporating aspects of classical and medieval traditions. Epigraph Epilogue Foreword Introduction Preface Prolegomena Attribution This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh. The dictionary definition of prologue at Wiktionary
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Printer's mark
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A printers mark, device, emblem or insignia was a symbol used as a trademark by early printers starting in the 15th century. The first printers mark is found in the 1457 Mainz Psalter by Johann Fust, one of the most well-known old printers marks is the dolphin and anchor, first used by the Venetian printer Aldus Manutius as his mark in 1502. The database Printers Devices of the Ancient Book Section of the Library of the University of Barcelona, was launched in October 1998, bookplate Colophon Union label Roberts, W. Printers marks, a chapter in the history of typography. London, New York, George Bell & Sons, project Gutenberg Ebook #25663 Released Jun 1,2008. Printers marks from digitized rare books at the Linda Hall Library
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Body text
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Body text is the text forming the main content of a book, magazine, web page or other printed matter. This is as a contrast to both the headings on each page, and also the pages of front matter that form the introduction to a book, body text has two slightly different meanings, depending on context. A book designer, concerned with the sequence of a book, regards it as those pages that form the majority of a book. The body matter is the group of pages that contain the body of the text of the book, the front matter comes before it, containing title pages, content lists, publishers metadata etc. It is followed by the matter, which includes appendices, references, credits. The distinction between the parts, body and other, is that the matter is produced by the author. In some technical publications, appendices are so long and important as part of the book that they are a creative endeavour of the author, in this case they may, like the introduction, be considered as a part of the body matter. At one time, books were produced as letter-books, where the body of text consisted of chapters of solid text, unillustrated. Where illustrations were provided, these were costly and so plates were inserted in sections, either at the end of the body matter, typesetting of the body text is the work of the printer and their typesetter. Typesetting of the parts, the front matter, and pages of the body matter involving specific design of their layout are, if budget permits. Typesetting of the text is generally considered to be rote work, skilled. Computer typesetting was thus first applied to body text and this represented the bulk of the work, yet also that part requiring the least human creative input. Body text is usually typeset in a font, as these are perceived as more readable for text in dense blocks. HTML follows the book designers meaning of body text, there is an HTML element named <body> that serves to delimit the body matter from the front matter that contains metadata such as the page title. The typesetting of the web page is carried out by document body elements within this, there is no specific HTML element for body text in the typesetting sense. <p> would generally be favoured over <div>
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Section (typography)
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In books and documents, a section is a subdivision, especially of a chapter. Sections are visually separated from each other with a section break and they are a concern in the process of typography and pagination, where it may be desirable to have a page break follow a section break for the sake of aesthetics or readability. In fiction, sections often represent scenes, and accordingly the space separating them is also called a scene break. In written narrative such as fiction, sections are not usually numbered or named, Section breaks are used to signal various changes in a story, including changes in time, location, point-of-view character, mood, tone, emotion, and pace. As a fiction-writing mode, the break can be considered a transition. Some documents, especially legal documents, may have numbered sections, such as Section Two of the Canadian Charter of Rights, the section sign may be used to reference sections and subsections. Subsections are often written in lowercase Roman numerals, e. g. Section 51 of the Australian Constitution, a document may also be considered to be divided into sections by its headings and subheadings, which may be used for a table of contents. For example, the sections used in Wikipedia can be compiled into a table of contents for an article. Many books, however, only have chapter headings in the table of contents, while a chapter may be divided by section breaks, a group of chapters is conventionally called a part, often identified with a Roman numeral, e. g. Reference material may be divided into sections, the section headers of a Chinese dictionary are one example. Space between paragraphs in a break is sometimes accompanied by an asterism, a horizontal rule, fleurons. An ornamental symbol used as section break does not have an accepted name. Ornamental section breaks can be created using glyphs, rows of lozenges, dingbats, fonts such as Webdings and Wingdings include many such glyphs. In HTML, horizontal rules can be generated using the hr tag, for more ornate presentation, CSS can be used to replace the line with an image
