1.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
2.
Joseph Jacobs
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Joseph Jacobs was an Australian folklorist, literary critic, social scientist, historian and writer of English literature who became a notable collector and publisher of English folklore. He also edited editions of The Thousand and One Nights and he went on to join The Folklore Society in England and became an editor of the society journal Folklore. Joseph Jacobs also contributed to The Jewish Encyclopedia and he was the sixth surviving son of John Jacobs, a publican who had emigrated from London around 1837, and his wife Sarah, née Myers. Jacobs was educated at Sydney Grammar School and at the University of Sydney and he did not complete his studies in Sydney, but left for England at the age of 18 and entered St Johns College, Cambridge. He graduated with a B. A. in 1876, and in 1877, Jacobs married Georgina Horne and fathered two sons and a daughter. In 1900, when he became revising editor of the Jewish Encyclopedia, based in New York and he died on 30 January 1916 at his home in Yonkers, New York. Jacobs was secretary of the Society of Hebrew Literature from 1878 to 1884 and this led to the formation of the mansion house fund and committee, of which Jacobs was secretary from 1882 to 1900. He was a student of anthropology at the Statistical Laboratory at University College London in the 1880s under Francis Galton and his Studies in Jewish Statistics, Social, Vital and Anthropometric made his reputation as the first proponent of Jewish race science. He wrote many articles for the Athenaeum, which published in 1891 the collection, George Eliot, Matthew Arnold, Browning, Newman, Essays. In the same year appeared his Studies in Jewish Statistics, in 1892, Tennyson and In Memoriam, and in 1893, his important book on The Jews of Angevin England. His historical novel dealing with the life of Jesus, As Others Saw Him, A Retrospective A. D.54, was published anonymously in 1895, in the year his Jewish Ideals. In this year, he was invited to the United States of America to give a course of lectures on the Philosophy of Jewish History, the Story of Geographical Discovery was published towards the end of 1898 and ran into several editions. He had been compiling and editing the Jewish Year Book since 1896, in 1900, he accepted an invitation to become revising editor of the Jewish Encyclopedia, which was then being prepared at New York. He settled permanently in the United States, where he wrote articles for the Jewish Encyclopedia. He then became registrar and professor of English at the Jewish Theological Seminary of America in New York, in 1908, he was appointed a member of the board of seven, which made a new English translation of the Bible for the Jewish Publication Society of America. In 1913, he resigned his positions at the seminary to become editor of the American Hebrew, in 1920, Book I of his Jewish Contributions to Civilization, which was practically finished at the time of his death, was published at Philadelphia. Jacobs was also a contributor to the Encyclopædia Britannica, and James Hastings Encyclopaedia of Religion, although he collected many tales under the name of fairy tales, many of them are unusual sorts of tales. Binnorie and Tamlane are prose versions of ballads, The Old Woman and Her Pig is a rhyme, Henny-Penny is a fable
3.
Hop-o'-My-Thumb
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It is Aarne-Thompson type 327B, the small boy defeats the ogre. This type of fairytale, in the French oral tradition, is combined with motifs from the type 327A, similar to Hansel and Gretel. The story was first published in English as Little Poucet in Robert Sambers 1729 translation of Perraults book, Histories, in 1764, the name of the hero was changed to Little Thumb. In 1804, William Godwin, in Tabarts Collection of Popular Stories for the Nursery, retitled it Hop o my Thumb, Hop-o-My-Thumb is the youngest of seven children in a poor woodcutters family. His greater wisdom compensates for his smallness of size, when the children are abandoned by their parents, he finds a variety of means to save his life and the lives of his brothers. After being threatened and pursued by an ogre, Poucet steals his magic seven-league boots while the monster is sleeping, the parents are no longer able to support their children and intend to abandon them. Hop-o-My-Thumb, overhearing his parents, plans ahead and collects small white pebbles from a river and he uses the stones to mark a trail that enables him to successfully lead his brothers back home. However, the time round, he uses breadcrumbs instead. The brothers are lost in the wood, Hop-o-My-Thumb climbs up a tree and spots a distant light. They come at last to a house, and learn that it belongs to an ogre, Hop-o-My-Thumb, fearing the wolves, decides to take the risk of staying in the monsters residence. The ogre allows the boys to sleep for the night, but the ogre wakes up not too long after, and prepares to kill them in their slumber. Hop-o-My-Thumb, who anticipated the possibility, already planned ahead and replaced the gold crowns with the bonnets worn by him. As a result, the ogre kills his daughters instead, once he is snoring, Hop-o-My-Thumb directs his siblings out of the house. The ogre wakes up in the morning to discover his grave mistake, puts on his seven-league boots and they spot the ogre while walking. Hop-o-My-Thumb once again thinks fast and hides in a nearby cave. The ogre, who is tired, happens to rest close to their hiding spot, Hop-o-My-Thumb instructs his brothers to make their way home, and meanwhile, removes the boots from the sleeping ogre. He puts them on, and the boots, being magical, Hop-o-My-Thumb uses the boots to make a fortune, and returns to his familys home, where they live happily ever after. The French folktale was first published by Charles Perrault as Le petit Poucet in Histoires ou contes du temps passé in 1697, the French name for the hero, Poucet, derives from the French word pouce, which means thumb, big toe, or inch
4.
Thumbelina
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Thumbelina is about a tiny girl and her adventures with appearance- and marriage-minded toads, moles, and cockchafers. She successfully avoids their intentions before falling in love with a prince just her size. Thumbelina is chiefly Andersens invention, though he did take inspiration from tales of people such as Tom Thumb. Thumbelina was published as one of a series of seven fairy tales in 1835 which were not well received by the Danish critics who disliked their informal style, the earliest English translation of Thumbelina is dated 1846. The tale has been adapted to various media including television drama, in the first English translation of 1847 by Mary Howitt, the tale opens with a beggar woman giving a peasants wife a barleycorn in exchange for food. Once planted, a girl, Thumbelina, emerges from its flower. One night, Thumbelina, asleep in her cradle, is carried off by a toad who wants her as a bride for her son. Thumbelina tries to protect herself from the elements, but when winter comes and she is finally given shelter by an old field mouse and tends her dwelling in gratitude. The field mouse keeps pushing Thumbelina into the marriage, saying the mole is a match for her. At the last minute, Thumbelina escapes the situation by fleeing to a far land with a swallow she nursed back to health during the winter, in a sunny field of flowers, Thumbelina meets a tiny flower-fairy prince just her size and to her liking, and they wed. She receives a pair of wings to accompany her husband on his travels from flower to flower, in Hans Christian Andersens version of the story, a bluebird had been viewing Thumbelinas story since the beginning and had been in love with her since. In the end, the bird is heartbroken once Thumbelina marries the flower-fairy prince, there, he tells Thumbelinas story to a man who is implied to be Andersen himself and chronicles the story in a book. Hans Christian Andersen was born in Odense, Denmark on 2 April 1805 to Hans Andersen, a shoemaker, an only and a spoiled child, Andersen shared a love of literature with his father who read him The Arabian Nights and the fables of Jean de la Fontaine. Together, they constructed panoramas, pop-up pictures, and toy theatres, Andersens father died in 1816, and from then on, Andersen was left to his own devices. In order to escape his poor, illiterate mother, he promoted his artistic inclinations and courted the cultured middle class of Odense, at Slagelse, Andersen fell under the tutelage of Simon Meisling, a short, stout, balding thirty-five-year-old classicist and translator of Virgils Aeneid. Andersen was not the quickest student in the class and was given generous doses of Meislings contempt, youre a stupid boy who will never make it, Meisling told him. Meisling is believed to be the model for the mole in Thumbelina. “Thumbelina” is essentially Andersen’s invention but takes inspiration from the tale of Tom Thumb
5.
English folklore
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English folklore is the folk tradition which has developed in England over a number of centuries. Some stories can be traced back to their roots, while the origin of others is uncertain or disputed, morris dance and related practices such as the Abbots Bromley Horn Dance preserve old English folk traditions, as do Mummers Plays. Pub names may preserve folk traditions, English folklore is largely drawn from Celtic, Germanic and Christian sources. It is generally supposed to be larger than a normal dog and it is a common feature of British Isles and Northern European folklore. Boggart - A boggart is, depending on local or regional tradition, either a spirit or a malevolent genius loci inhabiting fields. The household boggart causes things to disappear, milk to sour, always malevolent, the boggart will follow its family wherever they flee. Brownie - In folklore, a brownie is a type of hob, brownies are said to inhabit houses and aid in tasks around the house. However, they do not like to be seen and will work at night. Among food, they especially enjoy porridge and honey and they usually abandon the house if their gifts are called payments, or if the owners of the house misuse them. Brownies make their homes in a part of the house. Chime hours - According to English folklore, those born at certain hours could see ghosts, countless stones - Associated with megalithic monuments Corn dolly - Corn dollies are a form of straw work made as part of harvest customs of Europe before mechanization. Before Christianisation, in traditional pagan European culture it was believed that the spirit of the corn lived amongst the crop, cunning folk - The term cunning man or cunning woman was most widely used in southern England and the Midlands, as well as in Wales. Such people were frequently known across England as wizards, wise men. Dragons- Giant winged reptiles that breathe fire or poison, there are many dragon legends in England. Somerset and the North East being very rich, According to legend it can be heard to beat at times when England is at war or significant national events take place. Dwarfs Elves Ettin English Country Dance - English Country Dance is a form of folk dance and it is a social dance form, which has earliest documented instances in the late 16th century. Father Time Flibbertigibbet Four Winds - Shown on old maps they are shown as faces blowing out wind from their mouths. There are generally 4 of them although in some cases only 2 are shown, Green Man - A Green Man is a sculpture, drawing, or other representation of a face surrounded by or made from leaves
6.
Fairy tale
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Fairy tales may be distinguished from other folk narratives such as legends and explicitly moral tales, including beast fables. The term is used for stories with origins in European tradition and, at least in recent centuries. In less technical contexts, the term is used to describe something blessed with unusual happiness. Colloquially, a tale or fairy story can also mean any far-fetched story or tall tale, it is used especially of any story that not only is not true. Legends are perceived as real, fairy tales may merge into legends, Fairy tales are found in oral and in literary form, the name fairy tale was first ascribed to them by Madame dAulnoy in the late 17th century. Many of todays fairy tales have evolved from stories that have appeared, with variations. The history of the tale is particularly difficult to trace because only the literary forms can survive. Still, according to researchers at universities in Durham and Lisbon, such stories may date back thousands of years, Fairy tales, and works derived from fairy tales, are still written today. Folklorists have classified fairy tales in various ways, the Aarne-Thompson classification system and the morphological analysis of Vladimir Propp are among the most notable. Other folklorists have interpreted the significance, but no school has been definitively established for the meaning of the tales. It moves in a world without definite locality or definite creatures and is filled with the marvelous. In this never-never land, humble heroes kill adversaries, succeed to kingdoms, a fairy tale with a tragic rather than a happy end is called an anti-fairy tale. Although the fairy tale is a genre within the larger category of folktale. The term itself comes from the translation of Madame DAulnoys conte de fées, Vladimir Propp, in his Morphology of the Folktale, criticized the common distinction between fairy tales and animal tales on the grounds that many tales contained both fantastic elements and animals. Were I asked, what is a fairytale, I should reply, Read Undine, that is a fairytale. of all fairytales I know, I think Undine the most beautiful. As Stith Thompson points out, talking animals and the presence of magic seem to be common to the fairy tale than fairies themselves. However, the presence of animals that talk does not make a tale a fairy tale, especially when the animal is clearly a mask on a human face. Steven Swann Jones identified the presence of magic as the feature by which fairy tales can be distinguished from other sorts of folktales, davidson and Chaudri identify transformation as the key feature of the genre
7.
Giant
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Giants are the monsters of human appearance but prodigious size and strength common in the mythology and legends of many different cultures. The word giant, coined in 1297, was derived from the Gigantes of Greek mythology, Giants also often play similar roles in the mythologies and folklore of other, non Indo-European peoples, such as in the Nartian traditions. There are also accounts of giants in the Old Testament, most famously Goliath, Og King of Bashan, the Nephilim, the Anakim, attributed to them are extraordinary strength and physical proportions. Fairy tales such as Jack the Giant Killer have formed the modern perception of giants as stupid and violent monsters, sometimes said to eat humans, the ogre in Jack and the Beanstalk is often described as a giant. In some more recent portrayals, like those of Jonathan Swift and Roald Dahl, genesis 6, 4-5 tells of the Nephilim before and after the Flood. The 1st-century historian Flavius Josephus, and the 1st-2nd-century BC Dead Sea Scrolls give Goliaths height as four cubits and a span, approximately 2.00 m or about six feet seven inches. There were till then left the race of giants, who had bodies so large, and countenances so entirely different from men, that they were surprising to the sight. The bones of men are still shown to this very day. In Islam, giants known as jababirat or jabbirun such as Jalut are mentioned, the Book of Enoch describes giants as the offspring of fallen angels and mortal women in 7,2. According to Jains, there was a time when giants walked upon this earth, Jain cosmology divides worldly cycle of time into two parts or half-cycles, avasarpani and ascending. According to Jain texts, the height of Rishabha, first tirthankara of present half cycle of time was 500 dhanusa, in avasarpani, as the cycle moves ahead, height of all humans and animals decreases. The following table depicts the six aras of avasarpini- In Hinduism, the Daityas were the children of Diti and the sage Kashyapa who fought against the gods or Devas because they were jealous of their Deva half-brothers. Since Daityas were a race, they sometimes allied with other races having similar ideology namely Danavas and Asuras. Daityas along with Danavas and Asuras are sometimes called Rakshasas, the term for a demon in Hindu mythology. Some known Daityas include Hiranyakashipu and Hiranyaksha, the main antagonist of the Hindu epic Ramayana, Ravana, was a Brahmin from his fathers side and a Daitya from his mothers side. His younger brother Kumbhakarna was said to be as tall as a mountain and was good natured. Furthermore, the Paiute creation story tells of beautiful giants who lived between the Sierra Nevada and the Rocky Mountains. After giving birth to a child, the giants treated the child so poorly that the Great Spirit responded by making the land hot and desolate
8.
King Arthur
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King Arthur is a legendary British leader who, according to medieval histories and romances, led the defence of Britain against Saxon invaders in the late 5th and early 6th centuries AD. The details of Arthurs story are mainly composed of folklore and literary invention, the sparse historical background of Arthur is gleaned from various sources, including the Annales Cambriae, the Historia Brittonum, and the writings of Gildas. Arthurs name also occurs in early sources such as Y Gododdin. Arthur is a figure in the legends making up the so-called Matter of Britain. The legendary Arthur developed as a figure of international interest largely through the popularity of Geoffrey of Monmouths fanciful, how much of Geoffreys Historia was adapted from such earlier sources, rather than invented by Geoffrey himself, is unknown. Geoffrey depicted Arthur as a king of Britain who defeated the Saxons and established an empire over Britain, Ireland, Iceland, Norway and Gaul. The 12th-century French writer Chrétien de Troyes, who added Lancelot, in these French stories, the narrative focus often shifts from King Arthur himself to other characters, such as various Knights of the Round Table. Arthurian literature thrived during the Middle Ages but waned in the centuries that followed until it experienced a resurgence in the 19th century. In the 21st century, the lives on, not only in literature but also in adaptations for theatre, film, television, comics. The historical basis for the King Arthur legend has long debated by scholars. These culminate in the Battle of Badon, where he is said to have single-handedly killed 960 men, recent studies, however, question the reliability of the Historia Brittonum. The other text that seems to support the case for Arthurs historical existence is the 10th-century Annales Cambriae, the Annales date this battle to 516–518, and also mention the Battle of Camlann, in which Arthur and Medraut were both killed, dated to 537–539. These details have often used to bolster confidence in the Historias account. Problems have been identified, however, with using this source to support the Historia Brittonums account, the latest research shows that the Annales Cambriae was based on a chronicle begun in the late 8th century in Wales. Additionally, the textual history of the Annales Cambriae precludes any certainty that the Arthurian annals were added to it even that early. They were more likely added at point in the 10th century. The Badon entry probably derived from the Historia Brittonum and this lack of convincing early evidence is the reason many recent historians exclude Arthur from their accounts of sub-Roman Britain. These modern admissions of ignorance are a recent trend, earlier generations of historians were less sceptical
9.
The Discoverie of Witchcraft
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The Discoverie of Witchcraft is a partially sceptical book published by the English gentleman Reginald Scot in 1584, intended as an exposé of early Modern witchcraft. It contains a small section intended to show how the public was fooled by charlatans, Scot believed that the prosecution of those accused of witchcraft was irrational and un-Christian, and he held the Roman Church responsible. Popular belief held that all copies were burned on the accession of James I in 1603. Scots book appeared entitled The Discoverie of Witchcraft, wherein the Lewde dealing of Witches and Witchmongers is notablie detected, whereunto is added a Treatise upon the Nature and Substance of Spirits and Devils,1584. At the end of the volume the printer gives his name as William Brome, Scott enumerates 212 authors whose works in Latin he had consulted, and twenty-three authors who wrote in English. But Scots information was not only from books and his aim was to prevent the persecution of poor, aged, and simple persons, who were popularly credited with being witches. Of Cornelius Agrippa and Johann Weyer, author of De Præstigiis Demonum, whose views he adopted, Scot did adopt contemporary superstition, in his references to medicine and astrology. He believed in the value of the unicorns horn. The book also narrates stories of strange phenomena in the context of religious convictions, the devil is related with such stories and his ability to absorb peoples souls. The book also gives stories of magicians with supernatural powers performing in front of courts of kings. William Shakespeare drew from his study of Scots book hints for his picture of the witches in Macbeth, through bibliographies, one may trace modern grimoires to this work. The chapter on magic tricks in Scots Discoverie was later plagiarised heavily, it was the basis of The Art of Juggling by S. R. Scots early writings constituted a substantial portion of the text in English-language stage magic books of the 17th and 18th centuries. Within a few years the debate became heated. Many writers, particularly Protestant clergy, then defended the contemporary beliefs on witches, keith Thomas considers that Scots statement of the sceptical position remained authoritative for this debate. It was employed by others, such as Samuel Harsnet and the astrologer-physician John Harvey, in their own writings, a translation into Dutch, edited by Thomas Basson, an English stationer living at Leiden, appeared there in 1609. It was undertaken on the recommendation of the professors, and was dedicated to the university curators, a second edition, published by G. Basson, the first editors son, was printed at Leyden in 1637. In 1651 the book was reissued in London in quarto by Richard Cotes. A third edition in folio, dated 1665, included nine new chapters, the third edition was published with two imprints in 1665, one being the Turk Head edition, the scarcer variant was at the Golden-Ball
10.
Tattershall
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Tattershall is a village and civil parish in the East Lindsey district of Lincolnshire, England. It is situated on the A153 Horncastle to Sleaford road,1 mile east from the point where that road crosses the River Witham, at its eastern end, Tattershall adjoins the village of Coningsby, with the two being separated by the River Bain. In the same parish is the hamlet of Tattershall Thorpe, the 2011 census recorded a Tattershall civil parish population as 2,834, with the combined Tattershall and Coningsby area having a population of 6,698. Local public houses are the Black Horse on the High Street, the Fortesque Arms dates from the 15th century and is a Grade II listed building. Barnes Wallis Academy is a modern school on Butts Lane for pupils aged from 11 to 16. The school also serves Coningsby and Woodhall Spa, the remaining wreckage of the Boeing jumbo jet that was blown-up on 21 December 1988 over Lockerbie in Scotland is stored at a scrapyard near Tattershall. The remains include the nose and cockpit. Tattershall Carrs forms the last remaining remnants of ancient wet woodland, bomb shelters on a former RAF site at Woodhall Spa have been converted into bat roosts. Village historic sites include the church of the Holy Trinity, a buttercross, Tattershall Castle, Collegiate College, an octagonal 15th-century buttercross stands in the Market Place. It is both a Grade I listed structure and an ancient scheduled monument, a charter to hold a weekly market was granted by King John in 1201 in return for an annual fee of a trained goshawk. Markets are no longer held but the remains at the centre of a shopping area. Tattershall railway station was a station on the line between Boston and Lincoln until closure, the Old Station House, a stationmasters house and ticket office, is a Grade II listed building as is the former Goods Shed. The former railway line has been converted into a path at a cost of £2 million. The path was opened in October 2008. Adjacent to the castle is the Grade I listed Perpendicular-style Holy Trinity Collegiate Church, endowed by Ralph de Cromwell, 3rd Baron Cromwell and it received its charter from Henry VI in 1439 but building was not begun until 1472, reaching completion around 1500. The church has stained glass, a collection of brasses. It was restored between 1893 and 1897, near the font is a plaque marking the grave of the Tattershall resident Tom Thumb, reputedly 18.5 inches tall, who died in 1620 aged 101. Tom Thumbs small house can be seen on the roof of a house in the Market Place
11.
Henry Fielding
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Henry Fielding was an English novelist and dramatist best known for his rich, earthy humour and satirical prowess, and as the author of the novel Tom Jones. His younger sister, Sarah, also became a successful writer, Fielding was born at Sharpham, Somerset, and educated at Eton College, where he established a lifelong friendship with William Pitt the Elder. After a romantic episode with a woman that ended in his getting into trouble with the law, he went to London. In 1728, he travelled to Leiden to study classics and law at the university, however, lack of money obliged him to return to London and he began writing for the theatre. Some of his work was critical of the government of Prime Minister Sir Robert Walpole. The Theatrical Licensing Act of 1737 is alleged to be a response to his activities. The particular play that triggered the Licensing Act was the unproduced, anonymously authored, The Golden Rump, once the act was passed, political satire on the stage became virtually impossible, and playwrights whose works were staged were viewed as suspect. Fielding therefore retired from the theatre and resumed his career in law in order to support his wife Charlotte Craddock, Allen went on to provide for the education and support of Fieldings children after the writers death. Fielding never stopped writing political satire and satires of current arts, the Tragedy of Tragedies was, for example, quite successful as a printed play. He also contributed a number of works to journals of the day and he wrote for Tory periodicals, usually under the name Captain Hercules Vinegar. Fielding continued to air his liberal and anti-Jacobite views in articles and newspapers in the late 1730s. Almost by accident he took to writing novels in 1741, angered by Samuel Richardsons success with Pamela and his first big success was an anonymous parody of that, Shamela. This satire follows the model of the famous Tory satirists of the generation, Jonathan Swift and John Gay. Fielding followed this with Joseph Andrews, an original work supposedly dealing with Pamelas brother, although begun as a parody, it developed into an accomplished novel in its own right and is considered to mark Fieldings debut as a serious novelist. It is a satire of Walpole that draws a parallel between him and Jonathan Wild, the gang leader and highwayman. Though a minor item in Fieldings œuvre, the subject is consistent with his preoccupation with fraud, shamming. His greatest work was Tom Jones, a meticulously constructed picaresque novel telling the convoluted, Fielding married his first wife, Charlotte Craddock, in 1734 at the Church of St Mary in Charlcombe, Somerset. Charlotte, on whom he modelled the heroines of both Tom Jones and Amelia, died in 1744
12.
Tom Thumb (play)
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Tom Thumb is a play written by Henry Fielding as an addition to The Authors Farce. It was added on 24 April 1730 at Haymarket and it is a low tragedy about a character who is small in both size and status who is granted the hand of a princess in marriage. This infuriates the queen and a member of the court and the play chronicles their attempts to ruin the marriage, the play incorporated part of the satire in The Authors Farce and also was a farce because the tragedies in the play became absurd. Additionally, Fielding explored many issues with gender roles through his portrayals of characters, critics largely enjoyed the play and noted its success through comedy. As the play later was edited to become the Tragedy of Tragedies, Tom Thumb was added to the ninth showing of The Authors Farce that took place on 24 April 1730. Together, the shows lasted at the Haymarket until they were replaced by Fieldings next production and they later were revived together on 3 July 1730 for one night. It was later turned into the Tragedy of Tragedies, when the play was no longer featured alongside of The Authors Farce, the satire becomes less evident. To combat this problem, Fielding added other components, including footnotes, prefaces, a revised edition of the play was published with a few alterations, including adding two scenes, Prologue, Epilogue, and Preface. Another revision came on 30 November 1730 and added another act to follow Act II and this act attacked Colley Cibbers recent appointment as the Poet Laureate. The new Act, titled The Battle of the Poets, or, however, this act was not Henry Fieldings, it is attributed to Thomas Cooke but authorship was never proven. Prologue spoken by Mr. Fielding reverses the plot by focusing on a character who is small in both size and status. The play is a low tragedy that describes Tom Thumb arriving at King Arthurs court showing off giants that he defeated, as a reward, Arthur grants Tom the hand of princess Huncamunca, which upsets both his wife, Dollalolla, and a member of the court, Grizzle. The two plot together to ruin the marriage, which begins the tragedy, part way through the play, two doctors begin to discuss the death of Tom Thumb and resort to using fanciful medical terminology and quoting ancient medical works with which they are not familiar. However, it becomes apparent that it was not Tom who died, the tragedy becomes farcical when Tom is devoured by a cow. This is not the end of Tom, because his ghost later suffers a death at the hands of Grizzle. Then, one by one, the other characters farcically kill each other, Tom Thumb incorporates part of the satire found within The Authors Farce, the mocking of the heroic tragedy that has little substance beyond dramatic cliche. Fielding, in following the Don Tragedio style, creates a play that denies the tradition and seeks newness within theatre only for newnesss sake, the satire of Tom Thumb reveals that the problem with contemporary tragedy is its unconscious mixture of farcical elements. This results from the tragedians lacking a connection to the tradition of tragedy and it is also possible that some of these tragedians clung to the tradition in a way that caused them to distort many of the elements, which result in farcical plots
13.
The Author's Farce
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The Authors Farce and the Pleasures of the Town is a play by the English playwright and novelist Henry Fielding, first performed on 30 March 1730 at the Little Theatre, Haymarket. Written in response to the Theatre Royals rejection of his earlier plays, the Little Theatre allowed Fielding the freedom to experiment, and to alter the traditional comedy genre. The play ran during the early 1730s and was altered for its run starting 21 April 1730, throughout its life, the play was coupled with several different plays, including The Cheats of Scapin and Fieldings Tom Thumb. The first and second acts deal with the attempts of the character, Harry Luckless, to woo his landladys daughter. After its rejection by one theatre, Lucklesss play is staged at another, the third act becomes a play within a play, in which the characters in the puppet play are portrayed by humans. The Authors Farce ends with a merging of the plays and the puppet shows realities, the play established Fielding as a popular London playwright, and the press reported that seats were in great demand. Fieldings play within a play satirised the way in which the London theatre scene, in his view, abused the literary public by offering new, the Authors Farce is now considered to be a critical success and a highly skilled satire. Most of Fieldings plays were written in five acts, but The Authors Farce was written in three, the opening introduces the main character, Harry Luckless, and his attempts to woo Harriot, the daughter of his landlady Mrs. Moneywood. The play begins in much the way as Fieldings earlier romance-themed comedies. Luckless is trying to become a writer, but lacks the income that would allow him to concentrate on his writing. Although others try to support him financially, Luckless refuses their help, in the second act, Luckless seeks assistance to help finish his play, The Pleasures of the Town, but is poorly advised, and the work is rejected by his local theatre. Luckless revises his play and succeeds in finding a venue, leading to the third act, in which the work is performed as a puppet show. The third act is dominated by the show, a play within the play. It begins when the Goddess of Nonsense chooses a mate from a series of suitors along the River Styx, all dunces, the suitors include Dr. Orator, Sir Farcical Comic, Mrs. Novel, Bookseller, Poet, Monsieur Pantomime, Don Tragedio and Signior Opera. The goddess eventually chooses a foreign castrato opera singer as her favourite — Signior Opera — after he sings an aria about money, Mrs. Novel then claims that she loved Signior Opera, and died giving birth to his child. At this revelation, the goddess becomes upset, but is quick to forgive, the play within the play is interrupted by Constable and Murdertext, who arrive to arrest Luckless for abusing Nonsense, but Mrs. Novel persuades Murdertext to let the play finish. Someone from the land of Bantam then arrives to tell Luckless that he is the prince of Bantam, news follows that the King of Bantam has died, and that Luckless is to be made the new king. The play concludes with the revelation that Lucklesss landlady is in reality the Queen of Old Brentford, an epilogue in which four poets discuss how the play should end is brought to a conclusion by a cat, in the form of a woman
14.
The Tragedy of Tragedies
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The Tragedy of Tragedies, also known as The Tragedy of Tragedies, or, The Life and Death of Tom Thumb the Great, is a play by Henry Fielding. In adapting his earlier work Fielding incorporated significant plot changes, he made the play more focused. Additionally, in a reaction to the view that Tom Thumb was a burlesque, the play was first performed at Haymarket on 24 March 1731, with the companion piece The Letter Writers. Critics enjoyed the play, but pointed out that it was designed as a companion piece to The Authors Farce. The Tragedy of Tragedies was an expanded and rewritten version of Tom Thumb, the play was first performed on 24 March 1731 at the Haymarket Theatre in London, with the companion piece The Letter Writers. Its printed edition was edited and commented on by Fieldings pseudonym H. Scriblerus Secundus and it contains a frontispiece by Hogarth, which serves as the earliest proof of a relationship between Fielding and Hogarth. The printed edition was available on opening night and the notes included with the printed edition served as a way to explain the play and it was printed by James Roberts alongside of an edition of The Letter-Writers. The printed version of The Tragedy of Tragedies created two versions of the play, one that was acted and another that was to be read, and both contained humour catered to each. Fielding referred to modern works as laughing tragedies and claimed that the only difference between his work and the modern tragedies was that his work was intentional in its laughter. Fieldings play was adapted into The Opera of Operas, or Tom Thumb the Great by playwrights Eliza Haywood. It ran 13 nights at the Little Theatre starting 31 May 1733 and was discontinued because of the hot weather and it was later continued and had many shows during the seasons following. The Tragedy of Tragedies turned out to be one of Fieldings most enduring plays, played the giantess Glumdalca at a Yale University production in 1953. He completely removed a scene in two doctors discuss Tom Thumbs death, and in doing so unified the type of satire that he was working on. He narrowed his critique to abuses of language produced only by individuals subconsciously, as for the rest of the play, Fielding expanded scenes, added characters, and turned the work into a three-act play. Merlin is added to the plot to prophesize Toms end, in addition, Grizzle becomes Toms rival for Huncamuncas heart, and a giantess named Glumdalca is added as a second love interest for both King Arthur and Tom. As the play progresses, Tom is not killed by Grizzle, the ghost of Tom in Tom Thumb is replaced by the ghost of Gaffar Thumb, Toms father. Fielding gives special emphasis to the version of The Tragedy of Tragedies by including notes. The variorum, or notes, to the version of the play pointed out many of the parodies, allusions
15.
Charlotte Mary Yonge
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Charlotte Mary Yonge was an English novelist known for her huge output, now mostly out of print. Charlotte Mary Yonge was born in Otterbourne, Hampshire, England, on 11 August 1823 to William Yonge and Fanny Yonge and she was educated at home by her father, studying Latin, Greek, French, Euclid and algebra. Her fathers lessons could be harsh, He required a diligence and he thundered at me so that nobody could bear to hear it, and often reduced me to tears, but his approbation was so delightful that it was a delicious stimulus. I believe, in spite of all breezes over my innate slovenliness, and we went on till I was some years past twenty. Yonges devotion to her father was lifelong and her relationship with him seems to have been for her the standard for all other relationships and his approbation was throughout life my bliss, his anger my misery for the time. Yonge is herself sometimes referred to as the novelist of the Oxford Movement, as her novels frequently reflect the values and she remained in Otterbourne all her life and for 71 years was a teacher in the village Sunday school. In 1868 a new parish was formed to the south of Yonges home village of Otterbourne, Yonge donated £500 towards the parish church and was asked to choose which of the two villages the parish should be named after. She chose Eastley, but decided that it should be spelt Eastleigh as she perceived this as being more modern, Yonge died in her hometown of Otterbourne on 24 May 1901. Her obituary in The Times said, Her friends, and especially her poorer neighbours, thus the late Archbishop Benson noted in his diary her ‘odd majesty and kindliness, which are very strong’. But it is of course as a writer that Miss Yonge will be remembered and she had an inventive mind and a ready pen, and a bare list of the books written or edited by her would probably occupy nearly a whole column of The Times. She began writing in 1848, and published during her life about 160 works. Her first commercial success, The Heir of Redclyffe, provided the funding to enable the schooner Southern Cross to be put into service on behalf of George Selwyn, similar charitable works were done with the profits from later novels. Yonge was also a founder and editor for forty years of The Monthly Packet, a magazine with a varied readership, among the best known of her works are The Heir of Redclyffe, Heartsease and The Daisy Chain. A Book of Golden Deeds is a collection of stories of courage. She also wrote Cameos from English History, Life of John Coleridge Patteson, Missionary Bishop of the Melanesian Islands, after her death, her friend, assistant and collaborator, Christabel Coleridge, published the biographical Charlotte Mary Yonge, her Life and Letters. Yonges work was read and respected in the nineteenth century. Among her admirers were Lewis Carroll, George Eliot, William Ewart Gladstone, Charles Kingsley, Christina Rossetti, Alfred, Lord Tennyson, Yonges work was compared favourably with that of Trollope, Jane Austen, Honoré de Balzac, Gustave Flaubert and Émile Zola. Sir John Arthur Ransome Marriott wrote of her, Charlotte Yonge was not only a prolific novelist, with characteristic modesty she expressed the hope that her sketch might serve as an inducement to some young readers to make acquaintance with the delectable old Canon for themselves
16.
Dinah Craik
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Dinah Maria Craik was an English novelist and poet. Mulock was born at Stoke-on-Trent to Dinah and Thomas Mulock and raised in Newcastle-under-Lyme, Staffordshire and her childhood and early youth were much affected by his unsettled fortunes, but she obtained a good education from various quarters and felt called to be a writer. She came to London about 1846, much at the time as two friends, Alexander Macmillan and Charles Edward Mudie. Introduced by Camilla Toulmin to Westland Marston, she made friends in London. In 1865 she married George Lillie Craik a partner with Alexander Macmillan in the house of Macmillan & Company. They adopted a baby girl, Dorothy, in 1869. At Shortlands, near Bromley, Kent, while in a period of preparation for Dorothys wedding, she died of heart failure on 12 October 1887 and her last words were reported to have been, Oh, if I could live four weeks longer. Her final book, An Unknown Country, was published by Macmillan in 1887, Dorothy married Alexander Pilkington in 1887 but they divorced in 1911 and she went on to marry Captain Richards of Macmine Castle. She and Alexander had just one son John Mulock Pilkington, John married Freda Roskelly and they had a son and daughter. Mulocks early success began with the novel Cola Monti, and in the year she produced her first three-volume novel, The Ogilvies. It was followed in 1850 by Olive, then by The Head of the Family in 1851 and Agathas Husband in 1853, Mulock published the fairy story Alice Learmont in 1852, and collected numerous short stories from periodicals under the title of Avillion and other Tales in 1853. A similar collection appeared in 1857 under the title of Nothing New, thoroughly established in public favour as a successful author, Mulock took a cottage at Wildwood, North End, Hampstead, and joined an extensive social circle. Her personal attractions were at this period of her life considerable, and people kindly judged her simple cordiality, staunch friendliness, in 1857 she published the work by which she will be principally remembered, John Halifax, Gentleman, a presentation of the ideals of English middle-class life. Another collection, titled The Unkind Word and Other Stories, included a criticism of Benjamin Heath Malkin for overworking his son Thomas. Later on, Craik returned to more fanciful tales and achieved a success with The Little Lame Prince. Richard Garnett holds that the passion that filled her early works of fiction had not unnaturally faded out of middle life, replaced by didacticism. Garnett judges Craiks poetry as a womans poems, tender, domestic, and sometimes enthusiastic, always genuine song, a comprehensive bibliography appears in Dinah Mulock Craik by Sally Mitchell. This is reproduced more concisely in the Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature, additional contributions to periodicals, The Man in Green
17.
Lincolnshire
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Lincolnshire is a county in the east of England. It also borders Northamptonshire in the south for just 20 yards, Englands shortest county boundary, the county town is Lincoln, where the county council has its headquarters. The ceremonial county of Lincolnshire is composed of the county of Lincolnshire. Therefore, part of the county is in the Yorkshire and the Humber region of England. The county is the second-largest of the English ceremonial counties and one that is predominantly agricultural in land use, the county is fifth largest of the two-tier counties, as the unitary authorities of North Lincolnshire and North East Lincolnshire are not included. The county can be broken down into a number of geographical sub-regions including, Lincolnshire derived from the merging of the territory of the ancient Kingdom of Lindsey with that controlled by the Danelaw borough of Stamford. For some time the county was called Lindsey, and it is recorded as such in the 11th-century Domesday Book. In 1888 when county councils were set up, Lindsey, Holland and these survived until 1974, when Holland, Kesteven, and most of Lindsey were unified into Lincolnshire. A local government reform in 1996 abolished Humberside, and the south of the Humber was allocated to the unitary authorities of North Lincolnshire. These two areas became part of Lincolnshire for ceremonial such as the Lord-Lieutenancy, but are not covered by the Lincolnshire police and are in the Yorkshire. The remaining districts of Lincolnshire are Boston, East Lindsey, Lincoln, North Kesteven, South Holland, South Kesteven and they are part of the East Midlands region. Lincolnshire is home to Woolsthorpe Manor, birthplace and home of Sir Isaac Newton and he attended The Kings School, Grantham and its library has preserved his signature, applied to a window sill when he was a teenager. Lincolnshire is an area, growing large amounts of wheat, barley, sugar beet. In South Lincolnshire, where the soil is rich in nutrients, some of the most common crops include potatoes, cabbages, cauliflowers. Most such companies are long gone, and Lincolnshire is no longer an engineering centre, however, as a result of the current economic climate some food production facilities have closed down, this has caused some reduction in the levels of migrant workers. The large number of people from Portugal is still obvious in the town of Boston. A coalition of Conservatives, Liberal Democrats and Independents currently controls Lincolnshire County Council, the Conservative Party comfortably controlled the County Council following the 2009 local elections, in which they increased their majority to 43 seats. The Labour Party lost a total of 15 seats including 7 in Lincoln, the Lincolnshire Independents gained a total of four seats, although one of their number moved to the Conservative group during 2010, increasing the number of Conservative seats to 61
18.
Morgan Library & Museum
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It was founded to house the private library of J. P. Morgan in 1906, which included manuscripts and printed books, some of them in rare bindings, as well as his collection of prints and drawings. The library was designed by Charles McKim of the firm of McKim, Mead and White and it was made a public institution in 1924 by J. P. Morgans son John Pierpont Morgan, Jr. in accordance with his fathers will. The building was designated a New York City landmark in 1966 and was declared a National Historic Landmark later that same year, today the library is a complex of buildings which serve as a museum and scholarly research center. Her successor Frederick Baldwin Adams, Jr. managed the Library until 1969 and was also world-renowned for his own personal collections. Among the more famous manuscripts are the Morgan Bible, Morgan Beatus, Hours of Catherine of Cleves, Farnese Hours, Morgan Black Hours, and Codex Glazier. Other notable artists of the Morgan Library and Museum are Jean de Brunhoff, Paul Cézanne, Vincent van Gogh, John Leech, Gaston Phoebus, Rembrandt van Rijn, and John Ruskin. The Morgan has one of the worlds greatest collections of ancient Near Eastern cylinder seals and it also contains many music manuscripts and a considerable collection of Victoriana, including one of the most important collections of Gilbert and Sullivan manuscripts and related artifacts. Of interest to Australians is a copy of the written by Andrea Corsali from India in 1516. This letter, one of five in existence, contains the first description of the Southern Cross which is illustrated by Corsali in this letter. One other copy of the letter is in the British Museum, the fifth is in the Library of Princeton University. The letter is also available in Ramusios Viaggi, a compendium of letters of exploration. The first building constructed to house Morgans library – the McKim Building – was designed in the Classical Revival style by Charles Follen McKim of the firm of McKim. Morgan also commissioned a house to be built for his daughter a block away at the same time and it is located at 33 East 36th Street, which was at the time just to the east of Morgans residence, a brownstone house at 219 Madison Avenue built in 1880. McKim took his inspiration from the Villa Giulia and its Nymphaeum, also in the entrance are roundels and panels by Andrew OConnor and Adolph Weinman. The rotunda itself has a ceiling with murals and plasterwork inspired by Raphael. Morgans study, now the West Library, has called one of the greatest achievements of American interior decoration. The remaining Italianate brownstone house in the complex is 231 Madison Avenue. This house was built by Isaac Newton Phelps who bequeathed it to his daughter, Helen Stokes and she extended the building, doubling the size and adding an additional attic floor
19.
William Fulke
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William Fulke was an English Puritan divine. He was born in London and educated at St Johns College, Cambridge graduating in 1557/58, after studying law for six years, he became a fellow at St Johns College, Cambridge in 1564. He took a part in the vestiarian controversy, and persuaded the college to discard the surplice. In consequence, he was expelled from St. Johns for a time, in 1578 he was elected master of Pembroke Hall, Cambridge. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh. Works by William Fulke at Post-Reformation Digital Library
20.
Thomas Nashe
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Thomas Nashe is considered the greatest of the English Elizabethan pamphleteers. He was a playwright, poet, and satirist and he is best known for his novel The Unfortunate Traveller. Thomas Nashe was the son of the parson William Nashe and Margaret and he was born and baptised in Lowestoft, on the coast of Suffolk, where his father, William Nashe, or Nayshe as it is recorded, was curate. Though his mother bore seven children, only two survived childhood, Israel and Thomas, the family moved to West Harling, near Thetford in 1573 after Nashes father was awarded the living there at the church of All Saints. Around 1581 Thomas went up to St Johns College, Cambridge as a sizar, from references in his own polemics and those of others, he does not seem to have proceeded Master of Arts there. Most of his biographers agree that he left his college about summer 1588, Some years later, William Covell wrote in Polimanteia that Cambridge has been unkind to the one to wean him before his time. Nashe himself claimed that he could have become a fellow had he wished, then he moved to London and started his literary career in earnest. The remaining decade of his life was dominated by two concerns, finding a patron and participating in controversies, most famously with Richard. He arrived in London with his one exercise in euphuism, The Anatomy of Absurdity and his first appearance in print was, however, his preface to Robert Greenes Menaphon, which offers a brief definition of art and overview of contemporary literature. After this he was drawn into the Martin Marprelate controversy on the side of the bishops, as with the other writers in the controversy, his share is difficult to determine. He was formerly credited with the three Pasquill tracts of 1589–1590, which were included in R. B, mcKerrows standard edition of Nashes works, however McKerrow himself later argued strongly against their being by Nashe. But there is no evidence Nashe had either time or means to go abroad, in 1590, he contributed a preface to an unlicensed edition of Philip Sidneys Astrophil and Stella, but the edition was called in, and the authorised second edition removed Nashes work. At some time in the early 1590s Nashe produced an erotic poem and it has been suggested that The Choice of Valentines was written possibly for the private circle of Ferdinando Stanley, 5th Earl of Derby. The Choice of Valentines circulated only in manuscript and it describes the Valentines Day visit of a young man named Tomalin to the brothel where his lover, Mistris Francis, has recently become employed. Having paid ten gold pieces for her favours, Tomalin makes his way towards his erotic goal, and make me happie, stealing by degrees. First bare hir legs, then creepe up to her knees, the object of his desire, A pretty rising womb, is revealed. Unfortunately Tomalin finds the moment so exciting that he spends his all before the fight has begun, mistress Frances is disappointed and does what she can to revive things. Unhappyie me, quoth she, and wilt not stand, com, let me rubb and chafe it with my hand
21.
Pierce Penniless
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Pierce Penniless, His Supplication to the Divell is a tall tale, or a prose satire, written by Thomas Nashe and published in London in 1592. It was among the most popular of the Elizabethan pamphlets and it was reprinted in 1593 and 1595, and in 1594 was translated into French. It is written from the point of view of Pierce, a man who has not met with good fortune, who now bitterly complains of the world’s wickedness, at times the identity of Pierce seems to conflate with Nashes own. But Nashe also portrays Pierce as something of an arrogant and prodigal fool, the story is told in a style that is complex, witty, fulminating, extemporaneous, digressive, anecdotal, filled with wicked descriptions, and peppered with newly minted words and Latin phrases. The satire can be mocking and bitingly sharp, and at times Nashe’s style seems to relish its own obscurity, Pierce Penniless was printed and published as one of the many pamphlets or short quarto books that provided lively material to the reading public. Printed pamphlets had been a popular and longstanding tradition, but in London in the late 16th century, with the urban population booming, and literacy becoming widespread, they flourished. The content of these pamphlets often tended to be scandalous or scurrilous, shakespeare, in the dedication to his poem The Rape of Lucrece refers to its quarto publication as a pamphlet. Pamphlets also offered playwrights an opportunity to write and be published in those times when the plague had closed the theatres, such was the case with Shakespeares Venus and Adonis and Nashes Pierce Penniless, which were both written and published when the theatres were closed from 1592–1593. The plague is a motive for the story itself—the seven deadly sins that Nashes tale describes were said at the time to be the cause of the disease. Near the midpoint of the story, Nashes salvo begins, Gentlemen, I have read over thy sheepish discourse of The Lamb Of God And His Enemies, and. I could not refrain, but bequeath it to the privy, leaf by leaf as I read it, it was so ugly, dorbellical, but the two who are then suspected of writing it, Thomas Nashe and Henry Chettle, each denied being the author. A scald trivial lying pamphlet called Greenes Groatsworth of Wit is given out to be of my doing. God never have care of my soul, but utterly renounce me, if the least word or syllable in it proceeded from my pen, or if I were any way privy to the writing or printing of it. I am grown at length to see into the vanity of the more than ever I did. Nashes character, Pierce, occasionally has some words for his unnamed fellow authors. Nashe refers to them variously as sonnet-composing “upstarts”, who are not as well-born or as well educated as himself, who have little Latin, however, Nashe’s satire would have no point unless it could be seen to be striking an actual target. Nashe ends his epistle to his printer by mentioning that he would be available “, before the third impression come and alter whatsoever may be offensive to any man. The story of Pierce Penniless is told by Pierce himself, who is a scholar, author and he begins his story by bewailing his own lack of good fortune, saying
22.
Coryat's Crudities
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Coryats Crudities, Hastily gobled up in Five Moneths Travels is a travelogue published in 1611 by Thomas Coryat of Odcombe, an English traveller and mild eccentric. The book is an account of a journey undertaken, much of it on foot, in 1608 through France, Italy, Germany, the extent to which Coryat invited such ridicule in pursuit of patronage and court favor is unclear. The book also included what is likely the earliest English rendering of the legend of William Tell, the work includes an elaborate description of the festivities at the church of San Rocco in Venice, with polychoral and instrumental music by Giovanni Gabrieli, Bartolomeo Barbarino, and others. Crudities was only twice reprinted at the time, so the first edition is rare today. Later, modern facsimiles were put out, in 1776 and 1905, a custom of Renaissance humanists was to contribute commendatory verses that would preface the works of their friends. In the case of book, a playful inversion of this habit led to a poetic collection that firstly refused to take the author seriously. Prince Henry as Coryats patron controlled the situation, and willy-nilly Coryat had to accept the publication with his book of some crudely or ingeniously false panegyrics. Further, the book was loaded with another work, Henry Peachams Sights and Exhibitions of England, Coryat, therefore, was jokingly mocked by a panel of contemporary wits and poets of his acquaintance. At the behest of the prince, a series of verses was commissioned. The literary men known to Coryate were typically courtiers, or those whom he had met through Edward Phelips of the Middle Temple, a full list of the authors is given in the margin in a 1905 edition. There were poems in seven languages, donne wrote in an English/French/Italian/Latin/Spanish macaronic language. Peachams was in what he called Utopian, which was partly gibberish, the contribution of John Hoskyns is called by Noel Malcolm the first specimen of full-blown literary English nonsense poetry in the seventeenth century. Coryat had to take all in good part. The book appeared with engravings by William Hole, and the received a pension. Shortly a pirate version of the verses appeared, published by Thomas Thorpe, british travel writer and humourist Tim Moore retraced the steps of Coryats tour of Europe, as recounted in his book Continental Drifter. Chaney, Edward, Thomas Coryate, entry in the Grove-Macmillan Dictionary of Art, the Evolution of the Grand Tour, Anglo-Italian Cultural Relations since the Renaissance. 2nd ed. Routledge, London and New York, studies in English Literature 1500-190044, 77-96. Odd Tom Coryate, The English Marco Polo, the life and adventures of Thomas Coryate
23.
Ben Jonson
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Benjamin Jonson was an English playwright, poet, actor, and literary critic of the 17th century, whose artistry exerted a lasting impact upon English poetry and stage comedy. He popularised the comedy of humours, Ben Jonson said that his family originally came from the folk of the Anglo-Scottish border country, which genealogy is attested by the three spindles in the Jonson family coat of arms. One spindle is a heraldic device shared with the Border-country Johnstone family of Annandale. Jonsons clergyman father died two months before his birth, his mother married a master bricklayer two years later, Jonson attended school in St. Martins Lane. Later, a family friend paid for his studies at Westminster School, on leaving Westminster School, Jonson was to have attended the University of Cambridge, to continue his book learning but did not, because of his unwilled apprenticeship to his bricklayer stepfather. According to the churchman and historian Thomas Fuller, Jonson at this time built a wall in Lincolns Inn. After having been a bricklayer, Ben Jonson went to the Netherlands. After his military activity on the Continent, Jonson returned to England and worked as an actor, as an actor, Jonson was the protagonist “Hieronimo” in the play The Spanish Tragedy, by Thomas Kyd, the first revenge tragedy in English literature. Regarding his marriage Jonson described his wife to William Drummond as a shrew, concerning the family of Anne Lewis and Ben Jonson, the St. Martins Church registers indicate that Mary Jonson, their eldest daughter, died in November 1593, at six months of age. Moreover,32 years later, a son, also named Benjamin Jonson. By summer 1597, Jonson had an engagement in the Admirals Men, then performing under Philip Henslowes management at The Rose. John Aubrey reports, on authority, that Jonson was not successful as an actor, whatever his skills as an actor. By this time Jonson had begun to write plays for the Admirals Men. None of his early tragedies survive, however, an undated comedy, The Case is Altered, may be his earliest surviving play. In 1597 a play which he co-wrote with Thomas Nashe, The Isle of Dogs, was suppressed after causing great offence, arrest warrants for Jonson and Nashe were issued by Queen Elizabeth Is so-called interrogator, Richard Topcliffe. Jonson was jailed in Marshalsea Prison and charged with Leude and mutynous behaviour, two of the actors, Gabriel Spenser and Robert Shaw, were also imprisoned. A year later, Jonson was again imprisoned, this time in Newgate Prison. While in jail Jonson converted to Catholicism, possibly through the influence of fellow-prisoner Father Thomas Wright, in 1598 Jonson produced his first great success, Every Man in His Humour, capitalising on the vogue for humorous plays which George Chapman had begun with An Humorous Days Mirth
24.
Playwright
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A playwright, also known as a dramatist, is a person who writes plays. The term is not a variant spelling of playwrite, but something quite distinct, hence the prefix and the suffix combine to indicate someone who has wrought words, themes, and other elements into a dramatic form - someone who crafts plays. The homophone with write is in this case entirely coincidental, the term playwright appears to have been coined by Ben Jonson in his Epigram 49, To Playwright, as an insult, to suggest a mere tradesman fashioning works for the theatre. Jonson described himself as a poet, not a playwright, since plays during that time were written in meter and this view was held as late as the early 19th century. The term playwright later lost this negative connotation, the earliest playwrights in Western literature with surviving works are the Ancient Greeks. These early plays were written for annual Athenian competitions among playwrights held around the 5th century BC, such notables as Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and Aristophanes established forms still relied on by their modern counterparts. For the ancient Greeks, playwriting involved poïesis, the act of making and this is the source of the English word poet. In the 4th century BCE, Aristotle wrote his Poetics, the first play-writing manual, in this famous text, Aristotle established the principle of action or praxis as the basis for all drama. He then included a hierarchy of elements for the beginning with plot, character, thought, diction, music. The ends of drama were plot, character, and thought, the means of drama were language and music, since the myths, upon which Greek tragedy were based, were widely known, plot had to do with the arrangement and selection of existing material. Character was equated with choice as rather than psychology, so that character was determined by action, in tragedy, the notion of ethical choice determined the character of the individual. Thought had more to do and the imitation of an action that is serious, thus, he developed his notion of hamartia, or tragic flaw, an error in judgment by the main character or protagonist. It provides the basis for the play, a term still held as the sine qua non of dramaturgy. The Poetics, while very brief and highly condensed, is studied today. Perhaps the most Aristotelian of contemporary playwrights is David Mamet, who embraces the idea of character as agent of the action, and emphasizes causality in the structure of his plays. His recently revived, Speed-the-Plow, is quintessentially Aristotelian, in that it observes the unities and builds its plot through a causal stream of discoveries and reversals. The Italian Renaissance brought about a stricter interpretation of Aristotle, as this long-lost work came to light in the late 15th century. The neoclassical ideal, which was to reach its apogee in France during the 17th century, dwelled upon the unities, of action, place, and time
25.
Farce
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In theatre, a farce is a comedy that aims at entertaining the audience through situations that are highly exaggerated, extravagant, and thus improbable. Farce is also characterized by humor, the use of deliberate absurdity or nonsense. Farces have been written for the stage and film, furthermore, a farce is also often set in one particular location, where all events occur. M. C. P. C. David Croft & Jeremy Lloyd, Allo Allo, ken Friedman, Claptrap Andrew Norriss and Richard Fegen, Chance in a Million Miles Tredinnick, Laugh. Alan Ayckbourn, A Small Family Business Miles Tredinnick, It’s Now Or Never, tom Kempinski, Sex Please, Were Italian. Ray Cooney, Funny Money Robin Hawdon, Perfect Wedding Steven Moffat, Coupling Miles Tredinnick, La Farce de maître Pierre Pathelin The Liar Molière, Tartuffe Molière, The Miser Labiche, La Cagnotte and other plays. These plays are performed as comic relief during the long, serious Noh plays, following stage shows of Umer Shareef are extremely popular. Archer Chowder The Grim Adventures of Billy & Mandy The Marvelous Misadventures of Flapjack Scooby-Doo, IMDB list of film and television farces Farce films at Allmovie
26.
Parody
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A parody is a work created to imitate, make fun of, or comment on an original work—its subject, author, style, or some other target—by means of satiric or ironic imitation. As the literary theorist Linda Hutcheon puts it, parody … is imitation, another critic, Simon Dentith, defines parody as any cultural practice which provides a relatively polemical allusive imitation of another cultural production or practice. Parody may be found in art or culture, including literature, music, animation, gaming, the writer and critic John Gross observes in his Oxford Book of Parodies, that parody seems to flourish on territory somewhere between pastiche and burlesque. According to Aristotle, Hegemon of Thasos was the inventor of a kind of parody, in ancient Greek literature, a parodia was a narrative poem imitating the style and prosody of epics but treating light, satirical or mock-heroic subjects. Indeed, the components of the Greek word are παρά para beside, counter, against, Thus, the original Greek word παρῳδία parodia has sometimes been taken to mean counter-song, an imitation that is set against the original. The Oxford English Dictionary, for example, defines parody as imitation turned as to produce a ridiculous effect, because par- also has the non-antagonistic meaning of beside, there is nothing in parodia to necessitate the inclusion of a concept of ridicule. Old Comedy contained parody, even the gods could be made fun of, the Frogs portrays the hero-turned-god Heracles as a Glutton and the God of Drama Dionysus as cowardly and unintelligent. The traditional trip to the Underworld story is parodied as Dionysus dresses as Heracles to go to the Underworld, roman writers explained parody as an imitation of one poet by another for humorous effect. In French Neoclassical literature, parody was also a type of poem where one work imitates the style of another to produce a humorous effect, the Ancient Greeks created satyr plays which parodied tragic plays, often with performers dressed like satyrs. In classical music, as a term, parody refers to a reworking of one kind of composition into another. The term is sometimes applied to procedures common in the Baroque period. The musicological definition of the parody has now generally been supplanted by a more general meaning of the word. In its more contemporary usage, musical parody usually has humorous, even satirical intent, in which familiar musical ideas or lyrics are lifted into a different, often incongruous, context. Musical parodies may imitate or refer to the style of a composer or artist. For example, The Ritz Roll and Rock, a song and dance performed by Fred Astaire in the movie Silk Stockings, parodies the Rock. Conversely, while the work of Weird Al Yankovic is based on particular popular songs. The first usage of the parody in English cited in the Oxford English Dictionary is in Ben Jonson, in Every Man in His Humour in 1598, A Parodie. The next citation comes from John Dryden in 1693, who also appended an explanation, suggesting that the word was in common use, in the 20th century, parody has been heightened as the central and most representative artistic device, the catalysing agent of artistic creation and innovation
27.
Robert Walpole
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Robert Walpole, 1st Earl of Orford, KG, KB, PC, known before 1742 as Sir Robert Walpole, was a British statesman who is generally regarded as the de facto first Prime Minister of Great Britain. Although the exact dates of his dominance are a matter of scholarly debate and he dominated the Walpole–Townshend ministry and the Walpole ministry and holds the record as the longest-serving Prime Minister in British history. Speck says that Walpoles uninterrupted run of 20 years as Prime Minister is rightly regarded as one of the feats of British political history. He was a Whig from the class, who was first elected to Parliament in 1701. He was a squire and looked to country gentlemen for his political base. Hoppit says Walpoles policies sought moderation, he worked for peace, lower taxes, growing exports and he avoided controversy and high-intensity disputes, as his middle way attracted moderates from both the Whig and Tory camps. Dickinson sums up his role, Walpole was one of the greatest politicians in British history. He played a significant role in sustaining the Whig party, safeguarding the Hanoverian succession and he established a stable political supremacy for the Whig party and taught succeeding ministers how best to establish an effective working relationship between Crown and Parliament. Walpole was born in Houghton, Norfolk, in 1676, Horatio Walpole, 1st Baron Walpole was his younger brother. As a child, Walpole attended a school at Massingham. Walpole entered Eton College in 1690 where he was considered an excellent scholar and he left Eton on 2 April 1696 and matriculated at Kings College, Cambridge on the same day. On 25 May 1698 he left Cambridge after the death of his only remaining brother, Edward. Walpole had planned to become a clergyman but as he was now the eldest surviving son in the family, in November 1700 his father died, and Walpole succeeded to the estate. A paper in his fathers handwriting, dated 9 June 1700, shows the estate in Norfolk and Suffolk to have been nine manors in Norfolk. As a young man, Walpole had bought shares in the South Sea Company, which monopolized trade with Spain, the speculative market for slaves, rum and mahogany spawned a frenzy that had ramifications throughout Europe when it collapsed. However, Walpole had bought at the bottom and sold at the top, adding greatly to his inherited wealth, Walpoles political career began in January 1701 when he won a seat in the general election at Castle Rising. He left Castle Rising in 1702 so that he could represent the borough of Kings Lynn. Like his father, Robert Walpole was a member of the Whig Party, in 1705, Walpole was appointed by Queen Anne to be a member of the council for her husband, Prince George of Denmark, Lord High Admiral
28.
Love triangle
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A love triangle is usually a romantic relationship involving three people. While it can refer to two people independently romantically linked with a third, it implies that each of the three people has some kind of relationship to the other two. The relationships can be friendships, romantic, or familial. Romantic love is viewed as an exclusive relationship. Statistics suggest that, in Western society, wittingly or not, the term love triangle generally connotes an arrangement unsuitable to one or more of the people involved. One person typically ends up feeling betrayed at some point, a similar arrangement that is agreed upon by all parties is sometimes called a triad, which is a type of polyamory even though polyamory usually implies sexual relations. Within the context of monogamy, love triangles are inherently unstable, with unrequited love, in most cases, the jealous or rejected first party ends a friendship—and sometimes even starts a fight with—the second party over the third-party love interest. Though rare, love triangles have been known to lead to murder or suicide committed by the actual or perceived rejected lover, psychoanalysis has explored the theme of erotic love triangles and their roots in the Oedipal triangle. In such instances, you men who are attracted only by married woman. They need the husband to protect them from a full relationship. as women who repeatedly get involved with married men need the wives, alternatively, the hero or heroine has a choice between a seemingly perfect lover and an imperfect but endearing person. It has been suggested that a network is always needed to keep the triangle eternal. Calm yourself, says the husband, Ill be marrying again and it has been suggested that if men share a sense of brotherhood and they allow a woman into their relationship, an isosceles triangle is created automatically, as in Truffauts film Jules et Jim. In such cases, it cannot be fair to blame the quarrel of the twins on a woman. She is their common scapegoat. Their loyalties are torn, and – except in the best of cases – the one left injured can easily sway the feelings of the children against acknowledging this new relationship. – A mugs game, he told me, is breaking your back at midnight, Love triangles are a popular theme in entertainment, especially romantic fiction, including opera, romance novels, soap operas, romantic comedies, manga, tabloid talk shows, and popular music. Eric Berne termed that conflictual aspect of the love triangle Lets You and Him Fight, because of its dramatic qualities, LYAHF is the basis of much of the worlds literature, both good and bad. Young Adult literature has seen a rise in the popularity of the love triangle story structure, but the love triangle story structure has been around since before early classic writers like William Shakespeare and Alexandre Dumas. Shakespeares famous play Romeo and Juliet featured a triangle between Juliet, Romeo, and Paris. Although more subtle, Dumass classics The Count of Monte Cristo and The Three Musketeers also feature love triangles strong enough to seek revenge and start a war
29.
Giantess
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The Titanides, sisters and children of Titans, may not have originally been seen as giants, but later Hellenistic poets and Latin ones tended to blur Titans and Giants. Grid was a giantess who saved Thors life and she was aware of Lokis plans to get Thor killed at the hands of the giant Geirrod and sets out to help him by supplying him with a number of magical gifts. These gifts were, a girdle of might, a pair of magical iron gloves, the giantess Gerd was very beautiful and her brilliant, naked arms illuminated air and sea. Freyr fell in love at first sight and the account of her wooing is given in the poem Skirnismál and she never wanted to marry Freyr, and refused his proposals even after he brought her eleven golden apples and Draupnir. Skirnir finally threatened to use Freyrs sword to cover the earth in ice and she became the mother of the mythic Swedish king Fjölnir. Skaði journeyed to Ásgard to avenge her father Þjazi, whom the gods had killed and she agreed that she would have that renounced if they allowed her to choose a husband among them and if they succeeded in making her laugh. The gods allowed her to choose a husband, but she had to him only from his feet. Then Loki succeeded in making her laugh, so peace was made, after a while, she and her husband separated, because she loved the mountains, while he wanted to live near the sea. The Ynglinga saga says that later she became wife of Odin, and had many sons by him. At Baldrs funeral, his ship was set to sea by Hyrrokin, a giantess. Upon Friggs entreaties, delivered through the messenger Hermod, Hel promised to release Baldr from the underworld if all objects alive, and all did, except a giantess, Thokk, who refused to mourn the slain god. And thus Baldr had to remain in the underworld, not to emerge until after Ragnarok, giantesses are fairly common in Indian mythology. The demoness Putana is usually drawn as a giantess, giantesses are common in the folklore of Ireland and the British Isles, particularly Scotland and Wales. They were often depicted as loving and beautiful people and, in versions of myths, seemed to resemble Vikings. A notable giantess in Irish mythology is Bébinn, in Lewis Carrolls story Alices Adventures in Wonderland, there are several scenes where the heroine Alice grows to giant size by means of eating something. Clarkes story Cosmic Casanova describes an astronauts revulsion at discovering that a female he adored on a video screen is in fact thirty feet tall. Size-changing heroines have appeared in comics as Doom Patrol, Mighty Avengers, Marvel Adventures Avengers, Team Youngblood. In the latter series, the giantess-superheroines Tara and Garganta combine immense size and strength with beauty and femininity, conversely, size-changing villainesses, such as Wonder Woman foe Giganta, use their strength and beauty for less altruistic purposes as a weapon to crush their foes
30.
Eliza Haywood
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Eliza Haywood, born Elizabeth Fowler, was an English writer, actress and publisher. An increase in interest and recognition of Haywood’s literary works began in the 1980s, Haywood is a significant figure of the 18th century as one of the important founders of the novel in English. Today she is studied primarily as a novelist, scholars of Eliza Haywood universally agree upon only one thing, the exact date of her death. Haywood gave conflicting accounts of her own life, her origins remain unclear, for example, it was once mistakenly believed that she married the Rev. Valentine Haywood. Apparently, that person felt loyal enough to Haywood to honor her request, the early life of Eliza Haywood is somewhat of a mystery to scholars. While Haywood was born Eliza Fowler, the date of Haywoods birth is unknown due to the lack of surviving records. Although, scholars believe that she was most likely born near Shropshire or London and this birth date is extrapolated from a combination of her death date and her stated age at the time of her death. Haywood’s familial connections, education status, and social position are unknown, some scholars have speculated that she is related to Sir Richard Fowler of Harnage Grange, who had a younger sister named Elizabeth. Her first entry in public records appears in Dublin, Ireland, in this entry, she is listed as Mrs. Haywood, performing in Thomas Shadwells Shakespeare adaptation, Timon of Athens, or, The Man-Hater at the Smock Alley Theatre. Haywood’s marital status is self-identified as “widow, ” noting that her marriage was “unfortunate” in 1719, however, later critics have called these speculations into question as too heavily influenced by Alexander Popes famous illustration of her in The Dunciad and too little based upon hard facts. In fact, and despite the belief that she was once a woman of ill repute. Haywoods friendship with Richard Savage is thought to have begun around 1719, just after the publication of Part I of her first novel. Savage wrote the gushing puff for Part I of the novel, the two appear to have been close in these early years, sharing many associates in literary and theatrical circles, even sharing the same publisher, William Chetwood. By September 1725, however, Savage and Haywood had fallen out, Savage is considered the likely impetus for Popes attack on Haywood, as well. Haywoods association with Aaron Hill and the literary coterie known as The Hillarians seems to have followed a pattern as Haywood rose to fame. The Hillarians were a collection of writers and artists committed to a programme of ameliorating politeness, and included Savage, Hill, Martha Sansom. The group shared poems to and about other, and formed a social circle of like minds. Haywood seems to have greatly admired Hill--who, though not a patron and she may have even seen him as a mentor during the earliest years of her career
31.
William Hatchett
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William Hatchett was a translator, dramatist and pamphleteer. He was born and went to school in York, but by the late 1720s was living in London, Hatchett appears to have been a long-time partner of Eliza Haywood, some of Hatchett’s works were also either co-written with, or published by, Haywood. In March 1742, Hatchett collaborated with Haywood on the translation of Claude-Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon’s Le Sopha, in 1730, Hatchett translated and both Haywood and Hatchett acted in The Rival Father, an adaptation of Thomas Corneilles La Mort d’Achille. In 1733, Haywood and Hatchett converted Henry Fieldings Tragedy of Tragedies, or Tom Thumb the Great into a ballad-opera, with music by John Frederick Lampe, Hatchett co-produced the opera, which was a great success. In May 1738, John Frederick Lampe unsuccessfully sued Hatchett and others involved in the production for money he believed was due to him, in 1737, Hatchett and Haywood appear to have been members of Fieldings Company of Comedians. Hatchett wrote and Haywood acted in A Rehearsal of Kings, in 1730, Hatchett became embroiled in the activities of Monsieur de Montaud, a Frenchman trying to sell State secrets. Hatchett describes these events in An Appeal to All Lovers of Their Country, in 1736, Hatchett went on an extensive summer holiday with Bryan Dawson, who appears to have been acting as a patron to Hatchett for some time. At the end of this tour Hatchett signed a note to Dawson for the sum of 56 pounds. In 1741, Dawson sued Hatchett for this debt, Hatchett responded with an account of Dawson’s actions in A Remarkable Cause on a Note of Hand, most of what is known concerning Hatchett appears in this autobiographical pamphlet. Hatchett continued to be involved in throughout the 1740s. In the first half of 1748 he was involved in Fielding’s Panton Street puppet show, aravamudan, Srinivas, Enlightenment Orientalism, Resisting the Rise of the Novel. Chicago, University of Chicago Press,2011, blouch, Christine, Eliza Haywood, Questions in the Life and Works. University of Michigan PhD thesis,1991, lockwood, Thomas, William Hatchett, A Rehearsal of Kings, and the Panton Street Puppet Show, Philological Quarterly,68, 315–23. Lockwood, Thomas, Eliza Haywood in 1749, Dalinda, and her Pamphlet on the Pretender, Notes & Queries, milhous, Judith, and Robert D. Hume. JF Lampe and English opera at the Little Haymarket in 1732-3, Whicher, George Frisbie, The Life and Romances of Mrs. Eliza Haywood. E-text of George Frisbie Whicher, The Life and Romances of Mrs. Eliza Haywood The Adventures of Abdalla, Son of Hanif The Morals of Princes A Remarkable Cause on a Note of Hand
32.
Joseph Ritson
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Joseph Ritson was an English antiquary. He was born in Stockton-on-Tees, County Durham, of a Westmorland yeoman family and he was educated for the law, mainly by Ralph Bradley the leading conveyancer. He then settled in London as a conveyancer at 22 and he devoted his spare time to literature, and in 1782, he published an attack on Thomas Wartons History of English Poetry. The tone of his Observations, in which Warton was treated as a pretender, charged with cheating and lying to cover his ignorance, in 1783 Samuel Johnson and George Steevens were attacked in the same bitter fashion as Warton for their text of Shakespeare. Bishop Percy was next subjected to an onslaught in the preface to a collection of Ancient Songs. In a letter to Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Robert Southey wrote that “Ritson is the oddest, but most honest of all our antiquarians and his collection of the Robin Hood ballads is perhaps his greatest single achievement. Sir Walter Scott, who admired his industry and accuracy in spite of his temper, was almost the only man who could get on with him, according to Scott, Ritson was a man of acute observation, profound research, and great labour. On one occasion, when he called in Scotts absence, he spoke so rudely to his wife that he was threatened with being out of the window. Spelling became one of his eccentricities, in his later books, verses addressed to the Ladies of Stockton. First printed in the Newcastle Miscellany, MDCCLXXII,1780 Observations on the three first volumes of the history of English poetry by T. W. and other, edited by Joseph Ritson,1793 Law-Tracts. L. P,1794 Poems on interesting events in the reign of Edward III, with a preface, dissertations, notes, and a glossary by J. Clarke and Sons, 2d ed, with great additions, edition 1809 Northern Garlands, R. Burd, Henry A. Joseph Ritson, A Critical Biography, Illinois,1916, ISBN 0-554-58449-2 Morton, Timothy, Marilyn Butler, shelley and the Revolution in Taste, The Body and the Natural World. Stuart, Tristram, The Bloodless Revolution, A Cultural History of Vegetarianism From 1600 to Modern Times, W. W. Norton & Co
33.
Mordred
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Mordred or Modred is a character in the Arthurian legend, known as a notorious traitor who fought King Arthur at the Battle of Camlann, where he was killed and Arthur fatally wounded. In earlier literature, he was considered the son of Morgause, also known as Anna. His brothers or half-brothers are Gawain, Agravain, Gaheris, the name is ultimately derived from Latin Moderātus. The first surviving mention of Mordred, occurs in the Annales Cambriae entry for the year 537, the strife of Camlann, in which Arthur and Medraut fell. The Annales themselves were completed between 960 and 970, though their authors drew on older material, the earliest full account of Mordred is found in Geoffrey of Monmouths Historia Regum Britanniae, where he, for the first time in literature, plays the role of traitor to Arthur. During Arthurs absence Mordred crowns himself king and marries Guinevere, forcing Arthur to return to Britain, the Battle of Camlann is fought, and Mordred dies while Arthur is taken to Avalon. A number of Welsh sources also refer to Medraut, usually in relation to Camlann, Medraut is never considered Arthurs son in Welsh texts, only his nephew, though The Dream of Rhonabwy mentions that the king had been his foster father. However, Mordreds later characterization as the kings villainous son has a precedent in the figure of Amr, what connection exists between the stories of Amr and Mordred, if there is one, has never been satisfactorily explained. In Geoffrey and certain other sources such as the Alliterative Morte Arthure, Mordred marries Guinevere, seemingly consensually, after he steals the throne. However, in later writings like the Lancelot-Grail Cycle and Thomas Malorys Le Morte dArthur, Guinevere is not treated as a traitor and she flees Mordreds proposal, adultery is still tied to her role in these later romances, however, but Mordred has been replaced with Lancelot. Geoffrey and the Lancelot-Grail Cycle have Mordred being succeeded by his sons, stories always number them as two, though they are usually not named, nor is their mother. The 18th century Welsh antiquarian Lewis Morris, based on statements made by the Scottish chronicler Hector Boece, suggested that Medrawd had a wife, Cwyllog, another late Welsh tradition was that Medrawds wife was Gwenhwyach, sister of Gwenhwyfar. In Geoffreys version, after the Battle of Camlann, Constantine is appointed Arthurs successor, however, Mordreds two sons and their Saxon allies rise against him. He defeats them, and one of them flees to sanctuary in the Church of Amphibalus in Winchester while the other hides in a London friary, Constantine tracks them down, and kills them before the altars in their respective hiding places. This act invokes the vengeance of God, and three years later Constantine is killed by his nephew Aurelius Conanus, Geoffreys account of the episode may be based on Constantines murder of two royal youths as mentioned by the 6th-century writer Gildas. The elder of Mordreds sons is named Melehan or some derivation in the Lancelot-Grail, in these texts, Lancelot and his men return to Britain to dispatch Melehan and his brother after receiving a letter from the dying Gawain. In the ensuing battle Melehan slays Sir Lionel, son of King Bors the Elder and brother to Sir Bors the Younger, Bors kills him to avenge his brothers death, while Lancelot slays the unnamed younger brother. Virtually everywhere Mordred appears, his name is synonymous with treachery and he appears in Dantes Inferno in the lowest circle of Hell, set apart for traitors, him who, at one blow, had chest and shadow / shattered by Arthurs hand
34.
Merlin
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Merlin is a legendary figure best known as the wizard featured in Arthurian legend and medieval Welsh poetry. The standard depiction of the character first appears in Geoffrey of Monmouths Historia Regum Britanniae,1136, and is based on an amalgamation of previous historical and legendary figures. He is allegedly buried in the Broceliande forest, near Paimpont in Brittany, Geoffreys rendering of the character was immediately popular, especially in Wales. Later writers expanded the account to produce an image of the wizard. Merlins traditional biography casts him as a cambion, born of a woman, sired by an incubus. The name of Merlins mother is not usually stated, but is given as Adhan in the oldest version of the Prose Brut, Merlin matures to an ascendant sagehood and engineers the birth of Arthur through magic and intrigue. Later authors have Merlin serve as the kings advisor until he is bewitched and imprisoned by the Lady of the Lake, the name Merlin is derived from the Welsh Myrddin, the name of the bard Myrddin Wyllt, one of the chief sources for the later legendary figure. Geoffrey of Monmouth Latinised the name to Merlinus in his works, medievalist Gaston Paris suggests that Geoffrey chose the form Merlinus rather than the regular Merdinus to avoid a resemblance to the Anglo-Norman word merde for feces. Clas Myrddin or Merlins Enclosure is a name for Great Britain stated in the Third Series of Welsh Triads. Celticist A. O. H. Jarman suggests that the Welsh name Myrddin was derived from the toponym Caerfyrddin and this contrasts with the popular folk etymology that the town was named for the bard. The name Carmarthen is derived from the towns previous Roman name Moridunum, itself derived from Celtic Brittonic *moridunon, sea fortress. The former had nothing to do with Arthur, in British poetry he was a bard driven mad after witnessing the horrors of war, who fled civilization to become a wild man of the wood in the 6th century. Geoffrey had this individual in mind when he wrote his earliest surviving work, the Prophetiae Merlini, Geoffreys Prophetiae do not reveal much about Merlins background. He included the prophet in his next work Historia Regum Britanniae, supplementing the characterisation by attributing to him stories about Aurelius Ambrosius, according to Nennius, Ambrosius was discovered when the British king Vortigern was trying to erect a tower. The tower always collapsed before completion, and his men told him that the only solution was to sprinkle the foundation with the blood of a child born without a father. Geoffrey retells this story in Historia Regum Britanniæ with some embellishments and he goes on to add new episodes that tie Merlin into the story of King Arthur and his predecessors, such as bringing the stones for Stonehenge from Preseli Hills in south-west Wales and Ireland. Geoffrey dealt with Merlin again in his third work Vita Merlini and he based the Vita on stories of the original 6th-century Myrddin, set long after his time frame for the life of Merlin Ambrosius. He tries to assert that the characters are the same references to King Arthur and his death
35.
Fairy
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A fairy is a type of mythical being or legendary creature in European folklore, a form of spirit, often described as metaphysical, supernatural, or preternatural. According to Thomas Keightley, the word derives from the Latin fata. Other forms are the Italian fata, and the Provençal fada, in old French romance, fee was a woman skilled in magic, and who knew the power and virtue of words, of stones, and of herbs. Faierie became fairy, but with that now almost exclusively referring to one of the legendary people. The word fairy was used to represent an illusion, or enchantment, to the word faie was added the suffix -erie, used to express either a place where something is found or a trade or typical activity engaged in. In later usage it applied to any kind of quality or activity associated with a particular type of person. In the sense land where fairies dwell, the distinctive and archaic spellings Faery, the latinate fay is not to be confused with the unrelated fey, meaning fated to die. Various folkloristic traditions refer to them euphemistically, by such as wee folk, good folk, people of peace, fair folk. Sometimes the term fairy is used to any magical creature, including goblins or gnomes, at other times. Fairies have their origin in the conflation of Celtic traditions in the Middle French medieval romances. Fairie was in origin used adjectivally, meaning enchanted, but was used as a name for enchanted creatures from as early as the Late Middle English period. In English literature of the Elizabethan era, elves became conflated with the fairies of Romance culture, the Victorian and Edwardian eras saw an increase in interest in fairies. The Celtic Revival viewed them as part of Irelands cultural heritage, carole Silvers and others suggest that the fascination of English antiquarians arose from a reaction to greater industrialization, and loss of folkways. Fairies are generally described as human in appearance and having magical powers, even with these small fairies, however, their small size may be magically assumed rather than constant. Some fairies though normally quite small were able to dilate their figures to imitate humans, on Orkney they were described as short in stature, dressed in dark grey, and sometimes seen in armour. Wings, while common in Victorian and later artwork of fairies, are rare in the folklore, even very small fairies flew with magic. Nowadays, fairies are depicted with ordinary insect wings or butterfly wings. In some folklore, fairies have green eyes, some depictions of fairies either have them wearing some sort of footwear and other depictions of fairies are always barefoot
36.
Fart
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The root of these words is from the Latin flatus – a blowing, a breaking wind. Flatus is also the word for gas generated in the stomach or bowels. Despite these standard definitions, a proportion of gas may be swallowed environmental air. The scientific study of this area of medicine is termed flatology and it is normal for humans to pass flatus through the rectum, although the volume and frequency may vary greatly between individuals. It is also normal for intestinal gas passed through the rectum to have a characteristic feculent smell, flatus is brought to the rectum by specialised contractions of the muscles in the intestines and colon. The noises commonly associated with flatulence are caused by the vibration of anal sphincters, both the noise and smell associated with flatus leaving the anus can be sources of embarrassment or comedy in many cultures. There are five general symptoms related to gas, pain, bloating and abdominal distension, excessive flatus volume, excessive flatus smell. Furthermore, eructation is sometimes included under the topic of flatulence, non-medical definitions of the term include the uncomfortable condition of having gas in the stomach and bowels, or a state of excessive gas in the alimentary canal. These definitions highlight that many people consider bloating, abdominal distension or increased volume of gas to be synonymous with the term flatulence. Colloquially, flatulence may be referred to as farting, trumping, tooting, passing gas, derived terms include vaginal flatulence, otherwise known as a queef. Generally speaking, there are four different types of complaints that relate to intestinal gas, patients may complain of bloating as abdominal distension, discomfort and pain from trapped wind. In the past, functional bowel disorders such as irritable bowel syndrome that produced symptoms of bloating were attributed to increased production of intestinal gas, however, three significant pieces of evidence refute this theory. First, in subjects, even very high rates of gas infusion into the small intestine are tolerated without complaints of pain or bloating. Secondly, studies aiming to quantify the total volume of gas produced by IBS patients have failed to demonstrate increased volumes compared to healthy subjects. The proportion of hydrogen produced may be increased in a subset of IBS patients, thirdly, it is known that the total volume of flatus produced by IBS patients who complain of pain and abdominal distension would be tolerated in normal subjects without any complaints of pain. Patients who complain of bloating frequently can be shown to have objective increases in abdominal girth, often increased throughout the day and then resolving during sleep. The increase in combined with the fact that the total volume of flatus is not increased led to studies aiming to image the distribution of intestinal gas in patients with bloating. They found that gas was not distributed normally in patients, there was segmental gas pooling
37.
Cattle
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Cattle—colloquially cows—are the most common type of large domesticated ungulates. They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae, are the most widespread species of the genus Bos, cattle are raised as livestock for meat, as dairy animals for milk and other dairy products, and as draft animals. Other products include leather and dung for manure or fuel, in some regions, such as parts of India, cattle have significant religious meaning. From as few as 80 progenitors domesticated in southeast Turkey about 10,500 years ago, according to an estimate from 2011, in 2009, cattle became one of the first livestock animals to have a fully mapped genome. Some consider cattle the oldest form of wealth, and cattle raiding consequently one of the earliest forms of theft. Cattle were originally identified as three species, Bos taurus, the European or taurine cattle, Bos indicus, the zebu, and the extinct Bos primigenius. The aurochs is ancestral to both zebu and taurine cattle and these have been reclassified as one species, Bos taurus, with three subspecies, Bos taurus primigenius, Bos taurus indicus, and Bos taurus taurus. Complicating the matter is the ability of cattle to interbreed with other related species. Hybrid individuals and even breeds exist, not only between taurine cattle and zebu, but also one or both of these and some other members of the genus Bos – yaks, banteng. Hybrids such as the breed can even occur between taurine cattle and either species of bison, leading some authors to consider them part of the genus Bos. However, cattle cannot successfully be hybridized with more distantly related bovines such as water buffalo or African buffalo, the aurochs originally ranged throughout Europe, North Africa, and much of Asia. In historical times, its range became restricted to Europe, breeders have attempted to recreate cattle of similar appearance to aurochs by crossing traditional types of domesticated cattle, creating the Heck cattle breed. Cattle did not originate as the term for bovine animals and it was borrowed from Anglo-Norman catel, itself from medieval Latin capitale principal sum of money, capital, itself derived in turn from Latin caput head. Cattle originally meant movable personal property, especially livestock of any kind, the word is a variant of chattel and closely related to capital in the economic sense. The term replaced earlier Old English feoh cattle, property, which today as fee. The word cow came via Anglo-Saxon cū, from Common Indo-European gʷōus = a bovine animal, compare Persian gâv, Sanskrit go-, Welsh buwch. The plural cȳ became ki or kie in Middle English, and a plural ending was often added, giving kine, kien. This is the origin of the now archaic English plural, kine, the Scots language singular is coo or cou, and the plural is kye
38.
Horse
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The horse is one of two extant subspecies of Equus ferus. It is an ungulate mammal belonging to the taxonomic family Equidae. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million years from a small multi-toed creature, Eohippus, into the large, humans began to domesticate horses around 4000 BC, and their domestication is believed to have been widespread by 3000 BC. Horses in the subspecies caballus are domesticated, although some domesticated populations live in the wild as feral horses. There is an extensive, specialized vocabulary used to describe equine-related concepts, covering everything from anatomy to life stages, size, colors, markings, breeds, locomotion, and behavior. Horses anatomy enables them to use of speed to escape predators and they have a well-developed sense of balance. Related to this need to flee from predators in the wild is an unusual trait, female horses, called mares, carry their young for approximately 11 months, and a young horse, called a foal, can stand and run shortly following birth. Most domesticated horses begin training under saddle or in harness between the ages of two and four and they reach full adult development by age five, and have an average lifespan of between 25 and 30 years. There are more than 300 breeds of horse in the world today, horses were historically used in warfare, from which a wide variety of riding and driving techniques developed, using many different styles of equipment and methods of control. Many products are derived from horses, including meat, milk, hide, hair, bone, humans provide domesticated horses with food, water and shelter, as well as attention from specialists such as veterinarians and farriers. Specific terms and specialized language are used to describe equine anatomy, different life stages, colors, depending on breed, management and environment, the modern domestic horse has a life expectancy of 25 to 30 years. Uncommonly, a few animals live into their 40s and, occasionally, the oldest verifiable record was Old Billy, a 19th-century horse that lived to the age of 62. In modern times, Sugar Puff, who had listed in Guinness World Records as the worlds oldest living pony. The exception is in endurance riding, where the age to compete is based on the animals actual calendar age. The following terminology is used to describe horses of various ages, Colt, a common terminology error is to call any young horse a colt, when the term actually only refers to young male horses. Filly, A female horse under the age of four, foal, A horse of either sex less than one year old. A nursing foal is sometimes called a suckling and a foal that has been weaned is called a weanling, most domesticated foals are weaned at five to seven months of age, although foals can be weaned at four months with no adverse physical effects. Gelding, A castrated male horse of any age, mare, A female horse four years old and older
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