1.
American Museum of Natural History
–
The American Museum of Natural History, located on the Upper West Side of Manhattan, New York City, is one of the largest museums in the world. The museum has a scientific staff of 225, sponsors over 120 special field expeditions each year. Before construction of the present complex, the museum was housed in the Arsenal building in Central Park. Sherman, A. G. Phelps Dodge, William A. Haines, Charles A. Dana, Joseph H. Choate, Henry G. Stebbins, Henry Parish, the founding of the museum realized the dream of naturalist Dr. Albert S. Bickmore. Bickmore, a student of Harvard zoologist Louis Agassiz, lobbied tirelessly for years for the establishment of a natural history museum in New York. In 1874, the cornerstone was laid for the museums first building, the original Victorian Gothic building, which was opened in 1877, was designed by J. Wrey Mould, both already closely identified with the architecture of Central Park. The original building was eclipsed by the south range of the museum, designed by J. Cleaveland Cady. It extends 700 feet along West 77th Street, with corner towers 150 feet tall and its pink brownstone and granite, similar to that found at Grindstone Island in the St. Lawrence River, came from quarries at Picton Island, New York. The entrance on Central Park West, the New York State Memorial to Theodore Roosevelt and it leads to a vast Roman basilica, where visitors are greeted with a cast of a skeleton of a rearing Barosaurus defending her young from an Allosaurus. The museum is accessible through its 77th street foyer, renamed the Grand Gallery. The hall leads into the oldest extant exhibit in the museum, since 1930, little has been added to the exterior of the original building. The architect Kevin Roche and his firm Roche-Dinkeloo have been responsible for the planning of the museum since the 1990s. Various renovations both interior and exterior have been carried out including improvements to Dinosaur Hall and mural restoration in Roosevelt Memorial Hall, in 1992 the firm designed the new eight story AMNH Library. The museums south façade, spanning 77th Street from Central Park West to Columbus Avenue was cleaned, repaired and re-emerged in 2009, steven Reichl, a spokesman for the museum, said that work would include restoring 650 black-cherry window frames and stone repairs. The museums consultant on the latest renovation is Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates, Inc. an architectural and engineering firm with headquarters in Northbrook, the museums first two presidents were John David Wolfe and Robert L. Stuart, both among the museums founders. The museum was not put on a sound footing until the appointment of the president, Morris K. Jesup. Jesup was president for over 25 years, overseeing its expansion, the fourth president, Henry Fairfield Osborn, was appointed in 1906 on the death of Jesup. Osborn consolidated the museums expansion, developing it into one of the worlds foremost natural history museums, F. Trubee Davison was president from 1933 to 1951, with A. Perry Osborn as Acting President from 1941 to 1946
American Museum of Natural History
–
Looking at the east entrance from
Central Park West
American Museum of Natural History
American Museum of Natural History
–
Locations of exploring and field parties in 1913, American Museum of Natural History map
American Museum of Natural History
–
The old 77th street "
castle " entrance of the museum
2.
Tula (Mesoamerican site)
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The site is located in the city of Tula de Allende in the Tula Valley, in what is now the southwest of the Mexican state of Hidalgo, northwest of Mexico City. The archeological site consists of a museum, remains of a settlement called Tula Chico as well as the main ceremonial site called Tula Grande. The main attraction is the Pyramid of Quetzalcoatl which is topped by four, four high basalt columns carved in the shape of Toltec warriors. Tula fell around 1150, but it had significant influence in the following Aztec Empire, the feathered serpent god Quetzalcoatl is linked to this city, whose worship was widespread from central Mexico to Central America at the time the Spanish arrived. The name Tula is derived from the Nahuatl phrase Tollan Xicocotitlan, however, the Aztecs applied the term Tollan to mean urban center, and it was also used to indicate other sites such as Teotihuacan, Cholula and Tenochtitlan. The inhabitants of Tula were called Toltecs, but that term was later broadened to mean an urban person and this was due to the high respect in which the indigenous peoples in the Valley of Mexico held the ancient civilization before the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire. What remains of the ancient city is located in the southwest of what is now the state of Hidalgo,75 km north of Mexico City. Geographically, it is in the Tula River Valley, at the end of the Mesquite Valley in a region that indigenous records called Teotlapan. This area has an elevation of between 2000 and 2200 meters above sea level, with a semi-arid climate and it has only three continuously flowing rivers and streams, the largest of which is the Tula River. There are also a number of arroyos that flow during the rainy season, the modern archeological site consists of the ceremonial center of Tula Grande, an area called Tula Chico, the Jorge R. Acosta site museum and the Guadalupe Mastache Orientation center. The museum is at the entrance to the site and is named one of the archeologists who worked on the site for years. The interior is organized into sections and contains sculpted stone works as well as human remains. The Orientation center also contains a number of pieces as well as posters and more explaining the site’s importance. The city is aligned at 17 degrees east of true north, the ceremonial center of the city is located on a limestone outcropping, with steep banks on three sides, making it defensible. War and sacrifice are prominent themes at the site with images representing warriors such as jaguars, there are also images of serpents eating skeletal figures and skulls in various areas. The main ceremonial area has a number of innovations that indicate societal changes. The large central plaza has space for 100,000 people, the architecture indicates a change from rituals performed by only a few people in closed spaces to large ceremonies to be viewed by many. These ceremonies were dominated by warriors, the major attraction of the site is Pyramid B also called the Pyramid of Quetzalcoatl or of the Morning Star
Tula (Mesoamerican site)
–
Atlantean columns on Pyramid B in form of Toltec warriors.
3.
Hidalgo (state)
–
Hidalgo, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Hidalgo, is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 84 municipalities and its capital city is Pachuca de Soto, in 1869, Benito Juárez created the State of Hidalgo. The state was named after Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, the initiator of the Mexican War of Independence and it is located in Eastern Mexico. Hidalgo is bordered by San Luis Potosí and Veracruz on the north, Puebla on the east, Tlaxcala and México on the south, the state has a number of relatively intact native cultures such as the Otomi. The state contains a number of ecotourism, cultural and archeological attractions including the Huasteca area, Hidalgo is known for its mountainous terrain but part of the state is on a coastal plain. With a population of 2.665 million and an area of roughly 20,813 square km, the modern day state of Hidalgo is located within the pre-Hispanic region of Mesoamerica. Numerous migrations of people took place through here, mostly arriving or passing through from the north, with many eventually settling in the Valley of Mexico. The Toltecs initially settled in Xochicoatlán, now the municipality of Molango at the beginning of the 7th century, from here they dispersed to locales such as Huejutla and Tollatzingo where they eventually had their capital of Tollan, today known as Tula. The Toltecs were eventually overrun by Chichimecas, who established their capital in Metztitlán, the Aztecs arrived in the 12th century, initially establishing themselves in Mixquiahuala, then founding Tizayuca later. Eventually, the Aztecs took over most of what is now the portion of the state. After the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, the carved out territories for themselves from Aztec lands. Hernán Cortés took possession of lands to the northeast of Mexico City extending into modern Hidalgo state and it also led to a massive decrease in the native population, especially during the governorship of the area by Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán. By the 18th century, the economy of the Hidalgo area was dominated by mining, much of the agricultural production during the colonial period was centered on livestock such as sheep and pigs as well as the making of pulque from the native maguey plant. Mining’s fortunes would rise and fall during the period with one of the most productive eras coming under the control of Pedro Romero de Terreros in the 18th century. These groups and others manage a significant amount of success in maintaining cultural, political, much of the state still maintains a number of strong indigenous identities. However, no battles of the Mexican War of Independence were fought in the state. Instead, a number of operations against local Spaniards were conducted. When the war ended in 1821, the country was divided into a number of states, the modern state of Hidalgo was initially part of the very large territory called “Mexico”, which eventually was split with the remaining portion becoming the modern State of Mexico
Hidalgo (state)
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Cave paintings in
Huichapan.
Hidalgo (state)
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Flag
Hidalgo (state)
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Atlantes at the
Tula archeological site
Hidalgo (state)
–
Monastery of San Francisco in Pachuca
4.
Mesoamerican chronology
–
Mesoamerican chronology divides the history of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica into several periods, the Paleo-Indian, the Archaic, the Preclassic or Formative, the Classic, and the Postclassic. However, this applies to other pre-Columbian Mesoamerican civilizations as well. 3500-2000 BCE During the Archaic Era agriculture was developed in the region, Late in this era, use of pottery and loom weaving became common, and class divisions began to appear. Many of the technologies of Mesoamerica in terms of stone-grinding, drilling. 1800 BCE–200 CE During the Preclassic Era, or Formative Period, large-scale ceremonial architecture, writing, cities, the Olmec civilization developed and flourished at such sites as La Venta and San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán. 200–1000 CE The Classic Era was dominated by numerous independent city-states in the Maya region and also featured the beginnings of political unity in central Mexico, regional differences between cultures grew more manifest. The city-state of Monte Albán dominated the Valley of Oaxaca until the late Classic, highly sophisticated arts such as stuccowork, architecture, sculptural reliefs, mural painting, pottery, and lapidary developed and spread during the Classic era. In the Maya region, numerous city states such as Tikal, Calakmul, Copán, Palenque, Uxmal, Cobá, each of these polities was generally independent, although they often formed alliances and sometimes became vassal states of each other. The main conflict during this period was between Tikal and Calakmul, who fought a series of wars over the course of more than half a millennium, each of these states declined during the Terminal Classic and were eventually abandoned. This is sometimes seen as a period of increased chaos and warfare, the Postclassic is often viewed as a period of cultural decline. However, it was a time of technological advancement in architecture, engineering, metallurgy came into use for jewelry and some tools, with new alloys and techniques being developed in a few centuries. The Postclassic was a period of rapid movement and population growth — especially in Central Mexico post-1200 —, for instance, in Yucatán, dual rulership apparently replaced the more theocratic governments of Classic times, whilst oligarchic councils operated in much of Central Mexico. Likewise, it appears that the wealthy pochteca and military orders became more powerful than was apparently the case in Classic times and this afforded some Mesoamericans a degree of social mobility. The Toltec for a time dominated central Mexico in the 11th–13th century, the northern Maya were for a time united under Mayapan, and Oaxaca was briefly united by Mixtec rulers in the 11th–12th centuries. The Aztec Empire arose in the early 15th century and appeared to be on a path to asserting dominance over the Valley of Mexico region not seen since Teotihuacan. Spain was the first European power to contact Mesoamerica, however, and its conquistadores, by the 15th century, the Mayan revival in Yucatán and southern Guatemala and the flourishing of Aztec imperialism evidently enabled a renaissance of fine arts and science. Examples include the Pueblan-Mexica style in pottery, codex illumination, and goldwork, the flourishing of Nahua poetry, arguably, the Post-Classic continued until the conquest of the last independent native state of Mesoamerica, Tayasal, in 1697. Mesoamerican civilization was a network of different cultures
Mesoamerican chronology
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Vessel from the Capacha culture, found in Acatitan, Colima.
Mesoamerican chronology
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A typical Pre-Classic figurine from central Mexico, similar to the "pretty ladies" of the
Tlatilco culture.
Mesoamerican chronology
–
Olmec head, La Venta
Mesoamerican chronology
–
Middle Formative, Olmec style, Kneeling lord with incised toad on his head, 900–500 BCE, in the
Princeton University Art Museum
5.
Aztec
–
The Aztec people were certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who dominated large parts of Mesoamerica from the 14th to 16th centuries. The Nahuatl words aztecatl and aztecah mean people from Aztlan, a place for the Nahuatl-speaking culture of the time. Often the term Aztec refers exclusively to the Mexica people of Tenochtitlan, situated on an island in Lake Texcoco, who referred to themselves as Mēxihcah Tenochcah or Cōlhuah Mexihcah. From the 13th century, the Valley of Mexico was the heart of Aztec civilization, here the capital of the Aztec Triple Alliance, the Triple Alliance formed a tributary empire expanding its political hegemony far beyond the Valley of Mexico, conquering other city states throughout Mesoamerica. At its pinnacle, Aztec culture had rich and complex mythological and religious traditions, as well as achieving remarkable architectural and artistic accomplishments. Subsequently, the Spanish founded the new settlement of Mexico City on the site of the ruined Aztec capital, the term extends to further ethnic groups associated with the Aztec empire such as the Acolhua and Tepanec and others that were incorporated into the empire. In older usage the term was used about modern Nahuatl speaking ethnic groups. In recent usage these ethnic groups are referred to as the Nahua peoples. Linguistically the term Aztecan is still used about the branch of the Uto-Aztecan languages that includes the Nahuatl language and its closest relatives Pochutec, to the Aztecs themselves the word aztec was not an endonym for any particular ethnic group. Rather it was a term used to refer to several ethnic groups, not all of them Nahuatl speaking. In the Nahuatl language aztecatl means person from Aztlan and this usage has been the subject of debate in more recent years, but the term Aztec is still more common. For the same reason the notion of Aztec civilization is best understood as a horizon of a general Mesoamerican civilization. Particular to the Aztecs of Tenochtitlan was the Mexica patron God Huitzilopochtli, twin pyramids, the Aztec Empire was a tribute empire based in Tenochtitlan that extended its power throughout Mesoamerica in the late postclassic period. Soon Texcoco and Tlacopan became junior partners in the alliance, which was de facto led by the Mexica of Tenochtitlan, the empire extended its power by a combination of trade and military conquest. The political clout of the empire reached far south into Mesoamerica conquering cities as far south as Chiapas and Guatemala, the Nahua peoples began to migrate into Mesoamerica from northern Mexico in the 6th century. They populated central Mexico, dislocating speakers of Oto-Manguean languages as they spread their influence south. As the former nomadic hunter-gatherer peoples mixed with the civilizations of Mesoamerica, adopting religious and cultural practices. During the Postclassic period they rose to power at such sites as Tula, in the 12th century the Nahua power center was in Azcapotzalco, from where the Tepanecs dominated the valley of Mexico
Aztec
–
The Aztec Pyramid at
St. Cecilia Acatitlan, State of Mexico
Aztec
–
Aztec
wood mask
Aztec
–
Large ceramic statue of an Aztec Eagle Warrior
Aztec
–
Aztec cosmogram in the pre-Hispanic
Codex Fejérváry-Mayer —the fire god
Xiuhtecuhtli is in the center
6.
Artisan
–
Artisans practice a craft and may through experience and aptitude reach the expressive levels of an artist. The adjective artisanal is sometimes used in describing hand-processing in what is viewed as an industrial process. Thus, artisanal is sometimes used in marketing and advertising as a word to describe or imply some relation with the crafting of handmade food products, such as bread. Many of these have traditionally been handmade, rural or pastoral goods but are now commonly made on a larger scale with automated mechanization in factories. Artisans were the dominant producers of products prior to the Industrial Revolution. In ancient Greece, artisans were drawn to agoras and often built workshops nearby, during the Middle Ages, the term artisan was applied to those who made things or provided services. It did not apply to unskilled manual labourers, Artisans were divided into two distinct groups, those who operated their own businesses and those who did not. Those who owned their businesses were called masters, while the latter were the journeymen, one misunderstanding many people have about this social group is that they picture them as workers in the modern sense, employed by someone. The most influential group among the artisans were the masters, the business owners, the owners enjoyed a higher social status in their communities. Shokunin is a Japanese word for artisan or craftsman, which implies a pride in ones own work. In the words of shokunin Tashio Odate, Shokunin means not only having technical skill, a social obligation to work his best for the general welfare of the people, obligation both material and spiritual. Applied art Artist Arts and Crafts movement Caste — Tarkhan Guild Handicraft The dictionary definition of artisan at Wiktionary History of Artisans
Artisan
–
Glassblowing artisans at work in a
crystal glass workshop
Artisan
–
Craftsman of salt in Salinas Grandes,
Salta province (
Argentina)
Artisan
–
An artist blacksmith and a striker working as one
Artisan
–
Wood carver in Bali
7.
Oral tradition
–
Oral tradition, or oral lore, is a form of human communication where in knowledge, art, ideas and cultural material is received, preserved and transmitted orally from one generation to another. The transmission is through speech or song and may include folktales, ballads, chants, prose or verses. In this way, it is possible for a society to transmit oral history, oral literature, oral law and other knowledge across generations without a writing system, or in parallel to a writing system. Oral tradition is information, memories and knowledge held in common by a group of people, over many generations, in a general sense, oral tradition refers to the recall and transmission of a specific, preserved textual and cultural knowledge through vocal utterance. As an academic discipline, it both to a set of objects of study and a method by which they are studied. The study of tradition is distinct from the academic discipline of oral history. Oral tradition is distinct from the study of orality defined as thought. A folklore is a type of tradition, but knowledge other than folklore has been orally transmitted. According to John Foley, oral tradition has been an ancient human tradition found in all corners of the world, according to Goody, the Vedic texts likely involved both a written and oral tradition, calling it a parallel products of a literate society. In ancient Greece, the tradition was a dominant tradition. Homers epic poetry, states Michael Gagarin, was composed, performed and transmitted orally. This is evidenced, for example, by the multiple scriptural statements by Paul admitting previously remembered tradition which he received orally. Oral traditions face the challenge of accurate transmission and verifiability of the accurate version, Oral cultures have employed various strategies that achieve this without writing. For example, a rhythmic speech filled with mnemonic devices enhances memory. A few useful mnemonic devices include alliteration, repetition, assonance, in addition, the verse is often metrically composed with an exact number of syllables or morae - such as with Greek and Latin prosody and in Chandas found in Hindu and Buddhist texts. Such strategies help facilitate transmission of information from individual to individual without a written intermediate, rudyard Kiplings The Jungle Book provides an excellent demonstration of oral governance in the Law of the Jungle. Not only does grounding rules in oral proverbs allow for transmission and understanding. These stories, traditions, and proverbs are not static, but are often altered upon each transmission barring the overall meaning remains intact, in this way, the rules that govern the people are modified by the whole and not authored by a single entity
Oral tradition
–
A
Kyrgyz manaschi
Oral tradition
–
Filip Višnjić (1767–1834)
Serbian blind
guslar
Oral tradition
–
The legendary Finnish storyteller
Väinämöinen with his
kantele
8.
Toltec Empire
–
According to Aztec historiography, the Toltec Empire, Toltec Kingdom or Altepetl Tolteca was a political entity in Mexico. It existed through the classic and post classic periods of Mesoamerican chronology, during this time its sphere of influence reached as far away as the Yucatan Peninsula. Its core cities were Tula, Tulancingo, and Huapalcalco, the distant cities under its control and influence were Chupícuaro, Chichen Itza. In the late 5th century Teotihuacan was the most powerful city in central Mexico, the Toltecs were one ethnicity living in the city. Around 496 they were forced to leave, led by Huémac I, the Toltecs and Chichimeca were constantly at war. Huémac I decided to make peace with the Chichimeca and form a permanent monarchy, in the treaty, the Tlatoani to succeed Huémac was to be Chalchiuhtlanetzin, who was Chichimeca. The date that the treaty was created is disputed, but was probably 510 or 567, either way Huémac continued living after Chalchiuhtlanetzin was crowned. The dynastic history of the Toltecs was recorded by several Aztec Codices although there are contradictions in most of them, According to a legend, in 843 a Toltec man named Papantzin invented a type of sugar made from the Agave plant. He and his daughter Xochitl brought the sugar as a gift to the Tecpancaltzin Iztaccaltzin, Tecpancaltzin fell in love with Xochitl, but she did not share his feelings. He kept her in his not allowing her to leave. He convinced Papantzin not to help her by telling him that when Tecpancaltzin died and they had a son named Maeconetzin. Xochitl threatened to leave in 846 but Tecpancaltzin managed to keep her there by promising Maeconetzin would be the next Tlatoani, after Tecpancaltzin died, Xochitl became empress. Under her reign there was a civil war, to stop the war she created a legion of soldiers made up completely of women. Xochitl was successful in re-uniting the Toltecs, but she died in battle, Ce Acatl Topiltzin was the fourteenth Tlatoani of the Toltecs. Who his parents were is unknown, but in mythological his father was Mixcōatl, Topiltzin and the god Quetzalcoatl are often mixed together and confused. By the age of thirteen he was studying at a college in Xochicalco, in 877 he was elected as Tlatoani of the Toltecs. Shortly after he was tempted by the god Tezcatlipoca and was exilded, during this time he may have founded Cuzcatlan. In 881 he moved to Chichen Itza or Uxmal, there he became friends with the Maya ruler Ulil I
Toltec Empire
–
Approximate influence of the Toltecs in 950
Toltec Empire
–
Emblem
Toltec Empire
–
A reconstruction of Teotihuacán's
Pyramid of the Sun
Toltec Empire
–
Iztaccaltzin on the throne being presented pulque and sugar, Papantzin in front of him, next to him is Xochitl
9.
Mythological
–
Mythology refers variously to the collected myths of a group of people or to the study of such myths. Myths are the people tell to explain nature, history. Myth is a feature of every culture, mythologizing continues, as shown in contemporary mythopoeia such as urban legends and the expansive fictional mythoi created by fantasy novels and comics. A cultures collective mythology helps convey belonging, shared and religious experiences, behavioral models, the study of myth began in ancient history. Rival classes of the Greek myths by Euhemerus, Plato and Sallustius were developed by the Neoplatonists, the nineteenth-century comparative mythology reinterpreted myth as a primitive and failed counterpart of science, a disease of language, or a misinterpretation of magical ritual. Recent approaches often view myths as manifestations of psychological, cultural, or societal truths, the term mythology predates the word myth by centuries. It first appeared in the fifteenth-century, borrowed from the Middle French term mythologie, the word mythology, comes from Middle French mythologie, from Late Latin mythologia, from Greek μυθολογία mythología from μῦθος mythos and -λογία -logia. The word mythología appears in Plato, but was used as a term for fiction or story-telling of any kind, combining mỹthos. From Lydgate until the seventeenth or eighteenth-century, mythology was similarly used to mean a moral, fable, from its earliest use in reference to a collection of traditional stories or beliefs, mythology implied the falsehood of the stories being described. It came to be applied by analogy with similar bodies of traditional stories among other cultures around the world. The Greek loanword mythos and Latinate mythus both appeared in English before the first example of myth in 1830, in present use, mythology usually refers to the collected myths of a group of people, but may also mean the study of such myths. For example, Greek mythology, Roman mythology and Hittite mythology all describe the body of myths retold among those cultures, dundes defined myth as a sacred narrative that explains how the world and humanity evolved into their present form. Lincoln defined myth as ideology in narrative form, scholars in other fields use the term myth in varied ways. In a broad sense, the word can refer to any traditional story, due to this pejorative sense, some scholars opted for the term mythos. Its use was similarly pejorative and now commonly refers to its Aristotelian sense as a plot point or to a collective mythology. The term is distinguished from didactic literature such as fables. Main characters in myths are usually gods, demigods or supernatural humans, however, many exceptions or combinations exist, as in the Iliad, Odyssey and Aeneid. Myths are often endorsed by rulers and priests and are linked to religion or spirituality
Mythological
–
Prometheus (1868) by
Gustave Moreau. In the mythos of
Hesiodus and possibly
Aeschylus (the
Greek trilogy
Prometheus Bound,
Prometheus Unbound and
Prometheus Pyrphoros), Prometheus is bound and tortured for giving fire to humanity at its creation.
Mythological
–
1929
Belgian banknote, depicting
Ceres,
Neptune and
caduceus.
Mythological
–
Fu Xi and
Nüwa represented as half-snake, half-human creatures
10.
Tula de Allende
–
Tula de Allende is a town and one of the 84 municipalities of Hidalgo in central-eastern Mexico. The municipality covers an area of 305.8 km², and as of 2010, the municipality includes numerous smaller outlying towns, the largest of which are El Llano, San Marcos, and San Miguel Vindho. It is an economic center and one of Mexico’s fastest growing cities. However, it is best known as the home of the Tula archeological site and its built-up area made up of Atotonilco de Tula, Atitalaquia, Tlaxcoapan municipalities was home to 188,659 inhabitants at the 2010 census. The city of Tula de Allende was built on what was the extension of the ancient city of Tula. The modern city is connected to the ancient ruins as it is an important tourist attraction as well as a symbol of the city. Toltec finds are not uncommon underneath the modern city, in 2009, Toltec burials from 900-1100CE were found under Tula-Iturbe Boulevard along with several kilns for firing pottery. The modern city is an economic center and has been listed as one of the fastest growing in Mexico by the National Commission of Population. Most of the reason for this is the existence of a refinery, the city is centered around the parish and former monastery of San Jose, with the oldest part built between 1546 and 1556. The main facade has three arches, pilasters with reliefs, a pediment and a chapel annex that takes from the 17th century. The cloister of the monastery has two levels with arches and fresco murals, inside the main church, there is a modern mural called “Jesus” located at the main altar. It was named a cathedral in 1961, near here is a main plaza and an open-air theatre, framed by a mural called “Tula Eterna” created by Juan Pablo Patiño Cornejo. Another mural called “Tianguis Mamehni” is found at the chamber of commerce, there is also the Plaza de las Artesanias dedicated to local handcrafts including replicas of the atlas figures. The government of the city of Tula de Allende is also the government for a total of 76 communities, the city is the largest community, with a population of about 27,000. The government consists of a president, fourteen administrators,54 delegates. The name is derived from the Nahuatl phrase Tollan-Xicocotitlan, which means near where cattails grow, Tula is the Hispanicized pronunciation of Tollan. In Otomi the area is called Namehi, which means “place of many people. ”It was given the appendage of “de Allende” in honor of Ignacio Allende who fought in the Mexican War of Independence. The area was the capital of one of the civilizations of Mesoamerica
Tula de Allende
–
Tula de Allende
Tula de Allende
–
Facade of the parish and former monastery of San José
Tula de Allende
–
Image of Toltec ruler in relief from the Tula archeological site
Tula de Allende
–
Ruins of the old Spanish Cathedral
11.
Architecture
–
Architecture is both the process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing buildings and other physical structures. Architectural works, in the form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols. Historical civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements, Architecture can mean, A general term to describe buildings and other physical structures. The art and science of designing buildings and nonbuilding structures, the style of design and method of construction of buildings and other physical structures. A unifying or coherent form or structure Knowledge of art, science, technology, the design activity of the architect, from the macro-level to the micro-level. The practice of the architect, where architecture means offering or rendering services in connection with the design and construction of buildings. The earliest surviving work on the subject of architecture is De architectura. According to Vitruvius, a building should satisfy the three principles of firmitas, utilitas, venustas, commonly known by the original translation – firmness, commodity. An equivalent in modern English would be, Durability – a building should stand up robustly, utility – it should be suitable for the purposes for which it is used. Beauty – it should be aesthetically pleasing, according to Vitruvius, the architect should strive to fulfill each of these three attributes as well as possible. Leon Battista Alberti, who elaborates on the ideas of Vitruvius in his treatise, De Re Aedificatoria, saw beauty primarily as a matter of proportion, for Alberti, the rules of proportion were those that governed the idealised human figure, the Golden mean. The most important aspect of beauty was, therefore, an inherent part of an object, rather than something applied superficially, Gothic architecture, Pugin believed, was the only true Christian form of architecture. The 19th-century English art critic, John Ruskin, in his Seven Lamps of Architecture, Architecture was the art which so disposes and adorns the edifices raised by men. That the sight of them contributes to his health, power. For Ruskin, the aesthetic was of overriding significance and his work goes on to state that a building is not truly a work of architecture unless it is in some way adorned. For Ruskin, a well-constructed, well-proportioned, functional building needed string courses or rustication, but suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good. I am happy and I say, This is beautiful, le Corbusiers contemporary Ludwig Mies van der Rohe said Architecture starts when you carefully put two bricks together. The notable 19th-century architect of skyscrapers, Louis Sullivan, promoted an overriding precept to architectural design, function came to be seen as encompassing all criteria of the use, perception and enjoyment of a building, not only practical but also aesthetic, psychological and cultural
Architecture
–
Brunelleschi, in the building of the dome of
Florence Cathedral in the early 15th-century, not only transformed the building and the city, but also the role and status of the architect.
Architecture
–
Section of
Brunelleschi 's dome drawn by the architect
Cigoli (c. 1600)
Architecture
–
The
Parthenon,
Athens,
Greece, "the supreme example among architectural sites."
(Fletcher).
Architecture
–
The
Houses of Parliament, Westminster, master-planned by
Charles Barry, with interiors and details by A.W.N. Pugin
12.
Iconography
–
The word iconography comes from the Greek εἰκών and γράφειν. A secondary meaning is the production of images, called icons, in the Byzantine and Orthodox Christian tradition. In art history, an iconography may also mean a depiction of a subject in terms of the content of the image, such as the number of figures used, their placing. Sometimes distinctions have been made between iconology and iconography, although the definitions, and so the distinction made, varies, when referring to movies, genres are immediately recognizable through their iconography, motifs that become associated with a specific genre through repetition. Gian Pietro Bellori, a 17th-century biographer of artists of his own time, describes and analyses, not always correctly, many works. Lessings study of the classical figure Amor with a torch was an early attempt to use a study of a type of image to explain the culture it originated in. These early contributions paved the way for encyclopedias, manuals, mâles lArt religieux du XIIIe siècle en France translated into English as The Gothic Image, Religious Art in France of the Thirteenth Century has remained continuously in print. In the United States, to which Panofsky immigrated in 1931, students such as Frederick Hartt, the period from 1940 can be seen as one where iconography was especially prominent in art history. These are now being digitised and made online, usually on a restricted basis. For example, the Iconclass code 71H7131 is for the subject of Bathsheba with Davids letter, whereas 71 is the whole Old Testament and 71H the story of David. A number of collections of different types have been classified using Iconclass, notably types of old master print, the collections of the Gemäldegalerie, Berlin. These are available, usually on-line or on DVD, the system can also be used outside pure art history, for example on sites like Flickr. Central to the iconography and hagiography of Indian religions are mudra or gestures with specific meanings, the symbolic use of colour to denote the Classical Elements or Mahabhuta and letters and bija syllables from sacred alphabetic scripts are other features. Under the influence of art developed esoteric meanings, accessible only to initiates. The art of Indian Religions esp, for example, Narasimha an incarnation of Vishnu though considered a wrathful deity but in few contexts is depicted in pacified mood. Conversely, in Hindu art, narrative scenes have become more common in recent centuries, especially in miniature paintings of the lives of Krishna. Having Veena in hands to denote necessity of resonating with what you going to learn, holding pear garland to indicate concentration is required to learn about some thing. A book on other hand to indicate one should relay on authentic source of learning, dressed in white colour cloth to indicate a learner should not having any own colour but inclusive to all colours
Iconography
–
Holbein 's
The Ambassadors is a complex work whose iconography remains the subject of debate.
Iconography
–
A painting with complex iconography:
Hans Memling 's so-called
Seven Joys of the Virgin - in fact this is a later title for a
Life of the Virgin cycle on a single panel. Altogether 25 scenes, not all involving the Virgin, are depicted. 1480,
Alte Pinakothek, Munich.
Iconography
–
A 17th century Central
Tibetan thanka of
Guhyasamaja Akshobhyavajra.
Iconography
–
The Theotokos of
Tikhvin of ca. 1300, an example of the
Hodegetria type of
Madonna and Child.
13.
Maya civilization
–
The Maya civilization developed in an area that encompasses southeastern Mexico, all of Guatemala and Belize, and the western portions of Honduras and El Salvador. The Archaic period, prior to 2000 BC, saw the first developments in agriculture, the first Maya cities developed around 750 BC, and by 500 BC these cities possessed monumental architecture, including large temples with elaborate stucco façades. Hieroglyphic writing was being used in the Maya region by the 3rd century BC, in the Late Preclassic a number of large cities developed in the Petén Basin, and Kaminaljuyu rose to prominence in the Guatemalan Highlands. Beginning around 250 AD, the Classic period is defined as when the Maya were raising sculpted monuments with Long Count dates. This period saw the Maya civilization develop a number of city-states linked by a complex trade network. In the Maya Lowlands two great rivals, Tikal and Calakmul, became powerful, the Classic period also saw the intrusive intervention of the central Mexican city of Teotihuacan in Maya dynastic politics. In the 9th century, there was a political collapse in the central Maya region, resulting in internecine warfare, the abandonment of cities. The Postclassic period saw the rise of Chichen Itza in the north, in the 16th century, the Spanish Empire colonized the Mesoamerican region, and a lengthy series of campaigns saw the fall of Nojpetén, the last Maya city in 1697. Classic period rule was centred on the concept of the divine king, kingship was patrilineal, and power would normally pass to the eldest son. A prospective king was expected to be a successful war leader. Maya politics was dominated by a system of patronage, although the exact political make-up of a kingdom varied from city-state to city-state. By the Late Classic, the aristocracy had greatly increased, resulting in the reduction in the exclusive power of the divine king. Maya cities tended to expand haphazardly, and the city centre would be occupied by ceremonial and administrative complexes, different parts of a city would often be linked by causeways. The principal architecture of the city consisted of palaces, pyramid-temples, ceremonial ballcourts, the Maya elite were literate, and developed a complex system of hieroglyphic writing that was the most advanced in the pre-Columbian Americas. The Maya recorded their history and ritual knowledge in screenfold books, there are also a great many examples of Maya text found on stelae and ceramics. The Maya developed a complex series of interlocking ritual calendars. As a part of their religion, the Maya practised human sacrifice, the Maya civilization developed within the Mesoamerican cultural area, which covers a region that spreads from northern Mexico southwards into Central America. Mesoamerica was one of six cradles of civilization worldwide, the Mesoamerican area gave rise to a series of cultural developments that included complex societies, agriculture, cities, monumental architecture, writing, and calendrical systems
Maya civilization
–
El Castillo, at
Chichen Itza
Maya civilization
–
Detail of Lintel 26 from
Yaxchilan
Maya civilization
–
Maya civilization
Maya civilization
–
Kaminaljuyu, in the highlands, and
El Mirador, in the lowlands, were both important cities in the Late Preclassic.
14.
New Age
–
The New Age is a term applied to a range of spiritual or religious beliefs and practices that developed in Western nations during the 1970s. Precise scholarly definitions of the New Age differ in their emphasis, although analytically often considered to be religious, those involved in it typically prefer the designation of spiritual and rarely use the term New Age themselves. Many scholars of the subject refer to it as the New Age movement, although others contest this term, such prominent occult influences include the work of Emanuel Swedenborg and Franz Mesmer, as well as the ideas of Spiritualism, New Thought, and Theosophy. Although the exact origins of the phenomenon remain contested, it is agreed that it developed in the 1970s and it expanded and grew largely in the 1980s and 1990s, in particular within the United States. By the start of the 21st century, the term New Age was increasingly rejected within this milieu, despite its highly eclectic nature, a number of beliefs commonly found within the New Age have been identified. Theologically, the New Age typically adopts a belief in a form of divinity which imbues all of the universe. There is thus a strong emphasis on the authority of the self. This is accompanied by a belief in a wide variety of semi-divine non-human entities, such as angels and masters, with whom humans can communicate. There is also a focus on healing, particularly using forms of alternative medicine. Those involved in the New Age have been primarily from middle, the New Age has generated criticism from established Christian organisations as well as modern Pagan and indigenous communities. From the 1990s onward, the New Age became the subject of research by scholars of religious studies. The New Age phenomenon has proved difficult to define, with much scholarly disagreement as to its scope, the scholars Steven J. Sutcliffe and Ingvild Sælid Gilhus have even suggested that it remains among the most disputed of categories in the study of religion. According to Hammer, this New Age was a fluid and fuzzy cultic milieu and he thus argued against the idea that the New Age could be considered a unified ideology or Weltanschauung, although he believed that it could be considered a more of less unified movement. Conversely, various scholars have suggested that the New Age is insufficiently homogenous to be regarded as a singular movement. There is no authority within the New Age phenomenon that can determine what counts as New Age. Many of those groups and individuals who could analytically be categorised as part of the New Age reject the term New Age in reference to themselves, some even express active hostility to the term. Rather than terming themselves New Agers, those involved in this milieu commonly describe themselves as spiritual seekers, other figures have argued that the sheer diversity of the New Age renders it too problematic for such use. In discussing the New Age, academics have varyingly referred to New Age spirituality and those involved in the New Age rarely consider it to be religion—negatively associating that term solely with organized religion—and instead describe their practices as spirituality
New Age
–
A New Age
Rainbow Gathering in Bosnia, 2007
New Age
–
Prominent esoteric thinkers who influenced the New Age movement include Helena Blavatsky (left) and Carl Jung (right)
New Age
New Age
–
This barrel house was the first dwelling constructed at the
Findhorn Ecovillage.
15.
Carlos Castaneda
–
Carlos Castaneda was an American author with a Ph. D. in anthropology. Starting with The Teachings of Don Juan in 1968, Castaneda wrote a series of books that describe his training in shamanism, the books, narrated in the first person, relate his experiences under the tutelage of a Yaqui Man of Knowledge named don Juan Matus. His 12 books have more than 28 million copies in 17 languages. He founded Cleargreen, an organization that promotes Tensegrity, which Dr. Castaneda described as the version of the “magical passes” of the shamans of ancient Mexico. Magical Passes comprise bodily movements discovered in dream states by shamans of don Juan’s lineage, Castaneda moved to the United States in the early 1950s and became a naturalized citizen on June 21,1957. Castaneda married Margaret Runyan in Mexico in 1960, according to Runyans memoirs, Castaneda is listed on the birth certificate of Runyans son C. J. Castaneda as his father even though his biological father was a different man. It is unclear whether Carlos and Margaret were divorced in 1960,1973, or not at all and he wrote these books as his research log describing his apprenticeship with a traditional Man of Knowledge identified as don Juan Matus, a Yaqui Indian from northern Mexico. Castaneda was awarded his bachelors and doctoral degrees based on the work described in these books, in 1974 his fourth book, Tales of Power, was published and chronicled the end of his apprenticeship under the tutelage of Matus. Castaneda continued to be popular with the public with subsequent publications that unfolded further aspects of his training with don Juan. Castaneda wrote that don Juan recognized him as the new nagual, Castaneda often referred to this unknown realm as nonordinary reality. While Castaneda was a cultural figure, he rarely appeared in public forums. He was the subject of an article in the March 5,1973 issue of Time which described him as an enigma wrapped in a mystery wrapped in a tortilla. There was controversy when it was revealed that Castaneda may have used a surrogate for his cover portrait, when confronted by correspondent Sandra Burton about discrepancies in his personal history, Castaneda responded, To ask me to verify my life by giving you my statistics. Is like using science to validate sorcery and it robs the world of its magic and makes milestones out of us all. It is a concrete setting, dense with animistic meaning. This is just as well, in view of the weirdness of the events that happen in it. Following that interview, Castaneda completely retired from public view, on 16 June 1995, Cleargreen Incorporated was created. The Cleargreen statement of purpose says in part, Cleargreen is a corporation that has a twofold purpose, First, it sponsors and organizes Tensegrity® workshops and seminars, and second, it is a publishing house
Carlos Castaneda
–
Carlos Castaneda in 1962
16.
Tula, Hidalgo
–
Tula de Allende is a town and one of the 84 municipalities of Hidalgo in central-eastern Mexico. The municipality covers an area of 305.8 km², and as of 2010, the municipality includes numerous smaller outlying towns, the largest of which are El Llano, San Marcos, and San Miguel Vindho. It is an economic center and one of Mexico’s fastest growing cities. However, it is best known as the home of the Tula archeological site and its built-up area made up of Atotonilco de Tula, Atitalaquia, Tlaxcoapan municipalities was home to 188,659 inhabitants at the 2010 census. The city of Tula de Allende was built on what was the extension of the ancient city of Tula. The modern city is connected to the ancient ruins as it is an important tourist attraction as well as a symbol of the city. Toltec finds are not uncommon underneath the modern city, in 2009, Toltec burials from 900-1100CE were found under Tula-Iturbe Boulevard along with several kilns for firing pottery. The modern city is an economic center and has been listed as one of the fastest growing in Mexico by the National Commission of Population. Most of the reason for this is the existence of a refinery, the city is centered around the parish and former monastery of San Jose, with the oldest part built between 1546 and 1556. The main facade has three arches, pilasters with reliefs, a pediment and a chapel annex that takes from the 17th century. The cloister of the monastery has two levels with arches and fresco murals, inside the main church, there is a modern mural called “Jesus” located at the main altar. It was named a cathedral in 1961, near here is a main plaza and an open-air theatre, framed by a mural called “Tula Eterna” created by Juan Pablo Patiño Cornejo. Another mural called “Tianguis Mamehni” is found at the chamber of commerce, there is also the Plaza de las Artesanias dedicated to local handcrafts including replicas of the atlas figures. The government of the city of Tula de Allende is also the government for a total of 76 communities, the city is the largest community, with a population of about 27,000. The government consists of a president, fourteen administrators,54 delegates. The name is derived from the Nahuatl phrase Tollan-Xicocotitlan, which means near where cattails grow, Tula is the Hispanicized pronunciation of Tollan. In Otomi the area is called Namehi, which means “place of many people. ”It was given the appendage of “de Allende” in honor of Ignacio Allende who fought in the Mexican War of Independence. The area was the capital of one of the civilizations of Mesoamerica
Tula, Hidalgo
–
Tula de Allende
Tula, Hidalgo
–
Facade of the parish and former monastery of San José
Tula, Hidalgo
–
Image of Toltec ruler in relief from the Tula archeological site
Tula, Hidalgo
–
Ruins of the old Spanish Cathedral
17.
Teotihuacan
–
Additionally, Teotihuacan exported fine obsidian tools that garnered high prestige and widespread usage throughout Mesoamerica. The city is thought to have been established around 100 BC, the city may have lasted until sometime between the 7th and 8th centuries AD, but its major monuments were sacked and systematically burned around 550 AD. Teotihuacan began as a new center in the Mexican Highlands around the first century AD. This city came to be the largest and most populated center in the pre-Columbian Americas, Teotihuacan was even home to multi-floor apartment compounds built to accommodate this large population. The term Teotihuacan is also used for the civilization and cultural complex associated with the site. The later Aztecs saw these magnificent ruins and claimed a common ancestry with the Teotihuacanos, the ethnicity of the inhabitants of Teotihuacan is also a subject of debate. Possible candidates are the Nahua, Otomi, or Totonac ethnic groups, scholars have also suggested that Teotihuacan was a multi-ethnic state. The city and the site are located in what is now the San Juan Teotihuacán municipality in the State of México. The site covers a surface area of 83 square kilometres and was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987. It is the most visited site in Mexico. The name Teōtīhuacān was given by the Nahuatl-speaking Aztecs centuries after the fall of the city around 550 A. D, the term has been glossed as birthplace of the gods, or place where gods were born, reflecting Nahua creation myths that were said to occur in Teotihuacan. Nahuatl scholar Thelma D. Sullivan interprets the name as place of those who have the road of the gods and this is because the Aztecs believed that the gods created the universe at that site. The name is pronounced in Nahuatl, with the accent on the syllable wa, by normal Nahuatl orthographic conventions, a written accent would not appear in that position. Both this pronunciation and Spanish pronunciation, are used, and both appear in this article. The original name of the city is unknown, but it appears in texts from the Maya region as puh. This naming convention led to confusion in the early 20th century. It now seems clear that Tollan may be understood as a generic Nahua term applied to any large settlement, the early history of Teotihuacan is quite mysterious, and the origin of its founders is uncertain. Around 300 BC, people of the central and southeastern area of Mesoamerica began to gather into larger settlements, Teotihuacan was the largest urban center of Mesoamerica before the Aztecs, almost 1000 years prior to their epoch
Teotihuacan
–
View of the Avenue of the Dead and the
Pyramid of the Sun, from the
Pyramid of the Moon.
Teotihuacan
–
Teotihuacan
Teotihuacan
–
The view from the
Pyramid of the Sun
Teotihuacan
–
Platform along the Avenue of the Dead showing the
talud-tablero architectural style
18.
Tenochtitlan
–
Mexico-Tenochtitlan, commonly known as Tenochtitlan was a Mexica located on an island in Lake Texcoco, in the Valley of Mexico. Founded on June 20,1325, it became the capital of the expanding Aztec Empire in the 15th century, at its peak it was the largest city in the Pre-Columbian Americas. It subsequently became a cabecera of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, today the ruins of Tenochtitlan are located in Mexico Citys downtown. Tenochtitlan was one of two Nahua āltēpetl on the island, the other being Tlatelolco, traditionally, the name Tenochtitlan was thought to come from Nahuatl tetl and nōchtli and is often thought to mean, Among the prickly pears rocks. However, one attestation in the late 16th-century manuscript known as the Bancroft dialogues suggest the second vowel was short, Tenochtitlan covered an estimated 8 to 13.5 km2, situated on the western side of the shallow Lake Texcoco. At the time of Spanish conquests, Mexico City comprised both Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco, the city was connected to the mainland by causeways leading to the north, south, and west. The causeways were interrupted by bridges that allowed canoes and other traffic to pass freely. The bridges could be pulled away, if necessary, to defend the city, the city was interlaced with a series of canals, so that all sections of the city could be visited either on foot or via canoe. Lake Texcoco was the largest of five interconnected lakes, since it formed in an endorheic basin, Lake Texcoco was brackish. During the reign of Moctezuma I, the levee of Nezahualcoyotl was constructed, estimated to be 12 to 16 km in length, the levee was completed circa 1453. The levee kept fresh spring-fed water in the waters around Tenochtitlan and kept the brackish waters beyond the dike, two double aqueducts, each more than 4 km long and made of terracotta, provided the city with fresh water from the springs at Chapultepec. This was intended mainly for cleaning and washing, for drinking, water from mountain springs was preferred. Most of the population liked to bathe twice a day, Moctezuma was said to take four baths a day. According to the context of Aztec culture in literature, the soap that they most likely used was the root of a plant called copalxocotl, and to clean their clothes they used the root of metl. Also, the classes and pregnant women washed themselves in a temazcalli, similar to a sauna bath. This was also popular in other Mesoamerican cultures, and some of our soldiers even asked whether the things that we saw were not a dream. I do not know how to describe it, seeing things as we did that had never heard of or seen before. The city was divided into four zones, or campan, each campan was divided into 20 districts, there were three main streets that crossed the city, each leading to one of the three causeways to the mainland of Tepeyac, Ixtapalpa, and Tlacopan
Tenochtitlan
–
Model of the temple district of Tenochtitlan at the
National Museum of Anthropology
Tenochtitlan
–
The Western side of the shallow
Lake Texcoco. Tenochtitlan is the southern part of the main island (under the red line). The northern part is
Tlatelolco
Tenochtitlan
–
The Tlatelolco Marketplace as depicted at
The Field Museum, Chicago.
Tenochtitlan
–
A picture of Tenochtitlan and a model of the
Templo Mayor.
19.
Empire
–
An empire can be made solely of contiguous territories such as the Austro-Hungarian Empire, or of territories far remote from the homeland, such as a colonial empire. Aside from the formal usage, the term empire can also be used to refer to a large-scale business enterprise. The term empire is associated with words such as imperialism, colonialism. Empire is often used to describe a displeasure to overpowering situations, the former method provides greater tribute and direct political control, yet limits further expansion because it absorbs military forces to fixed garrisons. The latter method provides less tribute and indirect control, but avails military forces for further expansion, territorial empires tend to be contiguous areas. The term, on occasion, has applied to maritime empires or thalassocracies, with looser structures. Empires are usually larger than kingdoms and this aspiration to universality resulted in conquest by converting ‘outsiders’ or ‘inferiors’ into the colonialized religion. This association of nationality and race became complex and has had an intense drive for expansion. An empire is a multi-ethnic or multinational state with political and/or military dominion of populations who are culturally and ethnically distinct from the ethnic group. This is in contrast to a federation, which is a state voluntarily composed of autonomous states and peoples. An empire is a political party who rules over territories outside of its original borders. Definitions of what physically and politically constitute an empire vary and it might be a state affecting imperial policies or a particular political structure. Empires are typically formed from ethnic, national, cultural. Empire and colonialism are used to refer to relationships between powerful state or society versus a less powerful one, sometimes, an empire is a semantic construction, such as when a ruler assumes the title of emperor. That rulers nation logically becomes an empire, despite having no additional territory or hegemony, among the last of the empires in the 20th century were the Central African Empire, Ethiopia, Vietnam, Manchukuo, the German Empire, and Korea. Furthermore, empires can expand by both land and sea, Empires originated as different types of states, although they commonly began as powerful monarchies. Ideas about empires have changed over time, ranging from public approval to universal distaste, Empires are built out of separate units with some kind of diversity – ethnic, national, cultural, religious – and imply at least some inequality between the rulers and the ruled. Without this inequality, the system would be seen as commonwealth, many empires were the result of military conquest, incorporating the vanquished states into a political union, but imperial hegemony can be established in other ways
Empire
–
Maurya Empire of
India at its greatest extent under
Ashoka the Great
Empire
–
Imperialism and colonization in 1900
Empire
–
Han Empire of China in 87 BC.
Empire
–
In the year 1690, the
realms of the
Mughal Empire spanned from
Kabul to
Cape Comorin.
20.
Obsidian
–
Obsidian is a naturally occurring volcanic glass formed as an extrusive igneous rock. It is produced when felsic lava extruded from a volcano cools rapidly with minimal crystal growth, Obsidian is commonly found within the margins of rhyolitic lava flows known as obsidian flows, where the chemical composition induces a high viscosity and polymerization degree of the lava. The inhibition of atomic diffusion through this highly viscous and polymerized lava explains the lack of crystal growth. Obsidian is hard and brittle, it therefore fractures with very sharp edges, which were used in the past in cutting and piercing tools, among the various forms of glass we may reckon Obsidian glass, a substance very similar to the stone found by Obsidius in Ethiopia. Obsidian is the rock formed as a result of quickly cooled lava, tektites were once thought by many to be obsidian produced by lunar volcanic eruptions, though few scientists now adhere to this hypothesis. Obsidian is mineral-like, but not a true mineral because as a glass it is not crystalline, in addition and it is sometimes classified as a mineraloid. Though obsidian is usually dark in color similar to mafic rocks such as basalt, Obsidian consists mainly of SiO2, usually 70% or more. Crystalline rocks with obsidians composition include granite and rhyolite, because obsidian is metastable at the Earths surface, no obsidian has been found that is older than Cretaceous age. This breakdown of obsidian is accelerated by the presence of water, having a low water content when newly formed, typically less than 1% water by weight, obsidian becomes progressively hydrated when exposed to groundwater, forming perlite. Pure obsidian is usually dark in appearance, though the color varies depending on the presence of impurities, iron and other transition elements may give the obsidian a dark brown to black color. Very few samples are nearly colorless, in some stones, the inclusion of small, white, radially clustered crystals of cristobalite in the black glass produce a blotchy or snowflake pattern. Obsidian may contain patterns of gas bubbles remaining from the lava flow and these bubbles can produce interesting effects such as a golden sheen. An iridescent, rainbow-like sheen is caused by inclusions of magnetite nanoparticles, Obsidian can be found in locations which have experienced rhyolitic eruptions. Obsidian can also be found in the eastern U. S. states of Virginia, as well as Pennsylvania, there are only four major deposit areas in the central Mediterranean, Lipari, Pantelleria, Palmarola and Monte Arci. Ancient sources in the Aegean were Milos and Gyali, acıgöl town and the Göllü Dağ volcano were the most important sources in central Anatolia, one of the more important source areas in the prehistoric Near East. Use of obsidian in pottery of the Neolithic in the area around Lipari was found to be less at a distance representing two weeks journeying. Anatolian sources of obsidian are known to have been the used in the Levant. The first attested civilized use is from excavations at Tell Brak dated the late fifth millennia, Obsidian was valued in Stone Age cultures because, like flint, it could be fractured to produce sharp blades or arrowheads
Obsidian
–
Obsidian
Obsidian
–
Obsidian
talus at Obsidian Dome, California
Obsidian
–
Glass Mountain, a large obsidian flow at
Medicine Lake Volcano
Obsidian
–
Obsidian
arrowhead
21.
Coyote
–
The coyote is a canid native to North America. It is smaller than its relative, the gray wolf, and slightly smaller than its other close relatives, the eastern wolf. It fills much of the ecological niche as the golden jackal does in Eurasia, though it is larger. The species is versatile and able to adapt to environments modified by humans, as human activity has altered the landscape, the coyotes range has expanded. In 2013, coyotes were sighted in eastern Panama for the first time, the coyote is more closely related to the common ancestor of wolves and other canids than the gray wolf. As of 2005,19 coyote subspecies are recognized, the average male coyote weighs 8 to 20 kg and the average female 7 to 18 kg. Their fur color is light gray and red or fulvous interspersed with black and white. It is highly flexible in organization, living either in a family unit or in loosely knit packs of unrelated individuals. The coyotes characteristic vocalization is a made by solitary individuals. Humans aside, cougars and gray wolves are the only serious enemies. Nevertheless, coyotes do sometimes mate with gray, eastern, or red wolves, Most recent studies show that most wolves contain some level of coyote DNA. As with other figures, the coyote uses deception and humor to rebel against social conventions. The animal was especially respected in Mesoamerican cosmology as a symbol of military might, after the European colonization of the Americas, it was reviled in Anglo-American culture as a cowardly and untrustworthy animal. Unlike wolves, which have undergone an improvement of their public image, Coyote males average 8 to 20 kg in weight, while females average 7 to 18 kg, though size varies geographically. Northern subspecies, which average 18 kg, tend to larger than the southern subspecies of Mexico. Body length ranges on average from 1.0 to 1.35 m, the largest coyote on record was a male killed near Afton, Wyoming, on November 19,1937, which measured 1.5 m from nose to tail, and weighed 34 kg. Scent glands are located at the side of the base of the tail and are a bluish-black color. The color and texture of the fur varies somewhat geographically
Coyote
Coyote
–
Toltec pictograph of coyote.
Coyote
–
Mearns' coyote (C. l. mearnsi) pups playing.
Coyote
–
A pack of coyotes
22.
Jaguar
–
The jaguar is a big cat, a feline in the Panthera genus, and is the only extant Panthera species native to the Americas. The jaguar is the third-largest feline after the tiger and the lion, the jaguars present range extends from Southwestern United States and Mexico across much of Central America and south to Paraguay and northern Argentina. Apart from a known and possibly breeding population in Arizona and the bootheel of New Mexico and this spotted cat most closely resembles the leopard physically, although it is usually larger and of sturdier build and its behavioral and habitat characteristics are closer to those of the tiger. While dense rainforest is its habitat, the jaguar will range across a variety of forested. Its preferred habitats are swamps and wooded regions, but jaguars also live in scrublands. The jaguar is notable, along with the tiger, as a feline that enjoys swimming, the jaguar is largely a solitary, opportunistic, stalk-and-ambush predator at the top of the food chain. It is a species, playing an important role in stabilizing ecosystems. The jaguar has a powerful bite, even relative to the other big cats. This allows it to pierce the shells of armored reptiles and to employ an unusual killing method, the jaguar is a near threatened species and its numbers are declining. Threats include loss and fragmentation of habitat, while international trade in jaguars or their parts is prohibited, the cat is still frequently killed by humans, particularly in conflicts with ranchers and farmers in South America. Although reduced, its range remains large, given its historical distribution, the jaguar has featured prominently in the mythology of numerous indigenous American cultures, including those of the Maya and Aztec. The word jaguar comes to English from one of the Tupi–Guarani languages, presumably the Amazonian trade language Tupinambá, the Tupian word, yaguara beast, is sometimes translated as dog. The specific word for jaguar is yaguareté, with the suffix -eté meaning real or true, the first component of its taxonomic designation, Panthera, is Latin, from the Greek word for leopard, πάνθηρ, the type species for the genus. Onca is the Portuguese onça, with the cedilla dropped for reasons, found in English as ounce for the snow leopard. It derives from the Latin lyncea lynx, with the letter L confused with the definite article, the jaguar, Panthera onca, is the only extant New World member of the genus Panthera.8 million years ago. Phylogenetic studies generally have shown the clouded leopard is basal to this group, the position of the remaining species varies between studies and is effectively unresolved. Based on morphological evidence, British zoologist Reginald Pocock concluded the jaguar is most closely related to the leopard, however, DNA evidence is inconclusive and the position of the jaguar relative to the other species varies between studies. Fossils of extinct Panthera species, such as the European jaguar, analysis of jaguar mitochondrial DNA has dated the species lineage to between 280,000 and 510,000 years ago, later than suggested by fossil records
Jaguar
Jaguar
–
While numerous subspecies of the jaguar have been recognized, recent research suggests just three. Geographical barriers, such as the
Amazon river, limit gene flow within the species.
Jaguar
–
Fossil skull of Pleistocene North American jaguar (Panthera onca augusta)
Jaguar
–
The head of the jaguar is robust and the jaw extremely powerful. The size of jaguars tends to increase the farther south they are located.
23.
Eagle
–
Eagle is a common name for many large birds of prey of the family Accipitridae, it belongs to several groups of genera that are not necessarily closely related to each other. Most of the 60 species of eagles are from Eurasia and Africa, outside this area, just 14 species can be found – two in North America, nine in Central and South America, and three in Australia. Eagles are large, powerfully built birds of prey, with heavy heads, most eagles are larger than any other raptors apart from some vultures. The smallest species of eagle is the South Nicobar serpent eagle, the largest species are discussed below. Like all birds of prey, eagles have large, hooked beaks for ripping flesh from their prey, strong, muscular legs. The beak is typically heavier than that of most other birds of prey, Eagles eyes are extremely powerful, having up to 3.6 times human acuity for the martial eagle, which enables them to spot potential prey from a very long distance. This keen eyesight is primarily attributed to their extremely large pupils which ensure minimal diffraction of the incoming light, the female of all known species of eagles is larger than the male. Eagles normally build their nests, called eyries, in trees or on high cliffs. Many species lay two eggs, but the older, larger chick frequently kills its younger sibling once it has hatched, the dominant chick tends to be a female, as they are bigger than the male. The parents take no action to stop the killing, due to the size and power of many eagle species, they are ranked at the top of the food chain as apex predators in the avian world. The type of prey varies by genus, the snake and serpent eagles of the genera Circaetus, Terathopius, and Spilornis predominantly prey on the great diversity of snakes found in the tropics of Africa and Asia. The eagles of the genus Aquila are often the top birds of prey in open habitats, where Aquila eagles are absent, other eagles, such as the buteonine black-chested buzzard-eagle of South America, may assume the position of top raptorial predator in open areas. Many other eagles, including the species-rich Spizaetus genus, live predominantly in woodlands and these eagles often target various arboreal or ground-dwelling mammals and birds, which are often unsuspectingly ambushed in such dense, knotty environments. Hunting techniques differ among the species and genera, with some individual eagles having engaged in quite varied techniques based their environment, most eagles grab prey without landing and take flight with it, so the prey can be carried to a perch and torn apart. The bald eagle is noted for having flown with the heaviest load verified to be carried by any flying bird, golden and crowned eagles have killed ungulates weighing up to 30 kg and a martial eagle even killed a 37 kg duiker, 7–8 times heavier than the preying eagle. It has been observed that most birds of prey look back over their shoulders before striking prey, all hawks seem to have this habit, from the smallest kestrel to the largest Ferruginous – but not the Eagles. Among the eagles are some of the largest birds of prey, only the condors and it is regularly debated which should be considered the largest species of eagle. They could be measured variously in total length, body mass, different lifestyle needs among various eagles result in variable measurements from species to species
Eagle
–
Eagle
Eagle
–
Golden eagle
Eagle
–
Martial eagle in Namibia.
Eagle
–
Philippine eagle, Pithecophaga jefferyi in Southern Philippines.
24.
Manuel Orozco y Berra
–
Manuel Orozco y Berra was a Mexican historian and a member of the Mexican Academy of Language. Orozco y Berra ranks as a figure among 19th-century students of the Mexican Indian past. He produced a significant body of published work on Mesoamerican ethnohistory, universal Dictionary of History and Geography, in ten volumes. Conquerors of Mexico Mexican Studies and Chronology Ancient History of the Conquest of Mexico History of Spanish rule in Mexico León-Portilla, Orozco y Berra, investigador del pensamiento náhuatl in La filosofía náhuatl estudiada en sus fuentes. Bibliografía de don Manuel Orozco y Berra, in Historia antigua y de la conquista de México por Manuel Orozco y Berra. Biografía del sr. D. Manuel Orozco y Berra, Socidad Mexicana de Geografía e Estadística Boletín ep, Manuel Orozco y Berra in Homenaje a Silvio Zavala, Estudios históricos americanos, pp. 519–61. Mexico, El Colegio de México 1953, Manuel Orozco y Berra en la historiografía mexicana. Mexico, UNAM Facultad de Filosofía y Letras 1963, Socidad Mexicana de Geografía e Estadística Boletín ep
Manuel Orozco y Berra
–
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talk page.
25.
Francisco Clavigero
–
Francisco Javier Clavijero Echegaray, was a Mexican Jesuit teacher, scholar and historian. He was born in Veracruz of a Spanish father and a Criolla mother and his father worked for the Spanish crown, and was transferred with his family from one town to another. Most of the posts were to locations with a strong indigenous presence. The family lived at times in Teziutlán, Puebla and later in Jamiltepec. There was no mountain, dark cave, pleasant valley, spring, brook. He began his studies in Puebla, at the college of San Jerónimo for grammar, upon completion of these studies, he entered a seminary in Puebla, Puebla to study for the priesthood, but he soon decided to become a Jesuit instead. In February 1748 he transferred to a Jesuit college in Tepotzotlán, there he continued to study Latin and also learned ancient Greek, French, Portuguese, Italian, German, and English. In 1751 he was sent back to Puebla for further studies in philosophy, here he was introduced to the works of such contemporary thinkers as Descartes, Newton, and Leibniz. Next he was sent to Mexico City, to complete his theological and philosophical studies at the Colegio de San Pedro y Pablo, while still a student, he began teaching, and was made prefect of the Colegio de San Ildefonso. Later he was appointed to the chair of rhetoric in the Seminario Mayor of the Jesuits, in 1754, Clavijero was ordained a priest. He began to teach at the Colegio de San Gregorio, founded at the beginning of the era to teach Indian youth. Nevertheless, his time at San Gregorio was not without problems, Clavijero followed Sigüenza as an example in his investigations, and was very pleased with Sigüenzas benevolence to and love of the Indians. He also admired much of the culture of the Indians before their contact with Europeans, Clavijero never ceased to try to read the ideograms in diego luna. Clavijero was transferred to the Colegio de San Javier in Puebla and he taught there for three years. In 1764 he was transferred again, to Valladolid, to teach philosophy in the seminary there, more of a rationalist in philosophy than his predecessors, he was an innovator in the field. Good work in Valladolid got him promoted to the position in Guadalajara. It was in Guadalajara that he finished his treatise Physica Particularis, when Clavijero left the colony, he went first to Ferrara, Italy, but soon relocated to Bologna, Italy, where he lived the rest of his life. In Italy he devoted his time to his historical investigations, although he no longer had access to the Aztec codices, the reference works, and the accounts of the first Spanish conquistadors, he retained in his memory the information from his earlier studies
Francisco Clavigero
–
Francisco Javier Clavijero
Francisco Clavigero
–
Historia Antigua de México (1780. Shown here in a modern edition)
26.
Daniel Garrison Brinton
–
Daniel Garrison Brinton was an American archaeologist and ethnologist. Brinton was born in Thornbury Township, Chester County, Pennsylvania, after graduating from Yale University in 1858, Brinton studied at Jefferson Medical College for two years and spent the next year travelling in Europe. He continued his studies at Paris and Heidelberg, from 1862 to 1865, during the American Civil War, he was a surgeon in the Union army, acting during 1864-1865 as surgeon-in-charge of the U. S. Army general hospital at Quincy, Illinois. Brinton was sun-stroked at Missionary Ridge and was never able to travel in very hot weathers. This handicap affected his career as an ethnologist, at his presidential address to the American Association for the Advancement of Science in August 1895, Brinton advocated theories of scientific racism that were pervasive at that time. He asserted some have. an inborn tendency, constitutionally recreant to the codes of civilization, further, he said the characteristics of races, nations, tribes. supply the only sure foundations for legislation, not a priori notions of the rights of man. Brinton was an anarchist during his last several years of life, in April 1896, he addressed the Ethical Fellowship of Philadelphia with a lecture on What the Anarchists Want, to a friendly audience. In October 1897, Brinton had dinner with Peter Kropotkin after the famous anarchists only speaking engagement at Philadelphia, Kropotkin had refused invitations from all of the citys elites. On the occasion of his meeting on October 6,1900. From 1868 to 1899, Brinton wrote many books, and a number of pamphlets, brochures, addresses. His works include, American Hero-Myths, A Study in the Native Religions of the Western Continent, Religions of Primitive People In addition, he edited and published a Library of American Aboriginal Literature, a valuable contribution to the science of anthropology in America. Of the eight volumes, six were edited by Brinton himself, one by Horatio Hale and his 1885 work is notable for its role in the Walam Olum controversy
Daniel Garrison Brinton
–
Portrait painted by
Thomas Eakins, circa 1899.
27.
Tezcatlipoca
–
Tezcatlipoca was a central deity in Aztec religion, and his main festival was the Toxcatl ceremony celebrated in the month of May. Another talisman related to Tezcatlipoca was a disc worn as a chest pectoral and this talisman was carved out of abalone shell and depicted on the chest of both Huitzilopochtli and Tezcatlipoca in codex illustrations. He had many epithets which alluded to different aspects of his deity, Titlacauan /ˌtɪtləˈkaʊən/, Ipalnemoani, Necoc Yaotl, Tloque Nahuaque and Yohualli Èhecatl, Ome Acatl, when depicted he was usually drawn with a black and a yellow stripe painted across his face. He is often shown with his right foot replaced with a mirror, bone. Sometimes the mirror was shown on his chest, and sometimes smoke would emanate from the mirror, Tezcatlipocas nagual, his animal counterpart, was the jaguar and his jaguar aspect was the deity Tepeyollotl. In the Aztec ritual calendar the Tonalpohualli Tezcatlipoca ruled the trecena 1 Ocelotl —he was also patron of the days with the name Acatl, the Tezcatlipoca figure goes back to earlier Mesoamerican deities worshipped by the Olmec and Maya. Similarities exist with the deity of the Kiche Maya as described in the Popol Vuh. A central figure of the Popol Vuh was the god Tohil whose name means obsidian, there are few surviving representations of Tezcatlipoca into the present day. Due to the lack of surviving images, some have chosen to describe Tezcatlipoca as the invisible god, however, the fact that many images are difficult to identify as one god or another does not mean that no generalizations can be made about Tezcatlipocas appearance. There are also portrayals of his also being black in certain places. Depending on the half of his leg, the full length of his arms. Most commonly he is shown with horizontal bands, wearing a heron feather headdress, a loincloth, and knotted sandals with an armband. Tezcatlipoca is often shown carrying a shield with balls of either feathers or cotton, there are also several reference to momoztli. The priests of Tezcatlipoca often wore the ornaments of the god, common ornaments were white turkey feather headdresses, a paper loincloth, and a tzanatl stick with similar feathers and paper decorations. Another common practice was to cover themselves in black soot or ground charcoal while they were involved in activities at the temple or during rituals. They would also cover the sick and newly appointed king in a manner with a black ointment to encourage an association with the god. When the ritual called for it, priests would also dress up as Tezcatlipoca himself, More on the exact rituals, such as the Feast of Toxcatl will be mentioned later. Tezcatlipoca was often described as a rival of another important god of the Aztecs, Quetzalcoatl became the ruler of the subsequent creation Sun of Water, and Tezcatlipoca destroyed the third creation The Sun of Wind by striking down Quetzalcoatl
Tezcatlipoca
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Tezcatlipoca as depicted in the
Codex Borgia.
Tezcatlipoca
–
Tezcatlipoca depicted in the codex Rios in the aspect of a
Jaguar —in this form he was called
Tepeyollotl.
Tezcatlipoca
–
Turquoise mask representing the god Tezcatlipoca, from the
British Museum.
28.
Cholula (Mesoamerican site)
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Cholula, was an important city of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, dating back to at least the 2nd century BC, with settlement as a village going back at least some thousand years earlier. The site of Cholula is just west of the city of Puebla. Its immense pyramid is the largest such structure in the Americas, and it is located in the Puebla-Tlaxcala Valley of the central Mexican highlands. It is surrounded to the west by the snow-covered peaks Popocatepetl and Iztaccihuatl, the summer rainy season and the melted snow in winter provide a great environment for irrigation agriculture. There is also a confluence of several streams with the Atoyac River that creates a wetland to the north. This has resulted in abundant and excellent agriculture during the colonial period, maize is the major crop cultivated but they also harvested maguey, chiles, and cochineal for dye. The soil is rich in clay, which made pottery and brick-making an important part of their economy, textiles and elaborate decorative capes were also popular. Cholula’s strategical location in the center of the Mexican highlands gives it a place as a trade outpost. Here, trade routes connected the Gulf coast, the Valley of Mexico, Tehuacan Valley, from there, trade routes went to the Pacific coast, where the longer Pacific Coast communication and trade route existed. Because of its location, Cholula served as the center where primary trade routes. Textiles were of importance for Cholula’s economy. During the Postclassic period they were a unit of tribute. Textiles were manufactured for local consumption and traded extensively by different merchants that frequented the city, textile production accounts are provided by ethnohistorical and archaeological sources. Spanish writings from Colonial times have noted their excellence in dying techniques, artifacts such as spindle whorls found at different Cholula site loci provide evidence for the extensive production of textiles in the site. These are rare from the Formative and the Classic periods but become more prevalent in the Postclassic, only unbaked-clay whorls may have been used during the earlier periods but these are not preserved in the archaeological record. The high concentration of spindle whorls recovered from Cholula in comparison to other Mesoamerican sites attests to the important role played in their economy. Cholula grew from a village to a regional center between AD600 and 700. The earliest occupation dates back to the Early Formative period, in the 1970s, Mountjoy discovered a waterlogged deposit dating to the Late Middle Formative period near the ancient lake shore
Cholula (Mesoamerican site)
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Basalt head sculpture
Cholula (Mesoamerican site)
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The massacre of Cholula
Cholula (Mesoamerican site)
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Cholula Massacre
Cholula (Mesoamerican site)
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Only a fraction of a staircase on one side of the Great Pyramid of Cholula has been restored to its former state.
29.
Atlantean figures (Mesoamerica)
–
Atlantean figures, also atlantes, are carved stone support pillars in the shape of fierce men. In Mesoamerica these figures are considered to be statues of Toltec warriors. Atlantean here refers to the figures supporting posture, alluding to the load-bearing Titan Atlas, Atlantean figures were made out of the available stone in the area, such as limestone, sandstone, or volcanic rock. They were carved by hand, presumably by individuals at once. To carve them the individuals would have used tools, such as small chisels for fine sculpting, scrapers of various sizes to shape and add little details. Additional smaller and softer stones were used for smoothing, creating these figures would have been very time-consuming, which is an indication that they served a purpose of some sort. At Potrero Nuevo near San Lorenzo, there is an altar supported by two Atlantean figures, the atlantes are not carved out roundly like they are at later sites. Instead they are carved into the background, Chichen Itza is a site located on the northern centre of the Yucatan Peninsula and contains what is known as the Temple of Warriors. At the top of the temple, used as support for the roof, run columns of the warriors wearing a feathered headdress, a butterfly-shaped pectoral. Tula has long considered the capital for the Toltec people. At Tula one can find the Temple of Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli, where there are four Atlantean figures standing over 4.6 metres tall. The figures here are depicted as wearing stylized butterfly breastplates, sun-shaped shields on their backs, feathered headdresses and carry spear throwers, the exact dates for when these figures were carved is unknown. However, rough estimates can be made by dating the sites, the construction of the Toltec empire has been dated to approximately A. D.750, and Chichen Itza earlier to about A. D. 100-250. These dates mark the earliest time that the figures could have been carved, because of the similarity between the sites, it is likely that there are factors that influenced all the places. Therefore, it is likely that the sculpting of these figures took place at a later date. There is indication that Atlantean figures express the rise of new kind of military order, between A. D.850 and A. D. Mesoamerican Atlantean figures are seen to be the representation of this shift in political thinking. Many researchers believe that the figures at Tula may represent the Toltec ruler Ce Acatl Quetzalcoatl, Ce Acatl Quetzalcoatl is believed to be named after the fair-skinned god worshipped by many Mesoamerica cultures. It is possible, therefore, that Atlantean figures in Mesoamerica also share not just political roots, Atlas Bacab Maya stelae Potbelly sculpture
Atlantean figures (Mesoamerica)
–
Columns in the form of Toltec warriors in Tula
30.
Nahua peoples
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The Nahuas are a group of indigenous people of Mexico and El Salvador. Their language of Uto-Aztecan affiliation is called Nahuatl and consists of many dialects and variants. About 1,500,000 Nahua speak Nahuatl and another 1,000,000 speak only Spanish, less than 1,000 native speakers remain in El Salvador. Evidence suggests the Nahua peoples originated in Aridoamerica, in regions of the present day northwestern Mexico and they split off from the other Uto-Aztecan speaking peoples and migrated into central Mexico around 500 CE. They settled in and around the Basin of Mexico and spread out to become the dominant people in central Mexico, the name Nahua is derived from the Nahuatl word-root nāhua-, which generally means audible, intelligible, clear with different derivations including language. It was used in contrast with popoloca, to speak unintelligibly or speak a foreign language, another, related term is Nāhuatlācatl or Nāhuatlācah literally Nahuatl-speaking people. The Nahuas are also referred to as Aztecs. Using this term for the Nahuas has generally fallen out of favor in scholarship and they have also been called Mēxihcatl, Mēxihcah or in Spanish Mexicano Mexicans, after the Mexica, the Nahua tribe which founded and predominated in the Aztec empire. At the turn of the 16th century, Nahua populations occupied territories ranging across modern-day Mexico, El Salvador, Guatemala and these were gradually assimilated into mestizo society in most places. The last of the southern Nahua populations are the Pipil of El Salvador, Nahuatl was a lingua franca for trade and rule during the apogee of the Aztec empire. There are many Nahuatl place names in regions where Nahuas were not the most populous group, Nahua populations in Mexico are centered in the middle of the country, with most speakers in the states of Puebla, Veracruz, Hidalgo, Guerrero and San Luis Potosí. But smaller populations are spread throughout the country, following recent population movements within Mexico, within the last 50 years, Nahua populations have appeared in the United States, particularly in New York City, L. A. and Houston. Archaeological, historical and linguistic evidence suggest that the Nahuas originally came from the deserts of northern Mexico, before the Nahuas entered Mesoamerica, they were probably living for a while in northwestern Mexico alongside the Cora and Huichol peoples. The first group of Nahuas to split from the group were the Pochutec who went on to settle on the Pacific coast of Oaxaca possibly as early as 400 CE. From c.600 CE the Nahua quickly rose to power in central Mexico and expanded into areas earlier occupied by Oto-Manguean, Totonacan and Huastec peoples. Around 1000 CE the Toltec people, normally assumed to have been of Nahua ethnicity, from this period on the Nahua were the dominant ethnic group in the Valley of Mexico and far beyond, and migrations kept coming in from the north. After the fall of Toltecs a period of population movements followed. And in central Mexico different Nahua groups based in their different Altepetl city-states fought for political dominance
Nahua peoples
–
"
Atlantean figures " from the Nahua culture of the
Toltecs at
Tula.
Nahua peoples
–
Number of Nahuatl speakers per state (Mexico only)
Nahua peoples
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Nahua man of Morelos ploughing a bean field by mule
31.
Chichimeca
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Chichimeca was the name that the Nahua peoples of Mexico generically applied to many bands and tribes of nomadic and semi-nomadic peoples who inhabited northern modern-day Mexico. Chichimeca carried the same sense as the Roman term barbarian to describe people living outside settled, the name and its pejorative sense was adopted by the Spanish. For the Spanish, in the words of scholar Charlotte M. Gradie, in modern times only one ethnic group is customarily referred to as Chichimecs, namely the Chichimeca Jonaz of whom a few thousand live in the state of Guanajuato. The Chichimeca peoples were groups of varying ethnicities and speaking distinct languages from different families. As the Spaniards worked towards consolidating the rule of New Spain over the indigenous peoples during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, a number of ethnic groups of the region allied against the Spanish. The first and most long-lasting of these conflicts was the Chichimeca War, for example, virtually nothing is known about the peoples referred to as the Guachichil, Caxcan, Zacateco, Tecuexe, or Guamare. Others, such as the Opata or Eudeve, are described in records. Still other Chichimec peoples maintain separate identities into the present day, for example the Otomi, Chichimeca Jonaz, Cora, Huichol, Pame, Yaqui, Mayo, Oodham, the Nahuatl name Chīchīmēcah means inhabitants of Chichiman, the placename Chichiman means Area of Milk. It is sometimes said to be related to dog, but the is in chichi are short while those in Chīchīmēcah are long. In modern Mexico, the word Chichimeca can have pejorative connotations, such as primitive, savage, uneducated, the first descriptions of Chichimecs are from the early conquest period. In 1526, Hernán Cortés writes in one of his letters of the northern Chichimec tribes and he commented that they might be enslaved and used to work in the mines. The Chicimec, Caxcanes and other people of Northern Mexico fought back against Spanish forces such as Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán when they began trying to enslave them. Their fight against Spanish forces became known as the Mixtón Rebellion, in the late sixteenth century, Gonzalo de las Casas wrote about the Chichimec. Las Casas account was called Report of the Chichimeca and the justness of the war against them and he described the people, providing ethnographic information. He wrote that only covered their genitalia with any clothing, painted their bodies. He mentions as further proof of their barbarity that Chichimec women, having given birth, while las Casas recognized that the Chichimecan tribes spoke different languages, he considered their culture as primarily uniform. This stereotype became even more prevalent during the course of the Chichimec wars, in some areas, the Chichimeca cultivated maize and calabash. From the mesquite, the Chichamecs made white bread and wine, many Chichimec tribes used the juice of the agave as a substitute for water when it was in short supply
Chichimeca
–
Map of the location of prominent Chichimeca peoples around 1550.
32.
Itza
–
The Itza are a Guatemalan people of Maya affiliation. They inhabit the Petén department of Guatemala in and around the city of Flores on the Lake Petén Itzá, according to the census of 2002, there are 1,983 ethnic Itza, who retain some aspects of their indigenous culture. However, the Itza language is now almost extinct, data taken from the Summer Institute of Linguistics suggest there were only twelve fluent Itza speakers left in 1986 and 60 non-fluent speakers in 1991. According to the census of 2002, however, there are still 1094 speakers, the Mayan word itza means enchanted waters and may have been adopted from the name of the lake itself. The Itza were descended from the Ah Itzá Yucatecan Maya lineage, the Itza may have originated from the Classic Period city of Motul de San José near lake Peten Itza in Guatemala, migrating to Yucatán during the Maya collapse at the end of the Classic Period. From their capital at Chichén Itzá, Mexico they established an empire reaching as far south as Naco in Honduras. Chichen Itza means at the mouth of the well of the Itza in the Itza language, hunac Ceel fought the Itzas but was taken captive and was to be sacrificed by being thrown into the cenote of Chichén Itzá. However, he survived the sacrifice, and having spent a night in the water he was able to relate a prophecy of the rain god Chac about the years coming harvest. Once lord of Mayapan, he orchestrated, aided by sorcery, and around 1331 archeological remains attest that Chichén Itzá and other Itza dominated sites, for example Isla Cerritos, were abandoned. The Itza then left or were expelled from the Yucatán region, noj peten meant great island in their language. The early Spanish accounts referred to it as Tayasal, derived from tah itza, hernán Cortés visited Nojpetén with an army of Spaniards and 600 Chontal Maya on his way to Honduras in 1523 and he celebrated mass with an Itza ruler named Kan Ek. The island city of Nojpetén was the capital of the last independent Mayan kingdom, on March 13,1697, the Itza kingdom finally submitted to Spanish rule, represented by a force led by Martín de Ursua, governor of Yucatán. The northern lowland Petén region includes families that can be traced back to pre-colonial Itza, kukulkan Drew, David The Lost Chronicles of the Maya Kings, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London. A Peninsula That May Have Been an Island, Tayasal, Peten, philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA, University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. In Prudence M. Rice and Don S. Rice, the Kowoj, identity, migration, and geopolitics in late postclassic Petén, Guatemala. Boulder, Colorado, US, University Press of Colorado, schele & Matthews The Code of Kings, The language of seven sacred Maya temples and tombs, Touchstone/Simon & Schuster, New York. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors, Archaeology of Mesoamerica
Itza
–
"
El Castillo " at
Chichen Itza
Itza
–
The sacred
cenote that gave its name to
Chichen Itza.
Itza
–
Aerial view of
Flores, Guatemala, built on the ruins of the Itza capital Nojpetén
33.
Hubert Howe Bancroft
–
Hubert Howe Bancroft was born May 5,1832, in Granville, Ohio, to Azariah Ashley Bancroft and Lucy Howe Bancroft. The Howe and Bancroft families originally hailed from the New England states of Vermont and Massachusetts, bancrofts parents were staunch abolitionists and the family home was a station on the Underground Railroad. Bancroft attended the Doane Academy in Granville for a year, and he became a clerk in his brother-in-laws bookstore in Buffalo. In March 1852, Bancroft was provided with an inventory of books to sell and was sent to the booming California city of San Francisco to set up a west coast regional office of the firm. Bancroft was successful in building his company, entering the world of publishing in the process and he also became a serious collector of books, building a collection numbering into the tens of thousands of volumes. In 1868, he resigned from his business in favor of his brother and he had accumulated a great library of historical material, and abandoned business to devote himself entirely to writing and publishing history. Bancrofts library consisted of books, maps, and printed and manuscript documents, including a number of narratives dictated to Bancroft or his assistants by pioneers, settlers. The indexing of this vast collection employed six persons for ten years, the library was moved in 1881 to a fireproof building, and in 1900 numbered about 45,000 volumes. He developed a plan to publish a history in 39 volumes of the entire Pacific coast region of North America and he employed collaborators for the preliminary work, and then revised it all, and wrote the most important chapters himself. In 1886, the establishment of A. L. Bancroft & Company burned. Bancrofts first marriage was to Emily Ketchum in 1859 and they had one daughter, a girl who died in 1869. His second wife was Matilda Coley Griffing, with whom he had four children, although he never graduated from college, in 1875 Bancroft was awarded an honorary Master of Arts degree from Yale in recognition of his massive historical work on Native Races of the Pacific States. He was also elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1875, Hubert Howe Bancroft died on March 2,1918, at his country home in Walnut Creek, California. Acute peritonitis was blamed as the cause of death in published newspaper reports, Bancroft was 86 years old at the time of his death. His body was interred in the Cypress Lawn Memorial Park in Colma, the Bancroft Library at UC Berkeley, named in his honor, was founded when the University of California purchased his 60, 000-volume book collection in 1905. Bancroft is also the namesake of Bancroft Way in Berkeley, California, in 1885 Bancroft purchased a ranch with an adobe cottage located in Spring Valley, in San Diego County, as a retirement home. The Hubert H. Bancroft Ranch House is now a National Historic Landmark, in addition, part of a property Bancroft bought around 1880 in Contra Costa County, California is now the Ruth Bancroft Garden. An archive of Bancroft family correspondence, collected by his daughter Kate, is held in Special Collections and Archives at the Geisel Library at the University of California, San Diego
Hubert Howe Bancroft
–
Hubert Howe Bancroft
34.
JSTOR
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JSTOR is a digital library founded in 1995. Originally containing digitized back issues of journals, it now also includes books and primary sources. It provides full-text searches of almost 2,000 journals, more than 8,000 institutions in more than 160 countries have access to JSTOR, most access is by subscription, but some older public domain content is freely available to anyone. William G. Bowen, president of Princeton University from 1972 to 1988, JSTOR originally was conceived as a solution to one of the problems faced by libraries, especially research and university libraries, due to the increasing number of academic journals in existence. Most libraries found it prohibitively expensive in terms of cost and space to maintain a collection of journals. By digitizing many journal titles, JSTOR allowed libraries to outsource the storage of journals with the confidence that they would remain available long-term, online access and full-text search ability improved access dramatically. Bowen initially considered using CD-ROMs for distribution, JSTOR was initiated in 1995 at seven different library sites, and originally encompassed ten economics and history journals. JSTOR access improved based on feedback from its sites. Special software was put in place to make pictures and graphs clear, with the success of this limited project, Bowen and Kevin Guthrie, then-president of JSTOR, wanted to expand the number of participating journals. They met with representatives of the Royal Society of London and an agreement was made to digitize the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society dating from its beginning in 1665, the work of adding these volumes to JSTOR was completed by December 2000. The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation funded JSTOR initially, until January 2009 JSTOR operated as an independent, self-sustaining nonprofit organization with offices in New York City and in Ann Arbor, Michigan. JSTOR content is provided by more than 900 publishers, the database contains more than 1,900 journal titles, in more than 50 disciplines. Each object is identified by an integer value, starting at 1. In addition to the site, the JSTOR labs group operates an open service that allows access to the contents of the archives for the purposes of corpus analysis at its Data for Research service. This site offers a facility with graphical indication of the article coverage. Users may create focused sets of articles and then request a dataset containing word and n-gram frequencies and they are notified when the dataset is ready and may download it in either XML or CSV formats. The service does not offer full-text, although academics may request that from JSTOR, JSTOR Plant Science is available in addition to the main site. The materials on JSTOR Plant Science are contributed through the Global Plants Initiative and are only to JSTOR
JSTOR
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The JSTOR front page
35.
University of Chicago Press
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The University of Chicago Press is the largest and one of the oldest university presses in the United States. One of its quasi-independent projects is the BiblioVault, a repository for scholarly books. The Press building is located just south of the Midway Plaisance on the University of Chicago campus, the University of Chicago Press was founded in 1891, making it one of the oldest continuously operating university presses in the United States. Its first published book was Robert F. Harpers Assyrian and Babylonian Letters Belonging to the Kouyunjik Collections of the British Museum, for its first three years, the Press was an entity discrete from the university, it was operated by the Boston publishing house D. C. Heath in conjunction with the Chicago printer R. R. Donnelley and this arrangement proved unworkable, however, and in 1894 the university officially assumed responsibility for the Press. In 1902, as part of the university, the Press started working on the Decennial Publications, composed of articles and monographs by scholars and administrators on the state of the university and its facultys research, the Decennial Publications was a radical reorganization of the Press. This allowed the Press, by 1905, to begin publishing books by scholars not of the University of Chicago. A manuscript editing and proofreading department was added to the staff of printers and typesetters, leading, in 1906. By 1931, the Press was an established, leading academic publisher, leading books of that era include Dr. Edgar J. Goodspeeds The New Testament, An American Translation and its successor, Goodspeed and J. M. In 1956, the Press first published books under its imprint. Of the Presss best-known books, most date from the 1950s, including translations of the Complete Greek Tragedies and Richmond Lattimores The Iliad of Homer. That decade also saw the first edition of A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature, in 1966, Morris Philipson began his thirty-four-year tenure as director of the University of Chicago Press. As the Presss scholarly volume expanded, the Press also advanced as a trade publisher. In 1992, Norman Macleans books A River Runs Through It and Young Men and Fire were national best sellers, in 1982, Philipson was the first director of an academic press to win the Publisher Citation, one of PENs most prestigious awards. Paula Barker Duffy served as director of the Press from 2000 to 2007, under her administration, the Press expanded its distribution operations and created the Chicago Digital Distribution Center and BiblioVault. The Press also launched an electronic work, The Chicago Manual of Style Online. Garrett P. Kiely became the 15th director of the University of Chicago Press on September 1,2007, the Press publishes over 50 new trade titles per year, across many subject areas. It also publishes regional titles, such as The Encyclopedia of Chicago, the Press has recently expanded its digital offerings to include most newly published books as well as key backlist titles
University of Chicago Press
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University of Chicago Press
36.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
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A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
37.
OCLC
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The Online Computer Library Center is a US-based nonprofit cooperative organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the worlds information and reducing information costs. It was founded in 1967 as the Ohio College Library Center, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat, the largest online public access catalog in the world. OCLC is funded mainly by the fees that libraries have to pay for its services, the group first met on July 5,1967 on the campus of the Ohio State University to sign the articles of incorporation for the nonprofit organization. The group hired Frederick G. Kilgour, a former Yale University medical school librarian, Kilgour wished to merge the latest information storage and retrieval system of the time, the computer, with the oldest, the library. The goal of network and database was to bring libraries together to cooperatively keep track of the worlds information in order to best serve researchers and scholars. The first library to do online cataloging through OCLC was the Alden Library at Ohio University on August 26,1971 and this was the first occurrence of online cataloging by any library worldwide. Membership in OCLC is based on use of services and contribution of data, between 1967 and 1977, OCLC membership was limited to institutions in Ohio, but in 1978, a new governance structure was established that allowed institutions from other states to join. In 2002, the structure was again modified to accommodate participation from outside the United States. As OCLC expanded services in the United States outside of Ohio, it relied on establishing strategic partnerships with networks, organizations that provided training, support, by 2008, there were 15 independent United States regional service providers. OCLC networks played a key role in OCLC governance, with networks electing delegates to serve on OCLC Members Council, in early 2009, OCLC negotiated new contracts with the former networks and opened a centralized support center. OCLC provides bibliographic, abstract and full-text information to anyone, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat—the OCLC Online Union Catalog, the largest online public access catalog in the world. WorldCat has holding records from public and private libraries worldwide. org, in October 2005, the OCLC technical staff began a wiki project, WikiD, allowing readers to add commentary and structured-field information associated with any WorldCat record. The Online Computer Library Center acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification System when it bought Forest Press in 1988, a browser for books with their Dewey Decimal Classifications was available until July 2013, it was replaced by the Classify Service. S. The reference management service QuestionPoint provides libraries with tools to communicate with users and this around-the-clock reference service is provided by a cooperative of participating global libraries. OCLC has produced cards for members since 1971 with its shared online catalog. OCLC commercially sells software, e. g. CONTENTdm for managing digital collections, OCLC has been conducting research for the library community for more than 30 years. In accordance with its mission, OCLC makes its research outcomes known through various publications and these publications, including journal articles, reports, newsletters, and presentations, are available through the organizations website. The most recent publications are displayed first, and all archived resources, membership Reports – A number of significant reports on topics ranging from virtual reference in libraries to perceptions about library funding
OCLC
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Fred Kilgour (1st director of OCLC)
OCLC
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Online Computer Library Center (OCLC)
OCLC
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OCLC headquarters (Ohio)
OCLC
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OCLC offices in Leiden (the Netherlands)
38.
Johns Hopkins University Press
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The Johns Hopkins University Press is the publishing division of Johns Hopkins University. It was founded in 1878 and is the oldest continuously running university press in the United States, the Press publishes books, journals, and electronic databases. Considering all its units it is a contender for Americas largest university press and its headquarters are in Charles Village, Baltimore. Daniel Coit Gilman, the first president of the Johns Hopkins University, the Press began as the Universitys Publication Agency, publishing the American Journal of Mathematics in its first year and the American Chemical Journal in its second. It published its first book, Sidney Lanier, A Memorial Tribute, in 1891, the Publication Agency became the Johns Hopkins Press, since 1972, it has been known as the Johns Hopkins University Press. After various moves on and off the Universitys Homewood campus, the Press acquired a permanent home in Baltimores Charles Village neighborhood in 1993, when it relocated to a renovated former church. Built in 1897, the granite and brick structure was the church of the Saints Philip and James Roman Catholic parish. JHU Press publishes 65 scholarly journals and more than 200 new books each year, since 1993, JHU Press has run Project MUSE, an online provider of more than 550 scholarly journals and more than 20,000 electronic books
Johns Hopkins University Press
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Johns Hopkins University Press
39.
University of Arizona Press
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The University of Arizona Press, a publishing house founded in 1959 as a department of the University of Arizona, is a nonprofit publisher of scholarly and regional books. The Press publishes about fifty books annually and has some 1,400 books in print and these include scholarly titles in American Indian studies, anthropology, archaeology, environmental studies, geography, Chicano studies, history, Latin American studies, and the space sciences. The UA Press also publishes general interest books on Arizona and the Southwest borderlands, a Documentary Chronicle of Sino-Western Relations, 1644-1820, Translated texts. Volume 22 of Monographs of the Association for Asian Studies, Volume 1 of A Documentary Chronicle of Sino-Western Relations, published for the Association for Asian Studies by the University of Arizona Press
University of Arizona Press
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University of Arizona Press
40.
Florentine Codex
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The Florentine Codex is a 16th-century ethnographic research study in Mesoamerica by the Spanish Franciscan friar Bernardino de Sahagún. Sahagún originally titled it, La Historia Universal de las Cosas de Nueva España, after a translation mistake, it was given the name Historia general de las Cosas de Nueva España. The best-preserved manuscript is commonly referred to as The Florentine Codex, as it is held in the Laurentian Library of Florence, Italy. In partnership with Nahua men who were formerly his students at the Colegio de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco, Sahagún conducted research, organized evidence, wrote and he worked on this project from 1545 up until his death in 1590. The work consists of 2,400 pages organized into twelve books and it documents the culture, religious cosmology and ritual practices, society, economics, and natural history of the Aztec people. It has been described as “one of the most remarkable accounts of a non-Western culture ever composed. ”The Americans Charles E. Dibble and Arthur J. O. Anderson were the first to translate the Codex from Nahuatl to English, in a project that took 30 years to complete. In 2012 high-resolution scans of all volumes of The Florentine Codex, in Nahuatl and Spanish, the three bound volumes of the Florentine Codex are found in the Biblioteca Medicea-Laurenziana, Palat. 218-220 in Florence, Italy, with the title Florentine Codex chosen by its English translators, Anderson and Charles Dibble, following in the tradition of nineteenth-century Mexican scholars Francisco del Paso y Troncoso and Joaquín García Icazbalceta. The manuscript became part of the collection of the library in Florence at some point after its creation in the sixteenth century. It was not until the eighteenth century that scholars become aware of it. The work became more known in the nineteenth century, with a description published by P. Fr. The Spanish Royal Academy of History learned of work and, at the 5th meeting of the International Congress of Americanists. In 1888 German scholar Eduard Seler presented a description of the illustrations at the 7th meeting of the International Congress of Americanists, Mexican scholar Francisco del Paso y Troncoso received permission in 1893 from the Italian government to copy the alphabetic text and the illustrations. The three-volume manuscript of the Florentine Codex has been analyzed and compared to earlier drafts found in Madrid. The Tolosa Manuscript was known in the 1860s and studied by José Fernando Ramírez The Tolosa Manuscript has been source for all published editions in Spanish of the Historia General. The English translation of the complete Nahuatl text of all volumes of the Florentine Codex was a decades-long work of Arthur J. O. Anderson and Charles Dibble, a contribution to the scholarship on Mesoamerican ethno-history. In 1979 the Mexican government published a full-color, three-volume facsimile of the Florentine Codex in an edition of 2,000
Florentine Codex
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Page 51 of Book IX from the Florentine Codex. The text is in
Nahuatl; World Digital Library.
Florentine Codex
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Historia general de las cosas de Nueva España (original from the
Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana).
Florentine Codex
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An illustration of the "One Flower" ceremony, from the 16th century Florentine Codex. The two drums are the teponaztli (foreground) and the huehuetl (background).
Florentine Codex
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Aztec warriors as shown in the Florentine Codex.
41.
School of American Research
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SAR offers residential fellowships for artists and scholars, and it publishes academic and popular non-fiction books through SAR Press. In the early years of the 20th century, archaeology was a discipline with roots in historical studies of Old World antiquities. In 1906 Alice Cunningham Fletcher, an anthropologist and ethnographer of Plains Indian groups, was on the American Committee of the Archaeological Institute of America. The AIA, founded in Boston in 1879, had schools in Athens, Rome and her aims coincided with those of Edgar Lee Hewett, an educator and amateur archaeologist whom she met in Mexico in 1906. Nicknamed El Toro, Hewett was a controversial figure and he served as president of New Mexico Normal School in Las Vegas from 1898 to 1903, where he taught some of the first anthropology courses to be offered at any U. S. college. His work lobbying for the protection of archaeological sites led to the creation of Mesa Verde National Park, in 1909, the legislature established the Museum of New Mexico as an agency of the School, creating a relationship that would continue for the next 50 years. Hewett became director of both the Museum and the School, the school also sponsored excavations in Mexico, Guatemala, and South America, and led the effort to preserve 22 Spanish missions in New Mexico. While directing the school, Hewett founded departments of anthropology at the University of Southern California, through the Museum of New Mexico, the school took an early interest in promoting and preserving the artistic traditions of Southwestern Indians. They offered studio facilities, as well as collecting and exhibiting their work, early Native artists promoted by SAR included Maria Martinez, Crescencio Martinez, Awa Tsireh, and Fred Kabotie, among many others. In 1922, the school sponsored the first Southwest Indian Fair, Hewett led the school and museum until his death in 1946 at age 82. A 20-year period of inactivity followed. The School continued to pursue research projects on a modest scale. It was headed, successively, by Sylvanus Morley, Boaz Long, Wayne L. Mauzy, Edward Weyer, Jr. and this transition period ended in 1959, when the State Legislature formally separated the Museum of New Mexico from the School. The School of American Research was gutted, left with a staff of two and an uncertain future, in 1967, Douglas W. Schwartz, a young professor of anthropology from the University of Kentucky, became the new director of the School of American Research. Schwartz broadened the focus to embrace advanced scholarship in anthropology and the humanities worldwide, and to promote the study, preservation. Schwartz also continued the archaeological research with field excavations in the Grand Canyon in the late 1960s and, in the 1970s. Over the years, SARs offices had relocated from the Palace of the Governors to the Hewett House on Lincoln Street, in 1973, the school moved into an old adobe estate on Santa Fes east side. El Delirio had been the home of Martha Root White and Amelia Elizabeth White, built in the 1920s, the estate was a popular gathering place for Santa Fe artists, writers, and intellectuals—among them Hewett, Morley, and others associated with the school
School of American Research
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Spiral at the School for Advanced Research, May 2007.
School of American Research
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Edgar Lee Hewett, president of
New Mexico Normal University in 1898.
School of American Research
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Pueblo del Arroyo,
Chaco Canyon, New Mexico.
42.
University of Utah Press
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The University of Utah Press is the independent publishing branch of the University of Utah and is a division of the J. Willard Marriott Library. Ray Olpin, it is also the oldest university press in Utah, the Press employs seven people full-time and publishes from 25 to 35 titles per year. The Press has over 450 books currently in print, the University of Utah Press awards five annual or biennial prizes for scholarly and/or literary manuscripts. The first Anthropological Paper was published in 1950 and new books continue to be published through the present. ”Lecturers from a variety of cultures and fields are chosen on the basis of their leadership, integrity, and commitment to human values. The lectures consider the relationships between scientific and scholarly advancements and moral values and are published in a volume by the University of Utah Press. Past lecturers include, E. O. Wilson, Carlos Fuentes, Freeman Dyson, Paul Farmer, Steven Pinker, M. Hakan Yavuz is the Series Editor
University of Utah Press
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University of Utah Press logo with Defiance House Man, which is based upon a four-foot-tall ancient Puebloan pictograph near Glen Canyon, Utah.
43.
PDF
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The Portable Document Format is a file format used to present documents in a manner independent of application software, hardware, and operating systems. Each PDF file encapsulates a complete description of a fixed-layout flat document, including the text, fonts, graphics, PDF was developed in the early 1990s as a way to share computer documents, including text formatting and inline images. It was among a number of competing formats such as DjVu, Envoy, Common Ground Digital Paper, Farallon Replica, in those early years before the rise of the World Wide Web and HTML documents, PDF was popular mainly in desktop publishing workflows. Adobe Systems made the PDF specification available free of charge in 1993 and these proprietary technologies are not standardized and their specification is published only on Adobe’s website. Many of them are not supported by popular third-party implementations of PDF. So when organizations publish PDFs which use proprietary technologies, they present accessibility issues for some users. In 2014, ISO TC171 voted to deprecate XFA for ISO 32000-2, on January 9,2017, the final draft for ISO 32000-2 was published, thus reaching the approval stage. The PDF combines three technologies, A subset of the PostScript page description programming language, for generating the layout, a font-embedding/replacement system to allow fonts to travel with the documents. A structured storage system to bundle these elements and any associated content into a single file, PostScript is a page description language run in an interpreter to generate an image, a process requiring many resources. It can handle graphics and standard features of programming such as if. PDF is largely based on PostScript but simplified to remove flow control features like these, often, the PostScript-like PDF code is generated from a source PostScript file. The graphics commands that are output by the PostScript code are collected and tokenized, any files, graphics, or fonts to which the document refers also are collected. Then, everything is compressed to a single file, therefore, the entire PostScript world remains intact. PDF supports graphic transparency, PostScript does not, PostScript is an interpreted programming language with an implicit global state, so instructions accompanying the description of one page can affect the appearance of any following page. Therefore, all preceding pages in a PostScript document must be processed to determine the appearance of a given page. A PDF file is a 7-bit ASCII file, except for elements that may have binary content. A PDF file starts with a header containing the magic number, the format is a subset of a COS format. A COS tree file consists primarily of objects, of which there are eight types, Boolean values, representing true or false Numbers Strings, enclosed within parentheses, objects may be either direct or indirect
PDF
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Formats
PDF
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Adobe PDF icon
44.
International Standard Serial Number
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An International Standard Serial Number is an eight-digit serial number used to uniquely identify a serial publication. The ISSN is especially helpful in distinguishing between serials with the same title, ISSN are used in ordering, cataloging, interlibrary loans, and other practices in connection with serial literature. The ISSN system was first drafted as an International Organization for Standardization international standard in 1971, ISO subcommittee TC 46/SC9 is responsible for maintaining the standard. When a serial with the content is published in more than one media type. For example, many serials are published both in print and electronic media, the ISSN system refers to these types as print ISSN and electronic ISSN, respectively. The format of the ISSN is an eight digit code, divided by a hyphen into two four-digit numbers, as an integer number, it can be represented by the first seven digits. The last code digit, which may be 0-9 or an X, is a check digit. Formally, the form of the ISSN code can be expressed as follows, NNNN-NNNC where N is in the set, a digit character. The ISSN of the journal Hearing Research, for example, is 0378-5955, where the final 5 is the check digit, for calculations, an upper case X in the check digit position indicates a check digit of 10. To confirm the check digit, calculate the sum of all eight digits of the ISSN multiplied by its position in the number, the modulus 11 of the sum must be 0. There is an online ISSN checker that can validate an ISSN, ISSN codes are assigned by a network of ISSN National Centres, usually located at national libraries and coordinated by the ISSN International Centre based in Paris. The International Centre is an organization created in 1974 through an agreement between UNESCO and the French government. The International Centre maintains a database of all ISSNs assigned worldwide, at the end of 2016, the ISSN Register contained records for 1,943,572 items. ISSN and ISBN codes are similar in concept, where ISBNs are assigned to individual books, an ISBN might be assigned for particular issues of a serial, in addition to the ISSN code for the serial as a whole. An ISSN, unlike the ISBN code, is an identifier associated with a serial title. For this reason a new ISSN is assigned to a serial each time it undergoes a major title change, separate ISSNs are needed for serials in different media. Thus, the print and electronic versions of a serial need separate ISSNs. Also, a CD-ROM version and a web version of a serial require different ISSNs since two different media are involved, however, the same ISSN can be used for different file formats of the same online serial
International Standard Serial Number
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ISSN encoded in an EAN-13 barcode with sequence variant 0 and issue number 5
45.
Pre-Columbian era
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For this reason the alternative terms of Precontact Americas, Pre-Colonial Americas or Prehistoric Americas are also in use. In areas of Latin America the term used is Pre-Hispanic. Other civilizations were contemporary with the period and were described in European historical accounts of the time. A few, such as the Maya civilization, had their own written records, because many Christian Europeans of the time viewed such texts as heretical, men like Diego de Landa destroyed many texts in pyres, even while seeking to preserve native histories. Only a few documents have survived in their original languages, while others were transcribed or dictated into Spanish, giving modern historians glimpses of ancient culture. Indigenous American cultures continue to evolve after the pre-Columbian era, many of these peoples and their descendants continue traditional practices, while evolving and adapting new cultural practices and technologies into their lives. Now, the study of pre-Columbian cultures is most often based on scientific. Asian nomads are thought to have entered the Americas via the Bering Land Bridge, now the Bering Strait, genetic evidence found in Amerindians maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA supports the theory of multiple genetic populations migrating from Asia. Over the course of millennia, Paleo-Indians spread throughout North and South America, exactly when the first group of people migrated into the Americas is the subject of much debate. One of the earliest identifiable cultures was the Clovis culture, with sites dating from some 13,000 years ago, however, older sites dating back to 20,000 years ago have been claimed. Some genetic studies estimate the colonization of the Americas dates from between 40,000 and 13,000 years ago, the chronology of migration models is currently divided into two general approaches. The first is the short chronology theory with the first movement beyond Alaska into the New World occurring no earlier than 14, 000–17,000 years ago, followed by successive waves of immigrants. The second belief is the long chronology theory, which proposes that the first group of people entered the hemisphere at an earlier date, possibly 50. In that case, the Eskimo peoples would have arrived separately and at a later date, probably no more than 2,000 years ago. The North American climate was unstable as the ice age receded and it finally stabilized by about 10,000 years ago, climatic conditions were then very similar to todays. Within this timeframe, roughly pertaining to the Archaic Period, numerous archaeological cultures have been identified, the unstable climate led to widespread migration, with early Paleo-Indians soon spreading throughout the Americas, diversifying into many hundreds of culturally distinct tribes. The paleo-indians were hunter-gatherers, likely characterized by small, mobile bands consisting of approximately 20 to 50 members of an extended family and these groups moved from place to place as preferred resources were depleted and new supplies were sought. During much of the Paleo-Indian period, bands are thought to have subsisted primarily through hunting now-extinct giant land animals such as mastodon, Paleo-Indian groups carried a variety of tools
Pre-Columbian era
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Hopewell mounds from the
Mound City Group in Ohio
Pre-Columbian era
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hunter-gatherers
Pre-Columbian era
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Mississippian site in Arkansas,
Parkin Site, circa 1539. Illustration by Herb Roe.
Pre-Columbian era
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One of the pyramids in the upper level of
Yaxchilán
Media related to Toltec at Wikimedia Commons
