1.
White Bluff (Demopolis, Alabama)
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White Bluff, also known as Ecor Blanc, is a historic site located along the Tombigbee River in Demopolis, Alabama. It is a cliff, roughly one mile long, that is composed of a geological layer known as the Demopolis Chalk Formation. The upper portions of the cliff stood almost 80 feet above the river before the construction of the Demopolis Lock and it now averages about 30 feet above the river. White Bluff was first named Ecor Blanc by 18th century French explorers and it also became known as the Chickasaw Gallery because early Native American inhabitants harnessed their boats at the foot of the cliff. It was the site where French Bonapartist refugees landed in 1817 and established their Vine, white Bluff is the site for the main event of the annual Christmas on the River festival
2.
Demopolis, Alabama
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Demopolis is the largest city in Marengo County, Alabama, United States. The population was 7,483 at the time of the 2010 United States Census, the city lies at the confluence of the Black Warrior and Tombigbee rivers. It is situated atop a cliff composed of the Demopolis Chalk Formation, known locally as White Bluff and it is at the center of Alabamas Canebrake region and is also within the Black Belt. The name, meaning in Greek the Peoples City or City of the People, was chosen to honor the democratic ideals behind the endeavor, first settled in 1817, it is one of the oldest continuous settlements in Alabama. It was incorporated on December 11,1821, organizing themselves first in Philadelphia, French expatriates petitioned the U. S. Congress to sell them property for land to colonize. Following advice obtained from experienced Western pioneers, they determined that Alabama would provide a climate for cultivating these crops. By July 14,1817, a party of pioneers had settled at White Bluff on the Tombigbee River, at the present site of Demopolis, founding the Vine. Most prominent and wealthiest among the immigrants was Count Lefebvre Desnouettes, considered Napoleons best friend, he had ridden in Napoleons carriage during his failed invasion of Russia. Most of these expatriates had little interest in life and sold their shares in the colony. By 1818, the colony consisted of only 69 settlers, due to a variety of adversities, their pioneering efforts were not the great success for which they had hoped. They learned that their land grants began less than a mile to the east of their newly cleared land. After abandoning the settlement of Demopolis, they established two other towns, Aigleville and Arcola. A land company was formed in 1819 with the purpose of purchasing the land and laying off of a town. George Strother Gaines was named as the spokesman and he bought the town site atop White Bluff as soon as it offered for sale. Commissioners for the company were George Strother Gaines, James Childress, Walter Crenshaw, Count Charles Lefebvre Desnouettes, the commissioners were responsible for overseeing the survey of the site, lot sales, and the early operations of the town. The commissioners laid off the site into streets, blocks, and lots, the Demopolis Town Square, encompassing one city block, was established in 1819. The first lots were sold beginning on April 22,1819, when Count Desnouettes died in 1822, Allen Glover was appointed to replace him. As other commissioners retired they were succeeded by David E. Moore, William H. Lyon, Thomas McGee, the streets were laid off utilizing a grid plan, using Philadelphia as a model
3.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
4.
Alabama
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Alabama is a state in the southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered by Tennessee to the north, Georgia to the east, Florida and the Gulf of Mexico to the south, Alabama is the 30th-most extensive and the 24th-most populous of the U. S. states. At nearly 1,500 miles, Alabama has one of the nations longest navigable inland waterways, Alabama is nicknamed the Yellowhammer State, after the state bird. Alabama is also known as the Heart of Dixie and the Cotton State, the state tree is the longleaf pine, and the state flower is the camellia. The largest city by population is Birmingham, which has long been the most industrialized city, the oldest city is Mobile, founded by French colonists in 1702 as the capital of French Louisiana. From the American Civil War until World War II, Alabama, like many states in the southern U. S. suffered economic hardship, like other southern states, Alabama legislators disenfranchised African Americans and many poor whites at the turn of the century. Following World War II, Alabama grew as the economy changed from one primarily based on agriculture to one with diversified interests. The state economy in the 21st century is based on management, automotive, finance, manufacturing, aerospace, mineral extraction, healthcare, education, retail, in the Alabama language, the word for a person of Alabama lineage is Albaamo. The word Alabama is believed to have come from the Alabama language, the words spelling varies significantly among historical sources. As early as 1702, the French called the tribe the Alibamon, other spellings of the name have included Alibamu, Alabamo, Albama, Alebamon, Alibama, Alibamou, Alabamu, Allibamou. Sources disagree on the words meaning, some scholars suggest the word comes from the Choctaw alba and amo. The meaning may have been clearers of the thicket or herb gatherers, the state has numerous place names of Native American origin. However, there are no correspondingly similar words in the Alabama language, an 1842 article in the Jacksonville Republican proposed it meant Here We Rest. This notion was popularized in the 1850s through the writings of Alexander Beaufort Meek, experts in the Muskogean languages have not found any evidence to support such a translation. Indigenous peoples of varying cultures lived in the area for thousands of years before the advent of European colonization, trade with the northeastern tribes by the Ohio River began during the Burial Mound Period and continued until European contact. The agrarian Mississippian culture covered most of the state from 1000 to 1600 AD, with one of its major centers built at what is now the Moundville Archaeological Site in Moundville, Alabama. This is the second-largest complex of the classic Middle Mississippian era, after Cahokia in present-day Illinois, Analysis of artifacts from archaeological excavations at Moundville were the basis of scholars formulating the characteristics of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex. Contrary to popular belief, the SECC appears to have no links to Mesoamerican culture
5.
Mississippi
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Mississippi /ˌmɪsᵻˈsɪpi/ is a state in the southern region of the United States, with part of its southern border formed by the Gulf of Mexico. Its western border is formed by the Mississippi River, the state has a population of approximately 3 million. It is the 32nd most extensive and the 32nd most populous of the 50 United States, located in the center of the state, Jackson is the state capital and largest city, with a population of approximately 175,000 people. The state is heavily forested outside of the Mississippi Delta area, before the American Civil War, most development in the state was along riverfronts, where slaves worked on cotton plantations. After the war, the bottomlands to the interior were cleared, by the end of the 19th century, African Americans made up two-thirds of the Deltas property owners, but timber and railroad companies acquired much of the land after a financial crisis. Clearing altered the Deltas ecology, increasing the severity of flooding along the Mississippi, much land is now held by agribusinesses. The states catfish aquaculture farms produce the majority of farm-raised catfish consumed in the United States, since the 1930s and the Great Migration, Mississippi has been majority white, albeit with the highest percentage of black residents of any U. S. state. From the early 19th century to the 1930s, its residents were mostly black, whites retained political power through Jim Crow laws. In 2010, 37% of Mississippians were African Americans, the highest percentage of African Americans in any U. S. state, since gaining enforcement of their voting franchise in the late 1960s, most African Americans support Democratic candidates in local, state and national elections. Conservative whites have shifted to the Republican Party, African Americans are a majority in many counties of the Mississippi-Yazoo Delta, an area of historic settlement during the plantation era. Since 2011 Mississippi has been ranked as the most religious state in the country, the states name is derived from the Mississippi River, which flows along its western boundary. Settlers named it after the Ojibwe word misi-ziibi, in addition to its namesake, major rivers in Mississippi include the Big Black River, the Pearl River, the Yazoo River, the Pascagoula River, and the Tombigbee River. Major lakes include Ross Barnett Reservoir, Arkabutla Lake, Sardis Lake, Mississippi is entirely composed of lowlands, the highest point being Woodall Mountain, in the foothills of the Cumberland Mountains,807 feet above sea level. The lowest point is sea level at the Gulf coast, the states mean elevation is 300 feet above sea level. Most of Mississippi is part of the East Gulf Coastal Plain, the coastal plain is generally composed of low hills, such as the Pine Hills in the south and the North Central Hills. The Pontotoc Ridge and the Fall Line Hills in the northeast have somewhat higher elevations, yellow-brown loess soil is found in the western parts of the state. The northeast is a region of black earth that extends into the Alabama Black Belt. The coastline includes large bays at Bay St. Louis, Biloxi, the northwest remainder of the state consists of the Mississippi Delta, a section of the Mississippi Alluvial Plain
6.
Confluence
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In geography, a confluence is the meeting of two or more bodies of water. The term is used to describe the meeting of tidal or other non-riverine bodies of water. A one-mile portion of the Industrial Canal in New Orleans accommodates the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway, niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario, Canada is at the confluence of the Niagara River and Lake Ontario. The junction of the Green River and Colorado River forms the heart of Canyonlands National Park in Utahs Canyon Country, the Sangam, near Allahabad, India, where the sacred rivers Ganges and Yamuna meet to create one of the holiest places in Hinduism. The Ohio River is formed by the confluence of the Monongahela and Allegheny rivers, located in Pittsburgh, the Madison, Jefferson and Gallatin Rivers in Three Forks, Montana form the confluence of the Missouri River, one of the longest rivers in the United States. Kuala Lumpur, the capital of Malaysia, is at the confluence of the Gombak River and the Klang River. Passau known also as the Dreiflüssestadt, because the Danube River is joined there by the Inn River from the South, manaus, Brazil is on the Rio Negro near its confluence with the Amazon. It is the port and a hub for the regions extensive river system. Osijek, Croatia, is on the bank of the river Drava 25 km upstream of its confluence with the Danube. Belgrade, the capital of Serbia lies at the confluence of the Sava, the Hochelaga Archipelago, including the island and city of Montreal, is located at the confluence of the St. Lawrence River and Ottawa River in Quebec, Canada. Winnipeg, Canada, is at the confluence of the Red River, the area is referred to as The Forks by locals, and has been an important trade location for over 6000 years. The confluence of the rivers Danube and Morava in Devín on the border between Slovakia and Austria, triangle of Three Emperors, former tripoint in Europe. Cairo, Illinois, in the United States, where the Ohio River flows into the Mississippi River, St. Louis, Missouri, is built just south of the confluence of the Mississippi River and the Missouri River. Lyon, France is located on the confluence of the Saône and Rhone rivers, lytton, British Columbia, Canada, is located at the confluence of the muddy Fraser River and the clearer Thompson River. The confluence between the Franklin River and Gordon River in south-western Tasmania The confluence of the Snake and Columbia River at the Tri-Cities of Washington, the confluence of the rivers Pivka and Rak is one of the largest subterranean confluences in Europe. The confluence at Lokoja, Nigeria, where the Niger and Benue rivers merge, the Sudanese capital of Khartoum, located at the confluence of the White Nile and the Blue Nile. This merging point is the beginning of the Nile, columbus, Ohio, in the United States is at the confluence of the Scioto and Olentangy rivers. Luang Prabang in Laos is at the confluence of the Mekong, River Kabul and River Swat at Attock, in Pakistan
7.
Black Warrior River
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The Black Warrior River is a waterway in west-central Alabama in the southeastern United States. The river rises in the southern edges of the Appalachian Highlands and flows 178 miles to the Tombigbee River. The river is named after the Mississippian paramount chief Tuskaloosa, whose name meant Black Warrior in Muskogean, the river flows through the Black Warrior Basin, a region historically important for the extraction of coal and methane. The cities of Tuscaloosa and Northport grew at the head of navigation at the Fall Line between the Appalachian Highlands and the Gulf Coastal Plain. Birmingham actually grew up around a junction of north-south and east-west railroads, just as Atlanta, Georgia. Overall, the watershed of the Black Warrior has an area of 6,275 square miles, Bankhead Lake drains directly into Holt Lake, formed by the Holt Lock and Dam, which itself then drains into Oliver Lake, formed by the Oliver Lock and Dam. These three reservoirs encompass the entire course of the river for its upper 60 miles stretching southeast into central Tuscaloosa County and Tuscaloosa, the largest city on the river. Past Oliver Dam, immediately west of downtown Tuscaloosa, the Black Warrior flows generally south in a meandering course. The lower 30 miles of the river are part of the long, the Black Warrior River receives its largest tributary, the North River, from the north about one mile northeast of Tuscaloosa. North River was dammed in 1968 to form Lake Tuscaloosa, and is the source for drinking water for the cities, towns. Outside Tuscaloosa County, only three crossings of the Black Warrior River exist. Within Tuscaloosa County are seven, though none upstream of the Paul Bryant Bridge in Tuscaloosa, historically, the river was called the Warrior River above Tuscaloosa and the Black Warrior River below Tuscaloosa. Though unofficial, this convention is still often used by the public. However, the name of the entire river from Bankhead Lake south is the Black Warrior River. To develop the industries of central Alabama, the US government in the 1880s began building a system of dressed rock locks. The first 16 locks and dams were constructed of sandstone quarried from the banks of the river, huge blocks of stone were hand shaped with hammer and chisel to construct the locks and dams, and a few of these dams were in service until the 1960s. One example of the craftsmanship of the locks is at University Park on Jack Warner Parkway in Tuscaloosa. The bank side wall of Lock 3 is the last remnant of the old dams made of dressed rock from the 1880s-90s
8.
River mouth
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A river mouth is the part of a river where the river flows into a larger river, a lake, a reservoir or an ocean. The water from a river can enter the body in a variety of different ways. The motion of the river mainly depends on the density of the river compared to the receiving water and any ambient motion in the receiving water. If the river water is denser than the surface of the receiving water, the river water will then either form an underflow or an interflow within the lake. Alongside these advective transports, inflowing water will also diffuse, at the mouth of a river, the change in flow condition can cause the river to drop any sediment it is carrying. This sediment deposition can generate a variety of landforms, such as deltas, sand bars, spits, many places in England take their names from their positions at the mouths of rivers, for example Plymouth, Sidmouth and Great Yarmouth. Confluence River delta Estuary Liman Aber and Inver
9.
Mobile River
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{{about|the river in Alabama|the river in Newfoundland|Mobile River The Mobile River is located in southern Alabama in the United States. Its drainage basin is the fourth-largest of primary stream drainage basins entirely in the United States, the river has historically provided the principal navigational access for Alabama. Since construction of the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway, it provides an alternative route into the Ohio River watershed. The Tombigbee and Alabama River join to form the Mobile River approximately 50 miles northeast of Mobile, the combined stream flows south, in a winding course. Approximately 6 miles downstream from the confluence, the channel of the river divides, the Tensaw River, a bayou of the Mobile River, flows alongside to the east, separated from 2 to 5 miles as they flow southward. The Mobile River flows through the Mobile-Tensaw River Delta and reaches Mobile Bay on the Gulf of Mexico just east of downtown Mobile. This is a list of bridges and other crossings of the Mobile River from Mobile Bay upstream to its source at the confluence of the Tombigbee, proposals for a new bridge to carry Interstate 10 over the river have been debated for several years. The location of this bridge is of great debate with some pushing for a crossing south of the current tunnels while others are opposed to anything south of the Cochrane–Africatown USA Bridge. S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System, Mobile River Mobile, a river in the part of Alabama
10.
Mobile, Alabama
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Mobile is the county seat of Mobile County, Alabama, United States. Alabamas only saltwater port, Mobile is located at the head of the Mobile Bay, Mobile is the principal municipality of the Mobile metropolitan area. This region of 412,992 residents is composed solely of Mobile County, Mobile is the largest city in the Mobile-Daphne−Fairhope CSA, with a total population of 604,726, the second largest in the state. As of 2011, the population within a 60-mile radius of Mobile is 1,262,907, Mobile began as the first capital of colonial French Louisiana in 1702. During its first 100 years, Mobile was a colony of France, then Britain, Mobile first became a part of the United States of America in 1813, with the annexation of West Florida under President James Madison. In 1861 Alabama joined the Confederate States of America, which surrendered in 1865, Mobile is known for having the oldest organized Carnival celebrations in the United States. The festival began to be celebrated in the first decade of the 18th century by its first French Catholic colonial settlers. Mobile was host to the first formally organized Carnival mystic society, known elsewhere as a krewe, to celebrate with a parade in the United States, in 2005 the first integrated mystic society had a parade for Mardi Gras. The city gained its name from the Mobile tribe that the French colonists encountered living in the area of Mobile Bay. The Mobile tribe, along with the Tohomé, obtained permission from the colonists, about seven years after the founding of the Mobile settlement, to settle near the fort. It was founded by French Canadian brothers Pierre Le Moyne dIberville and Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville, Bienville was appointed as royal governor of French Louisiana in 1701. Mobiles Roman Catholic parish was established on July 20,1703, by Jean-Baptiste de la Croix de Chevrières de Saint-Vallier, the parish was the first French Catholic parish established on the Gulf Coast of the United States. In 1704 the ship Pélican delivered 23 French women to the colony, though most of the Pélican girls recovered, numerous colonists and neighboring Native Americans contracted the disease in turn and died. This early period was also the occasion of the importation of the first African slaves, the population of the colony fluctuated over the next few years, growing to 279 persons by 1708, yet descending to 178 persons two years later due to disease. A new earth-and-palisade Fort Louis was constructed at the new site during this time, by 1712, when Antoine Crozat was appointed to take over administration of the colony, its population had reached 400 persons. The capital of La Louisiane was moved in 1720 to Biloxi, leaving Mobile to serve as a regional military and trading center. In 1723 the construction of a new fort with a stone foundation began and it was renamed Fort Condé in honor of Louis Henri, Duc de Bourbon. In 1763, the Treaty of Paris was signed, ending the Seven Years War, by this treaty, France ceded its territories east of the Mississippi River to Britain
11.
U.S. state
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A U. S. state is a constituent political entity of the United States of America. There are 50 states, which are together in a union with each other. Each state holds administrative jurisdiction over a geographic territory. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders. States range in population from just under 600,000 to over 39 million, four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names. States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state, State governments are allocated power by the people through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in principles, and each provides for a government. States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a debate over states rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government. States and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a legislature consisting of the Senate. Each state is represented in the Senate by two senators, and is guaranteed at least one Representative in the House, members of the House are elected from single-member districts. Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census, the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50, alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959. The Constitution is silent on the question of states have the power to secede from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U. S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, as a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance
12.
Alabama River
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The Alabama River, in the U. S. The course of the Alabama is very meandering and its width varies from 50 to 200 yards, and its depth from 3 to 40 feet. Its length as measured by the United States Geological Survey is 318.5 miles, the river crosses the richest agricultural and timber districts of the state. Railways connect it with the regions of north-central Alabama. After the Coosa and Tallapoosa rivers, the tributary of the Alabama is the Cahaba River. The channel of the river has been improved by the federal government. The Alabama is navigable throughout the year, the river played an important role in the growth of the economy in the region during the 19th century as a source of transportation of goods. The river is used for transportation of farming produce, however, it is not as important as it once was due to the construction of roads. Discovered in 1712, the Alabama, Coosa, and Tallapoosa rivers were central to the homeland of the Creek Indians before their removal by United States forces to the Indian Territory in the 1830s, the Edmund Pettus Bridge crosses the Alabama River near Selma. The bridge was the site of a civil rights march in 1965, the Alabama River has three lock and dams between Montgomery and the Mobile River. The Robert F. Henry Lock & Dam is located at river mile 236.2, the Millers Ferry Lock & Dam is located at river mile 133.0, and the Claiborne Lock & Dam is located at river mile 72.5. List of Alabama rivers Tallapoosa River Coosa River Mobile River South Atlantic-Gulf Water Resource Region Allrefer. com Alabama, a river formed by the junction of the Coosa and Tallapoosa rivers
13.
Mobile Bay
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Mobile Bay is an inlet of the Gulf of Mexico, lying within the state of Alabama in the United States. Its mouth is formed by the Fort Morgan Peninsula on the side and Dauphin Island. The Mobile River and Tensaw River empty into the end of the bay. Several smaller rivers empty into the bay, Dog River, Deer River, and Fowl River on the western side of the bay. Mobile Bay is the fourth largest estuary in the United States with a discharge of 62,000 cubic feet of water per second, annually, and often several times during the summer months, the fish and crustaceans will swarm the shallow coastline and shore of the bay. This event, appropriately named a jubilee, draws a crowd because of the abundance of fresh. Mobile Bay is the place on earth where jubilees are a common occurrence. Mobile Bay is 413 square miles in area and it is 31 miles long by a maximum width of 24 miles. The deepest areas of the bay are located within the channel, sometimes in excess of 75 feet deep. Spanish explorers were sailing into the area of Mobile Bay as early as 1500, the area was explored in more detail in 1516 by Diego de Miruelo and in 1519 by Alonso Álvarez de Pineda. In 1528, Pánfilo de Narváez travelled through what was likely the Mobile Bay area and this response was a prelude to the journeys of Hernando de Soto, more than eleven years later. Hernando de Soto explored the area of Mobile Bay and beyond in 1540, during this expedition his forces destroyed the fortified town of Mauvila, also spelled Maubila, from which the name Mobile was later derived. This battle with Chief Tuscaloosa and his warriors took place somewhere in inland Alabama, the next large expedition was that of Tristán de Luna y Arellano, in his unsuccessful attempt to establish a permanent colony for Spain nearby at Pensacola in 1559. The original settlement of Fort Louis de la Mobile was relocated in 1711 to the head of Mobile Bay following a series of floods, during the American Civil War Mobile Bay was used as a major port for blockade runners bringing in badly needed supplies for the Confederacy. A number of Civil War-era shipwrecks remain in Mobile Bay, including American Diver, CSS Gaines, CSS Huntsville, USS Philippi, CSS Phoenix, USS Rodolph, USS Tecumseh, and CSS Tuscaloosa. Mobiles role as a seaport has continued to the present day, cotton was the chief commodity in the nineteenth century. During the Second World War, Mobiles shipbuilding industry expanded and the population surged. Growth has been rapid since then, the city has endured several devastating hurricanes in its history, the most recent being Hurricane Frederic in 1979 and Hurricane Katrina in 2005
14.
Gulf of Mexico
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The Gulf of Mexico is an ocean basin largely surrounded by the North American continent. It is bounded on the northeast, north and northwest by the Gulf Coast of the United States, on the southwest and south by Mexico, and on the southeast by Cuba. The U. S. states of Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi and Texas border the Gulf on the north, Atlantic and Pacific coasts, or sometimes the south coast, in juxtaposition to the Great Lakes region being the north coast. One of the seven main areas is the Gulf of Mexico basin. The Gulf of Mexico formed approximately 300 million years ago as a result of plate tectonics, the Gulfs basin is roughly oval and is approximately 810 nautical miles wide and floored by sedimentary rocks and recent sediments. It is connected to part of the Atlantic Ocean through the Florida Straits between the U. S. and Cuba, and with the Caribbean Sea via the Yucatan Channel between Mexico and Cuba, with the narrow connection to the Atlantic, the Gulf experiences very small tidal ranges. The size of the Gulf basin is approximately 1.6 million km2, almost half of the basin is shallow continental shelf waters. The basin contains a volume of roughly 2,500 quadrillion liters, the consensus among geologists who have studied the geology of the Gulf of Mexico, is that prior to the Late Triassic, the Gulf of Mexico did not exist. It was created by the collision of plates that formed Pangea. As interpreted by Roy Van Arsdale and Randel T. Cox, geologists and other Earth scientists agree in general that the present Gulf of Mexico basin originated in Late Triassic time as the result of rifting within Pangea. The rifting was associated with zones of weakness within Pangea, including sutures where the Laurentia, South American, first, there was a Late Triassic-Early Jurassic phase of rifting during which rift valleys formed and filled with continental red beds. Second, as rifting progressed through Early and Middle Jurassic time and it was at this time that tectonics first created a connection to the Pacific Ocean across central Mexico and later eastward to the Atlantic Ocean. This flooded the basin created by rifting and crustal thinning to create the Gulf of Mexico. While the Gulf of Mexico was a basin, the subsiding transitional crust was blanketed by the widespread deposition of Louann Salt. Initially, during the Late Jurassic, continued rifting widened the Gulf of Mexico and progressed to the point that sea-floor spreading, at this point, sufficient circulation with the Atlantic Ocean was established that the deposition of Louann Salt ceased. During the Late Jurassic through Early Cretaceous, the occupied by the Gulf of Mexico experienced a period of cooling. The subsidence was the result of a combination of stretching, cooling. Initially, the combination of stretching and cooling caused about 5–7 km of tectonic subsidence of the central thin transitional
15.
Tennessee River
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The Tennessee River is the largest tributary of the Ohio River. It is approximately 652 miles long and is located in the southeastern United States in the Tennessee Valley. The river was once known as the Cherokee River, among other names, as many of the Cherokee had their territory along its banks, especially in eastern Tennessee. Its current name is derived from the Cherokee village Tanasi, the Tennessee River is formed at the confluence of the Holston and French Broad rivers on the east side of present-day Knoxville, Tennessee. From Knoxville, it flows southwest through East Tennessee toward Chattanooga before crossing into Alabama and it loops through northern Alabama and eventually forms a small part of the states border with Mississippi, before returning to Tennessee. At this point, it defines the boundary between two of Tennessees Grand Divisions, Middle and West Tennessee and this waterway reduces the navigation distance from Tennessee, north Alabama, and northern Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico by hundreds of miles. The final part of the Tennessees run is in Kentucky, where it separates the Jackson Purchase from the rest of the state and it flows into the Ohio River at Paducah, Kentucky. The river has been dammed numerous times, primarily in the 20th century by Tennessee Valley Authority projects since the 1930s, a navigation canal located at Grand Rivers, Kentucky, links Kentucky Lake and Lake Barkley. The canal allows for a trip for river traffic going from the Tennessee to most of the Ohio River. Maps from the early 18th century call it Cussate, Hogohegee, Callamaco, a 1755 British map showed the Tennessee River as the River of the Cherakees. By the late 18th century, it had come to be called Tennessee, the river was a major highway to transport goods and explorers in the years when Tennessee was not yet settled. Some major towns that still exist today, and major ports at them were established by those who rode down the river, and settled along it. The Tennessee River begins at mile post 652, where the French Broad River meets the Holston River, in the late 18th century, the mouth of the Little Tennessee River was considered to be the beginning of the Tennessee River. Through much of the 19th century, the Tennessee River was considered to start at the mouth of Clinch River, at various points since the early 19th century, Georgia has disputed its northern border with Tennessee. Georgia made several attempts to correct what Georgia felt was an erroneous survey line in the 1890s,1905,1915,1922,1941,1947 and 1971 to resolve the dispute. Crews Townsend, Joseph McCoin, Robert F. Parsley, Alison Martin and Zachary H. Greene, writing for the Tennessee Bar Journal, a publication of the Tennessee Bar Association, appearing on May 12,2008. In 2008, as a result of a drought and resulting water shortage. In a two-page resolution passed overwhelmingly by the senate, Georgia declared that it, not its neighbor to the north
16.
Choctaw language
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The Choctaw language, traditionally spoken by the Native American Choctaw people of the southeastern United States, is a member of the Muskogean family. The written Choctaw language is based upon English version of the Roman alphabet and was developed in conjunction with the program of the United States in the early 19th century. Although there are variations of the Choctaw alphabet, the three most commonly seen are the Byington, Byington/Swanton, and Modern. Many publications by linguists about the Choctaw language use a variant of the modern orthography listed here. In the linguistic version, the accent shows the position of the pitch accent. The discussion of Choctaw grammar below uses the variant of the orthography. More information on suffixes is in the Morphology section, ^ The only voiced stop is /b/. The voiceless stops /p/, /t/, and /k/ may become voiced between vowels, especially /k/ and for male speakers. Also, the stops are slightly aspirated at the onset of words and before stressed syllables. ^ According to one analysis, all words must end in a consonant, words apparently ending in a vowel actually have a glottal stop /ʔ/ or a glottal fricative /h/ as the final consonant. Such consonants become realized when suffixes are attached, ^ The phonemes /s/ and /ʃ/ are neutralized at the end of words. There is free variation of consonants in Choctaw with some speakers, /ɬ/. /ɬ/→ The voiceless labiodental fricative /f/ is pronounced as a bilabial fricative /ɸ/. /f/→ In Choctaw /k/, the voiceless velar plosive, is pronounced as, /k/→/V_V imofi-aki-lih→imofiy-əɣə̃, -lih The voiceless glottal fricative /h/ is pronounced like a voiceless palatal fricative when it precedes the voiceless palato-alveolar affricate /tʃ/. /h/→/_tʃ katihchish→katiçtʃiʃ ^ In closed syllables, and occur as variants of /i/, /o/. Traditional orthography distinguishes the lax allophones from the vowels but failed to distinguish phonemic long vowels from phonemic short ones. ^ Nasal vowels are not distinguished by duration as are oral vowels, however, nasal vowels are phonetically long, suggesting an underlying phoneme /N/. In Choctaw, very few words are distinguished only by pitch accent, nouns in Choctaw have pitch realization at the penultimate syllable or the ultimate syllable
17.
Choctaw
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The Choctaw are Native American people originally from the Southeastern United States. The Choctaw language belongs to the Muskogean language family group, the Choctaw are descendants of the peoples of the Hopewell and Mississippian cultures, who lived throughout the east of the Mississippi River valley and its tributaries. About 1,700 years ago, the Hopewell people built Nanih Waiya, an earthwork mound. The early Spanish explorers of the mid-16th century encountered Mississippian-culture villages, the anthropologist John Swanton suggested that the Choctaw derived their name from an early leader. Henry Halbert, a historian, suggests that their name is derived from the Choctaw phrase Hacha hatak and these included the French, based on the Gulf Coast and in Louisiana, the English of the Southeast, and the Spanish of Florida and Louisiana during the colonial era. During the American Revolution, most Choctaw supported the Thirteen Colonies bid for independence from the British Crown and they never went to war against the United States prior to Indian Removal. In the 19th century, the Choctaw became known as one of the Five Civilized Tribes because they adopted numerous practices of their United States neighbors. The Choctaw and the United States agreed to nine treaties and and they were the first Native Americans forced under the Indian Removal Act. The Choctaw were exiled because the U. S. wanted to expand territory available for settlement by European Americans, to save the tribe from extinction, the Choctaw negotiated the largest area and most desirable lands in Indian Territory. Their early government had three districts, each with its own chief, who together with the town chiefs sat on the National Council and they appointed a Choctaw Delegate to represent them with the US government in Washington, DC. By the 1831 Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek, those Choctaw who chose to stay in the formed state of Mississippi were one of the first major non-European ethnic groups to become U. S. citizens. During the American Civil War, the Choctaw in both Oklahoma and Mississippi mostly sided with the Confederate States of America, the Confederacy suggested it would support a state under Indian control if it won the war. After the Civil War, the Mississippi, Alabama, and Louisiana Choctaw fell into obscurity for some time, in 1978, the United Supreme Court of the United states held that all remnants of the Choctaw Nation are entitled to all rights of the Nation. The Choctaw in Oklahoma struggled to build a nation, transferring the Choctaw Academy there, in the aftermath of the Dawes Act, the US dissolved tribal governments and appointed chiefs. During World War I, Choctaw soldiers served in the U. S. military as the first Native American codetalkers, after the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, the Choctaw reconstituted their government, and the Choctaw Nation had kept their culture alive despite years of pressure for assimilation. The third largest federally recognized tribe, since the century, they have created new institutions, such as a tribal college, housing authority. Federal Court of Appeals was upheld by the United States Supreme Court in 2002, many thousands of years ago groups classified by anthropologists as Paleo-Indians lived in what today is referred to as the American South. These groups were hunter-gatherers who hunted a wide range of animals, including a variety of megafauna, cushman wrote, the ancient Choctaw through their tradition they saw the mighty beasts of the forests, whose tread shook the earth
18.
Indian removal
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The Indian Removal Act was the key law that forced the removal of the Indians, and was signed into law by President Andrew Jackson on May 28,1830. Some of these views are summarised below and he would later write, I believe the Indian then to be in body and mind equal to the whiteman. His desire, as expressed by Francis Paul Prucha, was for the Native Americans to intermix with European Americans, to achieve that end, Jefferson would, as President, offer U. S. In March and April of 1792, Washington met with 50 tribal chiefs in Philadelphia–including the Iroquois–to discuss closer friendship between them and the United States. To enable, by competent rewards, the employment of qualified and trusty persons to reside among them, as agents, would contribute to the preservation of peace. Constitution of 1787 calls for regulating commerce with the Indian tribes, in 1790, Congress passed the Indian Nonintercourse Act to protect and codify the Indians’ land rights. President Andrew Jacksons actions and statements in the 1830s would stand in contrast to the acts and sentiments. As president, Thomas Jefferson developed a far reaching Indian policy that had two primary goals, first, the security of the new United States was paramount, so Jefferson wanted to assure that the Native nations were tightly bound to the United States, and not other foreign nations. Second, he wanted to civilize them into agricultural or more urbanized lifestyles and these goals would be achieved through trade and treaties. Jefferson encouraged American policy to allow Native Americans to remain east of the Mississippi as long as they became assimilated or civilized and you are our brethren of the same land, we wish your prosperity as brethren should do. As President, Jefferson also sought full U. S. citizenship for those Indian nations which desired it, including the Cherokee. In his Eighth Annual Message to Congress on November 8,1808, he presented to the nation a vision of White and Indian unity, With our Indian neighbors the public peace has been steadily maintained. And, generally, from a conviction that we consider them as part of ourselves, and cherish with sincerity their rights and interests, and will amply requite us for the justice and friendship practiced towards them. In 1817, years after the Jefferson presidency, the U. S. government would again offer citizenship to the Cherokee who lived east of the Mississippi River, along with 640 acres per family. Jeffersons intention was to change Indian lifestyles from hunter-gatherer to farming, Jefferson expected that the switch to agriculture would make them dependent on White Americans for trade goods and therefore more likely to give up their land in exchange. At our trading houses, too, we mean to sell so low as merely to repay us cost and charges, so as neither to lessen or enlarge our capital. In this way our settlements will gradually circumscribe and approach the Indians, the former is certainly the termination of their history most happy for themselves, but, in the whole course of this, it is essential to cultivate their love. Reason, and by giving them protection against wrongs from our own people
19.
Mississippi Highway 25
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Mississippi Highway 25 runs from I-55 in Jackson, Mississippi to the Tennessee state line north of Iuka. The largely controlled-access part from Jackson to Starkville connects the capital with the main campus of Mississippi State University. As of June 28,2006,150 miles of continuous four-lane divided highway is open between Starkville, Mississippi, and Jackson, Mississippi. The last leg to open was the 11. 9-mile, $27-million section from the intersection of Highway 19 north of Louisville, Mississippi and this is one of the culminations of the 1987 Four-Lane Highway Program for improving Mississippi roadways. On May 10,2006 the next-to-last leg, a 10. 1-mile, $23-million section, opened from the Oktibbeha County line west into Winston County
20.
U.S. Route 45
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U. S. Route 45 is a north–south United States highway. US45 is a route, from Lake Superior to the Gulf of Mexico. A sign at the northern terminus notes the total distance as 1,300 miles. US45 is notable for incorporating, in its alignment, the first paved road in the South. Let to contract in July 1914, the highway opened on November 15,1915. As of 2006, the northern terminus is in Ontonagon, Michigan, at the corner of Ontonagon and River Streets. M-64 formerly terminated there as well until its rerouting in October 2006 to use the newly built Ontonagon River Bridge and its southern terminus is in Mobile, Alabama, at an intersection with U. S. Route 98. US45 is concurrent with unsigned SR17 between Mobile and Vinegar Bend, just north of Deer Park, in Washington County, Alabama, from Vinegar Bend to the Mississippi state line, US45 is concurrent with unsigned SR57. U. S. Highway 45 is part of a hurricane evacuation route in Mississippi. At Brooksville, U. S.45 splits away from U. S.45 Alternate and serves the towns of Columbus and Aberdeen before rejoining U. S.45 Alternate south of Tupelo. The alternate roadway provides a direct and entirely four-laned route between Meridian and Tupelo, bypassing Columbus to the west and, more closely, Starkville to the east. Major junctions of U. S.45 in Mississippi include U. S. Route 84 at Waynesboro, Interstate 20/59 at Meridian, U. S. Route 82 at Columbus, Route 78 at Tupelo and U. S. Route 72 at Corinth. Each of these junctions is an interchange and, with the exception of Waynesboro, the Mississippi section of U. S.45 is defined at Mississippi Code Annotated § 65-3-3. From the Mississippi state line U. S.45 extends north past Selmer and Henderson and Jackson to Three Way, at Three Way, the highway splits into U. S. 45E and U. S. 45W. From Three Way to the northeast, U. S, mainline U. S.45, concurrent with U. S.51, continues north into Kentucky. U. S.45 enters Kentucky at Fulton then northeast past Mayfield then heads north into Paducah as a four-lane highway. In Paducah, U. S.45 serves as an artery, intersecting with Interstate 24 at exit 7. U. S.45 leaves Kentucky from Paducahs northern border across the two-lane, metal-grate Brookport Bridge to Brookport, Illinois across the Ohio River
21.
Aberdeen, Mississippi
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Aberdeen is the county seat of Monroe County, Mississippi, United States. As of the 2010 census, the population was 5,612, located on the banks of the Tombigbee River, Aberdeen was one of the busiest Mississippi ports of the 19th century. Cotton was heavily traded in town, and for a time Aberdeen was Mississippis second largest city, today Aberdeen retains many historic structures from this period, with over 200 buildings on the National Register of Historic Places. In the spring of year, Aberdeen hosts pilgrimages to its historic antebellum homes. The most prominent of these homes is The Magnolias, which was built in 1850. Located just outside the city, Aberdeen Lock and Dam forms Aberdeen Lake, Aberdeen Lock and Dam is part of the Tennessee-Tombigbee waterway system. In 1540, Hernando DeSotos expedition were the first Europeans to travel through the vicinity of Aberdeen, Aberdeen was first settled in 1834 and chartered as a town in 1837. In 1849, it became the county seat when Monroe County was formed, hiram Revels, the first African-American United States Senator, died on January 16,1901, while attending a church conference in Aberdeen. Aberdeen had a population of 3,708 in 1910 and its population had risen to 5,920 by 1950. Its population was 7,184 in 1980, according to the United States Geological Survey, variant names are Dundee and New Aberdeen. East Aberdeen is located at 33°49′18″N 88°30′59″W, across the Tombigbee River from Aberdeen proper, variant names for East Aberdeen are Howards Bluff, Howards Farm, Howards Ferry, Howards Store, Martins Bluff, and Murffs. According to the United States Census Bureau, Aberdeen has an area of 11.0 square miles. The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers, according to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Aberdeen has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated Cfa on climate maps. As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 5,612 people residing in the city. 69. 2% were African American,28. 8% White,0. 1% Native American,0. 2% Asian,0. 0% Pacific Islander,0. 6% from some other race and 1. 0% of two or more races. 1. 0% were Hispanic or Latino of any race, as of the census of 2000, there were 6,415 people,2,398 households, and 1,661 families residing in the city. The population density was 598.8 people per square mile, there were 2,730 housing units at an average density of 254.8 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 60. 20% African American,38. 78% White,0. 09% Native American,0. 39% Asian,0. 05% Pacific Islander,0. 06% from other races, and 0. 42% from two or more races
22.
Itawamba County, Mississippi
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Itawamba County is a county located in the U. S. state of Mississippi. As of the 2010 census, the population was 23,401, the county was named for the Chickasaw leader Itawamba, known to English-speaking settlers as Levi Colbert. He was prominent during the Indian Removal period of the early 19th century, the county was the site of the 2010 Itawamba County School District prom controversy when a lesbian student attempted to bring her partner to prom. The county is part of the Tupelo, MS Micropolitan Statistical Area, according to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 540 square miles, of which 533 square miles is land and 7.7 square miles is water. The population density was 43 people per square mile, there were 9,804 housing units at an average density of 18 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 92. 47% White,6. 47% Black or African American,0. 14% Native American,0. 18% Asian,0. 32% from other races,0. 99% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 23. 40% of all households were made up of individuals and 11. 10% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.51 and the average family size was 2.95. In the county, the population was out with 24. 20% under the age of 18,10. 60% from 18 to 24,27. 80% from 25 to 44,23. 20% from 45 to 64. The median age was 36 years, for every 100 females there were 94.10 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.50 males, the median income for a household in the county was $31,156, and the median income for a family was $36,793. Males had an income of $29,231 versus $20,900 for females. The per capita income for the county was $14,956, about 10. 10% of families and 14. 00% of the population were below the poverty line, including 15. 70% of those under age 18 and 23. 60% of those age 65 or over. Delphia Spencer Hankins, an American supercentenarian, was born in Itawamba County, john E. Rankin, sixteen-term Democratic U. S. Congressman National Register of Historic Places listings in Itawamba County, Mississippi
23.
Monroe County, Mississippi
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Monroe County is a county on the northeast border of the U. S. state of Mississippi next to Alabama. As of the 2010 census, the population was 36,989, the county is named in honor of James Monroe, fifth President of the United States. Part of the county east of the Tombigbee River originally made-up part of the Alabama Territory, belonging to Marion County, until new lines of demarcation put it in the State of Mississippi in 1821. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 772 square miles. The population density was 50 people per square mile, there were 16,236 housing units at an average density of 21 per square mile. 0. 69% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,24. 70% of all households were made up of individuals and 11. 80% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.57 and the family size was 3.07. In the county, the population was out with 27. 20% under the age of 18,8. 70% from 18 to 24,27. 60% from 25 to 44,22. 50% from 45 to 64. The median age was 36 years, for every 100 females there were 89.70 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 84.70 males, the median income for a household in the county was $30,307, and the median income for a family was $36,749. Males had an income of $30,232 versus $20,411 for females. The per capita income for the county was $14,072, about 13. 60% of families and 17. 20% of the population were below the poverty line, including 22. 30% of those under age 18 and 21. 70% of those age 65 or over. Aberdeen Amory Hatley Nettleton Smithville Gattman Hamilton New Hamilton Bolivar Camargo Cotton Gin Port National Register of Historic Places listings in Monroe County, Mississippi
24.
Town Creek (Mississippi)
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Town Creek, also known as Old Town Creek or West Fork Tombigbee River, is a tributary stream of the Tombigbee River in northeast Mississippi. Old Town was a Chickasaw village, list of rivers of Mississippi U. S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System, Town Creek. U. S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System, Old Town
25.
Columbus, Mississippi
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It is approximately 146 miles northeast of Jackson,92 miles north of Meridian,63 miles south of Tupelo,60 miles northwest of Tuscaloosa, Alabama, and 120 miles west of Birmingham, Alabama. The population was 25,944 at the 2000 census and 23,640 in 2010, the population in 2012 was estimated to be 23,452. Columbus is the city of the Columbus Micropolitan Statistical Area. Columbus is also part of the area of Mississippi called The Golden Triangle, consisting of Columbus, West Point and Starkville, in the counties of Lowndes, Clay and Oktibbeha. Before its incorporation, the site was referred to informally as Possum Town. The name Possum Town remains the nickname among locals. Columbus came into existence as a result of the failure of a settlement across the river, Plymouth. Plymouth Bluff is today a center for Mississippi University for Women. The survivors of the moved to a site occupied by Thomas Moore. Silas McBee suggested the name Columbus, in return, a local creek bears McBees name. One of the first actions taken by the founders was to establish a public school. However, its status as such awaited a correction to the boundary of Mississippi and Alabama which. In fact, during its early post-Mississippi-founding history, the city of Columbus itself was referred to as Columbus. During the American Civil War, Columbus was a hospital town, however, Columbus also had an arsenal that made gunpowder, handguns and a few cannons. Because of this, the Union ordered the invasion of Columbus and this is substantiated in the book The Battle of West Point, Confederate Triumph at Ellis Bridge by John McBride. Many of the casualties from the Battle of Shiloh were brought there, one of the hospitals was located at the still-operating Annunciation Catholic Church, built in 1863. The decision of a group of ladies to decorate the Union, a poet, Francis Miles Finch, happened to be in town that day and commemorated the occasion with the poem The Blue and the Grey. This again is substantiated in the book The Battle of West Point and these antebellum homes may be toured during the annual Pilgrimage in which the residences open their homes to tourists from around the country
26.
Meander
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A meander, in general, is a bend in a sinuous watercourse or river. A meander forms when moving water in a stream erodes the outer banks and widens its valley, a stream of any volume may assume a meandering course, alternately eroding sediments from the outside of a bend and depositing them on the inside. The result is a pattern as the stream meanders back. When a meander gets cut off from the stream, an oxbow lake forms. Over time meanders migrate downstream, sometimes in such a time as to create civil engineering problems for local municipalities attempting to maintain stable roads. There is not yet full consistency or standardization of scientific terminology used to describe watercourses, a variety of symbols and schemes exist. Parameters based on mathematical formulae or numerical data vary as well, unless otherwise defined in a specific scheme meandering and sinuosity here are synonymous and mean any repetitious pattern of bends, or waveforms. In some schemes, meandering applies only to rivers with exaggerated circular loops or secondary meanders, sinuosity is one of the channel types that a stream may assume over all or part of its course. All streams are sinuous at some time in their history over some part of their length. The term derives from the Meander River located in present-day Turkey and known to the Ancient Greeks as Μαίανδρος Maiandros and its course is so exceedingly winding that everything winding is called meandering. The Meander River is located south of Izmir, east of the ancient Greek town of Miletus, now, Milet and it flows through a graben in the Menderes Massif, but has a flood plain much wider than the meander zone in its lower reach. Its modern Turkish name is the Büyük Menderes River, when a fluid is introduced to an initially straight channel which then bends, the sidewalls induce a pressure gradient that causes the fluid to alter course and follow the bend. From here, two opposing processes occur, irrotational flow and secondary flow, for a river to meander, secondary flow must dominate. Irrotational flow, From Bernoullis equations, high pressure results in low velocity, therefore, in the absence of secondary flow we would expect low fluid velocity at the outside bend and high fluid velocity at the inside bend. This classic fluid mechanics result is irrotational vortex flow, in the context of meandering rivers, its effects are dominated by those of secondary flow. Secondary flow, A force balance exists between pressure forces pointing to the bend of the river and centrifugal forces pointing to the outside bend of the river. In the context of meandering rivers, a boundary layer exists within the layer of fluid that interacts with the river bed. Inside that layer and following standard boundary-layer theory, the velocity of the fluid is effectively zero, centrifugal force, which depends on velocity, is also therefore effectively zero
27.
Gainesville, Alabama
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Gainesville is a town in Sumter County, Alabama, United States. Founded in 1832, it was incorporated in 1835, at the 2010 census the population was 208, down from 220. Confederate Lieutenant General Nathan Bedford Forrest surrendered near Gainesville on May 9,1865, Gainesville is located at 32°49′2″N 88°9′29″W. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the town has an area of 1.7 square miles. As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 208 people residing in the town, the racial makeup of the town was 82. 2% Black,16. 3% White and 1. 4% from two or more races. As of the census of 2000, there were 220 people,87 households, the population density was 128.3 people per square mile. There were 122 housing units at a density of 71.1 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 22. 73% White and 77. 27% Black or African American,33. 3% of all households were made up of individuals and 16. 1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.53 and the family size was 3.28. In the town, the population was out with 32. 3% under the age of 18,9. 1% from 18 to 24,23. 6% from 25 to 44,14. 5% from 45 to 64. The median age was 37 years, for every 100 females there were 96.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.5 males, the median income for a household in the town was $10,938, and the median income for a family was $13,750. Males had an income of $25,625 versus $15,625 for females. The per capita income for the town was $16,176. About 60. 4% of families and 70. 1% of the population were below the poverty line, Gainesville has many historic sites that are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, with many that predate the American Civil War. The historic districts include the Gainesville Historic District and Main–Yankee Street Historic District, individual structures include Aduston Hall, the Coffin Shop, Colgin Hill, Gibbs House, Col. Green G. Mobley House, the Park and Bandstand, and Laura Watson House. Buck Buchanan, former NFL player for the Kansas City Chiefs and he was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1990. Jaybird Coleman, country blues harmonica player, guitarist, and singer Maria Fearing, inducted into the Alabama Womens Hall of Fame in 2000 USA Today, Southern towns shrink, economic woes grow
28.
Jackson, Alabama
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Jackson is a city in Clarke County, Alabama, United States. The population was 5,228 at the 2010 census and it was one of three wet settlements in an otherwise-dry county. Jackson is located along the border of Clarke County at coordinates 31. 521°N87. 891°W /31.521, -87.891. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the city has an area of 15.8 square miles, of which 15.6 square miles is land and 0.19 square miles. As of the census of 2010, there were 5,228 people,2,112 households, the population density was 334 people per square mile. There were 2,426 housing units at a density of 153.5 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 54. 9% White,42. 9% African American,0. 7% Native American,0. 4% Asian,0. 3% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 4% of the population. 29. 4% of all households were made up of individuals and 10. 8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.44 and the average family size was 3.00. In the city, the population was out with 25. 1% under the age of 18,6. 9% from 18 to 24,23. 6% from 25 to 44,26. 8% from 45 to 64. The median age was 40.4 years, for every 100 females there were 87.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.9 males, the median income for a household in the city was $32,917, and the median income for a family was $46,328. Males had an income of $54,688 versus $29,483 for females. The per capita income for the city was $21,822, about 21. 9% of families and 29. 0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 37. 4% of those under age 18 and 18. 3% of those age 65 or over. As of the census of 2000, there were 5,419 people,2,094 households, the population density was 358.7 people per square mile. There were 2,341 housing units at a density of 155.0 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 60. 42% White,38. 49% African American,0. 26% Native American,0. 37% Asian,0. 20% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 65% of the population. 26. 3% of all households were made up of individuals and 12. 2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.54 and the average family size was 3.08. In the city, the population was out with 26. 6% under the age of 18,8. 1% from 18 to 24,27. 2% from 25 to 44,22. 5% from 45 to 64
29.
Mobile County, Alabama
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Mobile County is the second most-populous county in the U. S. state of Alabama. As of the 2010 census, its population was 412,992, the county is named in honor of the indigenous Maubila tribe. Mobile County comprises the Mobile, Alabama Metropolitan Statistical Area and this area was occupied for thousands of years by varying cultures of indigenous peoples. The historic Choctaw had occupied this area along what became called the Mobile River when encountered by early French traders and colonists, the British took over the territory in 1763 after defeating the French in the Seven Years War. During the American Revolutionary War, it came under Spanish rule as part of Spanish Florida, spain ceded the territory to the United States after the War of 1812. Many of those who remained continued their culture, since the late 20th century, several tribes have reorganized and gained state recognition. Among those is the MOWA Band of Choctaw Indians, which was recognized as a tribe in 1979 by the state, but not federally, it occupies land along the border of Mobile and Washington counties. After more than a century of European settlement, Mobile County was organized by the legislature and the proclamation of Governor Holmes of the Mississippi Territory on December 18,1812. When Mississippi was separated and admitted as a state on December 10,1817, after adopting its constitution on August 15,1817, two years later, the county became part of the state of Alabama, granted statehood on December 14,1819. The city of Mobile, first settled by French colonists in the early 18th century as part of La Louisiane, was designated as the county seat from the days of the county. Both the county and city derive their name from Fort Louis de la Mobile, the word Mobile is believed to stem from a Choctaw Indian word for paddlers. The area was occupied by French colonists from 1702–1763, whose influence was strong in the city and it was ruled by the British from 1763–1780, when more American colonists began to enter the territory, and controlled by the Spanish from 1780-1813. At the end of the War of 1812, the United States took over the territory, at that time, new settlers were being attracted to the land, eager to develop short-staple cotton in the uplands area. Invention of the cotton gin made processing of this type of cotton profitable, Mobile developed as a major port for export of cotton. Courthouse fires occurred in the years 1823,1840, and 1872, according to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 1,644 square miles, of which 1,229 square miles is land and 415 square miles is water. It is the fourth-largest county in Alabama by land area and second-largest by total area, the population density was 324 people per square mile. There were 165,101 housing units at a density of 134 per square mile. 1. 22% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,24. 80% of all households were made up of individuals and 8. 80% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older
30.
Baldwin County, Alabama
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Baldwin County is a county of the U. S. state of Alabama. According to the 2015 estimates from the U. S. Census Bureau, the county seat is Bay Minette. The county is named in honor of Senator Abraham Baldwin, though he never lived in what is now Alabama, the U. S. federal government designates Baldwin County as the Daphne-Fairhope-Foley, AL Metropolitan Statistical Area. It is the largest county in Alabama by area and is located on the side of Mobile Bay. Baldwin County was established on December 21,1809, ten years before Alabama became a state, previously, the county had been a part of the Mississippi Territory until 1817, when the area was included in the separate Alabama Territory. Statehood was gained by Alabama in 1819, there have been numerous border changes to the county as population grew and other counties were formed. Numerous armies have invaded during the Revolutionary War, War of 1812, in the first days of Baldwin County, the town of McIntosh Bluff on the Tombigbee River was the county seat. The county seat was transferred to the town of Blakeley in 1810, in 1900, by an act of the legislature of Alabama, the county seat was authorized for relocation to the city of Bay Minette, however, the city of Daphne resisted this relocation. To achieve the relocation, the men of Bay Minette devised a scheme and they fabricated a murder to lure the Sheriff and his deputy out of the Daphne. A New Deal mural, completed by WPA artists during the Great Depression and it hangs in the Bay Minette United States post office. Due to its proximity to the Gulf of Mexico, Baldwin County frequently endures tropical weather systems, including hurricanes. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 2,027 square miles. It is the largest county by area in Alabama and the 12th-largest county east of the Mississippi River and it is larger than the US state of Rhode Island. As of April 2007, only two areas in Alabama have received what is the highest environmental status in the state. A portion of Wolf Bay and 42 miles of the Tensaw River in northern Baldwin County have received the designation, officials believe the pristine water will become an important eco-tourism destination. Bon Secour National Wildlife Refuge Interstate 10 Interstate 65 U. S. Highway 31 U. S. Highway 90 U. S, considerable military airspace overlies much of the county and adjacent bay and coastal waters. Commercial, scheduled service is from Mobile Regional Airport or Pensacola International Airport, the population density was 110 people per square mile. There were 104,061 housing units at a density of 54 per square mile
31.
Buttahatchee River
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The Buttahatchee River is a tributary of the Tombigbee River, about 125 miles long, in northwestern Alabama and northeastern Mississippi in the United States. Via the Tombigbee River, it is part of the watershed of the Mobile River, the Buttahatchee joins the Tombigbee near Columbus Air Force Base,12 mi north-northwest of Columbus. The name Buttahatchee is Choctaw for sumac river, from bati, sumac, the Board on Geographic Names settled on Buttahatchee River as the rivers official name and spelling in 1947. According to the Geographic Names Information System, the Buttahatchee River has also known as
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Noxubee River
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The Noxubee River is a tributary of the Tombigbee River, about 90.6 miles long, in east-central Mississippi and west-central Alabama in the United States. Via the Tombigbee, it is part of the watershed of the Mobile River and it joins the Tombigbee River from the west, about 2 mi west of Gainesville, Alabama. According to the Geographic Names Information System, the Noxubee River has also known as
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Choctaw National Wildlife Refuge
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The Choctaw National Wildlife Refuge is a 4,218 acre National Wildlife Refuge located along the Tombigbee River near Coffeeville, Alabama. Named after the Choctaw tribe, it was established to provide a wood duck brood habitat and serve as a protected wintering area for waterfowl. Of the 4,218 acres of the refuge, approximately 1,802 acres of lakes, sloughs, and creeks,2,265 acres of bottomland hardwoods, the facility has a four-person staff with a $882,000 annual budget. The refuge also manages an additional 236 acres in conservation easements in eight parcels in Monroe, Sumter. Choctaw NWR was established in 1964 on lands acquired by the Corp of Engineers in conjunction with the Coffeeville Lock and Dam project. The 4,218 acre refuge encompasses approximately 1,802 acres of lakes, sloughs, and creeks,2,265 acres of bottomland hardwoods, the refuge borders the Tombigbee River for 6.5 miles. Okatuppa and Turkey Creeks divide the refuge into three unites, the river and the creeks make a large portion of the refuge accessible only by boat. The entire refuge is subject to annual Spring flooding, four hundred nest boxes are maintained for wood ducks resulting in the hatching of approximately 2500 birds each year. Wintering waterfowl numbers can exceed 10,000, in addition to the moist soil, crops such as millet, milo, wheat, and clover are grown in fields for the benefit of both waterfowl and resident wildlife. In addition, numerous neotropical migrant and wading birds benefit from management activities, following a successful bald eagle program in the early 1990s the refuge hosts a nesting pair of eagles each winter. In the summer, wood storks can be resting and feeding in the back-water sloughs. Other wildlife include white-tailed deer, gray squirrels, turkey, raccoons, opossum, American alligator, a small research facility, Cypess Tupelo Research Natural Area encompasses 35 acres and is protected from the damaging effects of beavers on individual trees and water management. Choctaw NWR offers opportunities for fishing, boating, hunting, hiking, a.75 mile trail leads to a wildlife observation platform overlooking the moist soil unit. Fishing is popular with bass, white perch, catfish, and bream in abundance throughout the creeks, white-tailed deer and feral hogs may be hunted as well as squirrel, rabbit, and raccoon. List of National Wildlife Refuges Choctaw National Wildlife Refuge homepage FWS profile of Choctaw NWR Recreation. gov overview Choctaw National Wildlife Refuge GORP site
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Chickasaw
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The Chickasaw are an indigenous people of the Southeastern Woodlands. Their traditional territory was in the Southeastern United States of Mississippi, Alabama and they are of the Muskogean language family and are federally recognized as the Chickasaw Nation. That is where they encountered European explorers and traders, having relationships with French, the United States considered the Chickasaw one of the Five Civilized Tribes, as they adopted numerous practices of European Americans. Most Chickasaw now live in Oklahoma, the Chickasaw Nation in Oklahoma is the 13th largest federally recognized tribe in the United States. Its members are related to the Choctaw and share a history with them. The Chickasaw are divided in two groups, the Impsaktea and the Intcutwalipa and they traditionally followed a system of matrilineal descent, in which children were considered to be part of the mothers clan, whence they gained their status. Some property was controlled by women, and hereditary leadership in the tribe passed through the maternal line, the name Chickasaw, as noted by anthropologist John Swanton, belonged to a Chickasaw leader. Chickasaw is the English spelling of Chikashsha, meaning rebel or comes from Chicsa, Chickasaw The origin of the Chickasaw is uncertain. When Europeans first encountered them, the Chickasaw were living in villages in what is now Northeastern Mississippi and their oral history says they migrated along with the Choctaw from west of the Mississippi River into present-day Mississippi in prehistoric times. The Mississippian Ideological Interaction Sphere spanned the Eastern Woodlands, the Mississippian cultures emerged from previous moundbuilding societies by 880 CE. They built complex, dense villages supporting a society, with centers throughout the Mississippi and Ohio River Valleys. In the 15th century, proto-Chickasaw people left the Tombigbee Valley after the collapse of the Moundville chiefdom and settled into the upper Yazoo, historians Arrell Gibson and anthropology John R. Swanton believed the Chickasaw Old Fields were in Madison County, Alabama. Another version of the Chickasaw creation story is that they arose at Nanih Waiya and it is also sacred to the Choctaw, who have a similar story about it. The mound was built about 1400 years before the coalescence of each of these peoples as ethnic groups, after various disagreements, the American Indians attacked the De Soto expedition in a nighttime raid, nearly destroying it. The Chickasaw began to trade with the British after the colony of Carolina was founded in 1670, with British-supplied guns, the Chickasaw raided their neighbors and enemies the Choctaw, capturing some members and selling them into Indian slavery to the British. When the Choctaw acquired guns from the French, power between the tribes became more equalized and the raids stopped. Allied with the British, the Chickasaw were often at war with the French, skirmishes continued until France ceded its claims to the region east of the Mississippi River after being defeated by the British in the Seven Years War. Following the American Revolutionary War, in 1793-94, Chickasaw fought as allies of the new United States under General Anthony Wayne against the Indians of the old Northwest Territory
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Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville
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Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville was a colonizer, born in Montreal, New France, and an early, repeated governor of French Louisiana, appointed four separate times during 1701–1743. A younger brother of explorer Pierre Le Moyne dIberville, he is known as Sieur de Bienville. Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne was the son of Charles le Moyne, born in Longueil, near Dieppe, Charles le Moyne established his family in the settlement of Ville-Marie at an early age and had fourteen children total. At the age of seventeen, Bienville joined his brother Iberville on an expedition to establish the colony of Louisiana and this spring is now 300-400 feet out into Mobile Bay. Bienville played a role in founding part of the coast line here in Mobile. Eventually the expedition ventured all the way to what is now Baton Rouge, following Ibervilles departure, Bienville took another expedition up the Mississippi River and encountered English ships at what is now known as English Turn. Upon hearing of this encounter on his return, Iberville ordered Bienville to establish a settlement along the Mississippi River at the first solid ground he could find, fifty miles upriver, Bienville established Fort de la Boulaye. On the recommendations of his brother, Bienville moved the majority of the settlers to a new settlement in what is now Alabama on the west side of the Mobile River, called Fort Louis de la Mobile. He also established a deepwater port nearby on Dauphin Island for the colony, as Mobile Bay, the population of the colony fluctuated over the next few years. In 1704, in due to fear that fraternization of French soldiers with native females might lead to conflict. By tradition the young ladies were selected from convents, though most were likely from poor families, the young ladies were lodged in Bienvilles home under the care of his housekeeper, a French-Canadian woman known as Madame Langlois. Madame Langlois had learned from local native tribes the arts of cooking local produce, the population of the colony fluctuated over the next generation, growing to 281 by 1708, but diminishing to 178 two years later due to disease. By 1712, when Antoine Crozat took over administration of Louisiana by royal appointment, in 1713, a new governor arrived from France, and Bienville moved west where, in 1716, he established Fort Rosalie on the present site of Natchez, Mississippi. The new governor, Antoine Laumet de La Mothe, sieur de Cadillac, did not last long due to mismanagement and a lack of growth in the colony. He was recalled to France in 1716, and Bienville again took the helm as governor, serving the office for less than a year until the new governor, Jean-Michel de Lepinay, arrived from France. Lepinays tenure was short lived, however, as Crozat had relinquished control of the colony and its administration to John Law, in 1718, Bienville found himself once again governor of Louisiana, and it was during this term that Bienville established the city of New Orleans, Louisiana. Permission was granted, and Bienville founded New Orleans on May 7,1718, by 1719, a sufficient number of huts and storage houses had been built that Bienville began moving supplies and troops from Mobile. Following disagreements with the engineer of the colony, Le Blond de la Tour, Bienville ordered an assistant engineer, Adrien de Pauger
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Chickasaw Campaign of 1736
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The Chickasaw Campaign of 1736 consisted of two pitched battles by the French and allies against Chickasaw fortified villages in present-day Northeast Mississippi. Under the overall direction of the governor of Louisiana, Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville, a second force from Lower Louisiana attacked Ackia on May 26,1736. The French empire of New France extended from New Orleans in the south to Canada in the north and its unity was disrupted only by the presence of hostile Natchez and Chickasaw tribes in the lower Mississippi River valley. The French effort to reduce these hostile tribes and gain free passage along the Mississippi culminated in the Chickasaw Wars, since 1716, the French and Choctaw had united against the Natchez in an overt campaign of destruction. By 1736 the Natchez were killed or scattered, with many of them taking refuge among the Chickasaw. He planned coordinated operations by two forces, one under Pierre dArtaguette, commander of the Illinois District of Louisiana, from the North, and these forces were to meet at the Chickasaw villages on March 31,1736. DArtaguette at Fort de Chartres collected detachments throughout the Illinois Country, the day was Palm Sunday, March 25. Two Frenchmen were held in hope of exchange for an imprisoned Chickasaw chief, a contemporary memoir by Dumont de Montigny mistakenly reported this battle as taking place on May 20,1736, leading to confusion in many later accounts. Ackia was attacked by the Southern force, the French contingent, including grenadiers, regulars, Swiss, and various companies of militia, assembled at Mobile throughout March,1736. Starting the first of April, the French proceeded by boat with little loss 270 river miles up the Tombigbee River. On April 23, the army reached its forward depot at Fort Tombecbé, departing Fort Tombecbé on May 4 by boat and on foot, the combined army continued upriver and reached the vicinity of present-day Amory, Mississippi, on May 22. On May 26, the army approached three fortified hilltop villages, named Ackia, Tchoukafalaya, and Apeony, collectively called Long Town, as the villages came into view it became apparent that a British flag flew over one of them. As they got closer the French saw a number of Englishmen among the Chickasaws, after this discovery, the Chevalier de Noyan, Bienvilles nephew, urged an immediate attack. After some debate the army advanced to attack, with the French contingent in typically European order, avoiding Apeony, where a traders cabin flew a British flag, the force stormed Ackia under cover of large shields or mats called mantelets. The French immediately received a shower of balls from the Chickasaw fortifications, the attack became pinned down on the side of the hill with steadily mounting casualties. Several outlying cabins were taken, but after several hours combat the French fell back without having been able to make the slightest breach in the fortress at the point of attack, during the night the Chickasaws further improved their position by razing surrounding cabins and vegetation. B. F. French stated The war was rashly brought, Atkinson described as stupid the frontal assaults against positions that were practically invincible. The Chickasaw were amply equipped with English arms via a route from the English and small Chickasaw settlements in South Carolina
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Indian Removal Act
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The Indian Removal Act was passed by Congress on May 28,1830, during the presidency of Andrew Jackson, who signed it into law two days later. The law authorized the president to negotiate with southern Indian tribes for their removal to federal territory west of the Mississippi River in exchange for their ancestral homelands. The act enjoyed strong support from the peoples of the South. Christian missionaries protested against the laws passage and this term was used to discuss the forced relocation of Native Americans from America-claimed states to lands west of the Mississippi River. There was an amount of resistance from those indigenous people. Cherokee tribes came together as an independent nation to try to stop this relocation, however, in the early 1800s, the United States government began a systematic effort to remove Native American tribes from the southeast. This acculturation was well under way among the Cherokee and Choctaw by the turn of the 19th century, jefferson encouraged practicing an agriculture-based society. However, Andrew Jackson sought to renew a policy of political and military action for the removal of the Indians from these lands, in his 1829 State of the Union address, Jackson called for removal. The Indian Removal Act was put in place to give to the states the land that Indians had settled on. Although the act was passed in 1830, dialogue between Georgia and the government concerning such an event had been ongoing since 1802. President Jackson promised this land would be owned by the Indians forever, the Indian Removal Act brought many issues to the table, such as whether it was constitutional, who had the authority to pass what, and could the sovereignty of Indians be protected as was promised. Jackson, as was common before the American Civil War, viewed the union as a federation of sovereign states and he opposed Washingtons policy of establishing treaties with Indian tribes as if they were foreign nations. Thus, the creation of Indian jurisdictions was a violation of sovereignty under Article IV. As Jackson saw it, either Indians comprised sovereign states or they are subject to the laws of existing states of the Union, Jackson urged Indians to assimilate and obey state laws. Further, he believed he could accommodate the desire for Indian self-rule in federal territories. The Removal Act was strongly supported in the South in order to access to lands inhabited by the Five Civilized Tribes. In particular, Georgia, which, in 1802 was the largest state, was involved in a jurisdictional dispute with the Cherokee. President Jackson hoped removal would resolve the Georgia crisis, besides the Five Civilized Tribes, additional peoples affected included the Wyandot, the Kickapoo, the Potowatomi, the Shawnee, and the Lenape
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Indian Territory
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In general, the tribes ceded land they occupied in exchange for land grants in an area purchased by the United States federal government from Napoleonic France, the Louisiana Purchase. The concept of an Indian Territory was an outcome of the 18th-, after the Civil War, the policy of the government was one of assimilation. The term Indian Reserve describes lands the British government set aside for indigenous tribes between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River in the time before the Revolutionary War. The borders of Indian Territory were reduced in size as various Organic Acts were passed by Congress to create incorporated territories of the United States. The 1907 Oklahoma Enabling Act created the state of Oklahoma by combining Oklahoma Territory and Indian Territory. Indian Territory, also known as the Indian Territories and the Indian Country, was land within the United States of America reserved for the forced re-settlement of Native Americans, the general borders were set by the Indian Intercourse Act of 1834. The territory was located in the Midwest, while Congress passed several Organic Acts that provided a path for statehood for much of the original Indian Country, Congress never passed an Organic Act for the Indian Territory. Indian Territory was never an organized incorporated territory of the United States, in general, tribes could not sell land to non-Indians. The region never had a government until after the American Civil War. Therefore, the location commonly called Indian Territory was not a traditional territory. These re-written treaties included provisions for a legislature with proportional representation from various tribes. In time, the Indian Territory was reduced to what is now Oklahoma, the Organic Act of 1890 reduced Indian Territory to the lands occupied by the Five Civilized Tribes and the Tribes of the Quapaw Indian Agency. The remaining western portion of the former Indian Territory became the Oklahoma Territory, the Oklahoma organic act applied the laws of Nebraska to the incorporated territory of Oklahoma Territory, and the laws of Arkansas to the still unincorporated Indian Territory. The proclamation limited the settlement of Europeans to Crown-claimed lands east of the Appalachian Mountains, the territory remained active until the Treaty of Paris that ended the American Revolutionary War, and land was ceded to the United States. After the defeat of the British, the Americans twice invaded the Ohio Country and were twice defeated, the period after the American Revolutionary War was one of rapid western expansion. The areas occupied by Native Americans in the United States were called Indian country, in 1803 the United States of America agreed to purchase Frances claim to French Louisiana for a total of $15 million. President Thomas Jefferson doubted the legality of the purchase, however, the chief negotiator, Robert R. Livingston believed that the 3rd article of the treaty providing for the Louisiana Purchase would be acceptable to congress. Indian removal became the policy of the United States government with the passage of the 1830 Indian Removal Act
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