1.
Tom Swift and His Motor Cycle
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Tom Swift and His Motor Cycle, or, Fun and Adventure on the Road, is Volume 1 in the original Tom Swift novel series published by Grosset & Dunlap. Tom Swift, in his first adventure, has purchased a motorcycle, eager to test his enhancements, Tom volunteers to transport his fathers revolutionary turbine design plans across the country roads to Albany. Unaware of the evil corporate investors who want to steal the invention for themselves, Tom falls into their trap and it is up to Tom not only to retrieve the blueprints and turbine prototype, but also to bring a gang of hired thugs to justice. Tom purchased an expensive motorcycle from his new friend, Mr. Damon. The model year would have been 1909 or 1910, Tom tweaked the sprocket ratios, spark levers and overall performance of his machine by 15%, as well as increasing its range. Barton Swift, Toms father, was working on a new turbine design, turbines are used all over the world today in the same way. About the same time Barton Swift was working on design, Nikola Tesla was working to patent his own model - the bladeless turbine. Curtiss V-8 motorcycle —1907 record-setter designed and ridden by Glenn Curtiss
2.
Science fiction
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Science fiction often explores the potential consequences of scientific and other innovations, and has been called a literature of ideas. Science fiction is difficult to define, as it includes a range of subgenres and themes. Author and editor Damon Knight summed up the difficulty, saying science fiction is what we point to when we say it, a definition echoed by author Mark C. Glassy, who argues that the definition of science fiction is like the definition of pornography, you do not know what it is, in 1970 or 1971William Atheling Jr. According to science fiction writer Robert A, rod Serlings definition is fantasy is the impossible made probable. Science fiction is the improbable made possible, Science fiction is largely based on writing rationally about alternative possible worlds or futures. Science fiction elements include, A time setting in the future, in alternative timelines, a spatial setting or scenes in outer space, on other worlds, or on subterranean earth. Characters that include aliens, mutants, androids, or humanoid robots, futuristic or plausible technology such as ray guns, teleportation machines, and humanoid computers. Scientific principles that are new or that contradict accepted physical laws, for time travel, wormholes. New and different political or social systems, e. g. utopian, dystopian, post-scarcity, paranormal abilities such as mind control, telepathy, telekinesis Other universes or dimensions and travel between them. A product of the budding Age of Reason and the development of science itself. Isaac Asimov and Carl Sagan considered Keplers work the first science fiction story and it depicts a journey to the Moon and how the Earths motion is seen from there. Later, Edgar Allan Poe wrote a story about a flight to the moon, more examples appeared throughout the 19th century. Wells The War of the Worlds describes an invasion of late Victorian England by Martians using tripod fighting machines equipped with advanced weaponry and it is a seminal depiction of an alien invasion of Earth. In the late 19th century, the scientific romance was used in Britain to describe much of this fiction. This produced additional offshoots, such as the 1884 novella Flatland, the term would continue to be used into the early 20th century for writers such as Olaf Stapledon. In the early 20th century, pulp magazines helped develop a new generation of mainly American SF writers, influenced by Hugo Gernsback, the founder of Amazing Stories magazine. In 1912 Edgar Rice Burroughs published A Princess of Mars, the first of his series of Barsoom novels, situated on Mars
3.
Edward Stratemeyer
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Edward L. Stratemeyer was an American publisher and writer of childrens fiction. He was one of the most prolific writers in the world, producing in excess of 1,300 books himself, on Stratemeyers legacy, Fortune wrote, As oil had its Rockefeller, literature had its Stratemeyer. Stratemeyer was born the youngest of six children in Elizabeth, New Jersey, to Henry Julius Stratemeyer, a tobacconist and they were both from Hanover, Germany, immigrating to the United States in 1837. Although they were German, he and his siblings were educated in English, growing up, Edward read the likes of Horatio Alger and William T. Adams, writers who penned beloved rags-to-riches tales of the hardworking young American. As a teenager, Stratemeyer operated his own printing press in the basement of his fathers shop, distributing flyers and pamphlets among his friends. These included stories called The Newsboy’s Adventure and The Tale of a Lumberman, after he graduated from high school, he went to work in his fathers store. Stratemeyer moved to Newark, New Jersey, in 1890 and opened a paper store and he ran his shop while continuing to write stories under pseudonyms. He was able to write for many genres including detective novels, westerns. In 1893, Stratemeyer was hired by the popular dime-novel writer Gilbert Patten, in 1894, he published his first full-length book, Richard Dares Venture, which was the first in his Bound to Succeed series. It contained autobiographical content and was similar to Algers rags-to-riches story formula, in 1899, Horatio Alger wrote Stratemeyer as editor of the Good News, asking him to finish one of his manuscripts. Alger was in health at the time. When Alger died later the year, Stratemeyer continued to edit. That same year, after Alger died, Stratemeyer wrote and published The Rover Boys, the Rover Boys was The first highly successful series by Edward Stratemeyer, each volume had a preface from Edward Stratemeyer himself, thanking his readers and touting the other books. Its generally accepted that Stratemeyer wrote all of the books and he said this series was his personal favorite. Stratemeyer formed the Stratemeyer Literary Syndicate in 1905 and hired journalists to write based on his ideas. He paid them a flat rate for each book, and kept the copyrights to the novels and he married Magdalena Van Camp, the daughter of a Newark businessman, on March 25,1891. The couple had two daughters, Harriet Stratemeyer Adams and Edna C, squier, both of whom would later take over the future Stratemeyer Syndicate. Stratemeyer enjoyed the outdoors and often took annual trips to the Great Lakes, Lake George
4.
Ghostwriter
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Celebrities, executives, participants in timely news stories, and political leaders often hire ghostwriters to draft or edit autobiographies, memoirs, magazine articles, or other written material. In music, ghostwriters are often used to write songs, lyrics, screenplay authors can also use ghostwriters to either edit or rewrite their scripts to improve them. Usually, there is a confidentiality clause in the contract between the ghostwriter and the author that obligates the former to remain anonymous. Ghostwriting also occurs in other creative fields, ghosting also occurs in popular music. A pop music ghostwriter writes lyrics and a melody in the style of the credited musician, in hip hop music, the increasing use of ghostwriters by high-profile hip-hop stars has led to controversy. In the visual arts, it is not uncommon in either fine art or commercial art such as comics for a number of assistants to do work on a piece that is credited to a single artist. However, when credit is established for the writer, the acknowledgement of their contribution is public domain, a consultant or career-switcher may pay a ghostwriter to write a book on a topic in their professional area, to establish or enhance her credibility as an expert in their field. Public officials and politicians employ correspondence officers to respond to the volume of official correspondence. A number of papal encyclicals have been written by ghostwriters, some university and college students hire ghostwriters from essay mills to write entrance essays, term papers, theses, and dissertations. This is largely considered unethical unless the actual ghostwriting work is just light editing, ghostwriters are hired for numerous reasons. In many cases, celebrities or public figures do not have the time, discipline, or writing skills to write and research a several-hundred page autobiography or how-to book. Even if a celebrity or public figure has the skills to pen a short article, they may not know how to structure and edit a several-hundred page book so that it is captivating. Ghostwriters may have varying degrees of involvement in the production of a finished work, some ghostwriters are hired to edit and clean up a rough draft or partially completed work, while others are hired to do most of the writing based on an outline provided by the credited author. For some projects, such as creating an autobiography for a celebrity, ghostwriters are also hired to write fiction in the style of an existing author, often as a way of increasing the number of books that can be published by a popular author. Ghostwriters will often spend a period from several months to a year researching, writing. Ghostwriters are paid either per page, per each word or via total word count, with a fee, with a percentage of the royalties of the sales. The division of work between the ghostwriter and the credited author varies a great deal, in some cases, the ghostwriter is hired to edit a rough draft of a mostly completed manuscript. In this case, the outline, ideas and much of the language in the book or article are those of the credited author
5.
Pseudonym
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A pseudonym or alias is a name that a person or group assumes for a particular purpose, which can differ from their original or true name. Historically, they have taken the form of anagrams, Graecisms. Pseudonyms should not be confused with new names that replace old ones, actors, musicians, and other performers sometimes use stage names, for example, to mask their ethnic backgrounds. A collective name or collective pseudonym is one shared by two or more persons, for example the co-authors of a work, such as Ellery Queen, the term is derived from the Greek ψευδώνυμον, literally false name, from ψεῦδος, lie, falsehood and ὄνομα, name. A pseudonym is distinct from an allonym, which is the name of another person and this may occur when someone is ghostwriting a book or play, or in parody, or when using a front name, such as by screenwriters blacklisted in Hollywood in the 1950s and 1960s. See also pseudepigraph, for falsely attributed authorship, sometimes people change their name in such a manner that the new name becomes permanent and is used by all who know the person. This is not an alias or pseudonym, but in fact a new name, in many countries, including common law countries, a name change can be ratified by a court and become a persons new legal name. He then changed his name again to Malik El-Shabazz when he converted to Islam, likewise some Jews adopted Hebrew family names upon immigrating to Israel, dropping surnames that had been in their families for generations. The politician David Ben-Gurion, for example, was born David Grün in Poland and he adopted his Hebrew name in 1910, when he published his first article in a Zionist journal in Jerusalem. Criminals may use aliases, fictitious business names, and dummy corporations to hide their identity, a pen name, or nom de plume, is a pseudonym adopted by an author. Some female authors used male pen names, in particular in the 19th century, the Brontë family used pen names for their early work, so as not to reveal their gender and so that local residents would not know that the books related to people of the neighbourhood. The Brontës used their neighbours as inspiration for characters in many of their books, anne Brontë published The Tenant of Wildfell Hall under the name Acton Bell. Charlotte Brontë published Shirley and Jane Eyre under the name Currer Bell, emily Brontë published Wuthering Heights as Ellis Bell. A well-known example of the former is Mary Ann Evans, who wrote as George Eliot, Another example is Amandine Aurore Lucile Dupin, a 19th-century French writer who used the pen name George Sand. In contrast, some twentieth and twenty first century male romance novelists have used pen names. A few examples of male authors using female pseudonyms include Brindle Chase, Peter ODonnell and Christopher Wood. A pen name may be used if a real name is likely to be confused with the name of another writer or notable individual. Authors who write both fiction and non-fiction, or in different genres, may use different pen names to avoid confusing their readers, in some cases, an author may become better known by his pen name than his real name
6.
Board game
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A board game is a tabletop game that involves counters or pieces moved or placed on a pre-marked surface or board, according to a set of rules. Some games are based on strategy, but many contain an element of chance. Games usually have a goal that a player aims to achieve, early board games represented a battle between two armies, and most modern board games are still based on defeating opposing players in terms of counters, winning position, or accrual of points. There are many varieties of board games and their representation of real-life situations can range from having no inherent theme, like checkers, to having a specific theme and narrative, like Cluedo. Board games have been played in most cultures and societies throughout history, the Pilgrims and Puritans of New England frowned on game playing and viewed dice as instruments of the devil. In Thoughts on Lotteries Thomas Jefferson wrote, Almost all these pursuits of chance produce something useful to society, but there are some which produce nothing, and endanger the well-being of the individuals engaged in them or of others depending on them. Such are games with cards, dice, billiards, etc. and suppress the pursuit altogether, there are some other games of chance, useful on certain occasions, and injurious only when carried beyond their useful bounds. Such are insurances, lotteries, raffles, etc and these they do not suppress, but take their regulation under their own discretion. As the US shifted from agrarian to urban living in the century, greater leisure time. The American home, once the center of production, became the locus of entertainment, enlightenment. Children were encouraged to board games that developed literacy skills. The earliest board games published in the United States were based upon Christian morality, the Mansion of Happiness, for example, sent players along a path of virtues and vices that led to the Mansion of Happiness. The missionaries are cast in white as the symbol of innocence, temperance, and hope while the pope and pagan are cast in black, the color of gloom of error, and. grief at the daily loss of empire. Commercially produced board games in the century were monochrome prints laboriously hand-colored by teams of low-paid young factory women. Advances in paper making and printmaking during the period enabled the production of relatively inexpensive board games. The most significant advance was the development of chromolithography, an achievement that made bold. Games cost as little as US$.25 for a small boxed card game to $3.00 for more elaborate games, American Protestants believed a virtuous life led to success, but the belief was challenged mid-century when Americans embraced materialism and capitalism. The accumulation of material goods was viewed as a divine blessing, in 1860, The Checkered Game of Life rewarded players for mundane activities such as attending college, marrying, and getting rich
7.
Steve Wozniak
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Stephen Gary Steve Wozniak, nicknamed Woz, is an American inventor, electronics engineer, programmer, and technology entrepreneur who co-founded Apple Inc. He is known as a pioneer of the computer revolution of the 1970s and 1980s. Wozniak single-handedly developed the 1976 Apple I, which was the computer that launched Apple and he primarily designed the 1977 Apple II, while Jobs oversaw the development of its unusual case and Rod Holt developed the unique power supply. Steve Wozniak was born in San Jose, California, the son of Margaret Elaine and he is of Polish and Swiss-German ancestry. His father was from Bukovyna, Ukraine and his mother from German-Swiss background, the name on Wozniaks birth certificate is Stephan Gary Wozniak, but Steves mother said that she intended it to be spelled Stephen, and Steve is what he uses. Wozniak has been referred to frequently by the nickname Woz, The Wonderful Wizard of Woz, The Second Steve, or The Woz, the city of San Jose named a street Woz Way in his honour. In the early 1970s, Wozniak was also known as Berkeley Blue in the phone phreak community, in 1969, Wozniak returned to the Bay Area after being expelled from University of Colorado Boulder in his first year for hacking into the institutions computer system. During this time, Wozniak designed and built his Cream Soda computer with his friend Bill Fernandez and he later re-enrolled at De Anza College and transferred to University of California, Berkeley in 1971. Before focusing his attention on Apple, he was employed at Hewlett-Packard where he designed calculators and it was during this time that he befriended Steve Jobs. Steve Wozniak was introduced to Jobs by friend Bill Fernandez, who attended Homestead High School with Jobs in 1971, Jobs and Wozniak became friends when Jobs worked for the summer at Hewlett-Packard, where Wozniak too was employed, working on a mainframe computer. This was recounted by Wozniak in a 2007 interview with ABC News, of how, a friend said, you should meet Steve Jobs, because he likes electronics and he also plays pranks. In 1973, Jobs was working for arcade game company Atari, Inc. in Los Gatos and he was assigned to create a circuit board for the arcade video game Breakout. According to Atari co-founder Nolan Bushnell, Atari offered $100 for each chip that was eliminated in the machine, Jobs had little knowledge of circuit board design and made a deal with Wozniak to split the fee evenly between them if Wozniak could minimize the number of chips. Wozniak reduced the number of chips by 50, by using RAM for the brick representation, too complex to be fully comprehended at the time, the fact that this prototype also had no scoring or coin mechanisms meant Wozs prototype could not be used. Jobs was paid the full bonus regardless, Jobs told Wozniak that Atari gave them only $700 and that Wozniaks share was thus $350. Wozniak did not learn about the actual $5,000 bonus until ten years later, on June 29,1975 Wozniak tested his first working prototype, displaying a few letters and running sample programs. It was the first time in history that a character displayed on a TV screen was generated by a home computer. With the Apple I design, he and Jobs were largely working to impress members of the Palo Alto-based Homebrew Computer Club
8.
Isaac Asimov
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Isaac Asimov was an American writer and professor of biochemistry at Boston University. He was known for his works of fiction and popular science. Asimov was a writer, and wrote or edited more than 500 books. His books have published in 9 of the 10 major categories of the Dewey Decimal Classification. Asimov wrote hard science fiction and, along with Robert A. Heinlein, Clarke, he was considered one of the Big Three science fiction writers during his lifetime. Asimovs most famous work is the Foundation Series, his major series are the Galactic Empire series. The Galactic Empire novels are set in earlier history of the same fictional universe as the Foundation series. He wrote hundreds of stories, including the social science fiction Nightfall. Asimov wrote the Lucky Starr series of juvenile science-fiction novels using the pen name Paul French, Asimov also wrote mysteries and fantasy, as well as much nonfiction. Most of his science books explain scientific concepts in a historical way. He often provides nationalities, birth dates, and death dates for the scientists he mentions, as well as etymologies, Asimov was a long-time member and vice president of Mensa International, albeit reluctantly, he described some members of that organization as brain-proud and aggressive about their IQs. He took more joy in being president of the American Humanist Association, the asteroid 5020 Asimov, a crater on the planet Mars, a Brooklyn elementary school, and a literary award are named in his honor. His exact date of birth within that range is unknown, the family name derives from a word for winter crops, in which his great-grandfather dealt. This word is spelled озимые in Russian, and азімыя in Belarusian, phonetically, both words are almost identical because in Russian О in the first unstressed syllable is always pronounced as А. Accordingly, his name originally was Исаак Озимов in Russian, however, he was known in Russia as Ayzek Azimov. Asimov had two siblings, a sister, Marcia, and a brother, Stanley, who was vice-president of New York Newsday. His family emigrated to the United States when he was three years old, since his parents always spoke Yiddish and English with him, he never learned Russian, but he remained fluent in Yiddish as well as English. Growing up in Brooklyn, New York, Asimov taught himself to read at the age of five, after becoming established in the U. S. his parents owned a succession of candy stores, in which everyone in the family was expected to work
9.
Taser
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A Taser or conducted electrical weapon is an electroshock weapon sold by Axon. It fires two small dart-like electrodes, which connected to the main unit by conductors, to deliver electric current to disrupt voluntary control of muscles causing neuromuscular incapacitation. Someone struck by a Taser experiences extreme pain and over-stimulation of sensory nerves and motor nerves, a 2009 Police Executive Research Forum study said that officer injuries drop by 76% when a Taser is used. However, while Taser CEO Rick Smith has stated that surveys show that the device has saved 75,000 lives. Although some other companies have produced similar devices, their significance as of 2014 is still marginal, Jack Cover, a NASA researcher, began developing the Taser in 1969. By 1974, Cover had completed the device, which he named after his childhood hero Tom Swift, the Taser Public Defender used gunpowder as its propellant, which led the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms to classify it as a firearm in 1976. The backformed verb to tase is used sometimes, in 1993, Rick Smith and his brother Thomas began to investigate what they called safer use of force option for citizens and law enforcement. At their Scottsdale, Arizona, facilities, the worked with the. original Taser inventor. The U. S. firearms regulator, the ATF, stated that the Air Taser was not a firearm, in 1999, Taser International developed an. ergonomically handgun-shaped device called the Advanced Taser M-series systems, which used a. patented neuromuscular incapacitation technology. In May 2003, Taser International released a new weapon called the Taser X26, on July 27,2009 Taser International released a new type of Taser called the X3, which can fire three shots before reloading. It holds three new cartridges, which are much thinner than the previous model. The Taser fires two small dart-like electrodes, which connected to the main unit by conductive wire as they are propelled by small compressed nitrogen charges. The cartridge contains a pair of electrodes and propellant for a shot and is replaced after each use. There are a number of cartridges designated by range, with the maximum at 35 feet, cartridges available to non-law enforcement consumers are limited to 15 feet. The electrodes are pointed to penetrate clothing and barbed to prevent removal once in place, earlier Taser models had difficulty in penetrating thick clothing, but newer versions use a shaped pulse that increases effectiveness in the presence of barriers. Tasers also provide a safety benefit to police officers, Tasers have a greater deployment range than batons, pepper spray or empty hand techniques. This allows police to maintain a greater distance, the study found that only pepper spray was a safer intervention option. Use of the taser has been associated with deaths, the Guardian newspaper is running a database, The Counted, tracking US killings by police and other law enforcement agencies in 2015
10.
Incarnation
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Incarnation literally means embodied in flesh or taking on flesh. It refers to the conception and birth of a sentient being who is the manifestation of an entity. In its religious context the word is used to mean the descent from Heaven of a god, or divine being in human/animal form on Earth. In the Baháí Faith, God is not seen to be incarnated into this world and is not seen to be part of creation as he cannot be divided and does not descend to the condition of his creatures. The Manifestations of God are also not seen as an incarnation of God, Buddhism is a non-theistic religion, it denies the concept of a creator god or any incarnation of a creator god. In Tibetan Buddhism, a spiritual teacher is believed to reincarnate. According to Tulku Thondup, there are three types of tulkus. They are the emanations of buddhas, the manifestations of highly accomplished adepts, there are also authentic secondary types as well which include unrecognized tulkus, blessed tulkus, and tulkus fallen from the path. The incarnation of Christ is a central Christian doctrine that God became flesh, assumed a human nature, and became a man in the form of Jesus, the Son of God and the second person of the Trinity. This foundational Christian position holds that the nature of the Son of God was perfectly united with human nature in one divine Person, Jesus. The theological term for this is hypostatic union, the Second Person of the Trinity, God the Son, biblical passages traditionally referenced in connection with the doctrine of the Incarnation include John 3, 1-21, Colossians 2,9, and Philippians 2, 7-8. In Hinduism, incarnation refers to its doctrine, and in its theistic traditions to avatar. Avatar literally means descent, alight, to ones appearance. The word also implies to overcome, to remove, to bring down, an avatar, states Justin Edwards Abbott, is a saguna embodiment of the nirguna Brahman or Atman. Neither the Vedas nor the Principal Upanishads ever mention the word avatar as a noun, the verb roots and form, such as avatarana, do appear in ancient post-Vedic Hindu texts, but as action of descending, but not as an incarnated person. The related verb avatarana is, states Paul Hacker, used with double meaning, one as action of the divine descending, the term is most commonly found in the context of the Hindu god Vishnu. It is in medieval era texts, those composed after the sixth century CE, that the version of avatar appears. The incarnation idea proliferates thereafter, in the Puranic stories for many deities, while Avatars of other deities such as Ganesha and Shiva are also mentioned in medieval Hindu texts, this is minor and occasional
11.
Henry Ford
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Henry Ford was an American industrialist, the founder of the Ford Motor Company, and the sponsor of the development of the assembly line technique of mass production. Although Ford invented neither the nor the assembly line, he developed and manufactured the first automobile that many middle class Americans could afford. In doing so, Ford converted the automobile from an expensive curiosity into a practical conveyance that would impact the landscape of the 20th Century. His introduction of the Model T automobile revolutionized transportation and American industry, as the owner of the Ford Motor Company, he became one of the richest and best-known people in the world. He is credited with Fordism, mass production of inexpensive goods coupled with high wages for workers, Ford had a global vision, with consumerism as the key to peace. Ford left most of his vast wealth to the Ford Foundation, Ford was also widely known for his pacifism during the first years of World War I, and for promoting antisemitism through his newspaper The Dearborn Independent and the book The International Jew. Henry Ford was born July 30,1863, on a farm in Greenfield Township, Henry Fords siblings were Margaret Ford, Jane Ford, William Ford and Robert Ford. His father gave him a watch in his early teens. At 15, Ford dismantled and reassembled the timepieces of friends and neighbors dozens of times, at twenty, Ford walked four miles to their Episcopal church every Sunday. Ford was devastated when his mother died in 1876 and his father expected him to eventually take over the family farm, but he despised farm work. He later wrote, I never had any love for the farm—it was the mother on the farm I loved. In 1879, Ford left home to work as an apprentice machinist in Detroit, flower & Bros. and later with the Detroit Dry Dock Co. In 1882, he returned to Dearborn to work on the family farm and he was later hired by Westinghouse to service their steam engines. During this period Ford also studied bookkeeping at Goldsmith, Bryant & Stratton Business College in Detroit, Ford married Clara Jane Bryant on April 11,1888 and supported himself by farming and running a sawmill. They had one child, Edsel Ford, in 1891, Ford became an engineer with the Edison Illuminating Company. After his promotion to Chief Engineer in 1893, he had enough time and these experiments culminated in 1896 with the completion of a self-propelled vehicle which he named the Ford Quadricycle. He test-drove it on June 4, after various test drives, Ford brainstormed ways to improve the Quadricycle. Also in 1896, Ford attended a meeting of Edison executives, Edison approved of Fords automobile experimentation
12.
Thomas Edison
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Thomas Alva Edison was an American inventor and businessman, who has been described as Americas greatest inventor. He developed many devices that greatly influenced life around the world, including the phonograph, the motion picture camera, and the long-lasting, practical electric light bulb. Edison was an inventor, holding 1,093 US patents in his name, as well as many patents in the United Kingdom, France. Edisons inventions contributed to mass communication and, in particular, telecommunications and these included a stock ticker, a mechanical vote recorder, a battery for an electric car, electrical power, recorded music and motion pictures. His advanced work in these fields was an outgrowth of his career as a telegraph operator. Edison developed a system of generation and distribution to homes, businesses. His first power station was on Pearl Street in Manhattan, New York, Thomas Edison was born in Milan, Ohio, and grew up in Port Huron, Michigan. He was the seventh and last child of Samuel Ogden Edison, Jr. and Nancy Matthews Elliott. His father, the son of a Loyalist refugee, had moved as a boy with the family from Nova Scotia, settling in southwestern Ontario, in a known as Shewsbury, later Vienna. Samuel Jr. eventually fled Ontario because he took part in the unsuccessful Mackenzie Rebellion of 1837 and his father, Samuel Sr. had earlier fought in the War of 1812 as captain of the First Middlesex Regiment. By contrast, Samuel Jr. s struggle found him on the losing side, once across the border, he found his way to Milan, Ohio. His patrilineal family line was Dutch by way of New Jersey and his mother taught him at home. Much of his education came from reading R. G, parkers School of Natural Philosophy and The Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art. Edison developed hearing problems at an early age, the cause of his deafness has been attributed to a bout of scarlet fever during childhood and recurring untreated middle-ear infections. In his later years, he modified the story to say the injury occurred when the conductor, in helping him onto a moving train, Edisons family moved to Port Huron, Michigan, after the railroad bypassed Milan in 1854 and business declined. Edison sold candy and newspapers on trains running from Port Huron to Detroit and he briefly worked as a telegraph operator in 1863 for the Grand Trunk Railway at Stratford, Ontario railway at age 16. He was held responsible for a near collision and he also studied qualitative analysis and conducted chemical experiments on the train until he left the job. Edison obtained the right to sell newspapers on the road, and, with the aid of four assistants, he set in type and printed the Grand Trunk Herald
13.
Glenn Curtiss
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Glenn Hammond Curtiss was an American aviation pioneer and a founder of the U. S. aircraft industry. He began his career as a racer and builder before moving on to motorcycles. As early as 1904, he began to manufacture engines for airships, in 1908 Curtiss joined the Aerial Experiment Association, a pioneering research group, founded by Alexander Graham Bell at Beinn Bhreagh, Nova Scotia to build flying machines. Curtiss made the first officially witnessed flight in North America, won a race at the worlds first international air meet in France and his contributions in designing and building aircraft led to the formation of the Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Company, now part of Curtiss-Wright Corporation. His company built aircraft for the U. S. Army and Navy, Curtiss civil and military aircraft were predominant in the inter-war and World War II eras. Curtiss was born in 1878 in Hammondsport, New York to Frank Richmond Curtiss, although his formal education extended only to Grade 8, his early interest in mechanics and inventions was evident at his first job at the Eastman Dry Plate and Film Company in Rochester, New York. He invented a stencil machine adopted at the plant and later built a camera to study photography. On March 7,1898, Curtiss married Lena Pearl Neff, daughter of Guy L. Neff and Jenny M. Potter, in Hammondsport, New York. They had two children, Carlton N. Curtiss Glenn Hammond Curtiss Curtiss began his career as a Western Union bicycle messenger, a bicycle racer, in 1901, he developed an interest in motorcycles when internal combustion engines became more available. In 1902, Curtiss began manufacturing motorcycles with his own single-cylinder engines and his first motorcycles carburetor was adapted from a tomato soup can containing a gauze screen to pull the gasoline up via capillary action. In 1903, he set a land speed record at 64 miles per hour for one mile. Corson of the Hendee Mfg Co visited Hammondsport in July 1904, corsons motorcycles had just been trounced the week before by Hell Rider Curtiss in an endurance race from New York to Cambridge, Maryland. In 1907, Curtiss set an world record of 136.36 miles per hour, on a 40 horsepower 269 cu in V8-powered motorcycle of his own design and construction in Ormond Beach. The air-cooled F-head engine was intended for use in aircraft and he would remain the fastest man in the world, the title the newspapers gave him, until 1911, and his motorcycle record was not broken until 1930. This motorcycle is now in the Smithsonian Institution, Curtisss success at racing strengthened his reputation as a leading maker of high-performance motorcycles and engines. In 1904, Curtiss became a supplier of engines for the California aeronaut Tom Baldwin, in that same year, Baldwins California Arrow, powered by a Curtiss 9 HP V-twin motorcycle engine, became the first successful dirigible in America. In 1907, Alexander Graham Bell invited Curtiss to develop an engine for heavier-than-air flight experimentation. Bell regarded Curtiss as the greatest motor expert in the country, between 1908 and 1910, the AEA produced four aircraft, each one an improvement over the last
14.
Villain
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A villain is an evil character in a story, whether a historical narrative or, especially, a work of fiction. The villain usually is the antagonist, the character who tends to have an effect on other characters. A female villain is called a villainess. It referred to a person of less than knightly status and so came to mean a person who was not chivalrous, the villain therefore could appear twice, once in the opening of the story, and a second time as the person sought out by the hero. When a character performed only these acts, the character was a pure villain, the functions could also be spread out among several characters. If a dragon acted as the villain, but was killed by the hero, another character might take on the role of the villain, two other characters could appear in roles that are villainous in the more general sense. One is the hero, this character is always villainous. Among these characters are Cinderellas stepsisters, chopping off parts of their feet to fit on the shoe, another character, the dispatcher, sends a hero on his quest. This might be an innocent request, to fulfil a legitimate need, in fiction, villains commonly function in the dual role of adversary and foil to the storys heroes. In their role as adversary, the villain serves as an obstacle the hero must struggle to overcome, in their role as foil, the villain exemplifies characteristics that are diametrically opposed to those of the hero, creating a contrast distinguishing heroic traits from villainous ones. Others point out many acts of villains have a hint of wish-fulfillment. Because of this, a convincing villain must be given a characterization that provides a motive for doing wrong, as put by film critic Roger Ebert, Each film is only as good as its villain. Since the heroes and the gimmicks tend to repeat from film to film, tod Slaughter always portrayed villainous characters on both stage and screen in a melodramatic manner, with mustache-twirling, eye-rolling, leering, cackling, and hand-rubbing. Brad Warner states that only cartoon villains cackle with glee while rubbing their hands together and dream of ruling the world in the name of all that is wicked, ben Bova recommends to authors that their works not contain villains. He states, in his Tips for writers, In the real world there are no villains, no one actually sets out to do evil. Or, more accurately, fiction serves as a lens to focus of what they know in life, there are no villains cackling and rubbing their hands in glee as they contemplate their evil deeds. There are only people with problems, struggling to solve them, david Lubar adds, This is a brilliant observation that has served me well in all my writing. He may be driven by greed, neuroses, or the conviction that his cause is just, in an attempt to add realism to their stories, many writers will try to create sympathetic villains, the antithesis to an antihero called a antivillain
15.
Charles Algernon Parsons
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Sir Charles Algernon Parsons, OM, KCB, FRS, the son of a member of the Irish peerage, was an Anglo-Irish engineer, best known for his invention of the compound steam turbine. He worked as an engineer on dynamo and turbine design, and power generation and he also developed optical equipment, for searchlights and telescopes. Parsons was born in London into an Anglo-Irish family, youngest son of the famous astronomer William Parsons, the family seat is Birr Castle, County Offaly, Ireland, and the town of Birr was called Parsonstown, after the family, from 1620 to 1899. One of them later became, as Sir Robert Ball, Astronomer Royal for Ireland, Parsons then read mathematics at Trinity College, Dublin and St. Johns College, Cambridge, graduating from the latter in 1877 with a first-class honours degree. He developed an engine there in 1884 and immediately utilized the new engine to drive an electrical generator. In 1889, he founded C. A. Parsons and Company in Newcastle to produce turbo generators to his design, in the same year he set up the Newcastle and District Electric Lighting Company. In 1890, DisCo opened Forth Banks Power Station, the first power station in the world to generate electricity using turbo generators, in 1894 he regained certain patent rights from Clarke Chapman. Parsons was also interested in applications and founded the Parsons Marine Steam Turbine Company in Newcastle. The Turbinia moved at 34 knots, the fastest Royal Navy ships using other technologies reached 27 knots. Part of the improvement was attributable to the slender hull of the Turbinia. Today, Turbinia is housed in a gallery at the Discovery Museum. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in June 1898 and received their Rumford Medal in 1902, their Copley Medal in 1928 and he was the president of the British Association for 1916–1919. He was knighted in 1911 and made a member of the Order of Merit in 1927, the Parsons turbine company survives in the Heaton area of Newcastle and is now part of Siemens, a German conglomerate. In 1925 Charles Parsons acquired the Grubb Telescope Company and renamed it Grubb Parsons and that company survived in the Newcastle area until 1985. Parsons was also known for inventing the Auxetophone, a compressed air gramophone. In 1883 Parsons married Katharine Bethell, the daughter of William F. Bethell and they had two children, Rachel Mary Parsons, and Algernon George Parsons, who was killed in action during World War I in 1918, aged 31. Charles Algernon Parsons died on 11 February 1931, on board the steamship Duchess of Richmond while on a cruise with his wife, the cause of death was given as neuritis. A memorial service was held at Westminster Abbey on 3 March 1931, Parsons was buried in the parish church of St Bartholomews in Kirkwhelpington in Northumberland
16.
Synthetic diamond
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A synthetic diamond is diamond produced in an artificial process, as opposed to natural diamonds, which are created by geological processes. Synthetic diamond is widely known as HPHT diamond or CVD diamond after the two common production methods. While the term synthetic is associated by consumers with imitation products, in the U. S. the Federal Trade Commission has indicated that the alternative terms laboratory-grown, laboratory-created, and -created would more clearly communicate the nature of the stone. Numerous claims of diamond synthesis were documented between 1879 and 1928, most of those attempts were carefully analyzed but none were confirmed, in the 1940s, systematic research began in the United States, Sweden and the Soviet Union to grow diamonds using CVD and HPHT processes. The first reproducible synthesis was reported around 1953 and those two processes still dominate the production of synthetic diamond. A third method, known as detonation synthesis, entered the market in the late 1990s. In this process, nanometer-sized diamond grains are created in a detonation of carbon-containing explosives, a fourth method, treating graphite with high-power ultrasound, has been demonstrated in the laboratory, but currently has no commercial application. Synthetic diamond is used in abrasives, in cutting and polishing tools. Electronic applications of synthetic diamond are being developed, including high-power switches at power stations, high-frequency field-effect transistors, synthetic diamond detectors of ultraviolet light or high-energy particles are used at high-energy research facilities and are available commercially. It is estimated that 98% of industrial grade diamond demand is supplied with synthetic diamonds, both CVD and HPHT diamonds can be cut into gems and various colors can be produced, clear white, yellow, brown, blue, green and orange. After the 1797 discovery that diamond was pure carbon, many attempts were made to convert various forms of carbon into diamond. The earliest successes were reported by James Ballantyne Hannay in 1879 and their method involved heating charcoal at up to 3500 °C with iron inside a carbon crucible in a furnace. Whereas Hannay used a tube, Moissan applied his newly developed electric arc furnace. The molten iron was then cooled by immersion in water. The contraction generated by the cooling supposedly produced the pressure required to transform graphite into diamond. Moissan published his work in a series of articles in the 1890s, Many other scientists tried to replicate his experiments. Sir William Crookes claimed success in 1909, otto Ruff claimed in 1917 to have produced diamonds up to 7 mm in diameter, but later retracted his statement. In 1926, Dr. J Willard Hershey of McPherson College replicated Moissans and Ruffs experiments, producing a synthetic diamond, despite the claims of Moissan, Ruff, and Hershey, other experimenters were unable to reproduce their synthesis
17.
Tom Swift and His Photo Telephone
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Tom Swift and His Photo Telephone, or, The Picture That Saved A Fortune, is Volume 17 in the original Tom Swift novel series published by Grosset & Dunlap. Tom and his father are arguing about Toms latest idea, a photo telephone, Mr. Swift is adamant that the idea will not work, but Tom has some ideas in mind, and refuses to back down. Tom read about a recent news event where a photograph was transmitted over telegraph lines, in the meantime, some shady occurrences are happening in the neighborhood. Tom and Ned are almost run over by a motor boat. The feud between Mr. Peters and Tom begins when Mr. Peters refuses to acknowledge the accident, the animosity between the two only grows deeper as Mr. Peters tries to buy Tom out of some of his inventions, under the guise of making a profit. Tom refuses to allow anyone other than himself permissions to his patents, later, Tom learns that his good friend, Mr. Damon, is having serious financial troubles. As the plot gets thicker and thicker, one of Toms airships is stolen, all this while Tom is desperately trying to get his latest invention working. The photo telephone is a modification to normal telephones, a third wire is used to transmit the image, which is displayed on charged selenium plates. The image is not a video image, but rather a static one-time image. The plates can be reused, or can be developed to produce a permanent copy, a side-improvement to the whole system is done when Tom attaches a phonograph cylinder recorder to the telephone system, preserving not only a visual image but an audio recording. Tom Swift and His Photo Telephone e-text at Project Gutenberg
18.
Central Railroad of New Jersey
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The Central Railroad of New Jersey, also known as the Jersey Central or Jersey Central Lines, was a Class I railroad with origins in the 1830s. It filed for three times, in 1939,1947 and on 3/22/1967 the CNJ filed for bankruptcy for the final time. It foreshadowed the rest of New Jerseys railroads, but not by much and it then pulled out of Pennsylvania completely in 1972. The Elizabethtown and Somerville Railroad was chartered on February 9,1831, the line to Plainfield was completed in March 1839, connecting to the New Jersey Rail Road in Elizabeth. Extensions took it west to Dunellen in 1840, just east of Bound Brook in 1841, the Somerville and Easton Railroad was chartered on February 26,1847, to continue the line west to Easton, Pennsylvania. The first extension, to Whitehouse, opened in 1848 and was leased to the Elizabethtown and Somerville Railroad. The rest of the line to Phillipsburg opened in 1852, and on September 8,1855, at that time, Lehigh Valley coal trains began running over the CNJ to Elizabeth. A similar operation with the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad, joining at Hampton and this required the addition of a third rail as the DL&W was 6 ft broad gauge. On December 1,1859, the CNJ arranged to run over the New Jersey Rail Road to the terminal in Jersey City. That operation began December 19, and included a rail for DL&W trains. The South Branch Railroad, controlled by the CNJ, opened July 1,1864, on July 23,1869, the Newark and New York Railroad opened, providing a straight route from downtown Newark to the CNJs Jersey City terminal. The Newark Branch, running north from Elizabethport to the N&NY in Newark, on October 6,1873, the CNJ leased the New York and Long Branch Railroad, which was in the process of building from Perth Amboy southeast to Long Branch. At the same time the Perth Amboy and Elizabethport Railroad was building from Elizabethport on the CNJ south to Perth Amboy, hostilities at the crossing of the Pennsylvania Railroads Perth Amboy and Woodbridge Railroad in April 1872 led to an injunction against the PRR interfering with the construction. The CNJ bought the PA&E later that year, the full line to Long Branch opened September 7,1875, and was later extended south, reaching Bay Head in 1881 by acquiring other companies. The first commercially successful diesel-electric locomotive, manufactured by Alco in 1924, was built for the Central Railroad of New Jersey, in 1929 the CNJ began operating its most famous train, the Blue Comet, from Jersey City to Atlantic City. The Interstate Commerce Commission authorized the CNJ to acquire the Wharton and Northern Railroad, the Hibernia Mine Railroad was merged into the CNJ on November 25,1930. CNJ had its terminus at Elizabethport, New Jersey. In 1864 CNJ extended its railroad across the bay into Bayonne and it had used a succession of bridges over the years, the last being Newark Bay Bridge, demolished in the 1980s
19.
Diesel locomotive
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A diesel locomotive is a type of railway locomotive in which the prime mover is a diesel engine. Several types of diesel locomotive have been developed, differing mainly in the means by which power is conveyed to the driving wheels. Early internal combustion engine-powered locomotives and railmotors used gasoline as their fuel, soon after Dr. Rudolf Diesel patented his first compression ignition engine in 1892, it was considered for railway propulsion. Progress was slow, however, as several problems had to be overcome, power transmission was a primary concern. As opposed to steam and electric engines, internal combustion engines work efficiently only within a range of turning frequencies. In light vehicles, this could be overcome by a clutch, in heavy railway vehicles, mechanical transmission never worked well or wore out too soon. Experience with early gasoline powered locomotives and railcars was valuable for the development of diesel traction, one step towards diesel-electric transmission was the petrol-electric vehicle, such as the Acsev Weitzer railmotor, which could operate from batteries and electric overhead wires too. Steady improvements in diesel design gradually reduced its size and improved its power-to-weight ratio to a point where one could be mounted in a locomotive. Once the concept of drive was accepted, the pace of development quickened. In 1930, Armstrong Whitworth of the United Kingdom delivered two 1,200 hp locomotives using engines of Sulzer design to Buenos Aires Great Southern Railway of Argentina, currently, almost all diesel locomotives are diesel-electric, although the diesel-hydraulic type was widely used between the 1950s and 1970s. The Soviet diesel locomotive TEP80-0002 lays claim to the speed record for a diesel railed vehicle. In 1894, a 20 h. p. two axle machine built by Priestman Brothers was used on the Hull Docks, in 1896 an oil-engined railway locomotive was built for the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, England, in 1896, using an engine designed by Herbert Akroyd Stuart. It was not, strictly, a diesel because it used a hot bulb engine, following the expiration of Dr. Rudolf Diesels patent in 1912, his engine design was successfully applied to marine propulsion and stationary applications. However, the massiveness and poor power-to-weight ratio of early engines made them unsuitable for propelling land-based vehicles. Therefore, the potential as a railroad prime mover was not initially recognized. This changed as development reduced the size and weight of the engine, the worlds first diesel-powered locomotive was operated in the summer of 1912 on the Winterthur-Romanshorn Railroad in Switzerland, but was not a commercial success. In 1906, Rudolf Diesel, Adolf Klose and the steam, Sulzer had been manufacturing Diesel engines since 1898. During further test runs in 1913 several problems were found, after the First World War broke out in 1914, all further trials were stopped
20.
Mobile home
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A mobile home is a prefabricated structure, built in a factory on a permanently attached chassis before being transported to site. Behind the cosmetic work fitted at installation to hide the base, there are strong trailer frames, axles, wheels, in the United States, this form of housing goes back to the early years of cars and motorized highway travel. It was derived from the trailer, a small unit with wheels attached permanently. The original rationale for this type of housing was its mobility, units were initially marketed primarily to people whose lifestyle required mobility. Previously, units had been eight feet or less in width, but in 1956, the homes were given a rectangular shape, made from pre-painted aluminum panels, rather than the streamlined shape of travel trailers, which were usually painted after assembly. All of this increase the difference between these homes and home/travel trailers. During the late 1960s and early 70s, the homes were even longer and wider. Nowadays, when a home is moved to a location, it is usually kept there permanently. In some states, mobile homes have been taxed as personal property if the wheels remain attached, removal of the tongue and axles may also be a requirement for real estate classification. Mobile homes permanently installed on owned land are rarely mortgageable, whereas FHA code manufactured homes are mortgageable through VA, FHA, the units were often marketed as an alternative to apartment rental. However, the tendency of the units of this era to depreciate rapidly in resale value made using them as collateral for loans much riskier than traditional home loans. Terms were usually limited to less than the thirty-year term typical of the general home-loan market, in this way, mobile home loans resembled motor vehicle loans more than traditional home mortgage loans. Mobile homes come in two sizes, single-wides and double-wides. Single-wides are 18 feet or less in width and 90 feet or less in length, double-wides are 20 feet or more wide and are 90 feet in length or less and are towed to their site in two separate units, which are then joined together. Triple-wides and even homes with four, five, or more units are also built, while site-built homes are rarely moved, single-wide owners often trade or sell their home to a dealer in the form of the reduction of the purchase of a new home. These used homes are either re-sold to new owners or to park owners who use them as rental units. Single-wides are more likely to be traded than double-wides because removing them from the site is easier, in fact, only about 5% of all double-wides will ever be moved. While an EF1 tornado might cause damage to a site-built home, it could do significant damage to a factory-built home
21.
Flying submarine
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A flying submarine or submersible aircraft is a combination of a seaplane and a submarine. It is supposed to be both to fly and to travel under water. Starting from the surface of water is also intended, since the requirements for designing a submarine are practically opposed to those of an airplane, the performance expected from such a construction is usually rather moderate. The Soviet Union started building a fleet in the mid 20th century, including battleships, aircraft carriers. Encouraged by this, the became more open to respective proposals. The Soviet Union tried to develop a submarine during World War II. At the Naval Engineering Institute, a submarine project was headed by engineer Boris Ushakov. To be precise, this showed a seaplane able to dive. In the following years, the project was revised and presented in multiple variations, in April 1936 the reviewer determined that Ushakovs was interesting and to be implemented. In July 1936 the draft project “Flying submarine” was checked and evaluated positively by the research committee of the forces. The committee recommended to continue the project, to test its realisability using calculations, in 1937 the project was included into plan “W” of the committee. However, the project was cancelled after a reevaluation, Ushakov, by the time a “military technician 1st class” in department “W” of the committee continued the project in his spare time. In 1938 the draft and the fundamental elements of Ushakovs flying submarine were evaluated once more by the 2nd department of the committee. The design was supposed to be built as an all-metal construction, the engines were supposed to be sealed shut by metal plates while under water. All the other empty spaces of the aircraft were supposed to be filled with water while submerging, the time for preparation and actual submerging were projected at 1.5 minutes. The hull was to be constructed as a riveted duralumin cylinder, the cockpit was supposed to be flooded while submerging, after the flying instruments were lowered into a waterproof shaft. The crew was supposed to enter the aft command centre and control the submarine from there, the outer skin of the wings and the empennage was to be made of steel, the floats of duralumin. These parts were supposed to be filled with water while submerging, the water was supposed to enter by itself through opened valves
22.
United States Department of Defense
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The Department is the largest employer in the world, with nearly 1.3 million active duty servicemen and women as of 2016. Adding to its employees are over 801,000 National Guardsmen and Reservists from the four services and it is headquartered at the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia, just outside of Washington, D. C. The Department of Defense is headed by the Secretary of Defense, Military operations are managed by nine regional or functional Unified Combatant Commands. The Department of Defense also operates several joint services schools, including the National Defense University, the history of the defense of the United States started with the Continental Congress in 1775. The creation of the United States Army was enacted on 14 June 1775 and this coincides with the American holiday Flag Day. The Second Continental Congress would charter the United States Navy, on 13 October 1775, today, both the Navy and the Marine Corps are separate military services subordinate to the Department of the Navy. The Preamble of the United States Constitution gave the authority to federal government, to defend its citizens and this first Congress had a huge agenda, that of creating legislation to build a government for the ages. Legislation to create a military defense force stagnated, two separate times, President George Washington went to Congress to remind them of their duty to establish a military. In a special message to Congress on 19 December 1945, the President cited both wasteful military spending and inter-departmental conflicts, deliberations in Congress went on for months focusing heavily on the role of the military in society and the threat of granting too much military power to the executive. The act placed the National Military Establishment under the control of a single Secretary of Defense, the National Military Establishment formally began operations on 18 September, the day after the Senate confirmed James V. Forrestal as the first Secretary of Defense. The National Military Establishment was renamed the Department of Defense on 10 August 1949, under the Department of Defense Reorganization Act of 1958, channels of authority within the department were streamlined, while still maintaining the authority of the Military Departments. Also provided in this legislation was a centralized authority, the Advanced Research Projects Agency. The Act moved decision-making authority from the Military Departments to the Joint Chiefs of Staff and it also strengthened the command channel of the military over U. S. forces from the President to the Secretary of Defense. Written and promoted by the Eisenhower administration, it was signed into law 6 August 1958, because the Constitution vests all military authority in Congress and the President, the statutory authority of the Secretary of Defense is derived from their constitutional authorities. Department of Defense Directive 5100.01 describes the relationships within the Department. The latest version, signed by former Secretary of Defense Robert Gates in December 2010, is the first major re-write since 1987, the Office of the Secretary of Defense is the Secretary and Deputy Secretarys civilian staff. S. Government departments and agencies, foreign governments, and international organizations, OSD also performs oversight and management of the Defense Agencies and Department of Defense Field Activities. OSD also supervises the following Defense Agencies, Several defense agencies are members of the United States Intelligence Community and these are national-level intelligence services that operate under the jurisdiction of the Department of Defense but simultaneously fall under the authorities of the Director of National Intelligence
23.
Harriet Adams
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Harriet Stratemeyer Adams was an American juvenile mystery novelist and publisher who authored some 200 books over her literary career. She wrote many books in the Nancy Drew series and a few in the Hardy Boys series and she also oversaw other ghostwriters who wrote for these and many other series as a part of the Stratemeyer Syndicate. With her sister, Edna, Adams took over control of the Stratemeyer Syndicate after her father Edward Stratemeyers death in 1930. Edna ran the business operations, while Adams dealt with publishers and wrote, after Edna was married in 1942, she became inactive. She ran the syndicate for 52 years and she was born in Newark, New Jersey, the daughter of Edward Stratemeyer and Magdalena Van Camp At a young age, Adams wanted to break free from being a proper, young lady who should stay at home. She climbed trees, made friends with boys, and loved books from an early age. Adams graduated from Wellesley College in 1914 and her father forbade her to work outside the home, so she edited manuscripts at home. In 1915, she married Russell Vroom Adams, and raised four children and she resided in Maplewood, New Jersey, and in Pottersville, New Jersey, an area within Tewksbury Township, where she died of a heart attack. She lived in Pottersville at her estate, Bird Haven, until her death in 1982, Adams was interred in Fairmount Cemetery in Newark. The Secret of the Stratemeyer Syndicate, biography by Stratemeyers granddaughter Harriet Adams at the Internet Book List Harriet Adams at the Internet Book Database of Fiction BBC. co. uk - Franklin W. Dixon
24.
Simon & Schuster
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Simon & Schuster, Inc. a subsidiary of CBS Corporation, is an American publishing company founded in New York City in 1924 by Richard Simon and Max Schuster. As of 2016, Simon & Schuster publishes 2,000 titles annually under 35 different imprints, in 1924, Richard Simons aunt, a crossword puzzle enthusiast, asked whether there was a book of New York World crossword puzzles, which were very popular at the time. After discovering that none had been published, Simon and Max Schuster decided to launch a company to exploit the opportunity, at the time, Simon was a piano salesman and Schuster was editor of an automotive trade magazine. They pooled US$8,000 to start a company to publish crossword puzzles, fad publishing became the business model for the new publishing house, which set out to exploit current fads and trends and publish books with commercial appeal. Instead of signing authors with a manuscript, they came up with their own ideas. In the 1930, the moved to what was known as Publishers Row on Park Avenue in Manhattan. In 1939, with Robert Fair de Graff, Simon & Schuster founded Pocket Books, in 1942, Simon & Schuster, or Essandess as it is called in the initial announcement, launched the Little Golden Books series in cooperation with the Artists and Writers Guild. Simon & Schusters partner in the venture was the Western Printing and Lithographing Company, Western Printing bought out Simon & Schusters interest in 1958. In 1944, Marshall Field III, owner of the Chicago Sun, purchased Simon & Schuster, following Fields death in 1957, his heirs sold the company back to Richard Simon and Max Schuster, while Leon Shimkin and James Jacobson acquired Pocket Books. In the 1950s and 1960s, many publishers including Simon & Schuster turned toward educational publishing due to the boom market. Pocket Books focused on paperbacks for the market instead of textbooks. By 1964 it had published over 200 titles and was expected to put out another 400 by the end of that year, Books published under the imprint included classic reprints such as Lorna Doone, Ivanhoe, Tom Sawyer, Huckleberry Finn, and Robinson Crusoe. In 1966, Max Schuster retired and sold his half of Simon & Schuster to Leon Shimkin, Shimkin then merged Simon & Schuster with Pocket Books under the name of Simon & Schuster. Among his many bestsellers was Joseph Hellers Catch-22, in 1976, Gulf+Western headed by Charles Bluhdorn acquired S&S, which was grossing about US$50 million a year for $11 million, most of it in Gulf+Western stock. After the death of Bluhdorn in 1983, Simon & Schuster made the decision to diversify, bluhdorns successor Martin Davis told The New York Times, Society was undergoing dramatic changes, so that there was a greater need for textbooks, maps and educational information. We saw the opportunity to diversify into areas, which are more stable. In 1984, CEO Richard E. Snyder acquired Esquire Corporation, buying everything, Prentice Hall was brought into the company fold in 1985 for over $700 million and Martin Davis said that Prentice Hall became the road map for remodeling the company and a catalyst for change. This acquisition was followed by Silver Burdett in 1986, mapmaker Gousha in 1987, part of the acquisition included educational publisher Allyn & Bacon which according to Michael Korda became the nucleus of S&Ss educational and informational business
25.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
26.
Wikisource
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Wikisource is an online digital library of free content textual sources on a wiki, operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. Wikisource is the name of the project as a whole and the name for each instance of that project, the projects aims are to host all forms of free text, in many languages, and translations. Originally conceived as an archive to store useful or important historical texts, the project officially began in November 24,2003 under the name Project Sourceberg. The name Wikisource was adopted later that year and it received its own domain name seven months later, the project has come under criticism for lack of reliability but it is also cited by organisations such as the National Archives and Records Administration. The project holds works that are either in the domain or freely licensed, professionally published works or historical source documents, not vanity products. Verification was initially made offline, or by trusting the reliability of digital libraries. Now works are supported by online scans via the ProofreadPage extension, some individual Wikisources, each representing a specific language, now only allow works backed up with scans. While the bulk of its collection are texts, Wikisource as a whole hosts other media, some Wikisources allow user-generated annotations, subject to the specific policies of the Wikisource in question. Wikisources early history included several changes of name and location, the original concept for Wikisource was as storage for useful or important historical texts. These texts were intended to support Wikipedia articles, by providing evidence and original source texts. The collection was focused on important historical and cultural material. The project was originally called Project Sourceberg during its planning stages, in 2001, there was a dispute on Wikipedia regarding the addition of primary source material, leading to edit wars over their inclusion or deletion. Project Sourceberg was suggested as a solution to this, perhaps Project Sourceberg can mainly work as an interface for easily linking from Wikipedia to a Project Gutenberg file, and as an interface for people to easily submit new work to PG. Wed want to complement Project Gutenberg--how, exactly, and Jimmy Wales adding like Larry, Im interested that we think it over to see what we can add to Project Gutenberg. It seems unlikely that primary sources should in general be editable by anyone -- I mean, Shakespeare is Shakespeare, unlike our commentary on his work, the project began its activity at ps. wikipedia. org. The contributors understood the PS subdomain to mean either primary sources or Project Sourceberg, however, this resulted in Project Sourceberg occupying the subdomain of the Pashto Wikipedia. A vote on the name changed it to Wikisource on December 6,2003. Despite the change in name, the project did not move to its permanent URL until July 23,2004, since Wikisource was initially called Project Sourceberg, its first logo was a picture of an iceberg
27.
Norwegian language
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Norwegian is a North Germanic language spoken mainly in Norway, where it is the official language. Along with Swedish and Danish, Norwegian forms a continuum of more or less mutually intelligible local and regional variants. These Scandinavian languages, together with Faroese and Icelandic as well as extinct languages. Faroese and Icelandic are hardly mutually intelligible with Norwegian in their spoken form because continental Scandinavian has diverged from them, as established by law and governmental policy, the two official forms of written Norwegian are Bokmål and Nynorsk. The official Norwegian Language Council is responsible for regulating the two forms, and recommends the terms Norwegian Bokmål and Norwegian Nynorsk in English. Two other written forms without official status also exist, one and it is regulated by the unofficial Norwegian Academy, which translates the name as Standard Norwegian. Nynorsk and Bokmål provide standards for how to write Norwegian, no standard of spoken Norwegian is officially sanctioned, and most Norwegians speak their own dialects in all circumstances. Thus, unlike in other countries, the use of any Norwegian dialect. Outside Eastern Norway, this variation is not used. From the 16th to the 19th centuries, Danish was the written language of Norway. As a result, the development of modern written Norwegian has been subject to strong controversy related to nationalism, rural versus urban discourse, historically, Bokmål is a Norwegianised variety of Danish, while Nynorsk is a language form based on Norwegian dialects and puristic opposition to Danish. The unofficial form known as Riksmål is considered more conservative than Bokmål, Norwegians are educated in both Bokmål and Nynorsk. A2005 poll indicates that 86. 3% use primarily Bokmål as their written language,5. 5% use both Bokmål and Nynorsk, and 7. 5% use primarily Nynorsk. Thus, 13% are frequently writing Nynorsk, though the majority speak dialects that resemble Nynorsk more closely than Bokmål. Broadly speaking, Nynorsk writing is widespread in western Norway, though not in major urban areas, examples are Setesdal, the western part of Telemark county and several municipalities in Hallingdal, Valdres, and Gudbrandsdalen. It is little used elsewhere, but 30–40 years ago, it also had strongholds in rural parts of Trøndelag. Today, not only is Nynorsk the official language of four of the 19 Norwegian counties, NRK, the Norwegian broadcasting corporation, broadcasts in both Bokmål and Nynorsk, and all governmental agencies are required to support both written languages. Bokmål is used in 92% of all publications, and Nynorsk in 8%
28.
French language
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French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
29.
Icelandic language
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Icelandic /aɪsˈlændɪk/ is a North Germanic language, the language of Iceland. It is an Indo-European language belonging to the North Germanic or Nordic branch of the Germanic languages, historically, it was the westernmost of the Indo-European languages prior to the colonisation of the Americas. Icelandic, Faroese, Norn, and Western Norwegian formerly constituted West Nordic, Danish, Eastern Norwegian, modern Norwegian Bokmål is influenced by both groups, leading the Nordic languages to be divided into mainland Scandinavian languages and Insular Nordic. Most Western European languages have reduced levels of inflection, particularly noun declension. In contrast, Icelandic retains a four-case synthetic grammar comparable to, Icelandic is distinguished by a wide assortment of irregular declensions. Icelandic also has many instances of oblique cases without any governing word, for example, many of the various Latin ablatives have a corresponding Icelandic dative. The vast majority of Icelandic speakers—about 320, 000—live in Iceland, more than 8,000 Icelandic speakers live in Denmark, of whom approximately 3,000 are students. The language is spoken by some 5,000 people in the United States. Notably in the province of Manitoba, while 97% of the population of Iceland consider Icelandic their mother tongue, the language is in decline in some communities outside Iceland, particularly in Canada. Icelandic speakers outside Iceland represent recent emigration in almost all cases except Gimli, Manitoba, the state-funded Árni Magnússon Institute for Icelandic Studies serves as a centre for preserving the medieval Icelandic manuscripts and studying the language and its literature. Since 1995, on 16 November each year, the birthday of 19th-century poet Jónas Hallgrímsson is celebrated as Icelandic Language Day, the oldest preserved texts in Icelandic were written around 1100 AD. Much of the texts are based on poetry and laws traditionally preserved orally, the most famous of the texts, which were written in Iceland from the 12th century onward, are the Icelandic Sagas. They comprise the historical works and the eddaic poems, the language of the sagas is Old Icelandic, a western dialect of Old Norse. Danish rule of Iceland from 1380 to 1918 had little effect on the evolution of Icelandic, though more archaic than the other living Germanic languages, Icelandic changed markedly in pronunciation from the 12th to the 16th century, especially in vowels. The modern Icelandic alphabet has developed from an established in the 19th century. The later Rasmus Rask standard was a re-creation of the old treatise, with changes to fit concurrent Germanic conventions. Various archaic features, as the letter ð, had not been used much in later centuries, rasks standard constituted a major change in practice. Later 20th-century changes include the use of é instead of je, apart from the addition of new vocabulary, written Icelandic has not changed substantially since the 11th century, when the first texts were written on vellum
30.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
31.
Alexander Graham Bell
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Alexander Graham Bell was a Scottish-born scientist, inventor, engineer, and innovator who is credited with patenting the first practical telephone. Bells father, grandfather, and brother had all been associated with work on elocution and speech and his research on hearing and speech further led him to experiment with hearing devices which eventually culminated in Bell being awarded the first U. S. patent for the telephone in 1876. Bell considered his most famous invention an intrusion on his work as a scientist. Many other inventions marked Bells later life, including groundbreaking work in optical telecommunications, hydrofoils, and aeronautics. Although Bell was not one of the 33 founders of the National Geographic Society, he had a influence on the magazine while serving as the second president from January 7,1898. Alexander Bell was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, on March 3,1847, the family home was at 16 South Charlotte Street, and has a stone inscription marking it as Alexander Graham Bells birthplace. He had two brothers, Melville James Bell and Edward Charles Bell, both of whom would die of tuberculosis and his father was Professor Alexander Melville Bell, a phonetician, and his mother was Eliza Grace. Born as just Alexander Bell, at age 10, he made a plea to his father to have a name like his two brothers. To close relatives and friends he remained Aleck, as a child, young Bell displayed a natural curiosity about his world, resulting in gathering botanical specimens as well as experimenting even at an early age. His best friend was Ben Herdman, a neighbour whose family operated a flour mill, young Bell asked what needed to be done at the mill. In return, Bens father John Herdman gave both boys the run of a workshop in which to invent. From his early years, Bell showed a sensitive nature and a talent for art, poetry, with no formal training, he mastered the piano and became the familys pianist. Despite being normally quiet and introspective, he revelled in mimicry and he also developed a technique of speaking in clear, modulated tones directly into his mothers forehead wherein she would hear him with reasonable clarity. Bells preoccupation with his mothers deafness led him to study acoustics and his family was long associated with the teaching of elocution, his grandfather, Alexander Bell, in London, his uncle in Dublin, and his father, in Edinburgh, were all elocutionists. His father published a variety of works on the subject, several of which are well known, especially his The Standard Elocutionist. The Standard Elocutionist appeared in 168 British editions and sold over a quarter of a million copies in the United States alone, in this treatise, his father explains his methods of how to instruct deaf-mutes to articulate words and read other peoples lip movements to decipher meaning. Bells father taught him and his brothers not only to write Visible Speech but to any symbol. Bell became so proficient that he became a part of his fathers public demonstrations, as a young child, Bell, like his brothers, received his early schooling at home from his father
32.
Tom Swift Jr.
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Tom Swift Jr. is the central character in a series of 33 science fiction adventure novels for male adolescents, following in the tradition of the earlier Tom Swift novels. The series was titled The New Tom Swift Jr. Adventures, unlike the Nancy Drew and Hardy Boys titles that were also products of the prolific Stratemeyer Syndicate, the original Tom Swift stories were not rewritten in the 1950s to modernize them. The covers were created by illustrator J. Graham Kaye, covers in the later half of the series were mostly by Charles Brey. A total of 33 volumes were eventually published, most of the books were written by James Duncan Lawrence, who had an interest in science and technology and was faithful to the canon of the previous Tom Swift series. As in the series, the basic locale is the quaint town of Shopton, New York. The first invention of the series and the one making the most frequent appearances in subsequent stories, the Tom Swift Jr. stories had stronger science-fiction elements than the earlier series, particularly in the later volumes. One subplot, beginning on the first page of the first volume and running the length of the series, is Toms communication, via mathematical space symbols, the stories offered science that was more intriguing than accurate. The Tom Swifties style of dialogue writing played no role in the actual series, — The son of Tom Swift Sr. He is 18 years of age throughout the run of the series, and is described as lanky, blond, crew-cut, possessed of deep-set blue eyes, virtuous, brave, and very very smart. Typically depicted in illustrations as wearing a blue-striped T-shirt and slacks, — The protagonist of the previous series, now married to his longtime sweetheart, Mary. Mary Nestor Swift — Tom Sr. s wife and the mother of Tom Jr. an occasionally fretful, attractive homebody, known for her cooking. Never joins the menfolk on their adventures, Sandra Sandy Swift — Toms year-younger sister. Sandy is pert and blond, also headstrong and brave and she is not quite as scientifically focused as her famed brother, toward whom she is less than reverent, though she clearly idolizes him. A trained pilot and aircraft demonstrator, bud Barclay — Toms best friend, who accompanies Tom on all his adventures. Utterly devoted, and a dependable quipster and sometimes prankster, a highly qualified pilot in his own right. He is black-haired, the age as his pal though a bit shorter and huskier. Buds knowledge of science and engineering is rudimentary, prompting many an explanation by Tom, by dating Sandy, he keeps his social life within the world of the Swift family. Uncle Ned Newton — Tom Sr. s pal from the series and father of Phyllis Newton Phyllis Newton — Daughter of Ned Newton
33.
Red shift
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In physics, redshift happens when light or other electromagnetic radiation from an object is increased in wavelength, or shifted to the red end of the spectrum. Some redshifts are an example of the Doppler effect, familiar in the change of apparent pitches of sirens, a redshift occurs whenever a light source moves away from an observer. Finally, gravitational redshift is an effect observed in electromagnetic radiation moving out of gravitational fields. However, redshift is a common term and sometimes blueshift is referred to as negative redshift. Knowledge of redshifts and blueshifts has been applied to develop several terrestrial technologies such as Doppler radar and radar guns, Redshifts are also seen in the spectroscopic observations of astronomical objects. Its value is represented by the letter z, a special relativistic redshift formula can be used to calculate the redshift of a nearby object when spacetime is flat. However, in contexts, such as black holes and Big Bang cosmology. Special relativistic, gravitational, and cosmological redshifts can be understood under the umbrella of frame transformation laws, the history of the subject began with the development in the 19th century of wave mechanics and the exploration of phenomena associated with the Doppler effect. The effect is named after Christian Doppler, who offered the first known physical explanation for the phenomenon in 1842, the hypothesis was tested and confirmed for sound waves by the Dutch scientist Christophorus Buys Ballot in 1845. Doppler correctly predicted that the phenomenon should apply to all waves, before this was verified, however, it was found that stellar colors were primarily due to a stars temperature, not motion. Only later was Doppler vindicated by verified redshift observations, the first Doppler redshift was described by French physicist Hippolyte Fizeau in 1848, who pointed to the shift in spectral lines seen in stars as being due to the Doppler effect. The effect is called the Doppler–Fizeau effect. In 1868, British astronomer William Huggins was the first to determine the velocity of a moving away from the Earth by this method. In 1871, optical redshift was confirmed when the phenomenon was observed in Fraunhofer lines using solar rotation, about 0.1 Å in the red. In 1887, Vogel and Scheiner discovered the annual Doppler effect, in 1901, Aristarkh Belopolsky verified optical redshift in the laboratory using a system of rotating mirrors. The word does not appear unhyphenated until about 1934 by Willem de Sitter, perhaps indicating that up to point its German equivalent. Beginning with observations in 1912, Vesto Slipher discovered that most spiral galaxies, Slipher first reports on his measurement in the inaugural volume of the Lowell Observatory Bulletin. Three years later, he wrote a review in the journal Popular Astronomy, Slipher reported the velocities for 15 spiral nebulae spread across the entire celestial sphere, all but three having observable positive velocities
34.
Doctor of Philosophy
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A Doctor of Philosophy is a type of doctoral degree awarded by universities in many countries. Ph. D. s are awarded for a range of programs in the sciences, engineering. The Ph. D. is a degree in many fields. The completion of a Ph. D. is often a requirement for employment as a university professor, researcher, individuals with an earned doctorate can use the title of Doctor with their name and use the post-nominal letters Ph. D. The requirements to earn a Ph. D. degree vary considerably according to the country, institution, a person who attains a doctorate of philosophy is automatically awarded the academic title of doctor. A student attaining this level may be granted a Candidate of Philosophy degree at some institutions. A Ph. D. candidate must submit a project, thesis or dissertation often consisting of a body of academic research. In many countries, a candidate must defend this work before a panel of examiners appointed by the university. Universities award other types of doctorates besides the Ph. D. such as the Doctor of Musical Arts, a degree for music performers and the Doctor of Education, in 2016, ELIA launched The Florence Principles on the Doctorate in the Arts. The Florence Principles have been endorsed are supported also by AEC, CILECT, CUMULUS, the degree is abbreviated PhD, from the Latin Philosophiae Doctor, pronounced as three separate letters. In the universities of Medieval Europe, study was organized in four faculties, the faculty of arts. All of these faculties awarded intermediate degrees and final degrees, the doctorates in the higher faculties were quite different from the current Ph. D. degree in that they were awarded for advanced scholarship, not original research. No dissertation or original work was required, only lengthy residency requirements, besides these degrees, there was the licentiate. According to Keith Allan Noble, the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150, the doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany as the terminal Teachers credential in the 17th century. Typically, upon completion, the candidate undergoes an oral examination, always public, starting in 2016, in Ukraine Doctor of Philosophy is the highest education level and the first science degree. PhD is awarded in recognition of a contribution to scientific knowledge. A PhD degree is a prerequisite for heading a university department in Ukraine, upon completion of a PhD, a PhD holder can elect to continue his studies and get a post-doctoral degree called Doctor of Sciences, which is the second and the highest science degree in Ukraine. Scandinavian countries were among the early adopters of a known as a doctorate of philosophy
35.
Extraterrestrial life
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Extraterrestrial life, also called alien life, is life that does not originate from Earth. These hypothetical life forms may range from simple single-celled organisms to beings with civilizations far more advanced than humanity, although many scientists expect extraterrestrial life to exist in some form, there is no evidence for its existence to date. The Drake equation speculates about the existence of intelligent life elsewhere in the universe, the science of extraterrestrial life in all its forms is known as exobiology. The science of astrobiology considers life on Earth as well, in 2015, remains of biotic life were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia, when the young Earth was about 400 million years old. According to one of the researchers, If life arose relatively quickly on Earth and it has also played a major role in works of science fiction. Over the years, science fiction works have increased the publics interest in the possibility of extraterrestrial life, some encourage aggressive methods to try for contact with intelligent extraterrestrial life, whereas others argue that it might be dangerous to actively call attention to Earth. Alien life, such as microorganisms, has been hypothesized to exist in the Solar System and this hypothesis relies on the vast size and consistent physical laws of the observable universe. The chemistry of life may have begun shortly after the Big Bang,13.8 billion years ago, Life may have emerged independently at many places throughout the universe. Alternatively, life may have formed less frequently, then spread—by meteoroids, in any case, complex organic molecules may have formed in the protoplanetary disk of dust grains surrounding the Sun before the formation of Earth. According to these studies, this process may occur outside Earth on several planets and moons of the Solar System, since the 1950s, scientists have argued the idea that habitable zones around stars are the most likely places to find life. The nearest such planet may be 12 light-years away, according to the scientists, astrobiologists have also considered a follow the energy view of potential habitats. Life on Earth requires water as its solvent in which biochemical reactions take place, More generally, life based on ammonia has been suggested, though this solvent appears less suitable than water. It is also conceivable that there are forms of life whose solvent is a liquid hydrocarbon, about 29 chemical elements play an active positive role in living organisms on Earth. About 95% of this matter is built upon only six elements, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus. These six elements form the building blocks of virtually all life on Earth. The unique characteristics of carbon make it unlikely that it could be replaced, even on another planet, the carbon atom has the unique ability to make four strong chemical bonds with other atoms, including other carbon atoms. These covalent bonds have a direction in space, so that carbon atoms can form the skeletons of complex 3-dimensional structures with definite architectures such as nucleic acids, carbon forms more compounds than all other elements combined. The great versatility of the atom makes it the element most likely to provide the bases—even exotic ones—for the chemical composition of life on other planets
36.
Cold War
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The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare
37.
New Mexico
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New Mexico is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States of America. It was admitted to the Union as the 47th state on January 6,1912 and it is usually considered one of the Mountain States. New Mexico is fifth by area, the 36th-most populous, inhabited by Native Americans for thousands of years before European exploration, New Mexico was colonized by the Spanish in 1598 Imperial Spanish viceroyalty of New Spain. Later, it was part of independent Mexico before becoming a U. S. territory and eventually a U. S. state as a result of the Mexican–American War. Among U. S. states, New Mexico has the highest percentage of Hispanics, the major Native American nations in the state are Navajo, Pueblo, and Apache peoples. The demography and culture of the state are shaped by these strong Hispanic and Native American influences and its scarlet and gold colors are taken from the royal standards of Spain, along with the ancient sun symbol of the Zia, a Pueblo-related tribe. New Mexico, or Nuevo México in Spanish, is incorrectly believed to have taken its name from the nation of Mexico. The name simply stuck, even though the area had no connection to Mexico or the Mexica Indian tribes, Mexico, formerly a part of New Spain, adopted its name centuries later in 1821, after winning independence from Spanish rule. New Mexico was a part of the independent Mexican Empire and Federal Republic of Mexico for 27 years,1821 through 1848, New Mexico and Mexico developed as neighboring Spanish-speaking communities under Spanish rule, with relatively independent histories. The states total area is 121,412 square miles, the eastern border of New Mexico lies along 103° W longitude with the state of Oklahoma, and 2.2 miles west of 103° W longitude with Texas. On the southern border, Texas makes up the eastern two-thirds, while the Mexican states of Chihuahua and Sonora make up the western third, the western border with Arizona runs along the 109°03 W longitude. The southwestern corner of the state is known as the Bootheel, the 37° N latitude parallel forms the northern boundary with Colorado. The states New Mexico, Colorado, Arizona, and Utah come together at the Four Corners in the corner of New Mexico. New Mexico, although a state, has very little water. Its surface water area is about 250 square miles, the New Mexican landscape ranges from wide, rose-colored deserts to broken mesas to high, snow-capped peaks. Despite New Mexicos arid image, heavily forested mountain wildernesses cover a significant portion of the state, the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, the southernmost part of the Rocky Mountains, run roughly north-south along the east side of the Rio Grande in the rugged, pastoral north. The most important of New Mexicos rivers are the Rio Grande, Pecos, Canadian, San Juan, the Rio Grande is tied for the fourth-longest river in the United States. Tourists visiting these sites bring significant money to the state, other areas of geographical and scenic interest include Kasha-Katuwe Tent Rocks National Monument and the Gila Wilderness in the southwest of the state
38.
Faster-than-light
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Faster-than-light communication and travel refer to the propagation of information or matter faster than the speed of light. The special theory of relativity implies that only particles with zero rest mass may travel at the speed of light, although according to current theories matter is still required to travel subluminally with respect to the locally distorted spacetime region, apparent FTL is not excluded by general relativity. Examples of apparent FTL proposals are the Alcubierre drive and the traversable wormhole and this is not quite the same as traveling faster than light, since, Some processes propagate faster than c, but cannot carry information. Neither of these phenomena violates special relativity or creates problems with causality, in the following examples, certain influences may appear to travel faster than light, but they do not convey energy or information faster than light, so they do not violate special relativity. For an Earthbound observer, objects in the sky complete one revolution around the Earth in 1 day, Proxima Centauri, which is the nearest star outside the solar system, is about 4 light-years away. On a geostationary view, Proxima Centauri has a speed many times greater than c as the rim speed of an object moving in a circle is a product of the radius and angular speed. It is also possible on a view for objects such as comets to vary their speed from subluminal to superluminal. Comets may have orbits which take out to more than 1000 AU. The circumference of a circle with a radius of 1000 AU is greater than one light day, in other words, a comet at such a distance is superluminal in a geostatic, and therefore non-inertial, frame. If a laser beam is swept across a distant object, the spot of light can easily be made to move across the object at a speed greater than c. Similarly, a shadow projected onto a distant object can be made to move across the object faster than c, in neither case does the light travel from the source to the object faster than c, nor does any information travel faster than light. However, uniform motion of the source may be removed with a change in reference frame, causing the direction of the static field to change immediately. This is not a change of position which propagates, and thus this change cannot be used to transmit information from the source, no information or matter can be FTL-transmitted or propagated from source to receiver/observer by an electromagnetic field. The rate at which two objects in motion in a frame of reference get closer together is called the mutual or closing speed. This may approach twice the speed of light, as in the case of two particles travelling at close to the speed of light in opposite directions with respect to the reference frame. Imagine two fast-moving particles approaching each other from opposite sides of an accelerator of the collider type. The closing speed would be the rate at which the distance between the two particles is decreasing, from the point of view of an observer standing at rest relative to the accelerator, this rate will be slightly less than twice the speed of light. Special relativity does not prohibit this and it tells us that it is wrong to use Galilean relativity to compute the velocity of one of the particles, as would be measured by an observer traveling alongside the other particle
Tom Swift public domain audiobook at LibriVox
