1.
Software developer
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A software developer is a person concerned with facets of the software development process, including the research, design, programming, and testing of computer software. Other job titles which are used with similar meanings are programmer, software analyst. According to developer Eric Sink, the differences between system design, software development, and programming are more apparent, even more so that developers become systems architects, those who design the multi-leveled architecture or component interactions of a large software system. In a large company, there may be employees whose sole responsibility consists of one of the phases above. In smaller development environments, a few people or even an individual might handle the complete process. The word software was coined as a prank as early as 1953, before this time, computers were programmed either by customers, or the few commercial computer vendors of the time, such as UNIVAC and IBM. The first company founded to provide products and services was Computer Usage Company in 1955. The software industry expanded in the early 1960s, almost immediately after computers were first sold in mass-produced quantities, universities, government, and business customers created a demand for software. Many of these programs were written in-house by full-time staff programmers, some were distributed freely between users of a particular machine for no charge. Others were done on a basis, and other firms such as Computer Sciences Corporation started to grow. The computer/hardware makers started bundling operating systems, systems software and programming environments with their machines, new software was built for microcomputers, so other manufacturers including IBM, followed DECs example quickly, resulting in the IBM AS/400 amongst others. The industry expanded greatly with the rise of the computer in the mid-1970s. In the following years, it created a growing market for games, applications. DOS, Microsofts first operating system product, was the dominant operating system at the time, by 2014 the role of cloud developer had been defined, in this context, one definition of a developer in general was published, Developers make software for the world to use. The job of a developer is to crank out code -- fresh code for new products, code fixes for maintenance, code for business logic, bus factor Software Developer description from the US Department of Labor
2.
Samsung
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Samsung Group is a South Korean multinational conglomerate headquartered in Samsung Town, Seoul. It comprises numerous affiliated businesses, most of them united under the Samsung brand, Samsung was founded by Lee Byung-chul in 1938 as a trading company. Over the next three decades, the group diversified into areas including food processing, textiles, insurance, securities, Samsung entered the electronics industry in the late 1960s and the construction and shipbuilding industries in the mid-1970s, these areas would drive its subsequent growth. Following Lees death in 1987, Samsung was separated into four business groups – Samsung Group, Shinsegae Group, CJ Group, since 1990, Samsung has increasingly globalised its activities and electronics, in particular, its mobile phones and semiconductors have become its most important source of income. Notable Samsung industrial affiliates include Samsung Electronics, Samsung Heavy Industries, other notable subsidiaries include Samsung Life Insurance, Samsung Everland and Cheil Worldwide. Samsung has an influence on South Koreas economic development, politics, media. Its affiliate companies produce around a fifth of South Koreas total exports, Samsungs revenue was equal to 17% of South Koreas $1,082 billion GDP. On 17 February 2017, Vice Chairman Lee Jae-yong was arrested for bribery, embezzlement, hiding assets overseas, according to Samsungs founder, the meaning of the Korean hanja word Samsung is tri-star or three stars. The word three represents something big, numerous and powerful, in 1938, Lee Byung-chull of a large landowning family in the Uiryeong county moved to nearby Daegu city and founded Samsung Sanghoe. Samsung started out as a trading company with forty employees located in Su-dong. It dealt in dried-fish, locally-grown groceries and made noodles, the company prospered and Lee moved its head office to Seoul in 1947. When the Korean War broke out, he was forced to leave Seoul and he started a sugar refinery in Busan named Cheil Jedang. In 1954, Lee founded Cheil Mojik and built the plant in Chimsan-dong and it was the largest woollen mill ever in the country. Samsung diversified into different areas. Lee sought to establish Samsung as leader in a range of industries. Samsung moved into lines of such as insurance, securities. President Park Chung Hee placed great importance on industrialization and he focused his economic development strategy on a handful of large domestic conglomerates, protecting them from competition and assisting them financially. In 1947, Cho Hong-jai, the Hyosung groups founder, jointly invested in a new company called Samsung Mulsan Gongsa, or the Samsung Trading Corporation, the trading firm grew to become the present-day Samsung C&T Corporation
3.
Programming language
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A programming language is a formal computer language designed to communicate instructions to a machine, particularly a computer. Programming languages can be used to programs to control the behavior of a machine or to express algorithms. From the early 1800s, programs were used to direct the behavior of such as Jacquard looms. Thousands of different programming languages have created, mainly in the computer field. Many programming languages require computation to be specified in an imperative form while other languages use forms of program specification such as the declarative form. The description of a language is usually split into the two components of syntax and semantics. Some languages are defined by a document while other languages have a dominant implementation that is treated as a reference. Some languages have both, with the language defined by a standard and extensions taken from the dominant implementation being common. A programming language is a notation for writing programs, which are specifications of a computation or algorithm, some, but not all, authors restrict the term programming language to those languages that can express all possible algorithms. For example, PostScript programs are created by another program to control a computer printer or display. More generally, a language may describe computation on some, possibly abstract. It is generally accepted that a specification for a programming language includes a description, possibly idealized. In most practical contexts, a programming language involves a computer, consequently, abstractions Programming languages usually contain abstractions for defining and manipulating data structures or controlling the flow of execution. Expressive power The theory of computation classifies languages by the computations they are capable of expressing, all Turing complete languages can implement the same set of algorithms. ANSI/ISO SQL-92 and Charity are examples of languages that are not Turing complete, markup languages like XML, HTML, or troff, which define structured data, are not usually considered programming languages. Programming languages may, however, share the syntax with markup languages if a computational semantics is defined, XSLT, for example, is a Turing complete XML dialect. Moreover, LaTeX, which is used for structuring documents. The term computer language is used interchangeably with programming language
4.
HTML5
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HTML5 is a markup language used for structuring and presenting content on the World Wide Web. It is the fifth and current version of the HTML standard, HTML5 is intended to subsume not only HTML4, but also XHTML1 and DOM Level 2 HTML. For the same reasons, HTML5 is also a candidate for cross-platform mobile applications, many new syntactic features are included. To enrich the content of documents, new page structure elements such as <main>, <section>, <article>, <header>, <footer>, <aside>, <nav>. New attributes are introduced, some elements and attributes have been removed, the APIs and Document Object Model are now fundamental parts of the HTML5 specification and HTML5 also better defines the processing for any invalid documents. The Web Hypertext Application Technology Working Group began work on the new standard in 2004, at that time, HTML4.01 had not been updated since 2000, and the World Wide Web Consortium was focusing future developments on XHTML2.0. In 2009, the W3C allowed the XHTML2.0 Working Groups charter to expire, W3C and WHATWG are currently working together on the development of HTML5.0. The workshop concluded with a vote—8 for,14 against—for continuing work on HTML, the two specifications were later merged to form HTML5. The HTML5 specification was adopted as the point of the work of the new HTML working group of the W3C in 2007. WHATWG published the First Public Working Draft of the specification on 22 January 2008, while some features of HTML5 are often compared to Adobe Flash, the two technologies are very different. Both include features for playing audio and video within web pages, however, HTML5 on its own cannot be used for animation or interactivity – it must be supplemented with CSS3 or JavaScript. There are many Flash capabilities that have no counterpart in HTML5. See Comparison of HTML5 and Flash, in early November 2011, Adobe announced that it would discontinue development of Flash for mobile devices and reorient its efforts in developing tools using HTML5. On 14 February 2011, the W3C extended the charter of its HTML Working Group with clear milestones for HTML5, in May 2011, the working group advanced HTML5 to Last Call, an invitation to communities inside and outside W3C to confirm the technical soundness of the specification. The W3C developed a comprehensive test suite to achieve broad interoperability for the specification by 2014. In January 2011, the WHATWG renamed its HTML5 living standard to HTML, the W3C nevertheless continued its project to release HTML5. In July 2012, WHATWG and W3C decided on a degree of separation, W3C will continue the HTML5 specification work, focusing on a single definitive standard, which is considered as a snapshot by WHATWG. The WHATWG organization will continue its work with HTML5 as a Living Standard, the concept of a living standard is that it is never complete and is always being updated and improved
5.
C (programming language)
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C was originally developed by Dennis Ritchie between 1969 and 1973 at Bell Labs, and used to re-implement the Unix operating system. C has been standardized by the American National Standards Institute since 1989, C is an imperative procedural language. Therefore, C was useful for applications that had formerly been coded in assembly language. Despite its low-level capabilities, the language was designed to encourage cross-platform programming, a standards-compliant and portably written C program can be compiled for a very wide variety of computer platforms and operating systems with few changes to its source code. The language has become available on a wide range of platforms. In C, all code is contained within subroutines, which are called functions. Function parameters are passed by value. Pass-by-reference is simulated in C by explicitly passing pointer values, C program source text is free-format, using the semicolon as a statement terminator and curly braces for grouping blocks of statements. The C language also exhibits the characteristics, There is a small, fixed number of keywords, including a full set of flow of control primitives, for, if/else, while, switch. User-defined names are not distinguished from keywords by any kind of sigil, There are a large number of arithmetical and logical operators, such as +, +=, ++, &, ~, etc. More than one assignment may be performed in a single statement, function return values can be ignored when not needed. Typing is static, but weakly enforced, all data has a type, C has no define keyword, instead, a statement beginning with the name of a type is taken as a declaration. There is no function keyword, instead, a function is indicated by the parentheses of an argument list, user-defined and compound types are possible. Heterogeneous aggregate data types allow related data elements to be accessed and assigned as a unit, array indexing is a secondary notation, defined in terms of pointer arithmetic. Unlike structs, arrays are not first-class objects, they cannot be assigned or compared using single built-in operators, There is no array keyword, in use or definition, instead, square brackets indicate arrays syntactically, for example month. Enumerated types are possible with the enum keyword and they are not tagged, and are freely interconvertible with integers. Strings are not a data type, but are conventionally implemented as null-terminated arrays of characters. Low-level access to memory is possible by converting machine addresses to typed pointers
6.
C++
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C++ is a general-purpose programming language. It has imperative, object-oriented and generic programming features, while also providing facilities for low-level memory manipulation and it was designed with a bias toward system programming and embedded, resource-constrained and large systems, with performance, efficiency and flexibility of use as its design highlights. C++ is a language, with implementations of it available on many platforms and provided by various organizations, including the Free Software Foundation, LLVM, Microsoft, Intel. C++ is standardized by the International Organization for Standardization, with the latest standard version ratified and published by ISO in December 2014 as ISO/IEC14882,2014. The C++ programming language was standardized in 1998 as ISO/IEC14882,1998. The current C++14 standard supersedes these and C++11, with new features, the C++17 standard is due in 2017, with the draft largely implemented by some compilers already, and C++20 is the next planned standard thereafter. Many other programming languages have influenced by C++, including C#, D, Java. In 1979, Bjarne Stroustrup, a Danish computer scientist, began work on C with Classes, the motivation for creating a new language originated from Stroustrups experience in programming for his Ph. D. thesis. When Stroustrup started working in AT&T Bell Labs, he had the problem of analyzing the UNIX kernel with respect to distributed computing, remembering his Ph. D. experience, Stroustrup set out to enhance the C language with Simula-like features. C was chosen because it was general-purpose, fast, portable, as well as C and Simulas influences, other languages also influenced C++, including ALGOL68, Ada, CLU and ML. Initially, Stroustrups C with Classes added features to the C compiler, Cpre, including classes, derived classes, strong typing, inlining, furthermore, it included the development of a standalone compiler for C++, Cfront. In 1985, the first edition of The C++ Programming Language was released, the first commercial implementation of C++ was released in October of the same year. In 1989, C++2.0 was released, followed by the second edition of The C++ Programming Language in 1991. New features in 2.0 included multiple inheritance, abstract classes, static functions, const member functions. In 1990, The Annotated C++ Reference Manual was published and this work became the basis for the future standard. Later feature additions included templates, exceptions, namespaces, new casts, after a minor C++14 update released in December 2014, various new additions are planned for 2017 and 2020. According to Stroustrup, the name signifies the nature of the changes from C. This name is credited to Rick Mascitti and was first used in December 1983, when Mascitti was questioned informally in 1992 about the naming, he indicated that it was given in a tongue-in-cheek spirit
7.
Linux
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Linux is a Unix-like computer operating system assembled under the model of free and open-source software development and distribution. The defining component of Linux is the Linux kernel, an operating system kernel first released on September 17,1991 by Linus Torvalds, the Free Software Foundation uses the name GNU/Linux to describe the operating system, which has led to some controversy. Linux was originally developed for computers based on the Intel x86 architecture. Because of the dominance of Android on smartphones, Linux has the largest installed base of all operating systems. Linux is also the operating system on servers and other big iron systems such as mainframe computers. It is used by around 2. 3% of desktop computers, the Chromebook, which runs on Chrome OS, dominates the US K–12 education market and represents nearly 20% of the sub-$300 notebook sales in the US. Linux also runs on embedded systems – devices whose operating system is built into the firmware and is highly tailored to the system. This includes TiVo and similar DVR devices, network routers, facility automation controls, televisions, many smartphones and tablet computers run Android and other Linux derivatives. The development of Linux is one of the most prominent examples of free, the underlying source code may be used, modified and distributed—commercially or non-commercially—by anyone under the terms of its respective licenses, such as the GNU General Public License. Typically, Linux is packaged in a known as a Linux distribution for both desktop and server use. Distributions intended to run on servers may omit all graphical environments from the standard install, because Linux is freely redistributable, anyone may create a distribution for any intended use. The Unix operating system was conceived and implemented in 1969 at AT&Ts Bell Laboratories in the United States by Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, Douglas McIlroy, first released in 1971, Unix was written entirely in assembly language, as was common practice at the time. Later, in a key pioneering approach in 1973, it was rewritten in the C programming language by Dennis Ritchie, the availability of a high-level language implementation of Unix made its porting to different computer platforms easier. Due to an earlier antitrust case forbidding it from entering the computer business, as a result, Unix grew quickly and became widely adopted by academic institutions and businesses. In 1984, AT&T divested itself of Bell Labs, freed of the legal obligation requiring free licensing, the GNU Project, started in 1983 by Richard Stallman, has the goal of creating a complete Unix-compatible software system composed entirely of free software. Later, in 1985, Stallman started the Free Software Foundation, by the early 1990s, many of the programs required in an operating system were completed, although low-level elements such as device drivers, daemons, and the kernel were stalled and incomplete. Linus Torvalds has stated that if the GNU kernel had been available at the time, although not released until 1992 due to legal complications, development of 386BSD, from which NetBSD, OpenBSD and FreeBSD descended, predated that of Linux. Torvalds has also stated that if 386BSD had been available at the time, although the complete source code of MINIX was freely available, the licensing terms prevented it from being free software until the licensing changed in April 2000
8.
Open-source model
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Open-source software may be developed in a collaborative public manner. According to scientists who studied it, open-source software is a prominent example of open collaboration, a 2008 report by the Standish Group states that adoption of open-source software models has resulted in savings of about $60 billion per year to consumers. In the early days of computing, programmers and developers shared software in order to learn from each other, eventually the open source notion moved to the way side of commercialization of software in the years 1970-1980. In 1997, Eric Raymond published The Cathedral and the Bazaar and this source code subsequently became the basis behind SeaMonkey, Mozilla Firefox, Thunderbird and KompoZer. Netscapes act prompted Raymond and others to look into how to bring the Free Software Foundations free software ideas, the new term they chose was open source, which was soon adopted by Bruce Perens, publisher Tim OReilly, Linus Torvalds, and others. The Open Source Initiative was founded in February 1998 to encourage use of the new term, a Microsoft executive publicly stated in 2001 that open source is an intellectual property destroyer. I cant imagine something that could be worse than this for the software business, IBM, Oracle, Google and State Farm are just a few of the companies with a serious public stake in todays competitive open-source market. There has been a significant shift in the corporate philosophy concerning the development of FOSS, the free software movement was launched in 1983. In 1998, a group of individuals advocated that the free software should be replaced by open-source software as an expression which is less ambiguous. Software developers may want to publish their software with an open-source license, the Open Source Definition, notably, presents an open-source philosophy, and further defines the terms of usage, modification and redistribution of open-source software. Software licenses grant rights to users which would otherwise be reserved by law to the copyright holder. Several open-source software licenses have qualified within the boundaries of the Open Source Definition, the open source label came out of a strategy session held on April 7,1998 in Palo Alto in reaction to Netscapes January 1998 announcement of a source code release for Navigator. They used the opportunity before the release of Navigators source code to clarify a potential confusion caused by the ambiguity of the free in English. Many people claimed that the birth of the Internet, since 1969, started the open source movement, the Free Software Foundation, started in 1985, intended the word free to mean freedom to distribute and not freedom from cost. Since a great deal of free software already was free of charge, such software became associated with zero cost. The Open Source Initiative was formed in February 1998 by Eric Raymond and they sought to bring a higher profile to the practical benefits of freely available source code, and they wanted to bring major software businesses and other high-tech industries into open source. Perens attempted to open source as a service mark for the OSI. The Open Source Initiatives definition is recognized by governments internationally as the standard or de facto definition, OSI uses The Open Source Definition to determine whether it considers a software license open source
9.
Software release life cycle
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Usage of the alpha/beta test terminology originated at IBM. As long ago as the 1950s, IBM used similar terminology for their hardware development, a test was the verification of a new product before public announcement. B test was the verification before releasing the product to be manufactured, C test was the final test before general availability of the product. Martin Belsky, a manager on some of IBMs earlier software projects claimed to have invented the terminology, IBM dropped the alpha/beta terminology during the 1960s, but by then it had received fairly wide notice. The usage of beta test to refer to testing done by customers was not done in IBM, rather, IBM used the term field test. Pre-alpha refers to all activities performed during the project before formal testing. These activities can include requirements analysis, software design, software development, in typical open source development, there are several types of pre-alpha versions. Milestone versions include specific sets of functions and are released as soon as the functionality is complete, the alpha phase of the release life cycle is the first phase to begin software testing. In this phase, developers generally test the software using white-box techniques, additional validation is then performed using black-box or gray-box techniques, by another testing team. Moving to black-box testing inside the organization is known as alpha release, alpha software can be unstable and could cause crashes or data loss. Alpha software may not contain all of the features that are planned for the final version, in general, external availability of alpha software is uncommon in proprietary software, while open source software often has publicly available alpha versions. The alpha phase usually ends with a freeze, indicating that no more features will be added to the software. At this time, the software is said to be feature complete, Beta, named after the second letter of the Greek alphabet, is the software development phase following alpha. Software in the stage is also known as betaware. Beta phase generally begins when the software is complete but likely to contain a number of known or unknown bugs. Software in the phase will generally have many more bugs in it than completed software, as well as speed/performance issues. The focus of beta testing is reducing impacts to users, often incorporating usability testing, the process of delivering a beta version to the users is called beta release and this is typically the first time that the software is available outside of the organization that developed it. Beta version software is useful for demonstrations and previews within an organization
10.
Tablet computer
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Tablets often come equipped with sensors, including digital cameras, a microphone, and an accelerometer so images on screens are always displayed upright. The touchscreen display uses the recognition of finger or stylus gestures to replace the mouse, trackpad, tablets are typically larger than smartphones or personal digital assistants with screens 7 inches or larger, measured diagonally. However much of a tablets functionality resembles that of a modern smartphone, tablets can be classified according to the presence and physical appearance of keyboards. Slates and booklets do not have a keyboard, and usually accept text. Hybrids, convertibles, and 2-in-1s do have physical keyboards, yet they also make use of virtual keyboards. Some 2-in-1s have processors and operating systems like a full laptop, most tablets can use separate keyboards connected using Bluetooth. The format was conceptualized in the century and prototyped and developed in the last two decades of that century. In April 2010, Apple released the iPad, the first mass-market tablet to achieve widespread popularity, thereafter in the 2010s, tablets rapidly rose in ubiquity and became a large product category used for both personal and workplace applications. The tablet computer and its operating system began with the development of pen computing. Throughout the 20th century devices with these characteristics have been imagined and created whether as blueprints, prototypes, a device more powerful than todays tablets appeared briefly in Jerry Pournelle and Larry Nivens The Mote in Gods Eye. Adults could also use a Dynabook, but the audience was children. In 1992, Atari showed developers the Stylus, later renamed ST-Pad, the ST-Pad was based on the TOS/GEM Atari ST Platform and prototyped early handwriting recognition. Shiraz Shivjis company Momentus demonstrated in the time a failed x86 MS-DOS based Pen Computer with its own GUI. In 1994, the European Union initiated the NewsPad project, inspired by Clarke, Acorn Computers developed and delivered an ARM-based touch screen tablet computer for this program, branding it the NewsPad, the project ended in 1997. During the November 2000 COMDEX, Microsoft used the term Tablet PC to describe a prototype handheld device they were demonstrating, all three products were based on extended versions of the MS-DOS operating system. In 1992, IBM announced and shipped to developers the 2521 ThinkPad, also based on PenPoint was AT&Ts EO Personal Communicator from 1993, which ran on AT&Ts own hardware, including their own AT&T Hobbit CPU. Apple Computer launched the Apple Newton personal digital assistant in 1993 and it utilised Apples own new Newton OS, initially running on hardware manufactured by Motorola and incorporating an ARM CPU, that Apple had specifically co-developed with Acorn Computers. The operating system and platform design were later licensed to Sharp and Digital Ocean, in 1996, Palm, Inc. released the first of the Palm OS based PalmPilot touch and stylus based PDA, the touch based devices initially incorporating a Motorola Dragonball CPU
11.
Smartphone
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A smartphone is a mobile phone with an advanced mobile operating system that combines features of a personal computer operating system with other features useful for mobile or handheld use. Smartphones can access the Internet and can run a variety of third-party software components and they typically have a color display with a graphical user interface that covers more than 76% of the front surface. In 1999, the Japanese firm NTT DoCoMo released the first smartphones to achieve mass adoption within a country, smartphones became widespread in the late 2000s. Most of those produced from 2012 onward have high-speed mobile broadband 4G LTE, motion sensors, in the third quarter of 2012, one billion smartphones were in use worldwide. Global smartphone sales surpassed the sales figures for regular cell phones in early 2013, devices that combined telephony and computing were first conceptualized by Nikola Tesla in 1909 and Theodore Paraskevakos in 1971 and patented in 1974, and were offered for sale beginning in 1993. Paraskevakos was the first to introduce the concepts of intelligence, data processing and they were installed at Peoples Telephone Company in Leesburg, Alabama and were demonstrated to several telephone companies. The original and historic working models are still in the possession of Paraskevakos, the first mobile phone to incorporate PDA features was a prototype developed by Frank Canova in 1992 while at IBM and demonstrated that year at the COMDEX computer industry trade show. It included PDA features and other mobile applications such as maps, stock reports. A refined version was marketed to consumers in 1994 by BellSouth under the name Simon Personal Communicator, the Simon was the first commercially available device that could be properly referred to as a smartphone, although it was not called that in 1994. The term smart phone appeared in print as early as 1995, in the mid-late 1990s, many mobile phone users carried a separate dedicated PDA device, running early versions of operating systems such as Palm OS, BlackBerry OS or Windows CE/Pocket PC. These operating systems would later evolve into mobile operating systems, in March 1996, Hewlett-Packard released the OmniGo 700LX, a modified HP 200LX palmtop PC that supported a Nokia 2110 phone with ROM-based software to support it. It had a 640×200 resolution CGA compatible four-shade gray-scale LCD screen and could be used to place and receive calls and it was also 100% DOS5.0 compatible, allowing it to run thousands of existing software titles, including early versions of Windows. In August 1996, Nokia released the Nokia 9000 Communicator, a cellular phone based on the Nokia 2110 with an integrated PDA based on the PEN/GEOS3.0 operating system from Geoworks. The two components were attached by a hinge in what known as a clamshell design, with the display above. The PDA provided e-mail, calendar, address book, calculator and notebook applications, text-based Web browsing, when closed, the device could be used as a digital cellular phone. In June 1999 Qualcomm released the pdQ Smartphone, a CDMA digital PCS Smartphone with an integrated Palm PDA, subsequent landmark devices included, The Ericsson R380 by Ericsson Mobile Communications. The first device marketed as a smartphone, it combined the functions of a phone and PDA. The Kyocera 6035 introduced by Palm, Inc, combining a PDA with a mobile phone, it operated on the Verizon network, and supported limited Web browsing
12.
In-car entertainment
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In-car entertainment, or in-vehicle infotainment, is a collection of hardware and software in automobiles that provides audio or video entertainment. Once controlled by simple dashboards knobs and dials, ICE systems can include steering wheel audio controls, driven by the demand for more connected vehicles, in-car entertainment is getting more and more sophisticated. With the mass adoption of smartphones worldwide, a new issue has emerged and this raises safety concerns related to distracted driving and also pushes the automotive industry to integrate those devices in a safely manner. Traditional car makers increasingly rely on the software and electronics expertise of auto suppliers, policies regarding in-car entertainment systems are less developed than cell phone usage laws regarding similar distractions in cars. In the United States,10 states, D. C, guam, and the Virgin Islands prohibit all drivers from using handheld cell phones while driving. Guam, and the Virgin Islands ban text messaging for all drivers, however, few states have developed laws to limit the content that drivers can view on in-car entertainment systems. Since 2016, its illegal in all 50 states of the U. S. to a use rear seat entertainment system in new pickup trucks with the 2016 model year or newer, still, researchers are beginning to analyze the potential impact of distracted drivers on the roads. Charlie Klauer, a researcher at the Virginia Tech Transportation Institute, furthermore, the risk of crashing rises exponentially the longer a driver has taken their eyes off the road. Automotive companies like Ford and Audi contend that they have tested and revised their latest systems in order to reduce the amount of time that drivers spend looking away from the road. As car infotainment systems can access more and more functions of the vehicle, GENIVI Alliance List of car audio manufacturers and brands
13.
Smart TV
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A smart TV, sometimes referred to as connected TV or hybrid TV, is a television set with integrated Internet and interactive Web 2.0 features. Smart TV is a convergence between computers and flatscreen television sets and set-top boxes. Smart TV should not be confused with Internet TV, IPTV or with Web TV, Internet TV refers to receiving television content over the Internet instead of traditional systems. Internet Protocol television is one of the Internet television technology standards for use by television broadcasters, Web television is a term used for programs created by a wide variety of companies and individuals for broadcast on Internet TV. In smart TVs, the system is preloaded or is available through the set-top box. These devices allow viewers to search, find and play videos, movies, TV shows, photos and other content from the Web, on a cable TV channel, on a satellite TV channel, or on a local storage drive. A first patent was published in 1994 for an intelligent television system, linked with data processing systems, apart from being linked to data networks, one key point is its ability to automatically download necessary software routines, according to a users demand, and process their needs. The mass acceptance of digital television in late 2000s and early 2010s greatly improved smart TVs, major TV manufacturers have announced production of smart TVs only, for their middle-end to high-end TVs in 2015. Smart TVs are expected to become the dominant form of television by the late 2010s, at the beginning of 2016, Nielsen reported that 29 percent of those with incomes over $75,000 a year had a smart TV. Smart TVs run complete operating system or mobile operating system providing a platform for application developers. Smart TV enables access to movies, shows, video games, apps, some of those apps include Netflix, Spotify, YouTube, and Amazon. Smart TV devices also provide access to user-generated content and to services and Internet applications, such as YouTube. Smart TV devices facilitate the curation of traditional content by combining information from the Internet with content from TV Providers, services offer users a means to track and receive reminders about shows or sporting events, as well as the ability to change channels for immediate viewing. Smart TV develops new features to satisfy consumers and companies, such as new payment processes, LG and PaymentWall have collaborated to allow consumers to access purchased apps, movies, games, and more using a remote control, laptop, tablet, or smartphone. This is intended for an easier and more convenient way for checkout, Smart TV technology and software is still evolving, with both proprietary and open source software frameworks already available. These can run applications, interactive media, personalized communications. There are many Smart TV platforms used for individual purposes, Smart TV owners desire the most successful platform possible for their Smart TV. For this reason, platforms are ranked from best to worst, HbbTV, provided by the Hybrid Broadcast Broadband TV association, CE-HTML, part of Web4CE, OIPF, part of HbbTV, and Tru2way are framework platforms managed by technology businesses
14.
Wearable computer
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Wearable computers, also known as body-borne computers or wearables are miniature electronic devices that are worn under, with or on top of clothing. This class of technology has been developed for general or special purpose information technologies. It is also used in media development, Wearable computers are especially useful for applications that require more complex computational support, such as accelerometers or gyroscopes, than just hardware coded logic. Wearable computing devices are variously defined, for example, consumers often refer to wearable computers as computers that can be easily carried on the body, or systems with a heads-up display or speech activated. This contrasts with academics that define wearables as a system that can perform a set of functions without being constrained by the hardware of the system. Merchandiser often use the broadest definition, as any computing device worn on the body and this article page will use the broadest definition. Smartwatches and the Fitbit system are the most common form, worn on the wrist, Google Glass is an optical head-mounted display supplying a augmented reality perspective, controlled by novel gestural movements. One common feature of wearable computers is their persistence of activity, there is constant interaction between the wearable and user, so there is no need to turn the device on or off. Another feature is the ability to multi-task, when using a wearable computer, there is no need to stop what one is doing to use the device, its functionality blends seamlessly into all other user actions. These devices can be used by the wearer to act as a prosthetic and it may therefore be an extension of the users mind or body. Many issues are common to wearables as with mobile computing, ambient intelligence, in many applications, the users body is actively engaged as the devices interface. This usually includes, the skin, hands, voice, eyes, Wearables are also receptive to any motion or attention. Wearable computer items have been developed and applied in the following, sensory integration, the use of wearables for specific applications, for compensating disabilities or supporting elderly people steadily increases. The application of computers in fashion design is evident through Microsofts prototype of The Printing Dress at the International Symposium on Wearable Computers in June 2011. However, a computer is not merely a time-keeping or calculating device, but rather a user-programmable item for complex algorithms, interfacing, Queen Elizabeth I of England received the wristwatch from Robert Dudley in 1571, as a new years present. The Qing Dynasty saw the introduction of a fully functional abacus on a ring, the first wearable timepiece was made by watchmaker Breguet for the Queen of Naples in 1810. It was a small pocket watch on a bracelet chain. A wristwatch is a computer in the sense that it can be worn
15.
Home automation
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Home automation or smart home is building automation for the home. It involves the control and automation of lighting, heating, ventilation, air conditioning, wi-Fi is often used for remote monitoring and control. Home devices, when remotely monitored and controlled via the Internet, are an important constituent of the Internet of Things, while there are many competing vendors, there are very few world-wide accepted industry standards and the smart home space is heavily fragmented. Popular communications protocol for products include X10, Ethernet, RS-485, 6LoWPAN, Bluetooth LE, ZigBee and Z-Wave, manufacturers often prevent independent implementations by withholding documentation and by litigation. The home automation market was worth US$5.77 billion in 2015, early home automation began with labor-saving machines. In 1975, the first general purpose home automation network technology and it is a communication protocol for electronic devices. It primarily uses electric power transmission wiring for signalling and control, where the signals involve brief radio frequency bursts of digital data, by 1978, X10 products included a 16 channel command console, a lamp module, and an appliance module. Soon after came the wall switch module and the first X10 timer, by 2012, in the United States, according to ABI Research,1.5 million home automation systems were installed. The word domotics is a contraction of the Latin word for a home, heating, ventilation and air conditioning, it is possible to have remote control of all home energy monitors over the internet incorporating a simple and friendly user interface. Technology is still in its infancy, and consumers could invest in a system that becomes abandonware. In 2014, Google bought the company selling the Revolv Hub home automation system, integrated it with Nest and in 2016 shut down the servers Revolv Hub depended on, rendering the hardware useless. Microsoft Research found in 2011, that home automation could involve high cost of ownership, inflexibility of interconnected devices, however, there are now open source software systems which can be used with proprietary hardware. There are a variety of technology platforms, or protocols. Each one is, essentially, its own language, each language speaks to the various connected devices and instructs them to perform a function. The automation protocol transport has involved direct wire connectivity, powerline and wireless hybrid, most of the protocols below are not open. Customers may be hesitant to bet their IoT future on proprietary software or hardware devices that use proprietary protocols that may fade or become difficult to customize and interconnect. The nature of home automation devices can also be a problem for security, since patches to bugs found in the operating system often do not reach users of older. One set of researchers say that the failure of vendors to support devices with patches and updates leaves more than 87% of active devices vulnerable
16.
Package manager
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A package manager deals with packages, distributions of software and data in archive files. Packages contain metadata, such as the name, description of its purpose, version number, vendor, checksum. Upon installation, metadata is stored in a package database. Package managers typically maintain a database of software dependencies and version information to prevent software mismatches and they work closely with software repositories, binary repository managers, and app stores. Package managers are designed to eliminate the need for manual installs, a software package is an archive file containing a computer program as well as necessary metadata for its deployment. The computer program can be in source code that has to be compiled, Package metadata include package description, package version, and dependencies. Package managers are charged with the task of finding, installing, maintaining or uninstalling software packages upon the users command, in these systems, complex relationships between different packages requiring different versions of libraries results in a challenge colloquially known as dependency hell. On Microsoft Windows systems, this is also called DLL hell when working with dynamically linked libraries, good package management is vital on these systems. System administrators may install and maintain software using other than package management software. For example, an administrator may download unpackaged source code, compile it. This may cause the state of the system to fall out of synchronization with the state of the package managers database. The local administrator will be required to take measures, such as manually managing some dependencies or integrating the changes into the package manager. There are tools available to ensure that locally compiled packages are integrated with the package management, particularly troublesome with software upgrades are upgrades of configuration files. There are exceptions to this that usually apply to kernel configuration, problems can be caused if the format of configuration files changes. For instance, if the old configuration file does not explicitly disable new options that should be disabled, some package managers, such as Debians dpkg, allow configuration during installation. In other situations, it is desirable to install packages with the configuration and then overwrite this configuration, for instance. This kind of pre-configured installation is also supported by dpkg, to give users more control over the kinds of software that they are allowing to be installed on their system, software is often downloaded from a number of software repositories. This process is called version pinning
17.
Rpm (software)
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RPM Package Manager is a package management system. The name RPM refers to the following, the. rpm file format, files in the. rpm file format, software packaged in such files, RPM was intended primarily for Linux distributions, the file format is the baseline package format of the Linux Standard Base. Even though it was created for use in Red Hat Linux and it has also been ported to some other operating systems, such as Novell NetWare and IBMs AIX. An RPM package can contain a set of files. The larger part of RPM files encountered are “binary RPMs” containing the version of some software. There are also “source RPMs” files containing the code used to produce a package. These have a tag in the file header that distinguishes them from normal RPMs. SRPMs customarily carry the file extension “. src. rpm”, RPM was originally written in 1997 by Erik Troan and Marc Ewing, based on pms, rpp, and pm experiences. Pm preserves the Pristine Sources + patches paradigm of pms, while adding features, packages may come from within a particular distribution or be built for it by other parties. Circular dependencies among mutually dependent RPMs can be problematic, in such cases a single installation command needs to specify all the relevant packages, RPMs are often collected centrally in one or more repositories on the internet. A site often has its own RPM repositories which may act as local mirrors of such internet repositories or be locally maintained collections of useful RPMs. Several front-ends to RPM ease the process of obtaining and installing RPMs from repositories and help in resolving their dependencies. These include, yum used in Fedora, CentOS5, Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5 and above, Scientific Linux, Yellow Dog Linux and Oracle Linux DNF, introduced in Fedora 18, default since 22. Rpmquery, a command-line utility available in Red Hat Enterprise Linux Working behind the scenes of the manager is the RPM database. It uses Berkeley DB as its back-end and it consists of a single database containing all of the meta information of the installed rpms. Multiple databases are created for indexing purposes, replicating data to speed up queries, the database is used to keep track of all files that are changed and created when a user installs a package, thus enabling the user to reverse the changes and remove the package later. If the database gets corrupted, the databases can be recreated with the rpm --rebuilddb command. Whilst the RPM format is the same across different Linux distributions, part is specified as src as in, libgnomeuimm-2. 0-2.0. 0-3. src. rpm RPMs with the noarch. rpm extension refer to packages which do not depend on a certain computers architecture
18.
ARM architecture
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ARM, originally Acorn RISC Machine, later Advanced RISC Machine, is a family of reduced instruction set computing architectures for computer processors, configured for various environments. It also designs cores that implement this instruction set and licenses these designs to a number of companies that incorporate those core designs into their own products, a RISC-based computer design approach means processors require fewer transistors than typical complex instruction set computing x86 processors in most personal computers. This approach reduces costs, heat and power use and these characteristics are desirable for light, portable, battery-powered devices—including smartphones, laptops and tablet computers, and other embedded systems. For supercomputers, which large amounts of electricity, ARM could also be a power-efficient solution. ARM Holdings periodically releases updates to architectures and core designs, some older cores can also provide hardware execution of Java bytecodes. The ARMv8-A architecture, announced in October 2011, adds support for a 64-bit address space, with over 100 billion ARM processors produced as of 2017, ARM is the most widely used instruction set architecture in terms of quantity produced. Currently, the widely used Cortex cores, older classic cores, the British computer manufacturer Acorn Computers first developed the Acorn RISC Machine architecture in the 1980s to use in its personal computers. Its first ARM-based products were coprocessor modules for the BBC Micro series of computers, according to Sophie Wilson, all the tested processors at that time performed about the same, with about a 4 Mbit/second bandwidth. After testing all available processors and finding them lacking, Acorn decided it needed a new architecture, inspired by white papers on the Berkeley RISC project, Acorn considered designing its own processor. Wilson developed the set, writing a simulation of the processor in BBC BASIC that ran on a BBC Micro with a 6502 second processor. This convinced Acorn engineers they were on the right track, Wilson approached Acorns CEO, Hermann Hauser, and requested more resources. Hauser gave his approval and assembled a team to implement Wilsons model in hardware. The official Acorn RISC Machine project started in October 1983 and they chose VLSI Technology as the silicon partner, as they were a source of ROMs and custom chips for Acorn. Wilson and Furber led the design and they implemented it with a similar efficiency ethos as the 6502. A key design goal was achieving low-latency input/output handling like the 6502, the 6502s memory access architecture had let developers produce fast machines without costly direct memory access hardware. The first samples of ARM silicon worked properly when first received and tested on 26 April 1985, Wilson subsequently rewrote BBC BASIC in ARM assembly language. The in-depth knowledge gained from designing the instruction set enabled the code to be very dense, the original aim of a principally ARM-based computer was achieved in 1987 with the release of the Acorn Archimedes. In 1992, Acorn once more won the Queens Award for Technology for the ARM, the ARM2 featured a 32-bit data bus, 26-bit address space and 27 32-bit registers
19.
X86
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X86 is a family of backward-compatible instruction set architectures based on the Intel 8086 CPU and its Intel 8088 variant. The term x86 came into being because the names of several successors to Intels 8086 processor end in 86, many additions and extensions have been added to the x86 instruction set over the years, almost consistently with full backward compatibility. The architecture has been implemented in processors from Intel, Cyrix, AMD, VIA and many companies, there are also open implementations. In the 1980s and early 1990s, when the 8088 and 80286 were still in common use, today, however, x86 usually implies a binary compatibility also with the 32-bit instruction set of the 80386. An 8086 system, including such as 8087 and 8089. There were also terms iRMX, iSBC, and iSBX – all together under the heading Microsystem 80, however, this naming scheme was quite temporary, lasting for a few years during the early 1980s. Today, x86 is ubiquitous in both stationary and portable computers, and is also used in midrange computers, workstations, servers. A large amount of software, including operating systems such as DOS, Windows, Linux, BSD, Solaris and macOS, functions with x86-based hardware. There have been attempts, including by Intel itself, to end the market dominance of the inelegant x86 architecture designed directly from the first simple 8-bit microprocessors. Examples of this are the iAPX432, the Intel 960, Intel 860, however, the continuous refinement of x86 microarchitectures, circuitry and semiconductor manufacturing would make it hard to replace x86 in many segments. The table below lists processor models and model series implementing variations of the x86 instruction set, each line item is characterized by significantly improved or commercially successful processor microarchitecture designs. Such x86 implementations are seldom simple copies but often employ different internal microarchitectures as well as different solutions at the electronic, quite naturally, early compatible microprocessors were 16-bit, while 32-bit designs were developed much later. For the personal computer market, real quantities started to appear around 1990 with i386 and i486 compatible processors, other companies, which designed or manufactured x86 or x87 processors, include ITT Corporation, National Semiconductor, ULSI System Technology, and Weitek. Some early versions of these microprocessors had heat dissipation problems, AMD later managed to establish itself as a serious contender with the K6 set of processors, which gave way to the very successful Athlon and Opteron. There were also other contenders, such as Centaur Technology, Rise Technology, VIA Technologies energy efficient C3 and C7 processors, which were designed by the Centaur company, have been sold for many years. Centaurs newest design, the VIA Nano, is their first processor with superscalar and it was, perhaps interestingly, introduced at about the same time as Intels first in-order processor since the P5 Pentium, the Intel Atom. The instruction set architecture has twice been extended to a word size. In 1999-2003, AMD extended this 32-bit architecture to 64 bits and referred to it as x86-64 in early documents, Intel soon adopted AMDs architectural extensions under the name IA-32e, later using the name EM64T and finally using Intel 64
20.
X86-64
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X86-64 is the 64-bit version of the x86 instruction set. It supports vastly larger amounts of memory and physical memory than is possible on its 32-bit predecessors. X86-64 also provides 64-bit general-purpose registers and numerous other enhancements and it is fully backward compatible with 16-bit and 32-bit x86 code. The original specification, created by AMD and released in 2000, has been implemented by AMD, Intel, the AMD K8 processor was the first to implement the architecture, this was the first significant addition to the x86 architecture designed by a company other than Intel. Intel was forced to suit and introduced a modified NetBurst family which was fully software-compatible with AMDs design. VIA Technologies introduced x86-64 in their VIA Isaiah architecture, with the VIA Nano, the x86-64 specification is distinct from the Intel Itanium architecture, which is not compatible on the native instruction set level with the x86 architecture. AMD64 was created as an alternative to the radically different IA-64 architecture, the first AMD64-based processor, the Opteron, was released in April 2003. AMDs processors implementing the AMD64 architecture include Opteron, Athlon 64, Athlon 64 X2, Athlon 64 FX, Athlon II, Turion 64, Turion 64 X2, Sempron, Phenom, Phenom II, FX, Fusion and Ryzen. The primary defining characteristic of AMD64 is the availability of 64-bit general-purpose processor registers, 64-bit integer arithmetic and logical operations, the designers took the opportunity to make other improvements as well. Some of the most significant changes are described below, pushes and pops on the stack default to 8-byte strides, and pointers are 8 bytes wide. Additional registers In addition to increasing the size of the general-purpose registers, AMD64 still has fewer registers than many common RISC instruction sets or VLIW-like machines such as the IA-64. However, an AMD64 implementation may have far more internal registers than the number of architectural registers exposed by the instruction set, additional XMM registers Similarly, the number of 128-bit XMM registers is also increased from 8 to 16. Larger virtual address space The AMD64 architecture defines a 64-bit virtual address format and this allows up to 256 TB of virtual address space. The architecture definition allows this limit to be raised in future implementations to the full 64 bits and this is compared to just 4 GB for the x86. This means that very large files can be operated on by mapping the entire file into the address space, rather than having to map regions of the file into. Larger physical address space The original implementation of the AMD64 architecture implemented 40-bit physical addresses, current implementations of the AMD64 architecture extend this to 48-bit physical addresses and therefore can address up to 256 TB of RAM. The architecture permits extending this to 52 bits in the future, for comparison, 32-bit x86 processors are limited to 64 GB of RAM in Physical Address Extension mode, or 4 GB of RAM without PAE mode. Any implementation therefore allows the physical address limit as under long mode
21.
Kernel (operating system)
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The kernel is a computer program that is the core of a computers operating system, with complete control over everything in the system. It is the first program loaded on start-up and it handles the rest of start-up as well as input/output requests from software, translating them into data-processing instructions for the central processing unit. It handles memory and peripherals like keyboards, monitors, printers, the critical code of the kernel is usually loaded into a protected area of memory, which prevents it from being overwritten by applications or other, more minor parts of the operating system. The kernel performs its tasks, such as running processes and handling interrupts, in contrast, everything a user does is in user space, writing text in a text editor, running programs in a GUI, etc. This separation prevents user data and kernel data from interfering with other and causing instability. The kernels interface is an abstraction layer. When a process makes requests of the kernel, it is called a system call, Kernel designs differ in how they manage these system calls and resources. A monolithic kernel runs all the operating instructions in the same address space. A microkernel runs most processes in space, for modularity. The kernel takes responsibility for deciding at any time which of the running programs should be allocated to the processor or processors. Random-access memory Random-access memory is used to both program instructions and data. Typically, both need to be present in memory in order for a program to execute, often multiple programs will want access to memory, frequently demanding more memory than the computer has available. The kernel is responsible for deciding which memory each process can use, input/output devices I/O devices include such peripherals as keyboards, mice, disk drives, printers, network adapters, and display devices. The kernel allocates requests from applications to perform I/O to an appropriate device, key aspects necessary in resource management are the definition of an execution domain and the protection mechanism used to mediate the accesses to the resources within a domain. Kernels also usually provide methods for synchronization and communication between processes called inter-process communication, finally, a kernel must provide running programs with a method to make requests to access these facilities. The kernel has full access to the memory and must allow processes to safely access this memory as they require it. Often the first step in doing this is virtual addressing, usually achieved by paging and/or segmentation, virtual addressing allows the kernel to make a given physical address appear to be another address, the virtual address. This allows every program to behave as if it is the one running
22.
Monolithic kernel
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A monolithic kernel is an operating system architecture where the entire operating system is working in kernel space and is alone in supervisor mode. The monolithic model differs from other operating system architectures in that it defines a high-level virtual interface over computer hardware. A set of primitives or system calls implement all operating system such as process management, concurrency. Device drivers can be added to the kernel as modules and this modularity of the operating system is at the binary level and not at the architecture level. Modular monolithic operating systems are not to be confused with the level of modularity inherent in Server-Client operating systems which use microkernels. Practically speaking, dynamically loading modules is simply a more flexible way of handling the operating system image at runtime — as opposed to rebooting with a different operating system image, the modules allow easy extension of the operating systems capabilities as required. Dynamically loadable modules incur a small overhead when compared to building the module into the system image. Namely, an unloaded module need not be stored in random access memory
23.
User interface
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The user interface, in the industrial design field of human–computer interaction, is the space where interactions between humans and machines occur. Examples of this concept of user interfaces include the interactive aspects of computer operating systems, hand tools, heavy machinery operator controls. The design considerations applicable when creating user interfaces are related to or involve such disciplines as ergonomics and psychology. Generally, the goal of user interface design is to produce a user interface makes it easy, efficient. This generally means that the needs to provide minimal input to achieve the desired output. Other terms for user interface are man–machine interface and when the machine in question is a computer human–computer interface, the user interface or human–machine interface is the part of the machine that handles the human–machine interaction. Membrane switches, rubber keypads and touchscreens are examples of the part of the Human Machine Interface which we can see. In complex systems, the interface is typically computerized. The term human–computer interface refers to this kind of system, in the context of computing the term typically extends as well to the software dedicated to control the physical elements used for human-computer interaction. The engineering of the interfaces is enhanced by considering ergonomics. The corresponding disciplines are human factors engineering and usability engineering, which is part of systems engineering, tools used for incorporating human factors in the interface design are developed based on knowledge of computer science, such as computer graphics, operating systems, programming languages. Nowadays, we use the graphical user interface for human–machine interface on computers. There is a difference between a user interface and an interface or a human–machine interface. A human-machine interface is typically local to one machine or piece of equipment, an operator interface is the interface method by which multiple equipment that are linked by a host control system is accessed or controlled. The system may expose several user interfaces to serve different kinds of users, for example, a computerized library database might provide two user interfaces, one for library patrons and the other for library personnel. The user interface of a system, a vehicle or an industrial installation is sometimes referred to as the human–machine interface. HMI is a modification of the original term MMI, in practice, the abbreviation MMI is still frequently used although some may claim that MMI stands for something different now. Another abbreviation is HCI, but is commonly used for human–computer interaction
24.
Graphical user interface
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GUIs were introduced in reaction to the perceived steep learning curve of command-line interfaces, which require commands to be typed on a computer keyboard. The actions in a GUI are usually performed through direct manipulation of the graphical elements, beyond computers, GUIs are used in many handheld mobile devices such as MP3 players, portable media players, gaming devices, smartphones and smaller household, office and industrial controls. Designing the visual composition and temporal behavior of a GUI is an important part of application programming in the area of human–computer interaction. Its goal is to enhance the efficiency and ease of use for the logical design of a stored program. Methods of user-centered design are used to ensure that the language introduced in the design is well-tailored to the tasks. The visible graphical interface features of an application are sometimes referred to as chrome or GUI, typically, users interact with information by manipulating visual widgets that allow for interactions appropriate to the kind of data they hold. The widgets of an interface are selected to support the actions necessary to achieve the goals of users. A model–view–controller allows a structure in which the interface is independent from and indirectly linked to application functions. This allows users to select or design a different skin at will, good user interface design relates to users more, and to system architecture less. Large widgets, such as windows, usually provide a frame or container for the main presentation content such as a web page, smaller ones usually act as a user-input tool. A GUI may be designed for the requirements of a market as application-specific graphical user interfaces. By the 1990s, cell phones and handheld game systems also employed application specific touchscreen GUIs, newer automobiles use GUIs in their navigation systems and multimedia centers, or navigation multimedia center combinations. Sample graphical desktop environments A GUI uses a combination of technologies and devices to provide a platform that users can interact with, a series of elements conforming a visual language have evolved to represent information stored in computers. This makes it easier for people with few computer skills to work with, the most common combination of such elements in GUIs is the windows, icons, menus, pointer paradigm, especially in personal computers. The WIMP style of interaction uses a virtual device to represent the position of a pointing device, most often a mouse. Available commands are compiled together in menus, and actions are performed making gestures with the pointing device, a window manager facilitates the interactions between windows, applications, and the windowing system. The windowing system handles hardware devices such as pointing devices, graphics hardware, window managers and other software combine to simulate the desktop environment with varying degrees of realism. Smaller mobile devices such as personal assistants and smartphones typically use the WIMP elements with different unifying metaphors, due to constraints in space
25.
Software license
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A software license is a legal instrument governing the use or redistribution of software. Under United States copyright law all software is copyright protected, in code as also object code form. The only exception is software in the public domain, most distributed software can be categorized according to its license type. Two common categories for software under copyright law, and therefore with licenses which grant the licensee specific rights, are proprietary software and free, unlicensed software outside the copyright protection is either public domain software or software which is non-distributed, non-licensed and handled as internal business trade secret. Contrary to popular belief, distributed unlicensed software is copyright protected. Examples for this are unauthorized software leaks or software projects which are placed on public software repositories like GitHub without specified license. As voluntarily handing software into the domain is problematic in some international law domains, there are also licenses granting PD-like rights. Therefore, the owner of a copy of software is legally entitled to use that copy of software. Hence, if the end-user of software is the owner of the respective copy, as many proprietary licenses only enumerate the rights that the user already has under 17 U. S. C. §117, and yet proclaim to take away from the user. Proprietary software licenses often proclaim to give software publishers more control over the way their software is used by keeping ownership of each copy of software with the software publisher. The form of the relationship if it is a lease or a purchase, for example UMG v. Augusto or Vernor v. Autodesk. The ownership of goods, like software applications and video games, is challenged by licensed. The Swiss based company UsedSoft innovated the resale of business software and this feature of proprietary software licenses means that certain rights regarding the software are reserved by the software publisher. Therefore, it is typical of EULAs to include terms which define the uses of the software, the most significant effect of this form of licensing is that, if ownership of the software remains with the software publisher, then the end-user must accept the software license. In other words, without acceptance of the license, the end-user may not use the software at all, one example of such a proprietary software license is the license for Microsoft Windows. The most common licensing models are per single user or per user in the appropriate volume discount level, Licensing per concurrent/floating user also occurs, where all users in a network have access to the program, but only a specific number at the same time. Another license model is licensing per dongle which allows the owner of the dongle to use the program on any computer, Licensing per server, CPU or points, regardless the number of users, is common practice as well as site or company licenses
26.
GNU General Public License
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The GNU General Public License is a widely used free software license, which guarantees end users the freedom to run, study, share and modify the software. The license was written by Richard Stallman of the Free Software Foundation for the GNU Project. The GPL is a license, which means that derivative work can only be distributed under the same license terms. This is in distinction to permissive free licenses, of which the BSD licenses. GPL was the first copyleft license for general use, historically, the GPL license family has been one of the most popular software licenses in the free and open-source software domain. Prominent free software licensed under the GPL include the Linux kernel. In 2007, the version of the license was released to address some perceived problems with the second version that were discovered during its long-time usage. To keep the license up to date, the GPL license includes an optional any later version clause, developers can omit it when licensing their software, for instance the Linux kernel is licensed under GPLv2 without the any later version clause. The GPL was written by Richard Stallman in 1989, for use with programs released as part of the GNU project, the original GPL was based on a unification of similar licenses used for early versions of GNU Emacs, the GNU Debugger and the GNU C Compiler. These licenses contained similar provisions to the modern GPL, but were specific to each program, rendering them incompatible, Stallmans goal was to produce one license that could be used for any project, thus making it possible for many projects to share code. The second version of the license, version 2, was released in 1991, version 3 was developed to attempt to address these concerns and was officially released on 29 June 2007. Version 1 of the GNU GPL, released on 25 February 1989, the first problem was that distributors may publish binary files only—executable, but not readable or modifiable by humans. To prevent this, GPLv1 stated that any vendor distributing binaries must also make the source code available under the same licensing terms. The second problem was that distributors might add restrictions, either to the license, the union of two sets of restrictions would apply to the combined work, thus adding unacceptable restrictions. To prevent this, GPLv1 stated that modified versions, as a whole, had to be distributed under the terms in GPLv1. Therefore, software distributed under the terms of GPLv1 could be combined with software under more permissive terms, according to Richard Stallman, the major change in GPLv2 was the Liberty or Death clause, as he calls it – Section 7. The section says that licensees may distribute a GPL-covered work only if they can all of the licenses obligations. In other words, the obligations of the license may not be severed due to conflicting obligations and this provision is intended to discourage any party from using a patent infringement claim or other litigation to impair users freedom under the license
27.
Apache License
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The Apache License, Version 2.0 is a permissive free software license written by the Apache Software Foundation. The Apache License requires preservation of the notice and disclaimer. This makes ALv2 a FRAND-RF license, the ASF and its projects release the software they produce under the Apache License and many non-ASF projects are also using the ALv2. A free software license is a notice that grants the recipient extensive rights to modify, Software using such a license is free software as conferred by the copyright holder. Free software licenses are applied to software in source code as also object code form. The ASF adopted the Apache License 2.0 in January 2004, the Apache License is permissive in that it does not require a derivative work of the software, or modifications to the original, to be distributed using the same license. Modifications may have appropriate copyright notices, and may provide different license terms for the modifications, in October 2012,8,708 projects located at SourceForge. net were available under the terms of the Apache License. In a blog post from May 2008, Google mentioned that over 25% of the nearly 100,000 projects then hosted on Google Code were using the Apache License, including the Android operating system. As of 2015, according to Black Duck Software and GitHub, free software license Comparison of free and open-source software licenses Software using the Apache license Apache Licenses Quick Summary of the Apache License 2.0
28.
Berkeley Software Distribution
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Berkeley Software Distribution is a Unix operating system derivative developed and distributed by the Computer Systems Research Group of the University of California, Berkeley, from 1977 to 1995. Today the term BSD is often used non-specifically to refer to any of the BSD descendants which together form a branch of the family of Unix-like operating systems, operating systems derived from the original BSD code remain actively developed and widely used. Historically, BSD has been considered a branch of Unix, Berkeley Unix, because it shared the initial codebase, in the 1980s, BSD was widely adopted by vendors of workstation-class systems in the form of proprietary Unix variants such as DEC ULTRIX and Sun Microsystems SunOS. This can be attributed to the ease with which it could be licensed, FreeBSD, OpenBSD, NetBSD, Darwin, and PC-BSD. The earliest distributions of Unix from Bell Labs in the 1970s included the source code to the system, allowing researchers at universities to modify. A larger PDP-11/70 was installed at Berkeley the following year, using money from the Ingres database project, also in 1975, Ken Thompson took a sabbatical from Bell Labs and came to Berkeley as a visiting professor. He helped to install Version 6 Unix and started working on a Pascal implementation for the system, graduate students Chuck Haley and Bill Joy improved Thompsons Pascal and implemented an improved text editor, ex. Other universities became interested in the software at Berkeley, and so in 1977 Joy started compiling the first Berkeley Software Distribution, 1BSD was an add-on to Version 6 Unix rather than a complete operating system in its own right. Some thirty copies were sent out, some 75 copies of 2BSD were sent out by Bill Joy. 2. 9BSD from 1983 included code from 4. 1cBSD, the most recent release,2. 11BSD, was first issued in 1992. As of 2008, maintenance updates from volunteers are still continuing, a VAX computer was installed at Berkeley in 1978, but the port of Unix to the VAX architecture, UNIX/32V, did not take advantage of the VAXs virtual memory capabilities. 3BSD was also alternatively called Virtual VAX/UNIX or VMUNIX, and BSD kernel images were normally called /vmunix until 4. 4BSD, 4BSD offered a number of enhancements over 3BSD, notably job control in the previously released csh, delivermail, reliable signals, and the Curses programming library. In a 1985 review of BSD releases, John Quarterman et al, many installations inside the Bell System ran 4. 1BSD. 4. 1BSD was a response to criticisms of BSDs performance relative to the dominant VAX operating system, the 4. 1BSD kernel was systematically tuned up by Bill Joy until it could perform as well as VMS on several benchmarks. Back at Bell Labs,4. 1cBSD became the basis of the 8th Edition of Research Unix, to guide the design of 4. The committee met from April 1981 to June 1983, apart from the Fast File System, several features from outside contributors were accepted, including disk quotas and job control. Sun Microsystems provided testing on its Motorola 68000 machines prior to release, the official 4. 2BSD release came in August 1983. On a lighter note, it marked the debut of BSDs daemon mascot in a drawing by John Lasseter that appeared on the cover of the printed manuals distributed by USENIX
29.
Operating system
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An operating system is system software that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs. All computer programs, excluding firmware, require a system to function. Operating systems are found on many devices that contain a computer – from cellular phones, the dominant desktop operating system is Microsoft Windows with a market share of around 83. 3%. MacOS by Apple Inc. is in place, and the varieties of Linux is in third position. Linux distributions are dominant in the server and supercomputing sectors, other specialized classes of operating systems, such as embedded and real-time systems, exist for many applications. A single-tasking system can run one program at a time. Multi-tasking may be characterized in preemptive and co-operative types, in preemptive multitasking, the operating system slices the CPU time and dedicates a slot to each of the programs. Unix-like operating systems, e. g. Solaris, Linux, cooperative multitasking is achieved by relying on each process to provide time to the other processes in a defined manner. 16-bit versions of Microsoft Windows used cooperative multi-tasking, 32-bit versions of both Windows NT and Win9x, used preemptive multi-tasking. Single-user operating systems have no facilities to distinguish users, but may allow multiple programs to run in tandem, a distributed operating system manages a group of distinct computers and makes them appear to be a single computer. The development of networked computers that could be linked and communicate with each other gave rise to distributed computing, distributed computations are carried out on more than one machine. When computers in a work in cooperation, they form a distributed system. The technique is used both in virtualization and cloud computing management, and is common in large server warehouses, embedded operating systems are designed to be used in embedded computer systems. They are designed to operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy and they are able to operate with a limited number of resources. They are very compact and extremely efficient by design, Windows CE and Minix 3 are some examples of embedded operating systems. A real-time operating system is a system that guarantees to process events or data by a specific moment in time. A real-time operating system may be single- or multi-tasking, but when multitasking, early computers were built to perform a series of single tasks, like a calculator. Basic operating system features were developed in the 1950s, such as resident monitor functions that could run different programs in succession to speed up processing
30.
Digital camera
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A digital camera or digicam is a camera that produces digital images that can be stored in a computer, displayed on a screen and printed. Most cameras sold today are digital, and digital cameras are incorporated into many devices ranging from PDAs, Digital and movie cameras share an optical system, typically using a lens with a variable diaphragm to focus light onto an image pickup device. The diaphragm and shutter admit the correct amount of light to the imager, just as with film, however, unlike film cameras, digital cameras can display images on a screen immediately after being recorded, and store and delete images from memory. Many digital cameras can also record moving videos with sound, some digital cameras can crop and stitch pictures and perform other elementary image editing. The history of the camera began with Eugene F. Lally of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. His 1961 idea was to take pictures of the planets and stars while travelling through space to give information about the astronauts position, unfortunately, as with Texas Instruments employee Willis Adcocks filmless camera in 1972, the technology had yet to catch up with the concept. Steven Sasson as an engineer at Eastman Kodak invented and built the first electronic camera using a charge-coupled device image sensor in 1975, earlier ones used a camera tube, later ones digitized the signal. Early uses were military and scientific, followed by medical. In the mid to late 1990s digital cameras became common among consumers, by the mid-2000s digital cameras had largely replaced film cameras, and higher-end cell phones had an integrated digital camera. By the beginning of the 2010s, almost all smartphones had a digital camera. The two major types of image sensor are CCD and CMOS. A CCD sensor has one amplifier for all the pixels, while each pixel in a CMOS active-pixel sensor has its own amplifier, compared to CCDs, CMOS sensors use less power. Cameras with a small sensor use a back-side-illuminated CMOS sensor, overall final image quality is more dependent on the image processing capability of the camera, than on sensor type. The resolution of a camera is often limited by the image sensor that turns light into that discrete signals. The brighter the image at a point on the sensor. Depending on the structure of the sensor, a color filter array may be used. The number of pixels in the sensor determines the cameras pixel count, in a typical sensor, the pixel count is the product of the number of rows and the number of columns. For example, a 1,000 by 1,000 pixel sensor would have 1,000,000 pixels, final quality of an image depends on all optical transformations in the chain of producing the image
31.
Smartwatch
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A smartwatch is a computerized wristwatch with functionality that goes beyond timekeeping. While early models can perform tasks, such as calculations, translations. Many run mobile apps, using an operating system. Some smartwatches function as media players, with FM radio and playback of digital audio. Some models, also called watch phones, feature full mobile phone capability, while internal hardware varies, most have an electronic visual display, either backlit LCD or OLED. Some use transflective or electronic paper, to less power. Most have a battery and many have a touchscreen. Peripheral devices may include digital cameras, thermometers, accelerometers, altimeters, barometers, compasses, GPS receivers, tiny speakers, software may include digital maps, schedulers and personal organizers, calculators, and various kinds of watch faces. The watch may communicate with devices such as sensors, wireless headsets. Like other computers, a smartwatch may collect information from internal or external sensors and it may control, or retrieve data from and it may support wireless technologies like Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, and GPS. For many purposes, a wristwatch computer serves as a front end for a system such as a smartphone. Smartwatches are advancing, especially their design, battery capacity, many smartwatch models manufactured in the 2010s are completely functional as standalone products. Some serve as sport watches, the GPS tracking unit being used to record historical data, for example, after a workout, data can be uploaded onto a computer or online to create a log of activities for analysis or sharing. Some watches can serve as full GPS watches, displaying maps and current coordinates, users can mark their current location and then edit the entrys name and coordinates, which enables navigation to those new coordinates. As companies add competitive products into the market, media space is becoming a commodity on smart watches. With Apple, Sony, Samsung, and Motorola introducing their smart watch models and this is a dense market of tech consumers who possess buying power, which has attracted many advertisers. It is expected for mobile advertising on wearable devices to increase heavily by 2017 as advanced hypertargeting modules are introduced to the devices. In order for an advertisement to be effective on a smart watch, sport watch functionality often includes activity tracker features as seen in GPS watches made for training, diving, and outdoor sports
32.
DVD player
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A DVD player is a device that plays discs produced under both the DVD-Video and DVD-Audio technical standards, two different and incompatible standards. Some DVD players will also play audio CDs, DVD players are connected to a television to watch the DVD content, which could be a movie, a recorded TV show, or other content. The first DVD player was created by Sony Company in Taiwan in collaboration with Pacific Digital Company from the United States in 1994, some manufacturers originally announced that DVD players would be available as early as the middle of 1996. Delivery was initially held up for reasons of copy protection demanded by movie studios. The first players appeared in Japan in November 1,1996, players slowly trickled into other regions around the world. Prices for the first players in 1997 were $1000 and up, by the end of 2000, players were available for under $100 at discount retailers. In 2003 players became available for under $50, six years after the initial launch, close to one thousand models of DVD players were available from over a hundred consumer electronics manufacturers. Fujitsu released the first DVD-ROM-equipped computer on Nov.6 in GB, Toshiba released a DVD-ROM-equipped computer and a DVD-ROM drive in Japan in early 1997. DVD-ROM drives from Toshiba, Pioneer, Panasonic, Hitachi, and Sony began appearing in sample quantities as early as January 1997, the first PC upgrade kits became available from Creative Labs, Hi-Val, and Diamond Multimedia in April and May 1997. In 2014, every major PC manufacturer has models that include DVD-ROM drives, the first DVD-Audio players were released in Japan by Pioneer in late 1999, but they did not play copy-protected discs. Matsushita first released full-fledged players in July 2000 for $700 to $1,200, DVD-Audio players are now also made by Aiwa, Denon, JVC, Kenwood, Madrigal, Marantz, Nakamichi, Onkyo, Toshiba, Yamaha, and others. Sony released the first SACD players in May 1999 for $5,000, pioneers first DVD-Audio players released in late 1999 also played SACD. SACD players are now made by Accuphase, Aiwa, Denon, Kenwood, Marantz, Philips, Sharp. A DVD player has to complete tasks, Read a DVD disc in ISO – UDF version 1. DVD players cannot play Blu-ray discs, however, most Blu-ray players are backwards compatible and they will play DVDs. Additionally, most DVD players allow users to play audio CDs, a few include a home cinema decoder. Some newer devices also play videos in the MPEG-4 ASP video compression format popular in the Internet, most hardware DVD players have to be connected to a television, there are portable devices which have an attached LCD screen and stereo speakers. Portable DVD players are used for long road trips and travel
33.
Refrigerator
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Refrigeration is an essential food storage technique in developed countries. The lower temperature lowers the rate of bacteria, so the refrigerator reduces the rate of spoilage. A refrigerator maintains a temperature a few degrees above the point of water. Optimum temperature range for food storage is 3 to 5 °C. A similar device that maintains a temperature below the point of water is called a freezer. The refrigerator replaced the icebox, which had been a household appliance for almost a century. For this reason, a refrigerator is sometimes referred to as an icebox in American usage, the first cooling systems for food involved using ice. Artificial refrigeration began in the mid-1750s, and developed in the early 1800s, in 1834, the first working vapor-compression refrigeration system was built. The first commercial ice-making machine was invented in 1854, in 1913, refrigerators for home use were invented. In 1923 Frigidaire introduced the first self-contained unit, the introduction of Freon in the 1920s expanded the refrigerator market during the 1930s. Home freezers as separate compartments were introduced in 1940, frozen foods, previously a luxury item, became commonplace. Freezer units are used in households and in industry and commerce, commercial refrigerator and freezer units were in use for almost 40 years prior to the common home models. Most households use the style, which has been the basic style since the 1940s. A vapor compression cycle is used in most household refrigerators, refrigerator–freezers and freezers, newer refrigerators may include automatic defrosting, chilled water and ice from a dispenser in the door. Domestic refrigerators and freezers for food storage are made in a range of sizes, among the smallest is a 4 L Peltier refrigerator advertised as being able to hold 6 cans of beer. A large domestic refrigerator stands as tall as a person and may be about 1 m wide with a capacity of 600 L. Refrigerators and freezers may be free-standing, the refrigerator allows the modern household to keep food fresh for longer than before. Freezers allow people to buy food in bulk and eat it at leisure, before the invention of the refrigerator, icehouses were used to provide cool storage for most of the year. Placed near freshwater lakes or packed snow and ice during the winter
34.
Lighting
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Lighting or illumination is the deliberate use of light to achieve a practical or aesthetic effect. Lighting includes the use of artificial light sources like lamps and light fixtures, as well as natural illumination by capturing daylight. Daylighting is sometimes used as the source of light during daytime in buildings. This can save energy in place of using lighting, which represents a major component of energy consumption in buildings. Proper lighting can enhance performance, improve the appearance of an area. Indoor lighting is accomplished using light fixtures, and is a key part of interior design. Lighting can also be a component of landscape projects. With the discovery of fire, the earliest form of lighting used to illuminate an area were campfires or torches. As early as 400,000 BCE, fire was kindled in the caves of Peking Man, prehistoric people used primitive oil lamps to illuminate surroundings. These lamps were made from naturally occurring materials such as rocks, shells, horns and stones, were filled with grease, lamps typically used animal or vegetable fats as fuel. Hundreds of these lamps have been found in the Lascaux caves in modern-day France, oily animals were also used as lamps after being threaded with a wick. Fireflies have been used as lighting sources, candles and glass and pottery lamps were also invented. Chandeliers were a form of light fixture. A major reduction in the cost of lighting occurred with the discovery of whale oil, in 1849, Dr. Abraham Gesner, a Canadian geologist, devised a method where kerosene could be distilled from petroleum. Earlier coal-gas methods had been used for lighting since the 1820s, gesners kerosene was cheap, easy to produce, could be burned in existing lamps, and did not produce an offensive odor as did most whale oil. It could be stored indefinitely unlike whale oil, which would eventually spoil, the American petroleum boom began in the 1850s. By the end of the decade there were 30 kerosene plants operating in the United States, the cheaper, more efficient fuel began to drive whale oil out of the market. John D. Rockefeller was most responsible for the success of kerosene
35.
Washing machine
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A washing machine is a machine used to wash laundry, such as clothing and sheets. The term is applied to machines that use water as opposed to dry cleaning or ultrasonic cleaners. Laundry detergent is used to clean clothes, and is sold in either powdered or liquid form. Laundering by hand involves soaking, beating, scrubbing, and rinsing dirty textiles, Water for the laundry would be hand carried, heated on a fire for washing, then poured into the tub. That made the warm soapy water precious, it would be reused, first to wash the least soiled clothing, removal of soap and water from the clothing after washing was originally a separate process. First, soap would be rinsed out with clear water, after rinsing, the soaking wet clothing would be formed into a roll and twisted by hand to extract water. The entire process often occupied an entire day of hard work, Clothes washer technology developed as a way to reduce the manual labor spent, providing an open basin or sealed container with paddles or fingers to automatically agitate the clothing. The earliest machines were hand-operated and constructed from wood, while later machines made of metal permitted a fire to burn below the washtub, the earliest special-purpose mechanical washing device was the washboard, invented in 1797 by Nathaniel Briggs of New Hampshire. By the mid-1850s steam-driven commercial laundry machinery were on sale in the UK, technological advances in machinery for commercial and institutional washers proceeded faster than domestic washer design for several decades, especially in the UK. In the United States there was emphasis on developing machines for washing at home, though machines for commercial laundry services were widely used in the late 19th. The rotary washing machine was patented by Hamilton Smith in 1858, as electricity was not commonly available until at least 1930, some early washing machines were operated by a low-speed, single-cylinder hit-and-miss gasoline engine. After the items were washed and rinsed, water had to be removed by twisting, to help reduce this labor, the wringer/mangle machine was developed. As implied by the term mangle, these machines were quite dangerous, especially if powered. A users fingers, hand, arm, or hair could become entangled in the laundry being squeezed, resulting in injuries, unwary bystanders, such as children, could also be caught. Safer mechanisms were developed over time, and the more hazardous designs were eventually outlawed, the mangle used two rollers under spring tension to squeeze water out of clothing and household linen. Each laundry item would be fed through the wringer separately, the first wringers were hand-cranked, but were eventually included as a powered attachment above the washer tub. The wringer would be swung over the wash tub so that extracted wash water would fall back into the tub to be reused for the next load, the modern process of water removal by spinning did not come into use until electric motors were developed. Spinning requires a constant high-speed power source, and was originally done in a device known as an extractor
36.
Air conditioning
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Air conditioning is the process of removing heat from a confined space, thus cooling the air, and removing humidity. Air conditioning can be used in domestic and commercial environments. Air conditioners often use a fan to distribute the air to an occupied space such as a building or a car to improve thermal comfort. The cooling is achieved through a refrigeration cycle, but sometimes evaporation or free cooling is used. Air conditioning systems can also be based on desiccants and subterraneous pipes that can distribute the heated refrigerant to the ground for cooling. In the most general sense, air conditioning can refer to any form of technology that modifies the condition of air, in common usage, though, air conditioning refers to systems which cool air. In construction, a system of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning is referred to as heating, ventilation. Since prehistoric times, snow and ice were used for cooling, the business of harvesting ice during winter and storing for use in summer became popular towards the late 17th century. This practice was replaced by mechanical ice-making machines, the basic concept behind air conditioning is said to have been applied in ancient Egypt, where reeds were hung in windows and were moistened with trickling water. The evaporation of water cooled the air blowing through the window and this process also made the air more humid, which can be beneficial in a dry desert climate. In Ancient Rome, water from aqueducts was circulated through the walls of houses to cool them. Other techniques in medieval Persia involved the use of cisterns and wind towers to cool buildings during the hot season. The 2nd-century Chinese inventor Ding Huan of the Han Dynasty invented a fan for air conditioning, with seven wheels 3 m in diameter. During the subsequent Song Dynasty, written sources mentioned the air conditioning rotary fan as even more widely used, in the 17th century, Cornelis Drebbel demonstrated Turning Summer into Winter for James I of England by adding salt to water. The introduction of air conditioning in the 1920s helped enable the great migration to the Sun Belt in the United States. In 1758, Benjamin Franklin and John Hadley, a professor at Cambridge University. Franklin and Hadley confirmed that evaporation of volatile liquids could be used to drive down the temperature of an object past the freezing point of water. They conducted their experiment with the bulb of a mercury thermometer as their object and they lowered the temperature of the thermometer bulb down to −14 °C while the ambient temperature was 18 °C
37.
Oven
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An oven is a thermally insulated chamber used for the heating, baking or drying of a substance, and most commonly used for cooking. Kilns and furnaces are special-purpose ovens, used in pottery and metalworking, the earliest ovens were found in Central Europe, and dated to 29,000 BC. They were roasting and boiling pits inside yurts used to cook mammoth, in Ukraine from 20,000 BC they used pits with hot coals covered in ashes. The food was wrapped in leaves and set on top, then covered with earth, in camps found in Mezhirich, each mammoth bone house had a hearth used for heating and cooking. Ovens were used by cultures who lived in the Indus Valley, by 3200 BC, each mud-brick house had an oven in settlements across the Indus Valley. Ovens were used to food and to make bricks. Pre-dynastic civilizations in Egypt used kilns around 5000–4000 BC to make pottery, culinary historians credit the Greeks for developing bread baking significantly. Front-loaded bread ovens were developed in ancient Greece, the Greeks created a wide variety of doughs, loaf shapes, and styles of serving bread with other foods. Baking developed as a trade and profession as bread increasingly was prepared outside of the home by specially trained workers to be sold to the public. During the Middle Ages, instead of earth and ceramic ovens, Europeans used fireplaces in conjunction with large cauldrons and these were similar to the Dutch oven. Following the Middle-Ages, ovens underwent many changes over time from wood, iron, coal, gas, each design had its own motivation and purpose. The wood burning stoves saw improvement through the addition of fire chambers that allowed better containment, another recognizable oven would be the cast-iron stove. These were first used around the early 1700s when they underwent several variations including the Stewart Oberlin iron stove that was smaller and had its own chimney. In the early part of the 19th century, coal ovens were developed and its shape was cylindrical and was made of heavy cast-iron. The gas oven saw its first use as early as the beginning of the 19th century as well, Gas stoves became very common household ovens once gas lines were available to most houses and neighborhoods. James Sharp patented one of the first gas stoves in 1826, other various improvements to the gas stove included the AGA cooker invented in 1922 by Gustaf Dalén. More recently, ovens have become slightly more high-tech in terms of cooking strategy, the microwave as a cooking tool was discovered by Percy Spencer in 1946, and with the help from engineers, the microwave oven was patented. The microwave oven uses microwave radiation to excite the molecules in food causing friction, double oven, a built-in oven fixture that has either two ovens, or one oven and one microwave oven
38.
Microwave oven
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A microwave oven is a kitchen appliance that heats and cooks food by exposing it to microwave radiation in the electromagnetic spectrum. This induces polar molecules in the food to rotate and produce energy in a process known as dielectric heating. Percy Spencer is generally credited with inventing the microwave oven after World War II from radar technology developed during the war. Named the Radarange, it was first sold in 1946, Raytheon later licensed its patents for a home-use microwave oven that was first introduced by Tappan in 1955, but these units were still too large and expensive for general home use. The countertop microwave oven was first introduced in 1967 by the Amana Corporation, Microwave ovens are popular for reheating previously cooked foods and cooking a variety of foods. They are also useful for heating of otherwise slowly prepared cooking items, such as hot butter, fats. Unlike conventional ovens, microwave ovens usually do not directly brown or caramelize food, exceptions occur in rare cases where the oven is used to heat frying-oil and other very oily items, which attain far higher temperatures than that of boiling water. Some modern microwave ovens are part of units with built-in extractor hoods. The exploitation of high-frequency radio waves for heating substances was possible by the development of vacuum tube radio transmitters around 1920. By 1930 the application of waves to heat human tissue had developed into the medical therapy of diathermy. At the 1933 Chicago Worlds Fair, Westinghouse demonstrated the cooking of foods between two metal plates attached to a 10 kW,60 MHz shortwave transmitter. The Westinghouse team, led by I. F. Mouromtseff, found that foods like steaks and this patent proposed radio frequency heating, at 10 to 20 megahertz. The invention of the cavity magnetron made possible the production of waves of a small enough wavelength. The magnetron was originally a component in the development of short wavelength radar during World War II. A more high-powered microwave generator that worked at shorter wavelengths was needed, sir Henry Tizard travelled to the U. S. in late September 1940 to offer the magnetron in exchange for their financial and industrial help. An early 6 kW version, built in England by the General Electric Company Research Laboratories, Wembley, contracts were awarded to Raytheon and other companies for mass production of the magnetron. In 1945, the heating effect of a high-power microwave beam was accidentally discovered by Percy Spencer. Employed by Raytheon at the time, he noticed that microwaves from a radar set he was working on started to melt a candy bar he had in his pocket
39.
Intel
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Intel Corporation is an American multinational corporation and technology company headquartered in Santa Clara, California that was founded by Gordon Moore and Robert Noyce. It is the worlds largest and highest valued semiconductor chip makers based on revenue, and is the inventor of the x86 series of microprocessors, Intel supplies processors for computer system manufacturers such as Apple, Lenovo, HP, and Dell. Intel Corporation was founded on July 18,1968, by semiconductor pioneers Robert Noyce and Gordon Moore, the companys name was conceived as portmanteau of the words integrated and electronics. The fact that intel is the term for intelligence information made the name appropriate. Intel was a developer of SRAM and DRAM memory chips. Although Intel created the worlds first commercial microprocessor chip in 1971, during the 1990s, Intel invested heavily in new microprocessor designs fostering the rapid growth of the computer industry. The Open Source Technology Center at Intel hosts PowerTOP and LatencyTOP, and supports other projects such as Wayland, Intel Array Building Blocks, and Threading Building Blocks. Client Computing Group – 55% of 2016 revenues – produces hardware components used in desktop, data Center Group – 29% of 2016 revenues – produces hardware components used in server, network, and storage platforms. Internet of Things Group – 5% of 2016 revenues – offers platforms designed for retail, transportation, industrial, buildings, non-Volatile Memory Solutions Group – 4% of 2016 revenues – manufactures NAND flash memory products primarily used in solid-state drives. Intel Security Group – 4% of 2016 revenues – produces software, particularly security, programmable Solutions Group – 3% of 2016 revenues – manufactures programmable semiconductors. In 2016, Dell accounted for 15% of Intels total revenues, Lenovo accounted for 13% of total revenues, in the 1980s, Intel was among the top ten sellers of semiconductors in the world. In 1991, Intel became the biggest chip maker by revenue and has held the position ever since, other top semiconductor companies include TSMC, Advanced Micro Devices, Samsung, Texas Instruments, Toshiba and STMicroelectronics. Competitors in PC chip sets include Advanced Micro Devices, VIA Technologies, Silicon Integrated Systems, however, the cross-licensing agreement is canceled in the event of an AMD bankruptcy or takeover. Some smaller competitors such as VIA Technologies produce low-power x86 processors for small factor computers, however, the advent of such mobile computing devices, in particular, smartphones, has in recent years led to a decline in PC sales. Since over 95% of the worlds smartphones currently use processors designed by ARM Holdings, ARM is also planning to make inroads into the PC and server market. Intel has been involved in disputes regarding violation of antitrust laws. Intel was founded in Mountain View, California in 1968 by Gordon E. Moore, a chemist, and Robert Noyce, arthur Rock helped them find investors, while Max Palevsky was on the board from an early stage. Moore and Noyce had left Fairchild Semiconductor to found Intel, Rock was not an employee, but he was an investor and was chairman of the board
40.
Nokia
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Nokia Corporation, stylised as NOKIA, is a Finnish multinational communications and information technology company, founded in 1865. Nokia is headquartered in Espoo, Uusimaa, in the greater Helsinki metropolitan area, in 2014, Nokia employed 61,656 people across 120 countries, did business in more than 150 countries and reported annual revenues of around €12.73 billion. Nokia is a limited company listed on the Helsinki Stock Exchange. It is the worlds 274th-largest company measured by 2013 revenues according to the Fortune Global 500 and is a component of the Euro Stoxx 50 stock market index, the company has had various industries in its 151-year history. It was founded as a mill, and now focuses on large-scale telecommunications infrastructures. Nokias dominance also extended into the industry through its Symbian platform. Nokia eventually entered into a pact with Microsoft in 2011 to exclusively use Microsofts Windows Phone platform on future smartphones and its mobile phone business was eventually bought by Microsoft in an overall deal totaling $7.17 billion. Stephen Elop, Nokias former CEO, and several other joined the new Microsoft Mobile subsidiary of Microsoft as part of the deal. Nokia has a history, dating back to 1865 when Fredrik Idestam. A second pulp mill was created in 1868 near the town of Nokia, in 1871, Idestam together with friend Leo Mechelin formed a shared company and called it Nokia, after the town of the second pulp mill. For the next 90 years, Nokia on its own would be a forest and power industry company, in 1922, Nokia was jointly-owned with a trio partnership with Finnish Cable Works and Finnish Rubber Works. Nokia Corporation now boasted many industries including rubber, forestry, cable, electricity, in the 1970s, the newly formed conglomerate started entering the networking and radio industry. Nokia also started making military equipment for Finlands defence forces, such as the Sanomalaite M/90 communicator in 1983, in 1979, Nokia went into a joint venture with television maker Salora, to create Mobira, which would lay out the foundation of Nokias future mobile phone division. In 1981, Mobira launched the Nordic Mobile Telephone service, the worlds first international cellular network, then in 1982, Mobira launched the Mobira Senator car phone, which can be considered as Nokias first mobile phone. At that time, though, Nokia had no interest at all in mobile phones and it is only due to the Salo, Finland-based Salora-Mobira that the idea was pushed through. In 1987, Finnish Cable Works discontinued production of cables at its Helsinki factory, nokian Tyres, a tyre producer that was originally formed as a division of Finnish Rubber Works in 1932, split away from Nokia Corporation in 1988. Two years later in 1990, Finnish Rubber Works followed suit and this allowed Nokia Corporation to solely focus on communications. Jorma Ollila became CEO in 1992, Nokias first fully portable mobile phone was the Mobira Cityman 900 in 1987
41.
MeeGo
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MeeGo was a Linux distribution hosted by the Linux Foundation, using source code from the operating systems Moblin and Maemo. The Linux Foundation canceled MeeGo in September 2011 in favor of Tizen, a Finnish start-up, Jolla, picked up MeeGo’s community-driven successor Mer to develop a new operating system, Sailfish OS, and launched Jolla Phone smartphone at the end of 2013. All development of MeeGo and its supporting hardware have ceased, MeeGo T01 was first announced at Mobile World Congress in February 2010 by Intel and Nokia in a joint press conference. The stated aim is to merge the efforts of Intels Moblin, according to Intel, MeeGo was developed because Microsoft did not offer comprehensive Windows 7 support for the Atom processor. On February 16,2010 a tech talk notice was posted about the former Maemo development project founded in 2009 and code named Harmattan, that originally slated to become Maemo 6. Those notice stated that Harmattan is now considered to be a MeeGo instance, in addition it was made clear that only the naming was given up whilst development on that Harmattan will continue so that any schedules will be met. Aminocom and Novell also played a part in the MeeGo effort, working with the Linux Foundation on their build infrastructure. Amino was responsible for extending MeeGo to TV devices, while Novell was increasingly introducing technology that was developed for openSUSE. In November 2010, AMD also joined the alliance of companies that were actively developing MeeGo, quite noticeable changes in the project setup happened on February 11,2011 when Nokia officially announced to switch over to Windows Phone 7 and thus abandoning MeeGo and the partnership. On 27 September 2011, it was announced by Intel employee Imad Sousou that in collaboration with Samsung MeeGo will be replaced by Tizen during 2012, community developers from the Mer project however started to continue MeeGo without Intel and Nokia. MeeGo is intended to run on a variety of platforms including hand-helds, in-car devices, netbooks. All platforms share the MeeGo core, with different “User Experience” layers for each type of device, MeeGo provides support for both ARM and Intel x86 processors with SSSE3 enabled and uses btrfs as the default file system. Within the MeeGo project there are graphical user interfaces – internally called User Experiences. The Netbook UX is a continuation of the Moblin interface and it is written using the Clutter-based Mx toolkit, and uses the Mutter window manager. Samsung Netbook NP-N100 use MeeGo for its operating system, MeeGo’s netbook version uses several Linux applications in the background, such as Evolution, Empathy, Gwibber, Chromium, and Banshee, all integrated into the graphical user interface. The Handset UX is based on Qt, with GTK+ and Clutter included to provide compatibility for Moblin applications, to support the hundreds of Hildon-based Maemo applications, users have to install the Hildon library ported by the maemo. org community. Depending on the device, applications will be provided either the Intel AppUp or the Nokia Ovi digital software distribution systems. The MeeGo Handset UX’s Day 1 prerelease was on 30 June 2010, the preview was initially available for the Aava Mobile Intel Moorestown platform, and a ‘kickstart’ file provided for developers to build an image for the Nokia N900
42.
Bada
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Bada is a discontinued operating system for mobile devices such as smartphones and tablet computers. It was developed by Samsung Electronics and its name is derived from 바다, meaning ocean or sea in Korean. It ranges from mid- to high-end smartphones, to foster adoption of Bada OS, since 2011 Samsung reportedly has considered releasing the source code under an open-source license, and expanding device support to include Smart TVs. All Bada-powered devices are branded under the Wave name, but not all of Samsungs Android-powered devices are branded under the name Galaxy, on 25 February 2013, Samsung announced that it will stop developing Bada, moving development to Tizen instead. Bug reporting was finally terminated in April 2014, after the announcement, the Wave S8500 was first shown at Mobile World Congress 2010 in Barcelona in February 2010. At that time, applications running on the first Bada phone were demonstrated, after the launch, companies such as Twitter, EA, Capcom, Gameloft and Blockbuster showed their support for the Bada platform. In May 2010, Samsung released a beta of their Bada software development kit to attract developers, Samsung also began the Bada Developer Challenge with a total prize of $2,700,000. In August 2010, Samsung released version 1.0 of the SDK, in August 2011, Samsung released version 2.0 of the SDK. This new version provides many enhancements over its predecessors, the first Bada-based phone was the Samsung Wave S8500, released in April 2010, which sold one million handsets in its first four weeks on the market. The Samsung S8500 Wave was launched with version 1.0 of the Bada operating system, soon after the launch, Samsung released version 1.0.2, which included minor fixes for European users. The latest version 1.2 was released with the Samsung S8530 Wave II phone, the alpha-version of Bada 2.0 was introduced on February 15,2011, with the Samsung S8530 Wave II handset. Samsung Apps has over 2400 applications and this store is also available for Android and Samsung feature phones. Samsung is to remove the Bada brand and market the new OS, Tizen, with its own apps, the new store has around 1000 applications for Tizen. According to copyrights displayed by Samsung Wave S8500, it uses code from FreeBSD, NetBSD and OpenBSD, despite numerous suggestions, there is no known Bada device to date that is running the Linux kernel. Similarly, there is no evidence that Bada uses the same or similar graphics stack as the Tizen OS, the device layer provides core functions such as graphics, protocols, telephony and security. The service layer provides more service-centric features such as SMS, mapping and in-app-purchasing, to provide such features there is a so-called Bada Server. The top layer, the framework provides an application programming interface in C++ for application developers to use.0. Both the WebKit and Flash can be embedded inside native Bada applications, Bada supports OpenGL ES2.0 3D graphics API and offers interactive mapping with point of interest features, which can also be embedded inside native applications
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Fujitsu
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Fujitsu Ltd. commonly referred to as Fujitsu, is a Japanese multinational information technology equipment and services company headquartered in Tokyo, Japan. In 2015, it was the worlds fourth-largest IT services provider measured by IT services revenue, fortune named Fujitsu as one of the worlds most admired companies and a Global 500 company. It has approximately 159,000 employees and its products and services are available in over 100 countries, Fujitsu is listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the Nikkei 225 and TOPIX indices. Despite its connections to the Furukawa zaibatsu, Fujitsu escaped the Allied occupation of Japan after the Second World War mostly unscathed, in 1954, Fujitsu manufactured Japans first computer, the FACOM100, and in 1961 launched the transistorized FACOM222. In 1955, Fujitsu founded Kawasaki Frontale as a football club. In 1967, the name was officially changed to the contraction Fujitsū. The company also fields a company American football team, the Fujitsu Frontiers, who play in the corporate X-League, have appeared in 6 Japan X Bowls, winning one, and winning one Rice Bowl. In 1971, Fujitsu signed an OEM agreement with the Canadian company Consolidated Computers Limited to distribute CCLs data entry product, mers Kutt, inventor of Key-Edit and founder of CCL, was the common thread that led to Fujitsu’s later association with ICL and Gene Amdahl. In 1986, Fujitsu and The Queens University of Belfast business incubation unit established a joint venture called Kainos, in 1990, Fujitsu acquired 80% of the UK-based computer company International Computers Limited for $1.29 billion. In September 1990, Fujitsu announced the launch of a new series of computers which were at that time the fastest in the world. In July 1991, Fujitsu acquired more than half of the Russian company KME-CS, in 1992, Fujitsu introduced the worlds first 21-inch full-color plasma display. It was a hybrid, based upon the plasma display created at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and NHK STRL, in 1993, Fujitsu formed a flash memory manufacturing joint venture with AMD, Spansion. From February 1989 until mid-1997, Fujitsu built the FM Towns PC variant and it started as a proprietary PC variant intended for multimedia applications and computer games, but later became more compatible with regular PCs. In 1993, the FM Towns Marty was released, a console compatible with the FM Towns games. Fujitsu agreed to acquire the 58 percent of Amdahl Corporation that it did not already own for around $850 million in July 1997, in April 2000, Fujitsu acquired the remaining 70% of GLOVIA International. In April 2002 ICL was re-branded as Fujitsu, on March 2,2004, Fujitsu Computer Products of America lost a class action lawsuit over hard disk drives with defective chips and firmware. In October 2004, Fujitsu acquired the Australian subsidiary of Atos Origin, in August 2007, Fujitsu signed a £500 million, 10-year deal with Reuters Group under which Reuters outsourced the majority of its internal IT department to Fujitsu. As part of the agreement around 300 Reuters staff and 200 contractors transferred to Fujitsu, in October 2007, Fujitsu announced that it would be establishing an offshore development centre in Noida, India with a capacity to house 1,200 employees, in an investment of US$10 million
