1.
Language family
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A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ancestral language or parental language, called the proto-language of that family. Linguists therefore describe the languages within a language family as being genetically related. Estimates of the number of living languages vary from 5,000 to 8,000, depending on the precision of ones definition of language, the 2013 edition of Ethnologue catalogs just over 7,000 living human languages. A living language is one that is used as the primary form of communication of a group of people. There are also dead and extinct languages, as well as some that are still insufficiently studied to be classified. Membership of languages in a family is established by comparative linguistics. Sister languages are said to have a genetic or genealogical relationship, speakers of a language family belong to a common speech community. The divergence of a proto-language into daughter languages typically occurs through geographical separation, individuals belonging to other speech communities may also adopt languages from a different language family through the language shift process. Genealogically related languages present shared retentions, that is, features of the proto-language that cannot be explained by chance or borrowing, for example, Germanic languages are Germanic in that they share vocabulary and grammatical features that are not believed to have been present in the Proto-Indo-European language. These features are believed to be innovations that took place in Proto-Germanic, language families can be divided into smaller phylogenetic units, conventionally referred to as branches of the family because the history of a language family is often represented as a tree diagram. A family is a unit, all its members derive from a common ancestor. Some taxonomists restrict the term family to a level. Those who affix such labels also subdivide branches into groups, a top-level family is often called a phylum or stock. The closer the branches are to other, the closer the languages will be related. For example, the Celtic, Germanic, Slavic, Romance, there is a remarkably similar pattern shown by the linguistic tree and the genetic tree of human ancestry that was verified statistically. Languages interpreted in terms of the phylogenetic tree of human languages are transmitted to a great extent vertically as opposed to horizontally. A speech variety may also be considered either a language or a dialect depending on social or political considerations, thus, different sources give sometimes wildly different accounts of the number of languages within a family. Classifications of the Japonic family, for example, range from one language to nearly twenty, most of the worlds languages are known to be related to others
2.
Austronesian languages
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The Austronesian languages are a language family that is widely dispersed throughout Maritime Southeast Asia, Madagascar and the islands of the Pacific Ocean, with a few members in continental Asia. It is on par with Indo-European, Niger–Congo, and Afroasiatic as one of the language families. Major Austronesian languages with the highest number of speakers are Malay, Javanese, the family contains 1,257 languages, which is the second most of any language family. Otto Dempwolff was the first researcher to extensively explore Austronesian using the comparative method, another German, Wilhelm Schmidt, coined the German word austronesisch which comes from Latin auster south wind plus Greek nêsos island. The name Austronesian was formed from the same roots, the family is aptly named, as the vast majority of Austronesian languages are spoken on islands, only a few languages, such as Malay and the Chamic languages, are indigenous to mainland Asia. Twenty or so Austronesian languages are official in their respective countries, hawaiian, Rapa Nui, and Malagasy are the geographic outliers of the Austronesian family. According to Robert Blust, Austronesian is divided in several branches, all. The Formosan languages of Taiwan are grouped into as many as nine first-order subgroups of Austronesian, all Austronesian languages spoken outside Taiwan belong to the Malayo-Polynesian branch, sometimes called Extra-Formosan. Most Austronesian languages lack a long history of attestation, making the feat of reconstructing earlier stages – up to distant Proto-Austronesian – all the more remarkable. The oldest inscription in the Cham language, the Đông Yên Châu inscription and it is difficult to make generalizations about the languages that make up a family as diverse as Austronesian. The phenomenon has frequently referred to as focus. Furthermore, the choice of voice is influenced by the definiteness of the participants, the word order has a strong tendency to be verb-initial. They are also characterized by the presence of preposed clitic pronouns, unlike the Philippine type, these languages mostly tend towards verb-second word-orders. A number of languages, such as the Batak languages, Old Javanese, Balinese, Sasak, finally, in some languages, which Ross calls post-Indonesian, the original voice system has broken down completely and the voice-marking affixes no longer preserve their functions. The Austronesian languages tend to use reduplication, like many East and Southeast Asian languages, most Austronesian languages have highly restrictive phonotactics, with generally small numbers of phonemes and predominantly consonant–vowel syllables. Some cognate sets are very stable, the word for eye in many Austronesian languages is mata. Other words are harder to reconstruct, the word for two is also stable, in that it appears over the entire range of the Austronesian family, but the forms require some linguistic expertise to recognise. The Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database gives word lists for approximately 1000 Austronesian languages, the internal structure of the Austronesian languages is complex
3.
Malayo-Polynesian languages
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The Malayo-Polynesian languages are a subgroup of the Austronesian languages, with approximately 385.5 million speakers. The Malayo-Polynesian languages are spoken by the Austronesian people of the nations of Southeast Asia. Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam serve as the northwest geographic outlier, on the northern most geographical outlier does not pass beyond the north of Pattani, which is located in southern Thailand. Malagasy is spoken in the island of Madagascar located off the eastern coast of Africa in the Indian Ocean, two morphological characteristics of the Malayo-Polynesian languages are a system of affixation and the reduplication to form new words. Like other Austronesian languages they have small phonemic inventories, thus a text has few, the majority also lack consonant clusters. Most also have only a set of vowels, five being a common number. The Philippine languages are spoken by around 100 million people and include Tagalog, Cebuano, Ilokano, Hiligaynon, Central Bikol, Waray, in Northern Borneo, the most widely spoken language is Kadazan-Dusun, with over 200, 000+ speakers. However, it does not align with any one branch, a 2008 analysis of the Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database suggests the closest connection is with Paiwan, though it only assigns that connection a 75% confidence level. Malayo-Polynesian consists of a number of small local language clusters, with the one exception being Oceanic. All other large groups within Malayo-Polynesian are disputed, the family has traditionally been divided into Western, Central, and Eastern branches. Although Nuclear MP was defined using syntactic data, it finds support from lexical data
4.
Nuclear Malayo-Polynesian languages
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The Nuclear Malayo-Polynesian languages are a branch of the Austronesian family, proposed by Wouk & Ross, that are thought to have dispersed from a possible homeland in Sulawesi. They are called nuclear because they are the core of the Malayo-Polynesian family. Nuclear Malayo-Polynesian is found throughout Indonesia, and into Melanesia and the Pacific, Nuclear Malayo-Polynesian languages are Malayo-Polynesian languages that have abandoned the Austronesian alignment inherited from Proto-Malayo-Polynesian syntax. Nuclear Malayo-Polynesian excludes the Borneo–Philippine languages, sunda–Sulawesi is therefore defined negatively, as those languages of the Greater Sunda Islands and Sulawesi not included in Central–Eastern Malayo-Polynesian. Central–Eastern is a group, divergent from the rest of Malayo-Polynesian due to non-Austronesian substrata rather than due to any genealogical relationship. There are a number of clusters of languages whose interrelationship remains uncertain. Grouped by geography, they are, Inner Western Malayo-Polynesian Central and southern Sulawesi Celebic languages, south Sulawesi languages, includes the Buginese language, and perhaps the Tamanic languages. Greater Sunda Islands Moken language, of the Burmese coast, northwest Sumatran languages, of north-central Sumatra and the Mentawai Islands. It is unclear if it includes the Enggano language, malayo-Sumbawan languages, of Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and Vietnam. Includes the Malay language, the Sundanese language, and the Balinese language and it might include the Sundanese language. Javanese language, of central and eastern Java, Western Pacific islands Palauan language, of Palau. Chamorro language, of the Mariana Islands, including Guam, moluccas, New Guinea, Oceania Central–Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages. Sumba–Flores languages, spoken on and around the islands of Sumbawa, Sumba, flores–Lembata languages, spoken in the Lesser Sundas, on eastern Flores and small islands immediately east of Flores. Selaru languages, spoken in the Tanimbar Islands of Indonesia, kei–Tanimbar languages, spoken in the Kei and Tanimbar Islands of the southern Malukus, and on the north side of the Bomberai Peninsula. Aru languages, spoken on the Aru Islands in Indonesia, Central Maluku languages, spoken principally on the Seram, Buru, Ambon, Kei, and the Sula Islands. Timoric, or Timor–Babar, languages, spoken on the islands of Timor, neighboring Wetar, kowiai language, spoken on the Bomberai Peninsula in New Guinea. Teor-Kur language, spoken near Kei Island, Indonesia, oceanic languages, spoken in Polynesia, as well as much of Melanesia and Micronesia. The position of Rejang in southwest Sumatra and newly discovered Nasal are as yet uncertain, Rejang may be a displaced Bornean Dayak language, and not Nuclear Malayo-Polynesian at all
5.
Batak languages
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The Batak languages are spoken by Batak of North Sumatra, Indonesia. Historically they were written using Batak script but the Latin script is now used for most writing, there are considered to be two main Batak language groups, Northern Batak and Southern Batak. Simalungun has been considered an intermediary, but more recent studies suggest that it is a part of the Southern Batak group, within Northern Batak, a study noted 76% cognate words between Karo and Batak, 81% with Pakpak, 80% with Simalungun, and 30% with Malay. Karo and Toba Batak are mutually unintelligible, Northern Batak, Pak-Pak Dairi, Karo Southern Batak, Simalungun, Angkola–Batak Mandailing, Batak Toba Mandailing and Angkola are closer related to each other than to Toba. The geographical influences on the Batak languages can be seen in the map to the right, Lake Toba separates the Karo from direct contact with the Toba. http, //unicode-table. com/en/sections/batak/
6.
Writing system
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A writing system is any conventional method of visually representing verbal communication. While both writing and speech are useful in conveying messages, writing differs in also being a form of information storage. The processes of encoding and decoding writing systems involve shared understanding between writers and readers of the meaning behind the sets of characters that make up a script, the general attributes of writing systems can be placed into broad categories such as alphabets, syllabaries, or logographies. Any particular system can have attributes of more than one category, in the alphabetic category, there is a standard set of letters of consonants and vowels that encode based on the general principle that the letters represent speech sounds. In a syllabary, each symbol correlates to a syllable or mora, in a logography, each character represents a word, morpheme, or other semantic units. Other categories include abjads, which differ from alphabets in that vowels are not indicated, alphabets typically use a set of 20-to-35 symbols to fully express a language, whereas syllabaries can have 80-to-100, and logographies can have several hundreds of symbols. Systems will also enable the stringing together of these groupings in order to enable a full expression of the language. The reading step can be accomplished purely in the mind as an internal process, writing systems were preceded by proto-writing, which used pictograms, ideograms and other mnemonic symbols. Proto-writing lacked the ability to capture and express a range of thoughts. Soon after, writing provided a form of long distance communication. With the advent of publishing, it provided the medium for a form of mass communication. Writing systems are distinguished from other possible symbolic communication systems in that a system is always associated with at least one spoken language. In contrast, visual representations such as drawings, paintings, and non-verbal items on maps, such as contour lines, are not language-related. Some other symbols, such as numerals and the ampersand, are not directly linked to any specific language, every human community possesses language, which many regard as an innate and defining condition of humanity. However, the development of writing systems, and the process by which they have supplanted traditional oral systems of communication, have been sporadic, uneven, once established, writing systems generally change more slowly than their spoken counterparts. Thus they often preserve features and expressions which are no current in the spoken language. One of the benefits of writing systems is that they can preserve a permanent record of information expressed in a language. In the examination of individual scripts, the study of writing systems has developed along partially independent lines, thus, the terminology employed differs somewhat from field to field
7.
Latin script
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Latin script is used as the standard method of writing in most Western and Central European languages, as well as in many languages in other parts of the world. Latin script is the basis for the largest number of alphabets of any writing system and is the most widely adopted writing system in the world, Latin script is also the basis of the International Phonetic Alphabet. The 26 most widespread letters are the contained in the ISO basic Latin alphabet. The script is either called Roman script or Latin script, in reference to its origin in ancient Rome, in the context of transliteration, the term romanization or romanisation is often found. Unicode uses the term Latin as does the International Organization for Standardization, the numeral system is called the Roman numeral system, and the collection of the elements, Roman numerals. The numbers 1,2,3. are Latin/Roman script numbers for the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, the Latin alphabet spread, along with Latin, from the Italian Peninsula to the lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea with the expansion of the Roman Empire. The Latin script also came into use for writing the West Slavic languages and several South Slavic languages, the speakers of East Slavic languages generally adopted Cyrillic along with Orthodox Christianity. The Serbian language uses both scripts, with Cyrillic predominating in official communication and Latin elsewhere, as determined by the Law on Official Use of the Language and Alphabet. As late as 1500, the Latin script was limited primarily to the languages spoken in Western, Northern, the Orthodox Christian Slavs of Eastern and Southeastern Europe mostly used Cyrillic, and the Greek alphabet was in use by Greek-speakers around the eastern Mediterranean. The Arabic script was widespread within Islam, both among Arabs and non-Arab nations like the Iranians, Indonesians, Malays, and Turkic peoples, most of the rest of Asia used a variety of Brahmic alphabets or the Chinese script. It is used for many Austronesian languages, including the languages of the Philippines, Latin letters served as the basis for the forms of the Cherokee syllabary developed by Sequoyah, however, the sound values are completely different. In the late 19th century, the Romanians returned to the Latin alphabet, under French rule and Portuguese missionary influence, a Latin alphabet was devised for the Vietnamese language, which had previously used Chinese characters. In 1928, as part of Mustafa Kemal Atatürks reforms, the new Republic of Turkey adopted a Latin alphabet for the Turkish language, kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Iranian-speaking Tajikistan, and the breakaway region of Transnistria kept the Cyrillic alphabet, chiefly due to their close ties with Russia. In the 1930s and 1940s, the majority of Kurds replaced the Arabic script with two Latin alphabets, although the only official Kurdish government uses an Arabic alphabet for public documents, the Latin Kurdish alphabet remains widely used throughout the region by the majority of Kurdish-speakers. In 2015, the Kazakh government announced that the Latin alphabet would replace Cyrillic as the system for the Kazakh language by 2025. In the course of its use, the Latin alphabet was adapted for use in new languages, sometimes representing phonemes not found in languages that were written with the Roman characters. These new forms are given a place in the alphabet by defining an alphabetical order or collation sequence, a digraph is a pair of letters used to write one sound or a combination of sounds that does not correspond to the written letters in sequence. Examples are ⟨ch⟩, ⟨ng⟩, ⟨rh⟩, ⟨sh⟩ in English, a trigraph is made up of three letters, like the German ⟨sch⟩, the Breton ⟨c’h⟩ or the Milanese ⟨oeu⟩
8.
Batak alphabet
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The script may be derived from the Kawi and Pallava script, ultimately derived from the Brahmi script of India, or from the hypothetical Proto-Sumatran script influenced by Pallava. In most Batak communities, only the priests, or datu were able to use the Batak script, soon after the first World War the missionaries decided to discontinue printing books in the Batak script. The script soon fell out of use and is now used for ornamental purposes. The Batak script was derived from Pallava and Old Kawi alphabets, which ultimately were derived from the Brahmi alphabet. Batak is written bottom to top within one column. Like most abugidas, each consonant has an inherent vowel of /a/, other vowels, final ŋ, and final velar fricative are indicated by diacritics, which appear above, below, or after the letter. For example, ba is written ba, bi is written ba. i, bang is written baŋ, final consonants are written with the pangolat, bam is ba. ma. #. However, bim is written ba. ma. i. #, the first diacritic belongs to the first consonant, and the second belongs to the second consonant, unlike most Brahmi-based scripts, Batak does not form consonant conjuncts. Each consonant has an inherent vowel of /a/, the script varies by region and language. The major variants are between Karo, Mandailing, Pakpak/Dairi, Simalungun/Timur, and Toba, Alternate forms, ^1 ^2 ^3 ^4 ^5 ^6 Diacritics are used to change the pronunciation of a letter, examples, ping, pong, peh, and pih. Vowel diacritics are reordered for closed syllables, consonants with no vowel are marked by the Batak pangolat or panongonan diacritic, depending on the language. When they are used for a syllable, both the vowel diacritic and the pangolat/panongonan are written at the end of the syllable. Examples of closed syllables using pangolat, Batak is normally written without spaces or punctuation, however, special marks or bindu are occasionally used. They vary greatly in size and design from manuscript to manuscript, Batak script was added to the Unicode Standard in October 2010 with the release of version 6.0. The Unicode block for Batak is U+1BC0–U+1BFF, Unicode fonts for Batak must handle several requirements to properly render text, Kozok, surat Batak, Sejarah Perkembangan Tulisan Batak, Berikut Pedoman Menulis Aksara Batak Dan Cap Si Singamangaraja XII. Everson, Michael, Kozok, Uli, N3320R, Proposal for encoding the Batak script in the UCS Kozok, archived from the original on 31 October 2002
9.
Wikipedia
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Wikipedia is a free online encyclopedia that aims to allow anyone to edit articles. Wikipedia is the largest and most popular reference work on the Internet and is ranked among the ten most popular websites. Wikipedia is owned by the nonprofit Wikimedia Foundation, Wikipedia was launched on January 15,2001, by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger. Sanger coined its name, a portmanteau of wiki and encyclopedia, There was only the English language version initially, but it quickly developed similar versions in other languages, which differ in content and in editing practices. With 5,377,348 articles, the English Wikipedia is the largest of the more than 290 Wikipedia encyclopedias, in 2005, Nature published a peer review comparing 42 science articles from Encyclopædia Britannica and Wikipedia, and found that Wikipedias level of accuracy approached Encyclopædia Britannicas. Other collaborative online encyclopedias were attempted before Wikipedia, but none were so successful, Wikipedia began as a complementary project for Nupedia, a free online English-language encyclopedia project whose articles were written by experts and reviewed under a formal process. Nupedia was founded on March 9,2000, under the ownership of Bomis and its main figures were Jimmy Wales, the CEO of Bomis, and Larry Sanger, editor-in-chief for Nupedia and later Wikipedia. Nupedia was licensed initially under its own Nupedia Open Content License, while Wales is credited with defining the goal of making a publicly editable encyclopedia, Sanger is credited with the strategy of using a wiki to reach that goal. On January 10,2001, Sanger proposed on the Nupedia mailing list to create a wiki as a project for Nupedia. Wikipedia was launched on January 15,2001, as a single English-language edition at www. wikipedia. com, Wikipedias policy of neutral point-of-view was codified in its first months. Otherwise, there were few rules initially and Wikipedia operated independently of Nupedia. Originally, Bomis intended to make Wikipedia a business for profit, Wikipedia gained early contributors from Nupedia, Slashdot postings, and web search engine indexing. By August 8,2001, Wikipedia had over 8,000 articles, on September 25,2001, Wikipedia had over 13,000 articles. By the end of 2001, it had grown to approximately 20,000 articles and 18 language editions and it had reached 26 language editions by late 2002,46 by the end of 2003, and 161 by the final days of 2004. Nupedia and Wikipedia coexisted until the servers were taken down permanently in 2003. Citing fears of commercial advertising and lack of control in Wikipedia and these moves encouraged Wales to announce that Wikipedia would not display advertisements, and to change Wikipedias domain from wikipedia. com to wikipedia. org. Around 1,800 articles were added daily to the encyclopedia in 2006, a team at the Palo Alto Research Center attributed this slowing of growth to the projects increasing exclusivity and resistance to change. Others suggest that the growth is flattening naturally because articles that could be called low-hanging fruit—topics that clearly merit an article—have already been created, the Wall Street Journal cited the array of rules applied to editing and disputes related to such content among the reasons for this trend
10.
Austronesian
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The Austronesian languages are a language family that is widely dispersed throughout Maritime Southeast Asia, Madagascar and the islands of the Pacific Ocean, with a few members in continental Asia. It is on par with Indo-European, Niger–Congo, and Afroasiatic as one of the language families. Major Austronesian languages with the highest number of speakers are Malay, Javanese, the family contains 1,257 languages, which is the second most of any language family. Otto Dempwolff was the first researcher to extensively explore Austronesian using the comparative method, another German, Wilhelm Schmidt, coined the German word austronesisch which comes from Latin auster south wind plus Greek nêsos island. The name Austronesian was formed from the same roots, the family is aptly named, as the vast majority of Austronesian languages are spoken on islands, only a few languages, such as Malay and the Chamic languages, are indigenous to mainland Asia. Twenty or so Austronesian languages are official in their respective countries, hawaiian, Rapa Nui, and Malagasy are the geographic outliers of the Austronesian family. According to Robert Blust, Austronesian is divided in several branches, all. The Formosan languages of Taiwan are grouped into as many as nine first-order subgroups of Austronesian, all Austronesian languages spoken outside Taiwan belong to the Malayo-Polynesian branch, sometimes called Extra-Formosan. Most Austronesian languages lack a long history of attestation, making the feat of reconstructing earlier stages – up to distant Proto-Austronesian – all the more remarkable. The oldest inscription in the Cham language, the Đông Yên Châu inscription and it is difficult to make generalizations about the languages that make up a family as diverse as Austronesian. The phenomenon has frequently referred to as focus. Furthermore, the choice of voice is influenced by the definiteness of the participants, the word order has a strong tendency to be verb-initial. They are also characterized by the presence of preposed clitic pronouns, unlike the Philippine type, these languages mostly tend towards verb-second word-orders. A number of languages, such as the Batak languages, Old Javanese, Balinese, Sasak, finally, in some languages, which Ross calls post-Indonesian, the original voice system has broken down completely and the voice-marking affixes no longer preserve their functions. The Austronesian languages tend to use reduplication, like many East and Southeast Asian languages, most Austronesian languages have highly restrictive phonotactics, with generally small numbers of phonemes and predominantly consonant–vowel syllables. Some cognate sets are very stable, the word for eye in many Austronesian languages is mata. Other words are harder to reconstruct, the word for two is also stable, in that it appears over the entire range of the Austronesian family, but the forms require some linguistic expertise to recognise. The Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database gives word lists for approximately 1000 Austronesian languages, the internal structure of the Austronesian languages is complex
11.
Language
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Language is the ability to acquire and use complex systems of communication, particularly the human ability to do so, and a language is any specific example of such a system. The scientific study of language is called linguistics, questions concerning the philosophy of language, such as whether words can represent experience, have been debated since Gorgias and Plato in Ancient Greece. Thinkers such as Rousseau have argued that language originated from emotions while others like Kant have held that it originated from rational and logical thought, 20th-century philosophers such as Wittgenstein argued that philosophy is really the study of language. Major figures in linguistics include Ferdinand de Saussure and Noam Chomsky, estimates of the number of languages in the world vary between 5,000 and 7,000. However, any precise estimate depends on an arbitrary distinction between languages and dialects. Natural languages are spoken or signed, but any language can be encoded into secondary media using auditory, visual, or tactile stimuli – for example, in whistling, signed and this is because human language is modality-independent. All languages rely on the process of semiosis to relate signs to particular meanings, human language has the properties of productivity and displacement, and relies entirely on social convention and learning. Its complex structure affords a wider range of expressions than any known system of animal communication. Language is processed in different locations in the human brain. Humans acquire language through interaction in early childhood, and children generally speak fluently when they are approximately three years old. The use of language is deeply entrenched in human culture, a group of languages that descend from a common ancestor is known as a language family. The languages of the Dravidian family that are mostly in Southern India include Tamil. Academic consensus holds that between 50% and 90% of languages spoken at the beginning of the 21st century will probably have become extinct by the year 2100. The English word language derives ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *dn̥ǵʰwéh₂s tongue, speech, language through Latin lingua, language, tongue, and Old French language. The word is used to refer to codes, ciphers. Unlike conventional human languages, a language in this sense is a system of signs for encoding and decoding information. This article specifically concerns the properties of human language as it is studied in the discipline of linguistics. As an object of study, language has two primary meanings, an abstract concept, and a specific linguistic system, e. g. French
12.
North Sumatra
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North Sumatra, is a province of Indonesia. It is located on the island of Sumatra, and its capital is Medan, after independence, the first session of the National Committee of Regions, Sumatra was then divided into three sub-provinces namely North Sumatra, Central Sumatra and South Sumatra. North Sumatra province itself is an amalgamation of three regions called residency namely, Residency of Aceh, East Sumatra Residency, and residency of Tapanuli. With the publication of the Law of the Republic of Indonesia No, date 15 April 1948 subsequently determined as the anniversary of North Sumatra Province. In early 1949, the reorganization of government back in Sumatra, with the decision of the Government Emergency R. I. No.22 / Govt / Emergency Government on May 17,1949, furthermore, the Government Emergency Decree R. I. on December 17,1949, established the province of Aceh and Tapanuli Province / East Sumatra. Then, with a Government Regulation in lieu of Law No.5 Year 1950 on August 14,1950, such provisions shall be lifted and reshaped North Sumatra Province. No.24 of 1956, promulgated on December 7,1956, established an autonomous region of Aceh province, the province of North Sumatra stretches across the island of Sumatra between the Indian Ocean and the Strait Malacca. It borders Aceh province on the northwest and Riau and West Sumatra provinces in the southeast and it has an area of 72,981 km². The province contains a broad, low plain along the Strait of Malacca on which the provincial capital, Medan, is located. In the south and west, the rises to the mountain range that runs the length of Sumatra. Several large islands in the Indian Ocean off the west coast of Sumatra are currently part of North Sumatra, most notably Nias Island, there are 419 islands in propisi North Sumatra. The outer islands is the island Simuk, and the island Berhala in the Strait of Sumatra, Nias archipelago consists of the island as the main island and other smaller islands in the vicinity. Nias Islands located off the coast of western Indian Ocean, administration center located in Gunung Sitoli. Batu Islands consist of 51 islands with four islands, Sibuasi, Pini, Tanahbala. Pulautelo administrative center on the island Sibuasi, Batu Islands located in the southeast of the island of Nias. Other islands in the North Sumatra, Imanna, Pasu, Bawa, Hamutaia, Batumakalele, Lego, Masa, Bau, Simaleh, Makole, Jake, in North Sumatra, there are currently two national parks, the Gunung Leuser National Park and Batang Gadis National Park. According to the Ministerial Decree, No.44 of 2005, but this figure character is de jure alone
13.
Indonesia
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Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is the worlds 14th-largest country in terms of area and worlds 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea. It has an population of over 260 million people and is the worlds fourth most populous country. The worlds most populous island, Java, contains more than half of the countrys population, Indonesias republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president. Indonesia has 34 provinces, of which five have Special Administrative status and its capital and countrys most populous city is Jakarta, which is also the most populous city in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, tin, copper, agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices and rubber. Indonesias major trading partners are Japan, United States, China, the Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Indonesia consists of hundreds of native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese, a shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesias national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, articulates the diversity that shapes the country, Indonesias economy is the worlds 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP, the largest in Southeast Asia, and is considered an emerging market and newly industrialised country. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia is a member of the G20 major economies and World Trade Organization. The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indós, the name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, in the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia, they preferred Malay Archipelago, the Netherlands East Indies, popularly Indië, the East, and Insulinde
14.
Lake Toba
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Lake Toba is a large natural lake occupying the caldera of a supervolcano. The lake is about 100 kilometres long,30 kilometres wide and it is the largest lake in Indonesia and also the largest volcanic lake in the world. Lake Toba is the site of a massive supervolcanic eruption estimated at VEI8 that occurred 69,000 to 77,000 years ago and it is the largest known explosive eruption on Earth in the last 25 million years. It has been accepted that the eruption of Toba led to a winter with a worldwide decrease in temperature between 3 to 5 °C, and up to 15 °C in higher latitudes. The Toba caldera complex in Northern Sumatra, comprises four overlapping volcanic craters that adjoin the Sumatran volcanic front, the fourth and youngest caldera is the worlds largest Quaternary caldera and intersects the three older calderas. Following this eruption, a resurgent dome formed within the new caldera, at least four cones, four stratovolcanoes, and three craters are visible in the lake. The Tandukbenua cone on the edge of the caldera has only sparse vegetation. Also, the Pusubukit volcano on the edge of the caldera is solfatarically active and is a Geology Sanctuary. The Toba eruption occurred at what is now Lake Toba about 75000±900 years ago and it was the last in a series of at least four caldera-forming eruptions at this location, with earlier calderas having formed around 788000±2200 years ago. This last eruption had an estimated VEI=8, making it the largest known volcanic eruption within the last 25 million years. However, based on the new method, Toba possibly erupted 3200 km³ of ignimbrite and co-ignimbrite, the pyroclastic flows of the eruption destroyed an area of least 20,000 km2, with ash deposits as thick as 600 m by the main vent. In addition it has been calculated that 10,000 million tonnes of sulfurous acid or 6,000 million tonnes of sulfur dioxide were ejected into the atmosphere by the event. The subsequent collapse formed a caldera that, after filling with water, the island in the center of the lake is formed by a resurgent dome. The eruption lasted perhaps two weeks, and the ensuing volcanic winter resulted in a decrease in global temperatures by 3.0 to 3.5 °C for several years. Greenland ice cores record a pulse of starkly reduced levels of carbon sequestration. Very few plants or animals in southeast Asia would have survived, however, the global cooling has been discussed by Rampino and Self. Their conclusion is that the cooling had already started before Tobas eruption and this conclusion was supported by Lane and Zielinski who studied the lake-core from Africa and GISP2. They concluded that there was no volcanic winter after Toba eruption, however, this hypothesis is not widely accepted because similar effects on other animal species have not been observed, and paleoanthropology suggests there was no population bottleneck
15.
Herman Neubronner van der Tuuk
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Herman Neubronner van der Tuuk was a Bible translator and linguist specialising in the languages of the Dutch East Indies. Van der Tuuk was born in Malacca, where his father and her surname being Neubronner, it was added as a middle name to “Herman”. In 1825, the Treaty of London took effect, and Malacca became British in exchange for Bengkulu, as a consequence, the Van der Tuuk family moved to Surabaya on the Isle of Java. At the age of twelve, Van der Tuuk was sent to the Netherlands. He read law, but his interests were in the field of linguistics, juynboll, a famous scholar in Arabic studies. Van der Tuuk also read Sanskrit and acquired a thorough grounding in Malay, linguistic activities in the Dutch East Indies were motivated by missionary activities until well into the nineteenth century. Linguistic studies were taken up with a view to translating the Bible into Indonesian languages, by the middle of the nineteenth century, religious linguists were ready to turn to research into other indigenous languages and to translate the Bible into them. One of the first languages chosen for this purpose was Batak, the choice was motivated by political motives as well as religious ones. Another motive was the desire to keep Islam in check and it was assumed they would be more receptive to conversion than those already Islamised. Among these interior tribes were the Batak, protestant mission from the Netherlands was in the hands of Nederlands Bijbel Genootschap. In the end, he opted for Toba Batak, Van der Tuuk reached Java in 1849. He at once fell ill, and indeed was to be haunted by various diseases. They declined, the reason probably being that they had learnt about his condition, in 1851, he had recovered sufficiently to be able to depart for the Batak regions. By way of Padang, he reached the village of Siboga. Many inhabitants were coastal Malays, and for closer contact with Batak and he did not succeed before 1852, when he traveled inland some sixty miles. Later, he was to another trip inland, becoming the first European to set eyes on Lake Toba. By that time he had settled in the northern coastal town of Baroes. His assignment had a component as well as a practical one
16.
Bible
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The Bible is a collection of sacred texts or scriptures that Jews and Christians consider to be a product of divine inspiration and a record of the relationship between God and humans. Many different authors contributed to the Bible, what is regarded as canonical text differs depending on traditions and groups, a number of Bible canons have evolved, with overlapping and diverging contents. The Christian Old Testament overlaps with the Hebrew Bible and the Greek Septuagint, the New Testament is a collection of writings by early Christians, believed to be mostly Jewish disciples of Christ, written in first-century Koine Greek. These early Christian Greek writings consist of narratives, letters, among Christian denominations there is some disagreement about the contents of the canon, primarily the Apocrypha, a list of works that are regarded with varying levels of respect. Attitudes towards the Bible also differ amongst Christian groups and this concept arose during the Protestant Reformation, and many denominations today support the use of the Bible as the only source of Christian teaching. With estimated total sales of over 5 billion copies, the Bible is widely considered to be the book of all time. It has estimated sales of 100 million copies, and has been a major influence on literature and history, especially in the West. The English word Bible is from the Latin biblia, from the word in Medieval Latin and Late Latin. Medieval Latin biblia is short for biblia sacra holy book, while biblia in Greek and it gradually came to be regarded as a feminine singular noun in medieval Latin, and so the word was loaned as a singular into the vernaculars of Western Europe. Latin biblia sacra holy books translates Greek τὰ βιβλία τὰ ἅγια ta biblia ta hagia, the word βιβλίον itself had the literal meaning of paper or scroll and came to be used as the ordinary word for book. It is the diminutive of βύβλος byblos, Egyptian papyrus, possibly so called from the name of the Phoenician sea port Byblos from whence Egyptian papyrus was exported to Greece, the Greek ta biblia was an expression Hellenistic Jews used to describe their sacred books. Christian use of the term can be traced to c.223 CE, bruce notes that Chrysostom appears to be the first writer to use the Greek phrase ta biblia to describe both the Old and New Testaments together. The division of the Hebrew Bible into verses is based on the sof passuk cantillation mark used by the 10th-century Masoretes to record the verse divisions used in oral traditions. The oldest extant copy of a complete Bible is an early 4th-century parchment book preserved in the Vatican Library, the oldest copy of the Tanakh in Hebrew and Aramaic dates from the 10th century CE. The oldest copy of a complete Latin Bible is the Codex Amiatinus and he states that it is not a magical book, nor was it literally written by God and passed to mankind. In Christian Bibles, the New Testament Gospels were derived from traditions in the second half of the first century CE. Riches says that, Scholars have attempted to reconstruct something of the history of the oral traditions behind the Gospels, the period of transmission is short, less than 40 years passed between the death of Jesus and the writing of Marks Gospel. This means that there was time for oral traditions to assume fixed form
17.
Colonialism
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Colonialism is the establishment of a colony in one territory by a political power from another territory, and the subsequent maintenance, expansion, and exploitation of that colony. The term is used to describe a set of unequal relationships between the colonial power and the colony and often between the colonists and the indigenous peoples. The European colonial period was the era from the 16th century to the century when several European powers established colonies in Asia, Africa. At first the countries followed a policy of mercantilism, designed to strengthen the economy at the expense of rivals. By the mid-19th century, however, the powerful British Empire gave up mercantilism and trade restrictions and introduced the principle of free trade, collins English Dictionary defines colonialism as the policy and practice of a power in extending control over weaker peoples or areas. The Merriam-Webster Dictionary offers four definitions, including something characteristic of a colony, in the book, Osterhammel asks, How can colonialism be defined independently from colony. He settles on a definition, Colonialism is a relationship between an indigenous majority and a minority of foreign invaders. The fundamental decisions affecting the lives of the people are made. Rejecting cultural compromises with the population, the colonizers are convinced of their own superiority. Historians often distinguish between two overlapping forms of colonialism, Settler colonialism involves large-scale immigration, often motivated by religious, political, exploitation colonialism involves fewer colonists and focuses on access to resources for export, typically to the metropole. Surrogate colonialism involves a settlement project supported by a colonial power, internal colonialism is a notion of uneven structural power between areas of a state. The source of exploitation comes from within the state, as colonialism often played out in pre-populated areas, sociocultural evolution included the formation of various ethnically hybrid populations. In fact, everywhere where colonial powers established a consistent and continued presence, notable examples in Asia include the Anglo-Burmese, Anglo-Indian, Burgher, Eurasian Singaporean, Filipino mestizo, Kristang and Macanese peoples. In the Dutch East Indies the vast majority of Dutch settlers were in fact Eurasians known as Indo-Europeans, the Other, or othering is the process of creating a separate entity to persons or groups who are labelled as different or non-normal due to the repetition of characteristics. Othering is the creation from those who discriminate, to distinguish, label, several scholars in recent decades developed the notion of the other as an epistemological concept in social theory. For example, postcolonial scholars, believed that colonizing powers explained an ‘other’ who were there to dominate, civilize, political geographers explain how colonial/ imperial powers othered places they wanted to dominate to legalize their exploitation of the land. During the rise of colonialism and after, post colonialism, the Western powers perspectives of the East as the other, different and this viewpoint and separation of culture had divided the Eastern and Western culture creating a dominant/ subordinate dynamic, both being the other towards themselves. The word metropole comes from the Greek metropolis —mother city, the word colony comes from the Latin colonia—a place for agriculture
18.
Sumatra
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Sumatra is a large island in western Indonesia that is part of the Sunda Islands. It is the largest island that is entirely in Indonesia and the sixth-largest island in the world at 473,481 km2, Sumatra is an elongated landmass spanning a diagonal northwest-southeast axis. The Indian Ocean borders the west, northwest, and southwest sides of Sumatra with the chain of Simeulue, Nias. On the northeast side the narrow Strait of Malacca separates the island from the Malay Peninsula, on the southeast the narrow Sunda Strait separates Sumatra from Java. The northern tip of Sumatra borders the Andaman Islands, while on the eastern side are the islands of Bangka and Belitung, Karimata Strait. The Bukit Barisan mountains, which several active volcanoes, form the backbone of the island, while the northeast sides are outlying lowlands with swamps, mangrove. The equator crosses the island at its center on West Sumatra, the climate of the island is tropical, hot and humid with lush tropical rain forest once dominating the landscape. Sumatra was known in ancient times by the Sanskrit names of Swarnadwīpa and Swarnabhūmi, the first word mentioning the name of Sumatra was the name of Srivijayan Haji Sumatrabhumi, who sent an envoy to China in 1017. Arab geographers referred to the island as Lamri in the tenth through thirteenth centuries, late in the 14th century the name Sumatra became popular in reference to the kingdom of Samudra Pasai, which was a rising power until it was replaced by Sultanate of Aceh. Sultan Alauddin Shah of Aceh, on letters written in 1602 addressed to Queen Elizabeth I of England, referred to himself as king of Aceh, the word itself is from Sanskrit Samudra, meaning gathering together of waters, sea or ocean. European writers in the 19th century found that the inhabitants did not have a name for the island. The Melayu Kingdom was absorbed by Srivijaya, Srivijaya was a Buddhist monarchy centred in what is now Palembang. Dominating the region trade and conquest throughout the 7th to 9th centuries. The empire was a thalassocracy or maritime power that extended its influence from island to island, Palembang was a center for scholarly learning, and it was there the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim I Ching studied Sanskrit in 671 CE before departing for India. On his journey to China, he spent four years in Palembang translating Buddhist texts, Srivijayan influence waned in the 11th century after it was defeated by the Chola Empire of southern India. At the same time, Islam made its way to Sumatra through Arabs, by the late 13th century, the monarch of the Samudra kingdom had converted to Islam. Marco Polo visited the island in 1292, and Ibn Battuta visited twice during 1345–1346, Samudra was succeeded by the powerful Aceh Sultanate, which survived to the 20th century. With the coming of the Dutch, the many Sumatran princely states fell under their control
19.
Christiaan Benjamin Nieuwenhuis
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Christiaan Benjamin Nieuwenhuis, known as C. B. Nieuwenhuis, was a photographer in the Dutch East Indies. He was born in Amsterdam in 1863 and his surname was Niewenhuis. He volunteered for the militia in Batavia, Java in December 1883 for a six year stint as a member of the Royal Military Band, in December 1889, he extended his contract for one more year. He left the army in December 1890, in Batavia, he seemed to have worked at the Koene & Co. photo-studio and later left to Padang on West-Sumatra where he founded his own photo studio in February 1891. He died in Padang in April 1922
20.
Verb-initial word order
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In syntax, verb-initial word order is an order in which the verb appears before the subject and the object. In the more sense, this term is used specifically to describe the word order of V1 languages. V1 clauses only occur in V1 languages and other languages with a dominant V1 order displaying other properties that correlate with verb-initiality, V1 languages are estimated to make up 12-19% of the world’s languages. V1 languages constitute a group from different language families. Some languages are strictly VSO, for example Q’anjob’al, others are strictly VOS, for example Malagasy. Many alternate between VSO and VOS, an example being Ojibwe, the following examples illustrate the rigid VOS and VSO languages and the VOS/VSO-alternating languages. Q’anjob’al Malagasy Ojibwe VSO order, VOS order, Verb-initial languages pattern with SVO languages on many of their word orders, the similarity between the word orders typical for both verb-initial languages and SVO languages has led many typologists to refer to all of these languages as simply VO. Russell Tomlin argued that there are three cognitively grounded principles which can account for the distributions of the frequencies of word order in human languages. Thus, languages where the object comes before the subject are rare, a common analysis for V1 word order is the head-raising of the verb from a base-generated SVO sentence into a position higher than the subject. This is a proposal for Irish and other Celtic languages. The V0 raising account has also proposed for a number of Austronesian languages. To derive VSO word order, the verb raises through head movement, deriving VOS order through V head-raising is less straightforward. The common solution is scrambling, which has proposed for deriving Tongan. The scrambling mechanism involves the object moving to a position, such as Spec, TP. The head-movement analysis is motivated by ellipsis data in Celtic and Semitic languages, in Irish, elliding all postverbal arguments is possible, suggesting that the subject and the verb belong to one functional projection, and the verb is outside of it. In Tagalog, there can be adverbs between the verb and the object in VOS order, implying that the verb and the object can be separated, and do not form a constituent. In Tongan, there is an asymmetry between case-marked arguments and clitic pronouns, the clitics surface pre-verbally, whereas the case-marked nouns can only surface post-verbally. Otsuka proposed that the subject clitic undergoes head-movement to T0, and attaches to the verb, whereas the case-marked subject moves to Spec and he concludes that only verb head-movement can explain such a syntactic asymmetry in Tongan
21.
Tagalog language
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Tagalog is an Austronesian language spoken as a first language by a quarter of the population of the Philippines and as a second language by the majority. Its standardized form, officially named Filipino, is officially the national language, the word Tagalog is derived from the endonym taga-log, composed of tagá- and ilog. Linguists such as Dr. David Zorc and Dr. Robert Blust speculate that the Tagalogs, the first written record of Tagalog is the Laguna Copperplate Inscription, which dates to 900 CE and exhibits fragments of the language along with Sanskrit, Old Malay, Javanese and Old Tagalog. The first known book to be written in Tagalog is the Doctrina Christiana. Tagalog differs from its Central Philippine counterparts with its treatment of the Proto-Philippine schwa vowel *ə, in Bikol and Visayan, this sound merged with /u/ and. In Tagalog, it has merged with /i/, for example, Proto-Philippine *dəkət is Tagalog dikít and Visayan & Bikol dukot. Proto-Philippine *r, *j, and *z merged with /d/ but is /l/ between vowels, Proto-Philippine *ŋajan and *hajək became Tagalog ngalan and halík. Proto-Philippine *R merged with /ɡ/. *tubiR and *zuRuʔ became Tagalog tubig, the first substantial dictionary of the Tagalog language was written by the Czech Jesuit missionary Pablo Clain in the beginning of the 18th century. Clain spoke Tagalog and used it actively in several of his books and he wrote the first dictionary, which he later passed over to Francisco Jansens and José Hernandez. Tagalog was declared the language by the first constitution in the Philippines. In 1939, President Quezon renamed the proposed Tagalog-based national language as wikang pambansâ, in 1959, the language was further renamed as Pilipino. The 1987 constitution designated Filipino as the national language mandating that as it evolves, it shall be developed and enriched on the basis of existing Philippine. The regional languages are the official languages in the regions. In secondary school, Filipino and English become the primary languages of instruction and it is the first language by a quarter of the population of the Philippines and a second language by the majority. Tagalog is a Central Philippine language within the Austronesian language family, being Malayo-Polynesian, it is related to other Austronesian languages, such as Malagasy, Javanese, Malay, Tetum, and Yami. It is closely related to the languages spoken in the Bicol Region and the Visayas islands, such as the Bikol group and the Visayan group, including Hiligaynon and Cebuano. At present, no comprehensive dialectology has been done in the Tagalog-speaking regions, though there have been descriptions in the form of dictionaries and grammars of various Tagalog dialects. Some example of differences are, Many Tagalog dialects, particularly those in the south, preserve the glottal stop found after consonants
22.
Ethnologue
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Ethnologue, Languages of the World is a web-based publication that contains information about the 7,099 living languages in its 20th edition, which was released in 2017. The publication is well respected and widely used by linguists, Ethnologue is published by SIL International, a Christian linguistic service organization with an international office in Dallas, Texas. Ethnologue follows general linguistic criteria, which are based primarily on mutual intelligibility, shared language intelligibility features are complex, and usually include etymological and grammatical evidence that is agreed upon by experts. These lists of names are not necessarily complete, in 1984, Ethnologue released a three-letter coding system, called an SIL code, to identify each language that it described. This set of codes significantly exceeded the scope of other standards, e. g. ISO 639-1, the 14th edition, published in 2000, included 7,148 language codes. In 2002, Ethnologue was asked to work with the International Organization for Standardization to integrate its codes into an international standard. The 15th edition of Ethnologue was the first edition to use this standard and this standard is now administered separately from Ethnologue according to rules established by ISO, and since then Ethnologue relies on the standard to determine what is listed as a language. e. A language with which no-one retains a sense of ethnic identity, in December 2015, Ethnologue launched a soft paywall, users in high-income countries who want to refer to more than seven pages of data per month must buy a paid subscription. Ethnologues 18th edition describes 228 language families and six typological categories, in 1986, William Bright, then editor of the journal Language, wrote of Ethnologue that it is indispensable for any reference shelf on the languages of the world. In 2008 in the journal, Lyle Campbell and Verónica Grondona said, Ethnologue. has become the standard reference. However, he concluded that, on balance, Ethnologue is a comprehensive catalogue of world languages. Starting with the 17th edition, new editions of Ethnologue are to be published every year, linguasphere Observatory Register Glottolog Lists of languages List of language families Martin Everaert, Simon Musgrave, Alexis Dimitriadis, eds. The Use of Databases in Cross-Linguistic Studies, linguistic Genocide in Education-or Worldwide Diversity and Human Rights. Evaluating language statistics, the Ethnologue and beyond
23.
Malayo-Sumbawan languages
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If valid, it would be the largest demonstrated family of Malayo-Polynesian outside Oceanic. Javanese has similarities with Balinese and Sasak of the Lesser Sundas, thus Balinese and Sasak are included in Malayo-Sumbawan, while Javanese is excluded. Sundanese appears to share sound changes specifically with Lampung, but Lampung does not fit into Adelaars Malayo-Sumbawan, K. Alexander Adelaar and Nikolaus Himmelmann, The Austronesian languages of Asia and Madagascar
24.
Sundanese language
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Sundanese /sʌndəˈniːz/ is the language of about 39 million people from the western third of Java or about 15% of the Indonesian population. Sundanese appears to be most Closely related to Madurese and Malay, priangan, which covers the largest area of Sunda, is the most widely spoken type of Sundanese language, taught in elementary till senior-high schools in West Java and Banten Province. Sundanese can be written in different writing systems, the Old Sundanese script and Pegon in historical times, and in times the Latin script. There are seven vowels, a /ɑ/, é /ɛ/, i /i/, o /ɔ/, u /ʊ/, e /ə/, and eu /ɤ/. The consonantal phonemes are transcribed with the p, b, t, d, k, g, c, j /d͡ʒ/, h, ng, ny /ɲ/, m, n, s /s/, w, l, r /r~ɾ/. Other consonants that appear in Indonesian loanwords are mostly transferred into native consonants, f → p, v → p, sy → s, sh → s, z → j. However, Sundanese inserts the ar infix into the stem word, if the stem word starts with l, or contains r following the infix, the infix ar becomes al. Also, as with other Sundanese infixes, if the word starts with vowel, examples, Mangga A, tarahuna haneut keneh, The plural form of tahu tofu is formed by infixing ar after the initial consonant. Barudak leutik lalumpatan, formed from budak with the ar infix and modified to barudak to create plural child, ieu kaen batik aralus sadayana, formed from alus with the infix ar that becomes a prefix because alus starts with a vowel. It denotes the adjective beautiful for the plural subject/noun, siswa sakola eta mah balageur, formed from bageur with the infix ar to denote the adjective well-behaved for plural students. However, it is reported that use of al instead of ar does not to occur if the r is in onset of a neighbouring syllable. For example, the form of the adjective curiga is caruriga and not *caluriga. The prefix can be repeated twice to denote very-, or the plural of groups, for example, bararudak denotes many, many children or many groups of children. Another example, balalageur denotes plural adjective of very well-behaved, most of active form in Sundanese verb are in their root verb like diuk or dahar. Explanation, From the above example, henteu is used for negative term, buku abdi mah sanes nu ieu. Explanation, From the above example, sanes is used for negative term, Dupi - example, saya Polite- Dupi Bapa aya di bumi. Explanation, dibantun and ngabantun The other examples, Pulpen ditambut ku abdi, soal ieu digawekeun ku abdi. example, teuas, tiis, hipu, lada, haneut, etc
25.
Madurese language
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The Kangean dialect may be a separate language. It was traditionally written in the Javanese script, but the Latin script, the number of speakers, though shrinking, is estimated to be 8–13 million, making it one of the most widely spoken language in the country. A variant of Madurese that is Bawean is also spoken by Baweanese descendants in Malaysia, Madurese is a Malayo-Sumbawan language of the Malayo-Polynesian language family, a branch of the larger Austronesian language family. Thus, despite apparent geographic spread, Madurese is more related to Balinese, Malay, Sasak, and Sundanese, than it is to Javanese, links between Bali–Sasak languages and Madurese are more evident with the low form. There are some words between Madurese and Filipino languages as well as between Madurese and Banjar. Madurese has more consonants than its neighboring languages due to it having voiceless unaspirated, voiceless aspirated, similar to Javanese, it has a contrast between dental and alveolar stops. Madurese nouns are not inflected for gender and are pluralized via reduplication and its basic word order is subject–verb–object. Negation is expressed by putting a negative particle before the verb, as with other similar languages, there are different negative particles for different kinds of negation. From the Article 1 of the Declaration of Human Rights, sadajana oreng lahir mardika e sarenge drajat klaban hak-hak se dha-padha. Sadajana eparenge akal sareng nurani ban kodu areng-sareng akanca kadi taretan, all Human Beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights, they are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood
26.
Acehnese language
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Acehnese language is a Malayo-Polynesian language spoken by Acehnese people natively in Aceh, Sumatra, Indonesia. This language is spoken in some parts of Malaysia by Acehnese descendents there, such as in Yan. As of 1988, Acehnese is the modern English name spelling and the bibliographical standard, Achinese is an antiquated spelling of the English language tradition. Atjehnese is the Dutch spelling and an outdated Indonesian one, the spelling Achehnese originates from a 1906 English translation of the Dutch language Studien over atjesche klank- en schriftleer. Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 35. 346-442 by Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje,1892, in Acehnese the language is called Basa/Bahsa Acèh. In Indonesian it is called Bahasa Aceh, Acehnese belongs to the Malayo-Polynesian branch of Austronesian. Acehneses closest relatives are the other Chamic languages, which are spoken in Vietnam. Paul Sidwell notes that Acehnese likely has an Austroasiatic substratum, Acehnese language is located primarily in coastal region of Aceh. In addition to the modern 26 letter basic Latin alphabet, Acehnese uses the supplementary letters è, é, ë, ô, the table below shows the Acehnese consonant phonemes and the range of their realizations. They are distinct from the nasal-stop sequences /mb/, /nd/, /ɲɟ/, /ŋɡ/, Acehnese features a split ergative system. Intransitives that align with the agent of a transitive verb always show agreement by a proclitic, meanwhile, intransitives that align with the patient of a transitive verb may optionally show agreement by an enclitic. Volitionality is the factor for whether an intransitive verb is Sa or Sp. Formerly, the Acehnese language was written in an Arabic script called Jawoë or Jawi in the Malay language, the script is less common nowadays. Since colonization by the Dutch, the Acehnese language has been written in the Latin script, the additional letters are é, è, ë, ö and ô. The sound ɨ is represented by eu and the sound ʌ is represented by ö, the letter ë is used to represent the schwa sound which forms the second part of diphthongs. The letters f, q, v, x, and z are used in loanwords. So far there has no complete research about dialects of the Acehnese language. However, there are at least 10 dialects in the Acehnese language, the dialects are Pasè, Peusangan, Matang, Pidië, Buëng, Banda, Daya, Meulabôh, Seunagan and Tunong
27.
Rade language
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Rade, is a Malayo-Polynesian language of southern Vietnam. There may be some speakers in Cambodia and it is a member of the Chamic branch of Malayo-Sumbawan languages, and is closely related to the Cham language of central Vietnam. Đoàn Văn Phúc lists 9 dialects of Ede and they are spoken mostly in Đắk Lắk Province in the Central Highlands region of Vietnam. Kpă, spoken throughout Buôn Ma Thuột Krung, spoken in Ea Hleo, tam Nguyen reported that there are only 10 speakers of Bih out of an ethnic population of about 400 people. A patrilineal Ede subgroup known as the Hmok or Hmok Pai is found in the Buôn Ma Thuột area, Đoàn Văn Phúc provides the following classification for the Ede dialects. Đoàn also provides a 1, 000-word vocabulary list for all of the 9 Ede dialects, Area 1 Area 1.1, Krung, Kpă, Adham Area 1.2, Drao. Êpan, Ktul Blô Area 2 Mdhur Bih Đoàn Văn Phúc assigns the following cognacy percentages for comparisons between Ede Kpă and the other 8 dialects of Ede, with Bih as the most divergent Ede dialect. Kpă - Krung,85. 5% Kpă - Adham, 82% Kpă - Ktul, 82% Kpă - Mdhur, 80% Kpă - Blô, 82% Kpă - Êpan, 85% Kpă - Drao, 81% Kpă - Bih, 73% People in Rade are called E-de. There are many E-de that live in poverty in Vietnam, however, during the French colonial period it was common for wealthy E-de to acquire human slaves, they are also the biggest ethic group in Vietnam. E-de played a big role in the American war in Vietnam, in combat they were the highest in quantity in terms of the co-combatant. Today around two hundred thousand live in the Central Highlands, mainly in the province of Dac Lac, many E-de are Dega another word would be protestant of christian, they use a single word to identify themselves. Like many other minorities in Vietnam, E-de uses their houses not only as shelters. This is because Ede, like all ethnolinguistic minorities, are constricted by the Vietnamese government are on constructing any building whose sole purpose that deals with religious worship, in 1986 around 200 E-de and other indigenous peoples of Vietnam came from refugee camps established on the Thai-Cambodian border. In 1992, many E-de and others were discovered hiding deep in the Cambodian jungle and they had fled there many years earlier to avoid the persecution wrought by Hanoi following the 1975 re-unification of Vietnam. Using their jungle survival skills they existed in isolation from outside contact for many years, around 400 were settled in the US soon after the discovery of their plight. The third wave of E-de emigration to the US took place in 2002, the E-de in the United States are a tight-knit community. There are many organizations within the areas in which the E-de have settled — both missionary and secular — with active programs aimed to help their resettlement, one of the most active groups is called save the montagnard people, they have annual reunion parties in North Carolina. Since the end of 2002, many have sought refuge and asylum in neighboring Cambodia and that country today has stiffer policies against those seeking asylum than it did when the third wave emigrants began taking shelter there in the Spring of 2001
28.
Malayic languages
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The Malayic languages are a branch of the Austronesian family. They include Malay, the language of Malaysia, Brunei, and Indonesia, Minangkabau in central Sumatra. It is thought that the homeland of the Malayic languages is in western Borneo, the Malayan branch represents a secondary dispersal, probably from central Sumatra but possibly also from Borneo. For some time there was confusion as to the placement of various languages called Dayak, it is now apparent that some of these are Malayic and some are not. The Malayic Dayak languages include Iban, the term Ibanic sometimes applies to the whole or sometimes to a group of Sea Dayak peoples. Other Dayak languages, called Land Dayak, are found in the northwest corner of Kalimantan, Malayan languages Ibanic languages, or Malayic Dayak Urak Lawoi’ Several of the Ibanic languages are also sometimes placed separately in Malayic. Adelaar classifies the Malayic languages as follows, Proto-Malayic Iban Standard Malay Minangkabau Middle Malay Banjarese Jakartanese Others Nothofer, however, gives the following classification for the Malayic branch. Proto-Malayic Rejang Embaloh Salako Iban-Malayan Iban Malayan Proto-Malayic has a total of 19 consonants and 4 vowels, there are 2 diphthongs, *-ay *-aw Proto-Malayic lexemes are mostly disyllabic, though some have one, three, or four syllables. Lexemes have the syllable structure, * C V C Note, C = consonant, V = vowel, N = nasal Adelaar. Proto-Malayic, The Reconstruction of its Phonology and Parts of its Lexicon, Pacific Linguistics, Series C, no.119. Canberra, Dept. of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, the Internal Classification of the Malayic Subgroup. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Vol.56, a discussion of two Austronesian subgroups, Proto-Malay and Proto-Malayic. Thani Ahmad and Zaini Mohamed Zain 1988, rekonstruksi dan cabang-cabang Bahasa Melayu induk, pp. 34–58. Kuala Lumpur, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka
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Banjar language
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Banjar is an Austronesian language used by the Banjarese people of South Kalimantan, Indonesia. As many Banjarese people are travelling merchants, they brought their language wherever they went all over Indonesia, although Banjarese is considered to be Malay, it is not particularly close to other Malayan languages. It is divided into two dialects, the upper river and down river dialects. The main differences of the two dialects can be found in phonology and lexicons, but slight differences in structure can also be noticed. Banjar Hulu has only three vowels, namely /i/, /u/, and /a/, when a word contains vowels other than the three, the foreign vowel will be replaced with one of them based on the closeness of height and other quality of the vowels. For example, Banjarese speaker trying to pronounce the English word logo will sound like pronouncing the Indonesian word for innocent, the Indonesian word orang for human will be pronounced urang. The word ke mana will be pronounced and even often spelled ka mana, other distinctive characteristic of the Banjar Hulu dialect is that words beginning with a vowel are most likely to be pronounced with an /h/ sound in front of the words. The addition of the /h/ sound can also be noticed in the spelling, a minor dialect, Bukit, is assigned a separate ISO code. Banjar people Banjarese architecture Banjarmasin Kalimantan Selatan Paradisec collection of Banjar recordings from a 2007 language documentation university course
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Brunei Malay
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Brunei Malay is the most widely spoken language in Brunei and a lingua franca in some parts of East Malaysia, such as Labuan, Limbang and Lawas. It is quite divergent from Standard Malay to the point where it is almost mutually unintelligible with it, the consonants of Brunei Malay are shown in the following table. Some analysts exclude /w/ and /j/ from this table on the basis that they are high vowels, while others include /w/. All these consonants can occur in position except /h/. While /h/ can occur in position, its absence from initial position means that Standard Malay hutan is utan in Brunei Malay. All the consonants can occur in word-final position apart from the palatal sounds /tʃ dʒ ɲ/, Brunei Malay has a three-vowel system, /i/, /a/, /u/. Acoustic variation in the realisation of these vowels is shown in the plot on the right, while /i/ is distinct from the other two vowels, there is substantial overlap between /a/ and /u/. This is partly because of the vowel in the first syllable of words such as maniup which can be realised as, Brunei Malay, Kedayan and Kampong Ayer can be regarded as different dialects of Malay. It has been estimated that 94% of the words of Brunei Malay,1 Bini-bini is exclusively used in Brunei to refer to a lady. In Malaysia and Singapore, it is a way to refer to ones wives or a group of married women. = You have received a lucky draw, proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society XVI. Brunei Low Dialect Haynes, A. S, a Journey up the Baram River to Mount Dulit and the Highlands of Borneo. Additions to a vocabulary of Brunei-Malay, Marshall, H. B. and Moulton, J. C.1921, A vocabulary of Brunei Malay, in Journal of the Straits Branch, Royal Asiatic Society. The Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo, a Vocabulary of Brunei Malay H. B. Marshall Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society No. 83, pp. 45–74 Published by, Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society Stable URL, http, //www. jstor
