1.
CENTCOM
–
The United States Central Command is a theater-level Unified Combatant Command of the U. S. Department of Defense. It was established in 1983, taking over the 1980 Rapid Deployment Joint Task Force responsibilities, the CENTCOM Area of Responsibility includes countries in the Middle East, North Africa, and Central Asia, most notably Afghanistan and Iraq. CENTCOM has been the main American presence in many operations, including the Persian Gulf War, the War in Afghanistan. As of 2015, CENTCOM forces are deployed primarily in Afghanistan and Iraq in supporting, as of 1 August 2016, CENTCOMs commander was General Joseph Votel, U. S. Army. Of all six American regional unified combatant commands, CENTCOM is among the three with headquarters outside its area of operations, CENTCOMs main headquarters is located at MacDill Air Force Base, in Tampa, Florida. A forward headquarters was established in 2002 at Camp As Sayliyah in Doha, Qatar, United States Central Command was established on January 1,1983. As its name implies, CENTCOM covers the area of the globe located between the European and Pacific Commands. Steps were taken to transform the RDJTF into a permanent unified command over a two-year period, the first step was to make the RDJTF independent of U. S. Readiness Command, followed by the activation of CENTCOM in January 1983, overcoming skeptical perceptions that the command was still an RDJTF in all but name, designed to support a Cold War strategy, took time. The Iran–Iraq War clearly underlined the growing tensions in the region, on 17 May 1987, the USS Stark, conducting operations in the Persian Gulf during the Iran-Iraq War, was struck by Exocet missiles fired by an Iraqi aircraft, resulting in 37 casualties. Soon afterward, as part of what became known as the Tanker War, in Operation Earnest Will, these tankers were escorted by USCENTCOM’s Middle East Force through the Persian Gulf to Kuwait and back through the Strait of Hormuz. By late 1988, the regional strategy still focused on the potential threat of a massive Soviet invasion of Iran. Exercise Internal Look has been one of CENTCOMs primary planning events and it had frequently been used to train CENTCOM to be ready to defend the Zagros Mountains from a Soviet attack and was held annually. In autumn 1989, the main CENTCOM contingency plan, OPLAN 1002-88, the plan called for five-and-two-thirds US divisions to deploy, mostly light and heavy forces at something less than full strength. The original plan called for these divisions to march from the Persian Gulf to the Zagros Mountains. After 1990, General Norman Schwarzkopf reoriented CENTCOMs planning to fend off a threat from Iraq, U. S. President George Bush responded quickly. A timely deployment of forces and the formation of a coalition deterred Iraq from invading Saudi Arabia, the buildup of forces continued, reinforced by United Nations Security Council Resolution 678, which called for Iraqi forces to leave Kuwait. On January 17,1991, U. S. and coalition forces launched Operation Desert Storm with an air interdiction campaign
CENTCOM
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Shoulder sleeve insignia (US Army only)
CENTCOM
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Emblem of the United States Central Command.
CENTCOM
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1.
CENTCOM
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2.
2.
Wynnewood, Oklahoma
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Wynnewood is a city in Garvin County, Oklahoma, United States. It is 67 miles south of Oklahoma City, the population was 2,212 at the 2010 U. S. census, compared to 2,367 at the 2000 census. Located in what was then the Chickasaw Nation of Indian Territory, it began as a village called Walner in 1886, on the route of the Gulf, Colorado. Railroad workers from Pennsylvania named the community for Wynnewood, a community outside of Philadelphia, the name became official on April 6,1887. Wynnewood quickly became a town for the surrounding area. In 1887, Presbyterian missionary Mary Semple Hotchkins moved her school for Chickasaw children from Cherokee Town to Wynnewood, in 1901, local citizens paid for building Indianola College. A promotional brochure published in 1907 called Wynnewood the Queen City of the Famous Washita Valley and it could soon boast of having an opera house, electric lights, telephones, and the thirty-room Eskridge Hotel. The Eskridge Hotel continued in business until 1970, when it closed for good, in 1973, the Wynnewood Historical Society bought the three-story structure and converted it into a museum of local history. Hotel rooms have been decorated to depict life in Oklahoma during the late 19th century, in 1978, the former hotel was added to the National Register of Historic Places. Wynnewood is located in southeastern Garvin County at 34°38′38″N 97°9′53″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 1.5 square miles, all land. The Washita River, a tributary of the Red River, runs just to the west of the city, the community is at the junction of U. S. Highway 77 and State Highway 29, which links it to Interstate 35 to the west. US71 leads northwest 9 miles to Pauls Valley, the Garvin County seat, Highway 29 leads west 3 miles to Interstate 35 and east 11 miles to U. S. Route 177. As of the census of 2000, there were 2,367 people,965 households, the population density was 1,552.3 people per square mile. There were 1,104 housing units at a density of 724. 0/sq mi. The racial makeup of the city was 77. 27% White,10. 73% African American,7. 77% Native American,0. 17% Asian,0. 68% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 2. 83% of the population. 33. 3% of all households were made up of individuals and 18. 7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.39 and the average family size was 3.05. In the city, the population was out with 26. 0% under the age of 18,8. 1% from 18 to 24,24. 5% from 25 to 44,21. 2% from 45 to 64. The median age was 39 years, for every 100 females there were 83.3 males
Wynnewood, Oklahoma
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Location of Wynnewood, Oklahoma
3.
Oklahoma
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Oklahoma is a state located in the South Central United States. Oklahoma is the 20th-most extensive and the 28th-most populous of the 50 United States, the states name is derived from the Choctaw words okla and humma, meaning red people. The name was settled upon statehood, Oklahoma Territory and Indian Territory were merged, on November 16,1907, Oklahoma became the 46th state to enter the union. Its residents are known as Oklahomans, or informally Okies, and its capital, a major producer of natural gas, oil, and agricultural products, Oklahoma relies on an economic base of aviation, energy, telecommunications, and biotechnology. In 2007, it had one of the economies in the United States, ranking among the top states in per capita income growth. Oklahoma City and Tulsa serve as Oklahomas primary economic anchors, with nearly two-thirds of Oklahomans living within their metropolitan statistical areas. With small mountain ranges, prairie, mesas, and eastern forests, most of Oklahoma lies in the Great Plains, Cross Timbers, interior Highlands—a region especially prone to severe weather. The name Oklahoma comes from the Choctaw phrase okla humma, literally meaning red people, equivalent to the English word Indian, okla humma was a phrase in the Choctaw language used to describe Native American people as a whole. Oklahoma later became the de facto name for Oklahoma Territory, and it was approved in 1890. Oklahoma is the 20th-largest state in the United States, covering an area of 69,898 square miles and it is one of six states on the Frontier Strip and lies partly in the Great Plains near the geographical center of the 48 contiguous states. It is bounded on the east by Arkansas and Missouri, on the north by Kansas, on the northwest by Colorado, on the far west by New Mexico, much of its border with Texas lies along the Southern Oklahoma Aulacogen, a failed continental rift. The geologic figure defines the placement of the Red River, the Oklahoma panhandles Western edge is out of alignment with its Texas border. The Oklahoma/New Mexico border is actually 2.1 to 2.2 miles east of the Texas line, the border between Texas and New Mexico was set first as a result of a survey by Spain in 1819. It was then set along the 103rd Meridian, in the 1890s, when Oklahoma was formally surveyed using more accurate surveying equipment and techniques, it was discovered the Texas line was not set along the 103rd Meridian. Surveying techniques were not as accurate in 1819, and the actual 103rd Meridian was approximately 2.2 miles to the east and it was much easier to leave the mistake than for Texas to cede land to New Mexico to correct the surveying error. The placement of the Oklahoma/New Mexico border represents the true 103rd Meridian, cimarron County in Oklahomas panhandle is the only county in the United States that touches four other states, New Mexico, Texas, Colorado and Kansas. Its highest and lowest points follow this trend, with its highest peak, Black Mesa, at 4,973 feet above sea level, situated near its far northwest corner in the Oklahoma Panhandle. The states lowest point is on the Little River near its far southeastern boundary near the town of Idabel, Oklahoma, which dips to 289 feet above sea level
Oklahoma
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State rock (
rose rock) specimens from Cleveland County, with a
US quarter for size reference.
Oklahoma
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Flag
Oklahoma
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The state's high plains stretch behind a greeting sign in the
Oklahoma Panhandle.
Oklahoma
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A view of
Mt Scott
4.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
United States
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Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764
United States
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Flag
United States
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The signing of the
Mayflower Compact, 1620.
United States
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The
Declaration of Independence: the
Committee of Five presenting their draft to the
Second Continental Congress in 1776
5.
United States Army
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The United States Army is the largest branch of the United States Armed Forces and performs land-based military operations. After the Revolutionary War, the Congress of the Confederation created the United States Army on 3 June 1784, the United States Army considers itself descended from the Continental Army, and dates its institutional inception from the origin of that armed force in 1775. As a uniformed service, the Army is part of the Department of the Army. As a branch of the forces, the mission of the U. S. The branch participates in conflicts worldwide and is the major ground-based offensive and defensive force of the United States, the United States Army serves as the land-based branch of the U. S. Section 3062 of Title 10, U. S, the army was initially led by men who had served in the British Army or colonial militias and who brought much of British military heritage with them. As the Revolutionary War progressed, French aid, resources, a number of European soldiers came on their own to help, such as Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, who taught Prussian Army tactics and organizational skills. The army fought numerous pitched battles and in the South in 1780–81 sometimes used the Fabian strategy and hit-and-run tactics, hitting where the British were weakest, to wear down their forces. Washington led victories against the British at Trenton and Princeton, but lost a series of battles in the New York and New Jersey campaign in 1776, with a decisive victory at Yorktown, and the help of the French, the Continental Army prevailed against the British. After the war, though, the Continental Army was quickly given land certificates, State militias became the new nations sole ground army, with the exception of a regiment to guard the Western Frontier and one battery of artillery guarding West Points arsenal. However, because of continuing conflict with Native Americans, it was realized that it was necessary to field a trained standing army. The War of 1812, the second and last war between the United States and Great Britain, had mixed results. After taking control of Lake Erie in 1813, the U. S. Army seized parts of western Upper Canada, burned York and defeated Tecumseh, which caused his Western Confederacy to collapse. Following U. S. victories in the Canadian province of Upper Canada, British troops, were able to capture and burn Washington, which was defended by militia, in 1814. Two weeks after a treaty was signed, Andrew Jackson defeated the British in the Battle of New Orleans and Siege of Fort St. Philip, U. S. troops and sailors captured HMS Cyane, Levant, and Penguin in the final engagements of the war. Per the treaty, both sides, the United States and Great Britain, returned to the status quo. Both navies kept the warships they had seized during the conflict, the armys major campaign against the Indians was fought in Florida against Seminoles. It took long wars to defeat the Seminoles and move them to Oklahoma
United States Army
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Storming of Redoubt #10 in the
Siege of Yorktown during the
American Revolutionary War prompted the British government to begin negotiations, resulting in the
Treaty of Paris and British recognition of the United States of America.
United States Army
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Emblem of the United States Department of the Army
United States Army
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General
Andrew Jackson stands on the parapet of his makeshift defenses as his troops repulse attacking
Highlanders during the
defense of New Orleans, the final major battle of the War of 1812
United States Army
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The
Battle of Gettysburg, the turning point of the American Civil War
6.
General (United States)
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In the United States Army, United States Marine Corps, and United States Air Force, general is a four-star general officer rank, with the pay grade of O-10. General ranks above lieutenant general and below General of the Army or General of the Air Force, General is equivalent to the rank of admiral in the other uniformed services. The United States Code explicitly limits the number of general officers that may be on active duty at any given time. The total number of active duty general officers is capped at 231 for the Army,61 for the Marine Corps,198 for the Air Force, and 162 for the Navy. No more than about 25% of an active duty general or flag officers may have more than two stars, and statute sets the total number of four-star officers allowed in each service. This is set at 7 four-star Army generals,9 four-star Air Force generals,2 four-star Marine Generals, several of these slots are reserved by statute. For example, the two highest-ranking members of service are designated as four-star generals. In addition, for the National Guard, the Chief of the National Guard Bureau is a general under active duty in the Army or Air Force. Officers serving in certain intelligence positions e. g. the Director of the Central Intelligence Agency, the President may add four-star slots to one service if they are offset by removing an equivalent number from other services. Finally, all statutory limits may be waived at the Presidents discretion during time of war or national emergency and their active rank expires with the expiration of their term of office, which is usually set by statute. For some positions, statute allows the President to waive those requirements for a nominee deemed to serve national interests, the nominee must be confirmed by the United States Senate before the appointee can take office and assume the rank. Four-star ranks may also be given by act of Congress but this is extremely rare, service vice chiefs serve for a nominal four years, but are commonly reassigned after one or two years. The Assistant Commandant of the Marine Corps serves for two years, the Chief of the National Guard Bureau serves a nominal four years. Some statutory limits can be waived in times of emergency or war. Other than voluntary retirement, statute sets a number of mandates for retirement, a four-star general must retire after 40 years of service unless he or she is reappointed to serve longer. Otherwise all general officers must retire the month after their 64th birthday, however, the Secretary of Defense can defer a four-star officers retirement until the officers 66th birthday and the President can defer it until the officers 68th birthday. General officers typically retire well in advance of the age and service limits. Since only a number of four-star slots are available to each service
General (United States)
7.
82nd Field Artillery Regiment (United States)
–
82nd Field Artillery Regiment is a field artillery regiment of the United States Army. The regiment has been involved with American conflicts dating back to then US involvement in the Mexican Civil War, currently, there are two active and three deactivated battalions in the regiment. Traditionally, the regiment has been aligned with the 1st Cavalry Division at Fort Hood, Texas and Fort Bliss, the 82nd Field Artillery traces its earliest history to that of the First Dragoons, a type of fighting force that was skilled both as horse-mounted and dismounted troops. Dragoon is derived from the French Army designation for the firearm carried by French Dragoons and this type of short musket had a dragons head worked on the muzzle. From the First Dragoons was formed the First Cavalry which in turn became the mother of the 24th Cavalry, the 24th Cavalry was organized on 5 June 1917, representing approximately one third of the officers and enlisted men that had made up the First Cavalry. Then, on 1 November 1917, the 24th Cavalry became the 82nd Field Artillery Regiment consisting of 62 officers,1448 enlisted men,1117 horses and 114 mules stationed at Fort D. A. Russell. The regiment was reassigned to Camp Logan and later assigned to Fort Bliss, Texas. On 9 March 1916, the Mexican rebel General Francisco Pancho Villa ordered nearly 500 Mexican revolutionaries to make an attack into the United States at New Mexico. The raid was in response to Woodrow Wilsons recognition and support of the Carranza regime, commander of the Army 8th Brigade John J. Pershing led a failed punitive expedition to kill or capture Villa. On the morning of 15 June 1919, Villas forces attacked Mexican military troops at Fort Hidalgo, at 0136 hours on 15 June 1919, the 82nd Field Artillery regiment left Fort Bliss and headed toward El Paso to occupy pre-planned firing positions. The motto Can and Will was also given to reflect their spirit steeped in traditions of men doing what needs to be done regardless of the obstacles to be overcome. On 9 September 1921 the 82nd Field Artillery was composed of A, B and C Batteries and was designated the 82nd Field Artillery Battalion and was assigned to the newly activated 1st Cavalry Division. The battalion was the horse artillery in the United States Army at the time. On 17 March 1930, the 82nd Field Artillery Regiment was reactivated and the 82nd Field Artillery Battalion was reorganized as the 1st Battalion, 82nd Field Artillery, parallel to this, the 84th Field Artillery was redesignated as the 2nd Battalion, 82nd Field Artillery and inactivated. Assignment to the 1st Cavalry Division was also delayed until 1 December 1934, the 82nd Field Artillery Regiment deployed to the Pacific theatre in World War II with the 1st Cavalry Division and saw action in New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago, Leyte and Luzon. Following World War II, the battalion performed occupational duty in Japan and was one of the first units to arrive in Korea in 1950, the unit was credited with seven campaign streamers in the Korean War. On 15 October 1950, it was deactivated and relieved from assignment to the 1st Cavalry Division, during the Vietnam War, the 3rd Battalion arrived as part of the 196th Light Infantry Brigade in 1966. While with the 196th LIB, it participated in Operation Attleboro I and II, Operation Cedar Falls, Operation Gadsden, later elements of the 82nd Field Artillery Regiment participated in Operation Clean House, Operation Pershing and Operation Sheridan Saber
82nd Field Artillery Regiment (United States)
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82nd Field Artillery coat of arms
82nd Field Artillery Regiment (United States)
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Distinctive unit insignia
8.
2nd Infantry Division (United States)
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The 2nd Infantry Division is a formation of the United States Army. Its current primary mission is the defense of South Korea in the stages of an invasion from North Korea until other American units can arrive. There are approximately 17,000 soldiers in the 2nd Infantry Division, with 10,000 of them stationed in South Korea, accounting for about 35% of the United States Forces Korea personnel. The 2nd Infantry Division is unique in that it is the only U. S. Army division that is made up partially of South Korean soldiers and this program began in 1950 by agreement with the first South Korean president, Syngman Rhee. Some 27,000 KATUSAs served with the U. S. forces at the end of the Korean War, as of May 2006, approximately 1,100 KATUSA soldiers serve with the 2ID. There were also more than 3,000 Dutch soldiers assigned to the division between 1950 and 1954, combined Division, the division is augmented by rotational BCTs from the rest of the U. S. Armys divisions. The 2nd Division was first constituted on 21 September 1917 in the Regular Army and it was organized on 26 October 1917 at Bourmont, Haute Marne, France. The division spent the winter of 1917–18 training with French and Scottish veterans, though judged unprepared by French tacticians, the American Expeditionary Force was committed to combat in the spring of 1918 in a desperate attempt to halt a German advance toward Paris. Major General Edward Mann Lewis Commanded the 3rd Brigade as they deployed to reinforce the battered French along the Paris to Metz road, the Division first fought at the Battle of Belleau Wood and contributed to shattering the four-year-old stalemate on the battlefield during the Château-Thierry campaign that followed. On 28 July 1918, Marine Corps Major General Lejeune assumed command of the 2nd Division and remained in that capacity until August 1919, the division went on to win hard-fought victories at Soissons and Blanc Mont. Finally the Indianhead Division participated in the Meuse-Argonne Offensive which ended any German hope for victory, on 11 November 1918 the Armistice was declared, and the 2nd Division entered Germany, where it assumed occupation duties until April 1919. 2nd Division returned to U. S. in July 1919, the 2nd Division was three times awarded the French Croix de guerre for gallantry under fire at Belleau Wood, Soissons, and Blanc Mont. This entitles current members of the division and of those regiments that were part of the division at time to wear a special lanyard, or fourragère. The division lost 1,964 killed in action and 9,782 wounded in action, third Battle of the Aisne Belleau Wood Château-Thierry campaign St. S. Government Printing Office,1950, pp. 510–592 and it remained there for the next 23 years, serving as an experimental unit, testing new concepts and innovations for the Army. Indianhead soldiers pioneered concepts of air mobility and anti-tank warfare, which served the army for the two decades on battlefields in every corner of the globe. The 2nd Division started participated in maneuvers at Christine, Texas between 3 and 27 January 1940 and it then moved to Horton, Texas for maneuvers from 26 April to 28 May 1940, followed by maneuvers at Cravens, Louisiana from 16 to 23 August 1940. It returned to Fort Sam Houston, where it continued training and refitting, until it moved to Brownwood, Texas for the VIII Corps maneuvers from 1 June through 14 June 1941 at Comanche, Texas
2nd Infantry Division (United States)
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Preston Brown, wearing the 2nd Division insignia
2nd Infantry Division (United States)
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Shoulder sleeve insignia of the 2nd Infantry Division
2nd Infantry Division (United States)
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Omar Bundy & John A. Lejeune
2nd Infantry Division (United States)
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Second Division Memorial, dedicated in 1936, is located in
President's Park, Washington, D.C.
9.
Third United States Army
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The United States Army Central is a military formation of the United States Army, which saw service in World War I and World War II, in the 1991 Gulf War, and in the coalition occupation of Iraq. It is best known for its campaigns in World War II under the command of General George S. Patton, Third Army is currently denoted USARCENT, headquartered at Shaw Air Force Base, South Carolina with a forward element at Camp Arifjan, Kuwait. On the 15th, Major General Joseph T. Dickman assumed command, the third Army consisted of three corps and seven divisions. On 15 November 1918, Major General Dickman was given the mission to move quickly and he was to disarm and disband German forces as ordered by General John J. Pershing, commander of the American Expeditionary Forces. The march into Germany for occupation duty was begun on 17 November 1918, by 15 December the Third Army Headquarters at Mayen opened at Coblenz. Two days later, on 17 December 1918, the Coblenz bridgehead, consisting of a pontoon bridge, Third Army troops had encountered no hostile act of any sort. In the occupied area, both food and coal supplies were sufficient, the crossing of the Rhine by the front line divisions was effected in good time and without confusion. Troops, upon crossing the Rhine and reaching their assigned areas, were billeted preparatory to occupying selected positions for defense. The strength of the Third Army as of 19 December, the date the bridgehead occupation was completed, was 9,638 officers and 221,070 enlisted men, the southern boundary was as has been previously mentioned. Before the advance, the 1st Division passed to the command of the III Corps, the four bridges available for crossing the river within the Coblenz bridgehead were the pontoon bridge and railroad bridge at Coblenz, the railroad bridges at Engers and Remagen. On 13 December the advance began with the American khaki crossing the Rhine into advanced positions. On the same day the 42d Division passes to the command of the IV Corps, which, in support of the III Corps, continued its march to occupy the Kreise of Mayen, Ahrweiler, Adenau, and Cochem. The VII Corps occupied under the order that portion of the Regierungsbezirk of Trier within army limits. On 15 December, Third Army Headquarters at Mayen opened at Coblenz, III Corps Headquarters at Polch opened at Neuwied and IV Corps Headquarters remained at Cochem, with the VII Corps at Grevenmacher. In crossing the Rhine on the shortened front—from Rolandseck to Rhens on the west bank—the Third Army encountered no hostile act of any sort, in the occupied area both food and coal supplies were sufficient. By the night of 14 December, Third Army troops had occupied their positions on the perimeter of the Coblenz bridgehead, during January 1919, the Third Army was engaged in training and preparing the troops under its command for any contingency. A letter of instruction was circulated to lower commanders prescribing a plan of action in case hostilities were resumed, installations were set up throughout the Army area to facilitate command. On 4 February, the control of the Stadtkreis of Trier was transferred from GHQ to the Third Army
Third United States Army
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CFLCC Logo
Third United States Army
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Shoulder sleeve insignia of Third Army
Third United States Army
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"This old castle perched on a hilltop above the Moselle River and the town of Cochem, Germany, is headquarters of the U.S. Fourth Army Corps. In foreground is Cpl. James C. Sulzer, Fourth Army Corps, Photo Unit. January 9, 1919."
Third United States Army
–
American flag over
Festung Ehrenbreitstein after the occupation of
Koblenz by the 3rd Army, 1945
10.
United States Central Command
–
The United States Central Command is a theater-level Unified Combatant Command of the U. S. Department of Defense. It was established in 1983, taking over the 1980 Rapid Deployment Joint Task Force responsibilities, the CENTCOM Area of Responsibility includes countries in the Middle East, North Africa, and Central Asia, most notably Afghanistan and Iraq. CENTCOM has been the main American presence in many operations, including the Persian Gulf War, the War in Afghanistan. As of 2015, CENTCOM forces are deployed primarily in Afghanistan and Iraq in supporting, as of 1 August 2016, CENTCOMs commander was General Joseph Votel, U. S. Army. Of all six American regional unified combatant commands, CENTCOM is among the three with headquarters outside its area of operations, CENTCOMs main headquarters is located at MacDill Air Force Base, in Tampa, Florida. A forward headquarters was established in 2002 at Camp As Sayliyah in Doha, Qatar, United States Central Command was established on January 1,1983. As its name implies, CENTCOM covers the area of the globe located between the European and Pacific Commands. Steps were taken to transform the RDJTF into a permanent unified command over a two-year period, the first step was to make the RDJTF independent of U. S. Readiness Command, followed by the activation of CENTCOM in January 1983, overcoming skeptical perceptions that the command was still an RDJTF in all but name, designed to support a Cold War strategy, took time. The Iran–Iraq War clearly underlined the growing tensions in the region, on 17 May 1987, the USS Stark, conducting operations in the Persian Gulf during the Iran-Iraq War, was struck by Exocet missiles fired by an Iraqi aircraft, resulting in 37 casualties. Soon afterward, as part of what became known as the Tanker War, in Operation Earnest Will, these tankers were escorted by USCENTCOM’s Middle East Force through the Persian Gulf to Kuwait and back through the Strait of Hormuz. By late 1988, the regional strategy still focused on the potential threat of a massive Soviet invasion of Iran. Exercise Internal Look has been one of CENTCOMs primary planning events and it had frequently been used to train CENTCOM to be ready to defend the Zagros Mountains from a Soviet attack and was held annually. In autumn 1989, the main CENTCOM contingency plan, OPLAN 1002-88, the plan called for five-and-two-thirds US divisions to deploy, mostly light and heavy forces at something less than full strength. The original plan called for these divisions to march from the Persian Gulf to the Zagros Mountains. After 1990, General Norman Schwarzkopf reoriented CENTCOMs planning to fend off a threat from Iraq, U. S. President George Bush responded quickly. A timely deployment of forces and the formation of a coalition deterred Iraq from invading Saudi Arabia, the buildup of forces continued, reinforced by United Nations Security Council Resolution 678, which called for Iraqi forces to leave Kuwait. On January 17,1991, U. S. and coalition forces launched Operation Desert Storm with an air interdiction campaign
United States Central Command
–
Shoulder sleeve insignia (US Army only)
United States Central Command
–
Emblem of the United States Central Command.
United States Central Command
–
1.
United States Central Command
–
2.
11.
Cold War
–
The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare
Cold War
–
Photograph of the
Berlin Wall taken from the West side. The Wall was built in 1961 to prevent East Germans from fleeing and to stop an economically disastrous drain of workers. It was a symbol of the Cold War and its fall in 1989 marked the approaching end of the war.
Cold War
–
Allied troops in
Vladivostok, August 1918, during the
Allied intervention in the
Russian Civil War.
Cold War
–
The "
Big Three " at the Yalta Conference:
Winston Churchill,
Franklin D. Roosevelt and
Joseph Stalin, 1945.
12.
Vietnam War
–
It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam and the government of South Vietnam. The war is considered a Cold War-era proxy war. As the war continued, the actions of the Viet Cong decreased as the role. U. S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery, in the course of the war, the U. S. conducted a large-scale strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnam. The North Vietnamese government and the Viet Cong were fighting to reunify Vietnam and they viewed the conflict as a colonial war and a continuation of the First Indochina War against forces from France and later on the United States. The U. S. government viewed its involvement in the war as a way to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam and this was part the domino theory of a wider containment policy, with the stated aim of stopping the spread of communism. Beginning in 1950, American military advisors arrived in what was then French Indochina, U. S. involvement escalated in the early 1960s, with troop levels tripling in 1961 and again in 1962. Regular U. S. combat units were deployed beginning in 1965, despite the Paris Peace Accord, which was signed by all parties in January 1973, the fighting continued. In the U. S. and the Western world, a large anti-Vietnam War movement developed as part of a larger counterculture, the war changed the dynamics between the Eastern and Western Blocs, and altered North–South relations. Direct U. S. military involvement ended on 15 August 1973, the capture of Saigon by the North Vietnamese Army in April 1975 marked the end of the war, and North and South Vietnam were reunified the following year. The war exacted a huge human cost in terms of fatalities, estimates of the number of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed vary from 966,000 to 3.8 million. Some 240, 000–300,000 Cambodians,20, 000–62,000 Laotians, and 58,220 U. S. service members died in the conflict. Various names have applied to the conflict. Vietnam War is the most commonly used name in English and it has also been called the Second Indochina War and the Vietnam Conflict. As there have been several conflicts in Indochina, this conflict is known by the names of its primary protagonists to distinguish it from others. In Vietnamese, the war is known as Kháng chiến chống Mỹ. It is also called Chiến tranh Việt Nam, France began its conquest of Indochina in the late 1850s, and completed pacification by 1893. The 1884 Treaty of Huế formed the basis for French colonial rule in Vietnam for the seven decades
Vietnam War
–
Clockwise, from top left: U.S. combat operations in
Ia Drang, ARVN Rangers defending
Saigon during the 1968
Tet Offensive, two
Douglas A-4C Skyhawks en route for airstrikes against North Vietnam after the
Gulf of Tonkin incident, ARVN recapture
Quảng Trị during the 1972
Easter Offensive, civilians fleeing the
1972 Battle of Quảng Trị, burial of 300 victims of the 1968
Huế Massacre.
Vietnam War
–
A Japanese naval officer surrenders his sword to a British Lieutenant in Saigon on 13 September 1945.
Vietnam War
–
The
Geneva Conference, 1954
Vietnam War
–
U.S. President
Dwight D. Eisenhower and Secretary of State
John Foster Dulles greet President
Ngô Đình Diệm of
South Vietnam in Washington, 8 May 1957.
13.
Gulf War
–
The Iraqi Armys occupation of Kuwait that began 2 August 1990 was met with international condemnation, and brought immediate economic sanctions against Iraq by members of the UN Security Council. US President George H. W. Bush deployed US forces into Saudi Arabia, an array of nations joined the coalition, the largest military alliance since World War II. The great majority of the military forces were from the US, with Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom. Kuwait and Saudi Arabia paid around US$32 billion of the US$60 billion cost, the war was marked by the introduction of live news broadcasts from the front lines of the battle, principally by the US network CNN. The war has also earned the nickname Video Game War after the daily broadcast of images from cameras on board US bombers during Operation Desert Storm. The initial conflict to expel Iraqi troops from Kuwait began with an aerial and naval bombardment on 17 January 1991 and this was followed by a ground assault on 24 February. This was a victory for the coalition forces, who liberated Kuwait. The coalition ceased its advance, and declared a ceasefire 100 hours after the campaign started. Aerial and ground combat was confined to Iraq, Kuwait, Iraq launched Scud missiles against coalition military targets in Saudi Arabia and against Israel. The following names have been used to describe the conflict itself, Gulf War, a problem with these terms is that the usage is ambiguous, having now been applied to at least three conflicts, see Gulf War. The use of the term Persian Gulf is also disputed, see Persian Gulf naming dispute, with no consensus of naming, various publications have attempted to refine the name. Other language terms include French, la Guerre du Golfe and German, Golfkrieg, German, Zweiter Golfkrieg, French, most of the coalition states used various names for their operations and the wars operational phases. Operation Desert Storm was the US name of the conflict from 17 January 1991. Operation Desert Sabre was the US name for the offensive against the Iraqi Army in the Kuwaiti Theater of Operations from 24–28 February 1991, in itself. Operation Desert Farewell was the given to the return of US units and equipment to the US in 1991 after Kuwaits liberation. Operation Granby was the British name for British military activities during the operations, Opération Daguet was the French name for French military activities in the conflict. Operation Friction was the name of the Canadian operations Operazione Locusta was the Italian name for the operations, in addition, various phases of each operation may have a unique operational name. The US divided the conflict into three campaigns, Defense of Saudi Arabian country for the period 2 August 1990, through 16 January 1991
Gulf War
–
Clockwise from top:
USAF F-15Es,
F-16s, and an
F-15C flying over
burning Kuwaiti oil wells; British troops from the
Staffordshire Regiment in
Operation Granby; camera view from a
Lockheed AC-130;
Highway of Death;
M728 Combat Engineer Vehicle.
Gulf War
–
Donald Rumsfeld, as U.S. special envoy to the Middle East, meets
Saddam Hussein on 19–20 December 1983.
Gulf War
–
Kuwait Army M-84 main battle tanks.
Gulf War
–
Iraqi Army T-72 M main battle tanks. The T-72M tank was a common Iraqi battle tank used in the Gulf War.
14.
War on Terror
–
The War on Terror, also known as the Global War on Terrorism, is a metaphor of war referring to the international military campaign that started after the September 11th attacks on the United States. U. S. President George W. Bush first used the term War on Terror on 20 September 2001 and it was originally used with a particular focus on countries associated with Islamic terrorist organizations including al-Qaeda and like-minded organizations. In 2013, President Barack Obama announced that the United States was no longer pursuing a War on Terror, in 2017 Donald Trump assumed presidency of the United States and vowed that the fight against ISIL is his number one priority. Trump has also agreed to work together and carry joint operations with Russian President Vladimir Putin in the war on terror. The phrase War on Terror has been used to refer to the ongoing military campaign led by the U. S. The conflict has also referred to by names other than the War on Terror. Author Shane Harris asserts this was a reaction to the 1983 Beirut barracks bombing, Bush later apologized for this remark due to the negative connotations the term crusade has to people, e. g. of the Muslim faith. The word crusade was not used again, on 20 September 2001, during a televised address to a joint session of Congress, Bush stated that ur war on terror begins with al-Qaeda, but it does not end there. It will not end until every terrorist group of global reach has been found, stopped, in April 2007, the British government announced publicly that it was abandoning the use of the phrase War on Terror as they found it to be less than helpful. This was explained more recently by Lady Eliza Manningham-Buller, in her 2011 Reith lecture, the former head of MI5 said that the 9/11 attacks were a crime, not an act of war. So I never felt it helpful to refer to a war on terror. U. S. President Barack Obama has rarely used the term, in March 2009 the Defense Department officially changed the name of operations from Global War on Terror to Overseas Contingency Operation. In March 2009, the Obama administration requested that Pentagon staff members avoid the use of the term, basic objectives of the Bush administration war on terror, such as targeting al Qaeda and building international counterterrorism alliances, remain in place. Because the actions involved in the war on terrorism are diffuse, jackson cites among many examples a statement by John Ashcroft that the attacks of September 11 drew a bright line of demarcation between the civil and the savage. Administration officials also described terrorists as hateful, treacherous, barbarous, mad, twisted, perverted, without faith, parasitical, inhuman, Americans, in contrast, were described as brave, loving, generous, strong, resourceful, heroic, and respectful of human rights. The origins of al-Qaeda can be traced to the Soviet war in Afghanistan, a small number of Afghan Arab volunteers joined the fight against the Soviets, including Osama bin Laden, but there is no evidence they received any external assistance. On 7 August 1998, al-Qaeda struck the U. S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania, killing 224 people, the plant produced much of the regions antimalarial drugs and around 50% of Sudans pharmaceutical needs. The strikes failed to kill any leaders of WIFJAJC or the Taliban, next came the 2000 millennium attack plots, which included an attempted bombing of Los Angeles International Airport
War on Terror
–
Clockwise from top left: Aftermath of the
11 September attacks; American infantry in
Afghanistan; an American soldier and Afghan interpreter in
Zabul Province, Afghanistan; explosion of an Iraqi car bomb in
Baghdad.
War on Terror
–
Letter from Barack Obama indicating appropriation of Congressional funds for "Overseas Contingency Operations/Global War on Terrorism"
War on Terror
–
U.S. Army soldier of the
10th Mountain Division in
Nuristan Province, June 2007
War on Terror
–
U.S. Army
Chinook helicopter in Afghanistan
15.
Operation Enduring Freedom
–
Operation Enduring Freedom comprises several subordinate operations, Operation Enduring Freedom – Afghanistan, lasted from October 2001 to 31 December 2014. Government used the term Operation Enduring Freedom – Afghanistan to officially describe the War in Afghanistan, continued operations in Afghanistan by the United States military forces, both non-combat and combat, now occur under the name Operation Freedoms Sentinel. In September 2001, U. S. President George W, the term OEF-A typically refers to the phase of the War in Afghanistan from 2001 to 2014. Other operations, such as the Georgia Train and Equip Program, are loosely or nominally connected. All the operations, however, have a focus on counterterrorism activities, Operation Enduring Freedom – Afghanistan, which was a joint U. S. U. K. and Afghan operation, was separate from the International Security Assistance Force, which was an operation of North Atlantic Treaty Organization nations including the U. S. and the U. K. The two operations ran in parallel, although it had suggested that they merge. S. and British ships. The initial military objectives of OEF-A, as articulated by President George W, of those groups included are Abu Sayyaf Group, al-Qaeda and Jemaah Islamiyah. The operation consisted of training the AFP in counter-terrorist operations as well as supporting the people with humanitarian aid in Operation Smiles. In October 2002, the Combined Task Force 150 and United States military Special Forces established themselves in Djibouti at Camp Lemonnier, the stated goals of the operation were to provide humanitarian aid and patrol the Horn of Africa to reduce the abilities of terrorist organizations in the region. The military aspect involves coalition forces searching and boarding ships entering the region for illegal cargo as well as providing training, the humanitarian aspect involves building schools, clinics and water wells to enforce the confidence of the local people. Since 2001, the expenditure by the U. S. government on Operation Enduring Freedom has exceeded $150 billion. The operation continues, with military direction mostly coming from United States Central Command, seizing upon a power vacuum after the Soviets withdrew from Afghanistan after their invasion, the Taliban assumed the role of government from 1996–2001. Their extreme interpretation of Islamic law prompted them to ban music, television, sports, and dancing, amputation was an accepted form of punishment for stealing, and public executions could often be seen at the Kabul football stadium. Womens rights groups around the world were frequently critical as the Taliban banned women from appearing in public or holding many jobs outside the home and they drew further criticism when they destroyed the Buddhas of Bamyan, historical statues nearly 1500 years old, because the Buddhas were considered idols. In 1996, Saudi dissident Osama bin Laden moved to Afghanistan upon the invitation of the Northern Alliance leader Abdur Rabb ur Rasool Sayyaf, when the Taliban came to power, bin Laden was able to forge an alliance between the Taliban and his al-Qaeda organization. It is understood that al-Qaeda-trained fighters known as the 055 Brigade were integrated with the Taliban army between 1997 and 2001 and it has been suggested that the Taliban and bin Laden had very close connections. On 20 September 2001, the U. S. stated that Osama bin Laden was behind the 11 September attacks in 2001, the US made a five-point ultimatum to the Taliban, Deliver to the U. S
Operation Enduring Freedom
–
During Operation El Dorado in May 2004, U.S. Marines from Alpha Company, Battalion Landing Team,
1st Battalion, 6th Marines, startle the owner of a compound who refused to open his door for a search.
Operation Enduring Freedom
–
5-country multinational fleet, during "Operation Enduring Freedom" in the Oman Sea. In four descending columns, from left to right: Maestrale,
De Grasse;
USS John C. Stennis,
Charles de Gaulle,
Surcouf;
USS Port Royal,
HMS Ocean,
USS John F. Kennedy,
HNLMS Van Amstel; and Durand de la Penne.
16.
War in Afghanistan (2001-present)
–
The war in Afghanistan followed the 2001 United States invasion of Afghanistan. Supported initially by the United Kingdom, the US was later joined by the rest of NATO and its public aims were to dismantle al-Qaeda and to deny it a safe base of operations in Afghanistan by removing the Taliban from power. Key allies, including the United Kingdom, supported the U. S. from the start to the end of the phase and this phase of the war is the longest war in United States history. In 2001, U. S. President George W. Bush demanded that the Taliban hand over Osama bin Laden and expel al-Qaeda, bin Laden had already been wanted by the United Nations since 1999. The Taliban declined to extradite him unless given evidence of his involvement in the September 11 attacks, the request for evidence was dismissed by the U. S. as a delaying tactic, and on 7 October 2001 it launched Operation Enduring Freedom with the United Kingdom. The two were joined by other forces, including the Northern Alliance which had been fighting the Taliban in the ongoing civil war since 1996. In December 2001, the United Nations Security Council established the International Security Assistance Force, at the Bonn Conference the same month, Hamid Karzai was selected to head the Afghan Interim Administration, which after a 2002 loya jirga in Kabul became the Afghan Transitional Administration. In the popular elections of 2004, Karzai was elected president of the country, NATO became involved in ISAF in August 2003, and later that year assumed leadership of it, with troops from 43 countries by this stage. NATO members provided the core of the force, one portion of U. S. forces in Afghanistan operated under NATO command, the rest remained under direct U. S. command. The Taliban was reorganised by its leader Mullah Omar, and in 2003, launched an insurgency against the government, the Taliban exploited weaknesses in the Afghan government, among the most corrupt in the world, to reassert influence across rural areas of southern and eastern Afghanistan. In the initial years there was fighting, but from 2006 the Taliban made significant gains. ISAF responded in 2006 by increasing troops for operations to clear and hold villages and nation building projects to win hearts. Violence sharply escalated from 2007 to 2009, while ISAF continued to battle the Taliban insurgency, fighting crossed into neighboring North-West Pakistan. On 2 May 2011, United States Navy SEALs killed Osama bin Laden in Abbotabad, in May 2012, NATO leaders endorsed an exit strategy for withdrawing their forces. UN-backed peace talks have taken place between the Afghan government and the Taliban. In May 2014, the United States announced that its combat operations would end in December 2014. In October 2014, British forces handed over the last bases in Helmand to the Afghan military, on 28 December 2014, NATO formally ended combat operations in Afghanistan and transferred full security responsibility to the Afghan government. Tens of thousands of people were killed in the war, over 4,000 ISAF soldiers and civilian contractors as well as over 15,000 Afghan national security forces were killed, as well as nearly 20,000 civilians
War in Afghanistan (2001-present)
War in Afghanistan (2001-present)
–
Ground Zero in New York following the
attacks of 11 September 2001
War in Afghanistan (2001-present)
–
U.S. Army Special Forces and
U.S. Air Force Combat Controllers with Northern Alliance troops on horseback
War in Afghanistan (2001-present)
–
A U.S. Navy Corpsman searches for Taliban fighters in the spring of 2005.
17.
Iraq War
–
The Iraq War was a protracted armed conflict that began in 2003 with the invasion of Iraq by a United States-led coalition that toppled the government of Saddam Hussein. The conflict continued for much of the decade as an insurgency emerged to oppose the occupying forces. An estimated 151,000 to 600,000 or more Iraqis were killed in the first 3–4 years of conflict and it became re-involved in 2014 at the head of a new coalition, the insurgency and many dimensions of the civil armed conflict continue. The invasion began on 20 March 2003, with the U. S. joined by the United Kingdom and several allies, launching a shock. Iraqi forces were overwhelmed as U. S. forces swept through the country. The invasion led to the collapse of the Baathist government, President Hussein was captured during Operation Red Dawn in December of that same year, the United States responded with a troop surge in 2007. The winding down of U. S. involvement in Iraq accelerated under President Barack Obama, the U. S. formally withdrew all combat troops from Iraq by December 2011. Select U. S. officials accused Saddam of harboring and supporting al-Qaeda, while others cited the desire to end a repressive dictatorship, after the invasion, no substantial evidence was found to verify the initial claims about WMDs. The rationale and misrepresentation of pre-war intelligence faced heavy criticism within the U. S. in the aftermath of the invasion, Iraq held multi-party elections in 2005. Nouri al-Maliki became Prime Minister in 2006 and remained in office until 2014, the al-Maliki government enacted policies that were widely seen as having the effect of alienating the countrys Sunni minority and worsening sectarian tensions. The Iraq War caused hundreds of thousands of civilian, and thousands of military casualties, the majority of casualties occurred as a result of the insurgency and civil conflicts between 2004 and 2007. A1990 Frontline report on The arming of Iraq said, Officially, most Western nations participated in an arms embargo against Iraq during the 1980s. Western companies, primarily in Germany and Great Britain, but also in the United States, sold Iraq the key technology for its chemical, missile, any Western governments seemed remarkably indifferent, if not enthusiastic, about those deals. N Washington, the government consistently followed a policy which allowed and perhaps encouraged the growth of Saddam Husseins arsenal. The Western arming of Iraq took place in the context of the Iran-Iraq War, prior to September 2002, the CIA was the George W. Bush administrations main provider of intelligence on Iraq. The agency was out to disprove linkage between Iraq and terrorism the Pentagon adviser told me, the U. N. had prohibited Iraq from developing or possessing such weapons after the Gulf War and required Iraq to permit inspections confirming compliance. This was confirmed by The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal, during 2002, Bush repeatedly warned of military action against Iraq unless inspections were allowed to progress unfettered. In accordance with U. N. Security Council Resolution 1441, Iraq agreed to new inspections under United Nations Monitoring, as part of its weapons inspection obligations, Iraq was required to supply a full declaration of its current weapons capabilities and manufacturing
Iraq War
–
Clockwise from top: U.S. troops at Uday Hussein and Qusay Hussein's hideout; insurgents in northern Iraq; an Iraqi insurgent firing a
MANPADS; the toppling of the
Saddam Hussein statue in
Firdos Square.
Iraq War
–
A UN weapons inspector examines an Iraqi factory in 2002.
Iraq War
–
President George Bush, surrounded by leaders of the House and Senate, announces the
Joint Resolution to Authorize the Use of United States Armed Forces Against Iraq, 2 October 2002.
Iraq War
–
Excerpt from Donald Rumsfeld memo dated 27 November 2001
18.
Defense Distinguished Service Medal
–
The medal was created on July 9,1970 by President Richard Nixon in Executive Order 11545. It is the United Statess highest non-combat related military award and it is the highest joint service decoration, the Defense Distinguished Service Medal is awarded only while assigned to a joint activity. Whose duties bring them frequently into direct contact with the Secretary of Defense, the Deputy Secretary of Defense, the medal is gold in color and on the obverse it features a medium blue enameled pentagon. Superimposed on this is an American bald eagle with wings facing left grasping three crossed arrows in its talons and on its breast is a shield of the United States. The pentagon and eagle are enclosed within a gold pieced circle consisting, in the half of 13 five-pointed stars and in the lower half. At the top is a suspender of five graduated gold rays, the reverse of the medal has the inscription For Distinguished Service at the top in raised letters, and within the pentagon the inscription From The Secretary of Defense To, all in raised letters. Additional awards of the Defense Distinguished Service Medal are denoted by oak leaf clusters
Defense Distinguished Service Medal
–
Medal presented to Haitian Major Guy Phillipe for leading element that forced President Jean-Bertrand Aristide into exile, February, 2004.
19.
Army Distinguished Service Medal
–
The performance must be such as to merit recognition for service that is clearly exceptional. Exceptional performance of duty will not alone justify an award of this decoration. Separate Distinguished Service Medals exist for the different branches of the military as well as a version of the medal which is a senior award of the United States Department of Defense. The Army version of the Distinguished Service Medal is typically referred to simply as the Distinguished Service Medal while the branches of service use the service name as a prefix. However, justification of the award may accrue by virtue of exceptionally meritorious service in a succession of positions of great importance. The Coat of Arms of the United States in Gold surrounded by a circle of Dark Blue enamel,1 ½ inches in diameter, on the reverse is a scroll for the name of the recipient upon a trophy of flags and weapons. The medal is suspended by a bar attached to the ribbon, the ribbon is 1 3/8 inches wide and consists of the following stripes, 5/16 inch Scarlet 67111, 1/16 inch Ultramarine Blue 67118, 5/8 inch White 67101, 1/16 inch Ultramarine Blue, 5/16 inch Scarlet. Additional awards of the Distinguished Service Medal are denoted by oak leaf clusters, the performance must be such as to merit recognition for service which is clearly exceptional. Exceptional performance of duty will not alone justify an award of this decoration. However, justification of the award may accrue by virtue of exceptionally meritorious service in a succession of positions of great importance. The following are authorized components of the Distinguished Service Medal and applicable specifications, Decoration, NSN for replacement medal is 8455-00-246-3830. The Distinguished Service Medal was authorized by Presidential Order dated 01-02-1918 and it was announced by War Department General Order No. The Act of Congress on 07-09-1918, recognized the need for different types and degrees of heroism and meritorious service, the current statutory authorization for the Distinguished Service Medal is Title 10, United States Code, Section 3743. From July 1,1941 to June 6,1969, when the Army stopped publishing awards of the DSM in Department of the Army General Orders, General Martin Dempsey has the record for the greatest number of awards received of the Army Distinguished Service Medal at six. He also received a Navy Distinguished Service Medal, Air Force Distinguished Service Medal, generals of the Army Douglas MacArthur and Dwight Eisenhower are tied with five awards received of the Army Distinguished Service Medal. They also each received one award of the Navy Distinguished Service Medal, davison, who led the Angels of Bataan and Corregidor during their imprisonment by the Japanese, and Colonel William S. Taylor, Program Manager Multiple Launch Rocket System. Among notable civilian recipients are Harry L. Hopkins, Robert S. McNamara, bliss - US Army Chief of Staff General Peyton C. Ridgeway - US Army Chief of Staff General Maxwell D, Colonel Herbert H. Lehman - Governor of New York and United States Senator
Army Distinguished Service Medal
–
Army Distinguished Service Medal
20.
Legion of Merit
–
The Legion of Merit is a military award of the United States Armed Forces that is given for exceptionally meritorious conduct in the performance of outstanding services and achievements. The decoration is issued to members of the seven uniformed services of the United States as well as to military and political figures of foreign governments. The Legion of Merit is one of only two United States military decorations to be issued as an order and the only United States military decoration which may be issued in award degrees. The Legion of Merit is sixth in the order of precedence of U. S. military awards and is worn after the Defense Superior Service Medal, in contemporary use in the U. S. S. However, this degree was awarded by President Roosevelt to some Allied World War II theater commanders, Commander, Equivalent of a U. S. military chief of staff or higher position, but not to a head of state. Legionnaire, All recipients not included above, when the Legion of Merit is awarded to members of the Uniformed Services of the United States, it is awarded without reference to degree. The performance must have such as to merit recognition of key individuals for service rendered in a clearly exceptional manner. Performance of duties normal to the grade, branch, specialty, or assignment, for service not related to actual war, the term key individual applies to a narrower range of positions than in time of war and requires evidence of significant achievement. In peacetime, service should be in the nature of a requirement or of an extremely difficult duty performed in an unprecedented. However, justification of the award may accrue by virtue of exceptionally meritorious service in a succession of important positions, the degrees and the design of the decoration were influenced by the French Legion of Honour. Although recommendations for creation of a Meritorious Service Medal were initiated as early as September 1937, no formal action was taken toward approval. Proposed designs prepared by Bailey, Banks and Biddle and the Office of the Quartermaster General were provided to Assistant Chief of Staff for Personnel Colonel Heard) by the QMG on January 5,1942. The Assistant Chief of Staff, in a response to the QMG on April 3,1942, the design of the Legion of Merit would be ready for issue immediately after legislation authorizing it was enacted into law. The medal was announced in War Department Bulletin No, executive Order 9260, dated October 29,1942, by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, established the rules for the Legion of Merit and required the Presidents approval for the award. The Legion of Merit is similar to the French Legion of Honor in both its design, a five armed cross, and in that it is awarded in multiple degrees, unlike the Legion of Honor, however, the Legion of Merit is only awarded to military personnel. Additionally, it is the award in the world with multiple degrees of which the higher degrees cannot be awarded to citizens of the country of the awards origin. She received the award for her service during the defense of the Philippines, LTJG Bernatitus was also the first recipient of the Legion of Merit authorized to wear a Combat V with the medal. General Eisenhower was presented the Legion of Merit by President Roosevelt, while he was en route to the Tehran Conference, in Cairo, in 1943, at the request of Army Chief of Staff General George C
Legion of Merit
21.
Bronze Star Medal
–
Civilians serving with U. S. military forces in combat are also eligible for the award. For example, UPI reporter Joe Galloway was awarded the Bronze Star with V Device during the Vietnam War for rescuing a wounded soldier under fire in the Battle of la Drang. The Bronze Star Medal was established by Executive Order 9419,4 February 1944, the acts of heroism are of a lesser degree than required for the award of the Silver Star. The acts of merit or acts of valor must be less than required for the Legion of Merit but must nevertheless have been meritorious. The Bronze Star Medal is awarded only to members in combat zones who are receiving imminent danger pay. For this purpose, the US Armys Combat Infantryman Badge or Combat Medical Badge award is considered as a citation in orders, effective 11 September 2001, the Meritorious Service Medal may also be bestowed in lieu of the Bronze Star Medal for meritorious achievement in a designated combat theater. The Bronze Star Medal was designed by Rudolf Freund of the jewelry firm Bailey, the medal is a bronze star 1 1⁄2 inches in circumscribing diameter. In the center is a 3⁄16 inch diameter superimposed bronze star, the reverse bears the inscription HEROIC OR MERITORIOUS ACHIEVEMENT with a space for the name of the recipient to be engraved. The star hangs from its ribbon by a metal loop with rounded corners. The Bronze Star Medal with the V device to denote heroism is the fourth highest military decoration for valor, 5/16 Inch Star – In the Navy and Marine Corps and Coast Guard, the 5/16 inch star is worn to denote additional awards. V Device – In the Army, the V is worn solely to denote participation in acts of heroism involving conflict with an armed enemy, in the Air Force, the V is worn to denote heroism in combat. Red Reeder conceived the idea of the Bronze Star Medal in 1943, Reeder felt another medal was needed as a ground equivalent of the Air Medal, and suggested calling the proposed new award the Ground Medal. The idea eventually rose through the bureaucracy and gained supporters. Marshall, in a memorandum to President Franklin D, the Air Medal had been adopted two years earlier to raise airmens morale. President Roosevelt authorized the Bronze Star Medal by Executive Order 9419 dated 4 February 1944 and this authorization was announced in War Department Bulletin No. President John F. Kennedy amended Executive Order 9419 per Executive Order 11046 dated 24 August 1962 to expand the authorization to include serving with friendly forces. This allowed for awards where US service members become involved in a conflict where the United States was not a belligerent. At the time of the Executive Order, for example, the US was not a belligerent in Vietnam, since the award criteria state that the Bronze Star Medal may be awarded to any person
Bronze Star Medal
–
The Bronze Star Medal without the "V" (Valor) device
Bronze Star Medal
22.
Purple Heart
–
The Purple Heart is a United States military decoration awarded in the name of the President to those wounded or killed while serving, on or after April 5,1917, with the U. S. military. The National Purple Heart Hall of Honor is located in New Windsor, the Badge of Military Merit was only awarded to three Revolutionary War soldiers by Gen. George Washington himself. General Washington authorized his subordinate officers to issue Badges of Merit as appropriate, from then on, as its legend grew, so did its appearance. Although never abolished, the award of the badge was not proposed again officially until after World War I, on October 10,1927, Army Chief of Staff General Charles Pelot Summerall directed that a draft bill be sent to Congress to revive the Badge of Military Merit. The bill was withdrawn and action on the case ceased January 3,1928, a number of private interests sought to have the medal re-instituted in the Army, this included the board of directors of the Fort Ticonderoga Museum in Ticonderoga, New York. On January 7,1931, Summerall’s successor, General Douglas MacArthur, confidentially reopened work on a new design, involving the Washington Commission of Fine Arts. Elizabeth Will, an Army heraldic specialist in the Office of the Quartermaster General, was named to redesign the newly revived medal, using general specifications provided to her, Will created the design sketch for the present medal of the Purple Heart. The new design, which exhibits a bust and profile of George Washington, was issued on the bicentennial of Washingtons birth, wills obituary, in the edition of February 8,1975 of The Washington Post newspaper, reflects her many contributions to military heraldry. The Commission of Fine Arts solicited plaster models from three leading sculptors for the medal, selecting that of John R. Sinnock of the Philadelphia Mint in May 1931, the first Purple Heart was awarded to MacArthur. During the early period of American involvement in World War II, with the establishment of the Legion of Merit, by an Act of Congress, the practice of awarding the Purple Heart for meritorious service was discontinued. By Executive Order 9277, dated December 3,1942, the decoration was applied to all services and this executive order also authorized the award only for wounds received. Subject to approval of the Secretary of Defense, Executive Order 10409, dated February 12,1952, dated April 25,1962, Executive Order 11016, included provisions for posthumous award of the Purple Heart. Dated February 23,1984, Executive Order 12464, authorized award of the Purple Heart as a result of terrorist attacks, or while serving as part of a peacekeeping force, public Law 99-145 authorized the award for wounds received as a result of friendly fire. Public Law 104-106 expanded the eligibility date, authorizing award of the Purple Heart to a prisoner of war who was wounded after April 25,1962. This change was effective May 18,1998, during World War II, nearly 500,000 Purple Heart medals were manufactured in anticipation of the estimated casualties resulting from the planned Allied invasion of Japan. To the present date, total combined American military casualties of the seventy years following the end of World War II—including the Korean, in 2003, there remained 120,000 Purple Heart medals in stock. The existing surplus allowed combat units in Iraq and Afghanistan to keep Purple Hearts on-hand for immediate award to soldiers wounded in the field, the History section of the November 2009 edition of National Geographic estimated the number of Purple Hearts given. Above the estimates, the reads, Any tally of Purple Hearts is an estimate
Purple Heart
–
Purple Heart
Purple Heart
–
Reverse of Purple Heart Medal and Purple Heart Ribbon
Purple Heart
–
Sign on
Interstate 35 designating the Purple Heart Trail.
Purple Heart
–
Purple Heart Memorial,
Westland, Michigan
23.
Air Medal
–
The Air Medal is a military decoration of the United States military. The medal was created in 1942 and is awarded for achievement while participating in aerial flight. The Air Medal was established by Executive Order 9158, signed by Franklin D. Roosevelt, the Air Medal was awarded retroactive to 8 September 1939. The original award criteria set by an Army Policy Letter was for one award of the Air Medal. per each naval vessel or three aircraft in flight confirmed destroyed. Per twenty-five operational flights during which exposure to fire is probable. Per one-hundred operational flights during which exposure to fire is not expected. These criteria were altered by the commanding generals of each numbered Air Force to fit the conditions of their theater of operations. The Distinguished Flying Cross would usually be awarded for roughly twice to five times the requirements of the Air Medal, on 5 August 1943 score card awards for completing a set number of operational flights were officially abolished by a Headquarters Army Air Forces Awards Board memorandum. This was due to the embarrassment when airmen who had received the Air Medal for score carding five missions or more being later removed from flying duties for lack of moral fibre. Commanders could still issue the awards on those grounds, but the recipient must perform exceptional or meritorious service as well, during World War II the medals award criteria varied widely depending on the theater of operations, the aircraft flown, and the missions accomplished. In Europe the airspace was considered completely controlled by the enemy, elsewhere in the Pacific and CBI the pilots and crews flew mostly over uncontrolled or contested airspace for long hours and lighter air defenses were encountered, so much higher criteria were used. The Air Medal may be awarded to either single acts of merit or gallantry in combat or for meritorious service in a combat zone. These individuals must make a contribution to the operational land combat mission or to the mission of the aircraft in flight. Examples would be transport performing supporting Dustoff Medevac or resupply operations, Awards will not be made to individuals who use air transportation solely for the purpose of moving from point to point in a combat zone. The Army may award the Air Medal for peacetime service, the Air Force does not award the Air Medal for peace-time sustained operational activities and flights. Non-combat meritorious service is instead awarded the Aerial Achievement Medal, instituted in 1988, the Air Force uses the aircraft sortie designation as a tool, but uses Oak Leaf Clusters rather than Strike / Flight Numerals to indicate additional awards. A members individual flight management records will list the sorties that are eligible for the award and these sorties are designated Combat, Combat Support, or Operational. Only the first sortie of the day counts, armed aircraft crews require ten sorties for each award, while all others require twenty sorties
Air Medal
–
Air Medal
Air Medal
24.
Army Commendation Medal
–
The Commendation Medal is a mid-level United States military decoration which is presented for sustained acts of heroism or meritorious service. The Commendation Medal was originally only a ribbon and was first awarded by the U. S. Navy. An Army Commendation Ribbon followed in 1945, and in 1949, the Navy, Coast Guard, by 1960, the Commendation Ribbons had been authorized as full medals and were subsequently referred to as Commendation Medals. Additional awards of the Army and Air Force Commendation Medals are denoted by bronze, the Navy and Marine Corps Commendation Medal and Coast Guard Commendation Medal are authorized gold and silver 5/16 inch stars to denote additional awards. The Operational Distinguishing Device is authorized for wear on the Coast Guard Commendation Medal upon approval of the awarding authority, order of Precedence is following the Bronze Star Medal but before the Prisoner of War Medal and all campaign medals. Each of the services also awards separate Achievement Medals which are below the Commendation Medals in precedence. This award is intended for service on a joint military staff and is senior in precedence to service-specific Commendation Medals. As such, it is worn above the service Commendation Medals on a military uniform. S, Army after December 6,1941, distinguished themselves by heroism, meritorious achievement or meritorious service. Approval of the award must be made by an officer in the grade of Colonel or higher, the medallion of the Army Commendation Medal is a bronze hexagon, 1 3⁄8 inches wide. On the medallion is an American bald eagle with wings spread horizontally, on its breast is a shield paly of thirteen pieces and a chief. The reverse bears a panel for naming between the words FOR MILITARY above and MERIT below, all placed above a laurel sprig, the ribbon is 1 3⁄8 inches wide primarily of myrtle green. It is edged in white and in the center are five thin white stripes spaced equally apart, devices Oak leaf cluster and V Device The U. S. Air Force began issuing its own Air Force Commendation Medal in 1958 with additional awards denoted by oak leaf clusters. Prior to this time, USAF recipients received the Army Commendation Medal and it was not until 1996 that the V device was authorized on the Air Force Commendation Medal, prior to 1996, there was not a valor distinction in effect for the Air Force Commendation Medal. For USAF enlisted personnel, the Air Force Commendation Medal is worth three points under the Air Force enlisted promotion system, approval of the award must be made by an officer in the grade of Colonel or higher. The Air Force Commendation Medal is a bronze hexagonal medallion, on the medallion is a shield surmounted by an eagle superimposed over clouds. On the shield bears a pair of wings and a vertical baton with an eagles claw at either end, behind the shield are eight lightning bolts. The design on the shield is derived from the Seal of the Department of the Air Force, the ribbon of the Air Force Commendation Medal is golden yellow with blue edges. In the center are three bands of blue, the stripes are thin with the center stripe being wider
Army Commendation Medal
–
Air Force Commendation Medal
Army Commendation Medal
–
Five Commendation ribbons are awarded by branch or service. Top row: Joint Service, Army. Bottom row: Air Force, Navy & Marine Corps, Coast Guard.
Army Commendation Medal
–
Joint Service Commendation Medal
Army Commendation Medal
–
Coast Guard Commendation Medal
25.
Presidential Medal of Freedom
–
The Presidential Medal of Freedom is an award bestowed by the President of the United States and is—along with the comparable Congressional Gold Medal—the highest civilian award of the United States. The award is not limited to U. S. citizens and, while it is an award, it can also be awarded to military personnel. It was established in 1963 by President John F. Kennedy, President John F. Kennedy established the current decoration in 1963 through Executive Order 11085, with unique and distinctive insignia, vastly expanded purpose, and far higher prestige. It was the first U. S. civilian neck decoration and, in the grade of Awarded With Distinction, is the only U. S. sash and star decoration. The Executive Order calls for the medal to be awarded annually on or around July 4, and at other convenient times as chosen by the president, Recipients are selected by the president, either on his own initiative or based on recommendations. The order establishing the medal also expanded the size and the responsibilities of the Distinguished Civilian Service Awards Board so it could serve as a source of such recommendations. The medal may be awarded to a more than once. It may also be awarded posthumously, examples include John F, golden American bald eagles with spread wings stand between the points of the star. It is worn around the neck on a ribbon with white edge stripes. When the medal With Distinction is awarded, the star may be presented descending from a neck ribbon, the sash and medal of the Presidential Medal of Freedom with distinction has never been worn in public since its inception. Andrew Presidential Medal of Freedom, an article from jfklibrary. org, Presidential Medal of Freedom Recipients, a list of recipients from May 5,1993, through August 19,2009, from senate. gov, the U. S. Senates official website. Hosted on georgewbush-whitehouse. archives. gov, a section of the U. S. National Archives, Medal of Freedom Ceremony, a news release, August 12,2009, from the White House Press Secretary at whitehouse. gov, the White Houses official website. War Figures Honored With Medal of Freedom, The New York Times, December 15,2004
Presidential Medal of Freedom
–
Presidential Medal of Freedom
Presidential Medal of Freedom
–
Graphical representation of the Presidential Medal of Freedom with Distinction
Presidential Medal of Freedom
–
Medal and accoutrements including undress ribbon, miniature, and lapel badge.
Presidential Medal of Freedom
–
Civil Rights leader
A. Philip Randolph receiving the Presidential Medal of Freedom from president
Lyndon B. Johnson on September 14, 1964.
26.
United States Armed Forces
–
The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
United States Armed Forces
–
The U.S. Joint Service Color Guard on parade at
Fort Myer, Virginia in October 2001.
United States Armed Forces
–
U. S. Armed Forces Career Center in
Times Square.
United States Armed Forces
–
Service members of the U.S. at an
American football event, L-R:
U.S. Marine Corps,
U.S. Air Force,
U.S. Navy and
U.S. Army personnel.
United States Armed Forces
–
From 2005, the first all female
C-130 Hercules crew to serve a combat mission for the
U.S. Air Force.
27.
Middle East
–
The Middle East is a transcontinental region centered on Western Asia and Egypt. The corresponding adjective is Middle-Eastern and the noun is Middle-Easterner. The term has come into usage as a replacement of the term Near East beginning in the early 20th century. Arabs, Turks, Persians, Kurds, and Azeris constitute the largest ethnic groups in the region by population. Indigenous minorities of the Middle East include Jews, Assyrians and other Arameans, Baloch, Berbers, Copts, Druze, Lurs, Mandaeans, Samaritans, Shabaks, Tats, in the Middle East, there is also a Romani community. European ethnic groups form a diaspora in the region include Albanians, Bosniaks, Circassians, Crimean Tatars, Franco-Levantines. Among other migrant populations are Bengalis as well as other Indians, Chinese, Filipinos, Indonesians, Pakistanis, the history of the Middle East dates back to ancient times, with the importance of the region being recognized for millennia. Most of the countries border the Persian Gulf have vast reserves of crude oil. The term Middle East may have originated in the 1850s in the British India Office, however, it became more widely known when American naval strategist Alfred Thayer Mahan used the term in 1902 to designate the area between Arabia and India. During this time the British and Russian Empires were vying for influence in Central Asia, Mahan realized not only the strategic importance of the region, but also of its center, the Persian Gulf. Mahan first used the term in his article The Persian Gulf and International Relations, published in September 1902 in the National Review, a British journal. The Middle East, if I may adopt a term which I have not seen, will some day need its Malta, as well as its Gibraltar, it does not follow that either will be in the Persian Gulf. The British Navy should have the facility to concentrate in force if occasion arise, about Aden, India, mahans article was reprinted in The Times and followed in October by a 20-article series entitled The Middle Eastern Question, written by Sir Ignatius Valentine Chirol. During this series, Sir Ignatius expanded the definition of Middle East to include regions of Asia which extend to the borders of India or command the approaches to India. After the series ended in 1903, The Times removed quotation marks from subsequent uses of the term, in the late 1930s, the British established the Middle East Command, which was based in Cairo, for its military forces in the region. After that time, the term Middle East gained broader usage in Europe, the description Middle has also led to some confusion over changing definitions. Before the First World War, Near East was used in English to refer to the Balkans and the Ottoman Empire, while Middle East referred to Iran, the Caucasus, Afghanistan, Central Asia, and Turkestan. The first official use of the term Middle East by the United States government was in the 1957 Eisenhower Doctrine, the Associated Press Stylebook says that Near East formerly referred to the farther west countries while Middle East referred to the eastern ones, but that now they are synonymous
Middle East
–
The
Temple Mount in
Jerusalem
Middle East
–
Map of the Middle East (green).
Middle East
–
The
Kaaba, located in
Mecca,
Saudi Arabia
Middle East
–
Islam is the largest religion in the Middle East. Here, Muslim men are
prostrating during prayer in a mosque.
28.
Anthony Zinni
–
Anthony Charles Zinni is a retired United States Marine Corps general and a former Commander in Chief of the United States Central Command. In 2002, he was selected to be an envoy for the United States to Israel. While serving as envoy, Zinni was also an instructor in the Department of International Studies at the Virginia Military Institute. As of 2005, he was involved in the corporate world, industries as its president for International Operations in 2005. Zinni is currently senior advisor to Ron Wahid, Chairman of Arcanum, Zinni also serves or has served on the advisory boards of a number of companies, including the security testing firm, Mu Dynamics, based in Sunnyvale, California. He joined Duke Universitys Terry Sanford Institute of Public Policy in Spring 2008 as the Sanford Distinguished Lecturer in Residence, as of 2014, he serves as Chairman of the Board of Governors of the Middle East Institute. He has been named Honorary Chairman of that institution and he has been credited for foresight in predicting the dangers of terrorism coming out of Afghanistan before the September 11 attacks of 2001 and supporting the Iraq War troop surge of 2007. In October 2009 he came out firmly in support of General Stanley A. McChrystals request for up to 40,000 additional troops in Afghanistan, Zinni was born in Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, the son of Lilla, a seamstress and homemaker, and Antonio Zinni, a chauffeur. His parents were of Italian descent, in 1965, Zinni graduated from Villanova University with a degree in economics, and was commissioned a second lieutenant in the United States Marine Corps. He also served as a commander in the 1st Infantry Training Regiment during this tour. In 1967, Zinni was assigned as an infantry battalion advisor to the Vietnamese Marine Corps, following the Vietnam War, he was ordered to the Basic School where he served as a tactics instructor, platoon commander, and company executive officer. In 1970, he returned to Vietnam as a commander in 1st Battalion, 5th Marines where he was wounded, evacuated. There he served as a commander and guard officer. In 1974, he was assigned to Headquarters Marine Corps, where he was assigned as the Retention and Release Officer, in 1981, he was assigned as an operations and tactics instructor at the Marine Corps Command and Staff College at Quantico, Virginia. In 1984, he earned his masters degree from Central Michigan University, in 1986, he was selected as a fellow on the Chief of Naval Operations Strategic Studies Group. Upon his return to the U. S. he was assigned as the Chief of Staff of the Marine Air-Ground Training and his initial general officer assignment was as the Deputy Director of Operations at the U. S. In 1991, he served as the Chief of Staff and Deputy Commanding General of Combined Task Force Operation Provide Comfort during the Kurdish relief effort in Turkey and he also served as the Military Coordinator for Operation Provide Hope, the relief effort for the former Soviet Union. In 1992-93, he served as the Director for Operations for the Unified Task Force in Somalia for Operation Restore Hope, also in 1993, he served as the Assistant to the U. S
Anthony Zinni
–
General Anthony Charles Zinni, United States Marine Corps
Anthony Zinni
–
Zinni briefs reporters as to the results of
Operation Desert Fox in December 1998.
Anthony Zinni
–
Zinni orating in January 2009.
29.
September 11 attacks
–
The September 11 attacks were a series of four coordinated terrorist attacks by the Islamic terrorist group al-Qaeda on the United States on the morning of Tuesday, September 11,2001. The attacks killed 2,996 people, injured over 6,000 others, two of the planes, American Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175, were crashed into the North and South towers, respectively, of the World Trade Center complex in New York City. A third plane, American Airlines Flight 77, was crashed into the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia and it was the deadliest incident for firefighters and law enforcement officers in the history of the United States, with 343 and 72 killed respectively. Suspicion for the attack fell on al-Qaeda. The United States responded to the attacks by launching the War on Terror and invading Afghanistan to depose the Taliban, many countries strengthened their anti-terrorism legislation and expanded the powers of law enforcement and intelligence agencies to prevent terrorist attacks. Although al-Qaedas leader, Osama bin Laden, initially denied any involvement, al-Qaeda and bin Laden cited U. S. support of Israel, the presence of U. S. troops in Saudi Arabia, and sanctions against Iraq as motives. Having evaded capture for almost a decade, bin Laden was located and killed by SEAL Team Six of the U. S. Navy in May 2011. S. many closings, evacuations, and cancellations followed, out of respect or fear of further attacks. Cleanup of the World Trade Center site was completed in May 2002, on November 18,2006, construction of One World Trade Center began at the World Trade Center site. The building was opened on November 3,2014. The origins of al-Qaeda can be traced to 1979 when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan, Osama bin Laden traveled to Afghanistan and helped organize Arab mujahideen to resist the Soviets. Under the guidance of Ayman al-Zawahiri, bin Laden became more radical, in 1996, bin Laden issued his first fatwā, calling for American soldiers to leave Saudi Arabia. Bin Laden used Islamic texts to exhort Muslims to attack Americans until the stated grievances are reversed, Muslim legal scholars have throughout Islamic history unanimously agreed that the jihad is an individual duty if the enemy destroys the Muslim countries, according to bin Laden. Bin Laden, who orchestrated the attacks, initially denied but later admitted involvement, in November 2001, U. S. forces recovered a videotape from a destroyed house in Jalalabad, Afghanistan. In the video, bin Laden is seen talking to Khaled al-Harbi, on December 27,2001, a second bin Laden video was released. In the video, he said, It has become clear that the West in general and it is the hatred of crusaders. Terrorism against America deserves to be praised because it was a response to injustice, aimed at forcing America to stop its support for Israel, the transcript refers several times to the United States specifically targeting Muslims. He said that the attacks were carried out because, we are free, and want to regain freedom for our nation. As you undermine our security we undermine yours, Bin Laden said he had personally directed his followers to attack the World Trade Center and the Pentagon
September 11 attacks
–
Top row: The Twin Towers of the
World Trade Center burning
September 11 attacks
–
1997 picture of Osama bin Laden
September 11 attacks
–
Khalid Sheikh Mohammed after his capture in 2003
September 11 attacks
–
Flight paths of the four planes used on September 11
30.
The Pentagon
–
The Pentagon is the headquarters of the United States Department of Defense, located in Arlington County, Virginia, across the Potomac River from Washington, D. C. As a symbol of the U. S. military, The Pentagon is often used metonymically to refer to the U. S. Department of Defense, the Pentagon was designed by American architect George Bergstrom, and built by general contractor John McShain of Philadelphia. Ground was broken for construction on September 11,1941, General Brehon Somervell provided the major motive power behind the project, Colonel Leslie Groves was responsible for overseeing the project for the U. S. Army. The Pentagon is one of the worlds largest office buildings, with about 6,500,000 sq ft, approximately 23,000 military and civilian employees and about 3,000 non-defense support personnel work in the Pentagon. It has five sides, five floors above ground, two basement levels, and five ring corridors per floor with a total of 17.5 mi of corridors. It was the first significant foreign attack on Washingtons governmental facilities since the city was burned by the British, when World War II broke out in Europe, the War Department rapidly expanded in anticipation that the United States would be drawn into the conflict. Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson found the situation unacceptable, with the Munitions Building overcrowded, Stimson told U. S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt in May 1941 that the War Department needed additional space. On July 17,1941, a hearing took place, organized by Virginia congressman Clifton Woodrum. Reybold agreed to back to the congressman within five days. The War Department called upon its construction chief, General Brehon Somervell, Government officials agreed that the War Department building, officially designated Federal Office Building No 1, should be constructed across the Potomac River, in Arlington County, Virginia. Requirements for the new building were that it be no more than four stories tall, the requirements meant that, instead of rising vertically, the building would be sprawling over a large area. Possible sites for the building included the Department of Agricultures Arlington Experimental Farm, adjacent to Arlington National Cemetery, the site originally chosen was Arlington Farms which had a roughly pentagonal shape, so the building was planned accordingly as an irregular pentagon. Concerned that the new building could obstruct the view of Washington, D. C. from Arlington Cemetery, the building retained its pentagonal layout because a major redesign at that stage would have been costly, and Roosevelt liked the design. Freed of the constraints of the asymmetric Arlington Farms site, it was modified into a pentagon which resembled the star forts of the gunpowder age. While the project went through the process in late July 1941, Somervell selected the contractors, including John McShain, Inc. and Doyle and Russell. In addition to the Hoover Airport site and other government-owned land, construction of the Pentagon required an additional 287 acres, which were acquired at a cost of $2.2 million. The Hells Bottom neighborhood, a slum with numerous pawnshops, factories, approximately 150 homes, Later 300 acres of land were transferred to Arlington National Cemetery and to Fort Myer, leaving 280 acres for the Pentagon. Contracts totaling $31,100,000 were finalized with McShain and the contractors on September 11
The Pentagon
–
The Pentagon in January 2008
The Pentagon
–
1945 map of the
Pentagon road network, including present-day
State Route 27 and part of the
Shirley Highway, as well as the
Main Navy and Munitions Buildings near the
Lincoln Memorial.
The Pentagon
–
Main Navy Building (foreground) and the
Munitions Building were temporary structures built during
World War I on the
National Mall. The Munitions Building served as the Department of War headquarters for several years before moving into the Pentagon.
The Pentagon
–
Southwest view of the Pentagon with the
Potomac River and
Washington Monument in background (1998).
31.
2003 invasion of Iraq
–
The 2003 invasion of Iraq lasted from 20 March to 1 May 2003 and signalled the start of the Iraq War, which was dubbed Operation Iraqi Freedom by the United States. 160,000 troops were sent by the Coalition into Iraq, during the invasion phase. About 130,000 were sent from the USA alone, with about 28,000 British soldiers, Australia,36 other countries were involved in its aftermath. In preparation for the invasion,100,000 U. S. troops were assembled in Kuwait by 18 February, the coalition forces also received support from Kurdish irregulars in Iraqi Kurdistan. Others place a greater emphasis on the impact of the September 11 attacks, and the role this played in changing U. S. strategic calculations. The invasion of Iraq was strongly opposed by some long-standing U. S. allies, including the governments of France, Germany, and New Zealand. Their leaders argued that there was no evidence of weapons of destruction in Iraq. According to the French academic Dominique Reynié, between 3 January and 12 April 2003,36 million people across the globe took part in almost 3,000 protests against the Iraq war. The invasion was preceded by an airstrike on the Presidential Palace in Baghdad on 20 March 2003, the following day, coalition forces launched an incursion into Basra Province from their massing point close to the Iraqi-Kuwaiti border. Massive air strikes across the country and against Iraqi command and control threw the army into chaos. The main body of forces continued their drive into the heart of Iraq. Most of the Iraqi military was defeated and Baghdad was occupied on 9 April. Other operations occurred against pockets of the Iraqi army, including the capture and occupation of Kirkuk on 10 April, Iraqi president Saddam Hussein and the central leadership went into hiding as the coalition forces completed the occupation of the country. On 1 May, an end of combat operations was declared, ending the invasion period. Hostilities of the 1991 Gulf War were suspended on 28 February 1991 and it was revealed that a biological weapons program in Iraq had begun in the early 1980s with help from the U. S. and Europe in violation of the Biological Weapons Convention of 1972. The investigation concluded there was no evidence the program had continued after the war. The U. S. and its allies then maintained a policy of containment towards Iraq, Iraqi military helicopters and planes regularly contested the no-fly zones. In October 1998, removing the Saddam regime became official U. S. foreign policy with enactment of the Iraq Liberation Act
2003 invasion of Iraq
–
U.S. Army
M1A1 Abrams tanks and their crews pose for a photo in front of the "
Hands of Victory " monument at
Baghdad 's Ceremony Square in November 2003.
2003 invasion of Iraq
–
Gen.
Anthony C. Zinni briefs reporters at
The Pentagon following Operation Desert Fox, 21 December 1998
2003 invasion of Iraq
–
A UN weapons inspector in Iraq, 2002.
2003 invasion of Iraq
–
Two US
F-16 Falcons prepare to depart
Prince Sultan Air Base in Saudi Arabia for a patrol as part of Operation Southern Watch, 2000.
32.
Saddam Hussein
–
Saddam Hussein Abd al-Majid al-Tikriti was the fifth President of Iraq, serving in this capacity from 16 July 1979 until 9 April 2003. In the early 1970s, Saddam nationalized oil and other industries, the state-owned banks were put under his control, leaving the system eventually insolvent mostly due to the Iran–Iraq War, the Gulf War, and UN sanctions. Through the 1970s, Saddam cemented his authority over the apparatuses of government as oil money helped Iraqs economy to grow at a rapid pace, positions of power in the country were mostly filled with Sunni Arabs, a minority that made up only a fifth of the population. Saddam formally rose to power in 1979, although he had been the de facto head of Iraq for several years prior. He suppressed several movements, particularly Shia and Kurdish movements, seeking to overthrow the government or gain independence, and maintained power during the Iran–Iraq War and the Gulf War. Whereas some in the Arab world lauded Saddam for his opposition to the United States, the total number of Iraqis killed by the security services of Saddams government in various purges and genocides is unknown, but the lowest estimate is 250,000. Saddams Baath party was disbanded and elections were held, following his capture on 13 December 2003, the trial of Saddam took place under the Iraqi Interim Government. On 5 November 2006, Saddam was convicted of charges of crimes against humanity related to the 1982 killing of 148 Iraqi Shiites and his execution was carried out on 30 December 2006. His mother, Subha Tulfah al-Mussallat, named her newborn son Saddam and he is always referred to by this personal name, which may be followed by the patronymic and other elements. He never knew his father, Hussein Abd al-Majid, who disappeared six months before Saddam was born, shortly afterward, Saddams 13-year-old brother died of cancer. The infant Saddam was sent to the family of his maternal uncle Khairallah Talfah until he was three and his mother remarried, and Saddam gained three half-brothers through this marriage. His stepfather, Ibrahim al-Hassan, treated Saddam harshly after his return, at about age 10, Saddam fled the family and returned to live in Baghdad with his uncle Kharaillah Talfah. Later in his relatives from his native Tikrit became some of his closest advisors and supporters. Under the guidance of his uncle he attended a high school in Baghdad. After secondary school Saddam studied at an Iraqi law school for three years, dropping out in 1957 at the age of 20 to join the revolutionary pan-Arab Baath Party, during this time, Saddam apparently supported himself as a secondary school teacher. Revolutionary sentiment was characteristic of the era in Iraq and throughout the Middle East, in Iraq progressives and socialists assailed traditional political elites. Moreover, the nationalism of Gamal Abdel Nasser in Egypt profoundly influenced young Baathists like Saddam. The rise of Nasser foreshadowed a wave of revolutions throughout the Middle East in the 1950s and 1960s, with the collapse of the monarchies of Iraq, Egypt, and Libya
Saddam Hussein
–
Saddam Hussein in 1979.
Saddam Hussein
–
Saddam Hussein and the
Ba'ath Party student cell,
Cairo, in the period 1959–1963
Saddam Hussein
–
Promoting women's literacy and education in the 1970s
Saddam Hussein
–
Saddam seen talking to
Michel Aflaq, the founder of
ba'athist thought, in 1988.
33.
Midland High School (Midland, Texas)
–
Midland High School is a public high school located in Midland, Texas and is part of Midland Independent School District. The original Midland High School was built in 1926 and was moved years later to a new building in 1949 where it currently sits today. In recent years, Midland High School has received major renovations including complete asbestos removal, also, renovations to their large gym including new floors and new bleachers. The practice field of the Midland High football team Memorial Stadium has also received a new turf, Midland High School hosts only high school sophomores, juniors, and seniors as Midland Freshman High School serves as a feeder school hosting freshman high school students. Both Midland High School and Midland Freshman High School use the school mascot. The current principal is Mr. Carlin Grammer, Midland High Schools history goes back to the establishment of Midland County back in 1885. It was the first school in Midland County, the one room school house was for all grades. Sixty-four students attended the first school in Midland County, in 1893, a two story brick schoolhouse was built and the top floor was for the secondary students. In 1907, Midland Independent School District was established, the first building to be officially named Midland High School was built in 1926 on the site of what is now Fasken Center, at 600 Texas Street. After 23 years in the Texas Street location, in 1949 Midland High School moved to its present location at 906 West Illinois, the land which Midland High was based on was donated by the Cowdens. The legendary bulldog mascot was chosen for Midland High in 1925 and in 1929 purple, over the course of 2003–2004, Midland High produced 5 National Merit Finalists,11 National Merit Commended Scholars,3 National Hispanic Scholars, and 2 National Hispanic Honorable Mention Scholars. The school has frequently criticized for abysmal academic performance, scoring in the bottom quartile in nearly every metric. In 2014 the school of 2,000 students produced only three National Merit Finalists, one of whom had already enrolled in a university the previous year. CATOICO, Midland High Schools equivalent of prom, was first established in 1929, CATOICO – pronounced commonly as cuh TOY cuh – is one of the oldest traditions in the state of Texas. The first CATOICO Queen was Martha Louise Nobles Black, originally, the title went to the girl who was the most successful yearbook fundraiser. Since 1939, the CATOICO court has been chosen by the student body, the first CATOICO coronation activities were in 1936. The CATOICO court still exists to this day, and the means of the process are different. Contrary to the going to the person with the most successful yearbook sales
Midland High School (Midland, Texas)
–
The main entrance of Midland High School
34.
Robert E. Lee High School (Midland, Texas)
–
Robert E. Lee High School, also known as Midland Lee, is a public, co-educational secondary school in Midland, Texas. Lee High School is a part of the Midland Independent School District, Lee Freshman High School is the 9th grade campus that feeds into Lee High School. The Robert E. Lee Senior High School campus houses sophomores through seniors, the hours of attendance for Lee High School are 8, 50-4,05. Lee High School follows a curriculum, with the main focus of standardized testing aimed towards the TAKS test. However, students are encouraged to take the PSAT their junior year and SATs their senior year, with SAT IIs, APs, and ACT tests falling significantly behind in number of students involved. | GPA is determined on a weighted 6.0 scale, with Honors/GT and AP classes weighted the same, Advanced classes weighted less, upon request, Lee will calculate a students GPA on a traditional 4.0 scale- a requirement of most out of state schools. Required Courses, Lee High School requires its students to complete PE credits, Arts credits, take a class, a government class. As per the state of Texas, all classes taught are taught abstinence only. Students are encouraged to sign abstinence pledges in 8th grade Study Skills classes as well as in tenth grade during an out-of-class presentation. Seven vocal ensembles Midland Lee has fielded successful varsity and junior varsity teams in football National Champions, baseball, basketball, volleyball, swimming, diving, tennis. Midland Lee competes in UIL district 6A, Lee High Schools athletics program follows UIL policies, and enforces all of its participating students to be passing all of their classes in order for them to compete in any athletic event. Laura Bush, former First Lady - Graduated in 1964 Andy Fickman General Tommy Franks, retired General in the United States Army and former Commander of the U. S. Central Command Tommy Lee Jones, actor and director Susan Graham, opera singer Junior Miller, National Football League tight end *Pro Bowl,8081 Randy Velarde, former MLB player. Williams, former member of the Texas Railroad Commission and 2012 congressional candidate Eric Winston, National Football League offensive tackle Austin Ligon, Co-Founder and Former CEO, CarMax, Inc. Tyrone Thurman, All-American Texas Tech football player Jake Young, football player Robert E. Lee High School Lee Freshman High School
Robert E. Lee High School (Midland, Texas)
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Texas 6A
Robert E. Lee High School (Midland, Texas)
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Robert E. Lee High School
35.
Midland, Texas
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Midland is a city in and the county seat of Midland County, Texas, United States, on the Southern Plains of the states western area. A small portion of the city extends into Martin County, at the 2010 census, the population of Midland was 111,147, and a 2015 estimate gave a total of 132,950, making it the twenty-fourth most populous city in the state of Texas. Due to the oil boom in Midland, certain officials have given population estimates above 155,000, the metropolitan area is also a component of the larger Midland−Odessa, Texas Combined Statistical Area, which had an estimated population of 295,987 on July 1,2012. People in Midland are called Midlanders, Midland was founded as the midway point between Fort Worth and El Paso on the Texas and Pacific Railroad in 1881. It is the hometown of former First Lady Laura Bush, and the home of former Presidents George H. W. Bush and George W. Bush. Midland was established in June 1881 as Midway Station, on the Texas, Midland became the county seat of Midland County in March 1885, when that county was first organized and separated from Tom Green County. By 1890, it had one of the most important cattle shipping centers in the state. The city was incorporated in 1906, and by 1910 the city established its first fire department, soon, Midland was transformed into the administrative center of the West Texas oil fields. During the Second World War, Midland was the largest bombardier training base in the country, a second boom period began after the war, with the discovery and development of the Spraberry Trend, still ranked as the third-largest oil field in the United States by total reserves. Yet another boom period took place during the 1970s, with the oil prices associated with the oil. Today, the Permian Basin produces one fifth of the total petroleum. Midlands economy still relies heavily on petroleum, however, the city has diversified to become a regional telecommunications. By August 2006, a period of crude oil production had caused a significant workforce deficit. According to the Midland Chamber of Commerce, at that time there were almost 2,000 more jobs available in the Permian Basin than there were workers to fill them, John Howard Griffin wrote a history of Midland in 1959, Land of the High Sky. In 1967, the U. S. Supreme Court heard the case of Avery v. Midland County, Midland mayor Hank Avery had sued Midland County, challenging the electoral-districting scheme in effect for elections to the County Commissioners Court. The county districts geographically quartered the county, but the city of Midland, in the northwestern quarter, the majority of the U. S. Supreme Court held that the districting inequality violated the Fourteenth Amendments Equal Protection clause. The dissenting minority held that this example of the Warren Courts policy of incorporation at the local-government level exceeded the Courts constitutional authority, Midland is located at 32°0′N 102°6′W, in the Permian Basin in the plains of West Texas. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 71.5 square miles
Midland, Texas
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Downtown Midland in 2007
Midland, Texas
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Seal
Midland, Texas
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A sandstorm passes over Midland on February 20, 1894, at 6:00 p.m. Windmills and houses are visible just below the whirling sand.
Midland, Texas
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Bank of America Building is Midland's tallest building.
36.
Laura Bush
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Laura Lane Welch Bush is the wife of the 43rd President of the United States, George W. Bush, and was the First Lady from 2001 to 2009. Bush graduated from Southern Methodist University in 1968 with a degree in education. After attaining her masters degree in science at the University of Texas at Austin. Bush met her husband, George W. Bush, in 1977. The couple had twin daughters in 1981, Bushs political involvement began during her marriage. She campaigned with her husband during his unsuccessful 1978 run for the United States Congress, as First Lady of Texas, Bush implemented many initiatives focused on health, education, and literacy. She became First Lady after her husband was inaugurated as president on January 20,2001, polled by The Gallup Organization as one of the most popular First Ladies, Bush was involved in national and global concerns during her tenure. She continued to advance her trademark interests of education and literacy by establishing the semi-annual National Book Festival in 2001 and she also advanced womens causes through The Heart Truth and Susan G. Komen for the Cure organizations. She represented the United States during her trips, which tended to focus on HIV/AIDS. Laura Lane Welch was born on November 4,1946 in Midland, Texas, Bush is of English, French, and Swiss ancestry. Her father was a builder and later successful real estate developer. Early on, her parents encouraged her to read, leading to what would become her love of reading and she said, I learned at home from my mother. When I was a girl, my mother would read stories to me. I have loved books and going to the library ever since, in the summer, I liked to spend afternoons reading in the library. I enjoyed the Little House on the Prairie and Little Women books, reading gives you enjoyment throughout your life. Bush has also credited her second grade teacher, Charlene Gnagy, on the night of November 6,1963, Laura Welch ran a stop sign and struck another car, resulting in the death of its driver. The victim was her friend and classmate Michael Dutton Douglas. By some accounts, Douglas had been Bushs boyfriend at one time, Bush and her passenger, both 17, were treated for minor injuries
Laura Bush
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Laura Bush
Laura Bush
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Laura Bush with husband Governor George W. (right) and father-in-law George H. W. (left) at the dedication of the
George Bush Presidential Library, 1997
Laura Bush
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Official portrait of Laura Bush
Laura Bush
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Romanian children greet President and Mrs. Bush upon their landing in
Bucharest, 2002
37.
University of Texas at Austin
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Founded in 1881 as The University of Texas, its campus is in Austin, Texas—approximately 1 mile from the Texas State Capitol. The institution has the nations seventh-largest single-campus enrollment, with over 50,000 undergraduate and graduate students and over 24,000 faculty, UT Austin was inducted into the American Association of Universities in 1929, becoming only the third university in the American South to be elected. It is a center for academic research, with research expenditures exceeding $550 million for the 2014–2015 school year. J. Pickle Research Campus and the McDonald Observatory, among university faculty are recipients of the Nobel Prize, Pulitzer Prize, the Wolf Prize, the Emmy Award, the Turing Award, and the National Medal of Science, as well as many other awards. UT Austin student athletes compete as the Texas Longhorns and are members of the Big 12 Conference and its Longhorn Network is the only sports network featuring the college sports of a single university. The first mention of a university in Texas can be traced to the 1827 constitution for the Mexican state of Coahuila y Tejas. Although Title 6, Article 217 of the Constitution promised to establish education in the arts and sciences. On April 18,1838, An Act to Establish the University of Texas was referred to a committee of the Texas Congress. On January 26,1839, the Texas Congress agreed to set aside fifty leagues of land towards the establishment of a publicly funded university, in addition,40 acres in the new capital of Austin were reserved and designated College Hill. In 1845, Texas was annexed into the United States, interestingly, the states Constitution of 1845 failed to mention higher education. On February 11,1858, the Seventh Texas Legislature approved O. B,102, an act to establish the University of Texas, which set aside $100,000 in United States bonds toward construction of the states first publicly funded university. The legislature also designated land reserved for the encouragement of railroad construction toward the universitys endowment, Texas secession from the Union and the American Civil War delayed repayment of the borrowed monies. At the end of the Civil War in 1865, The University of Texas endowment was just over $16,000 in warrants, the more valuable lands reverted to the fund to support general education in the state. The legislature additionally appropriated $256,272.57 to repay the funds taken from the university in 1860 to pay for frontier defense, the 1883 grant of land increased the land in the Permanent University Fund to almost 2.2 million acres. Under the Act of 1858, the university was entitled to just over 1,000 acres of land for every mile of railroad built in the state. On March 30,1881, the legislature set forth the structure and organization. By popular election on September 6,1881, Austin was chosen as the site, galveston, having come in second in the election was designated the location of the medical department. On November 17,1882, on the original College Hill, smite the earth, smite the rocks with the rod of knowledge and fountains of unstinted wealth will gush forth
University of Texas at Austin
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The university's Old Main building in 1903
University of Texas at Austin
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The University of Texas at Austin
University of Texas at Austin
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The Tower, completed in 1937, stands 307 ft (94 m) tall and dons
different colors of lighting on special occasions.
University of Texas at Austin
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Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museum
38.
Delta Upsilon
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Delta Upsilon is the sixth oldest extant, all-male, college Greek-letter organization in North America. Founded on November 4,1834, at Williams College in Williamstown, Massachusetts, it is popularly and informally known as Delta U or DU, though historically set at New England private universities, as of 2012 it had 76 chapters across the United States and Canada. A number of its buildings are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, in 2013, Business Insider named Delta Upsilon one of the 17 Fraternities with Top Wall Street Alumni. Notable members include president of the United States James A. Garfield, president of Colombia Juan Manuel Santos, pearson, Linus Pauling, Joseph P. Kennedy, Lou Holtz, Kurt Vonnegut, Jr. Charles Evans Hughes, Les Aspin, and others. The move was in response to the establishment of Kappa Alpha and Sigma Phi at the college and, unlike those fraternities, growth of the Social Fraternity was exponential. By 1838 two-thirds of all students at Williams belonged to the society engaged in militant agitation against the other two fraternities. One particularly violent incident occurred in 1839 when Oudens assaulted the Kappa Alpha house, more refined conflict took the form of pamphlets and debate. An 1855 debate proposed by Kappa Alpha against the Oudens was called-off after the Social Fraternity appointed James Garfield, in November 1847 Williams Social Fraternity met with similar societies that had recently been formed at Union College, Hamilton College, and Amherst College and formed the Anti-Secret Confederation. A second meeting of the Anti-Secret Confederation in 1852 saw fraternities from Wesleyan University, Case Western Reserve University, Colby College, and the University of Vermont join. At the 1862 convention, the mother chapter, Williams, declared the purposes of the fraternity had been corrupted and, over the objections of the other chapters. Two years later it dissolved itself, a chapter would eventually be restored. However, Williams being the first chapter and, therefore, self-chartering and it was permanently erased when Williams College banned all fraternities in 1962. In 1879, Delta Upsilon formally disavowed its policy of anti-secrecy and this explanation has been more skeptically received by some, with one period observer caustically noting that Delta Upsilon reveals very little more of what it does than the latter. Others commented that chapter meetings were closed to all but initiated members, therefore, it was proffered, the description of the fraternity as a private society rather than a non-secret one might be more accurate. At the turn of the century the fraternitys growth plateaued due, in part, in 1898, Delta Upsilon joined the recent trend of fraternity expansion into Canada by chartering a chapter at McGill University in Montreal. However, most expansion in this came in the form of the annexation of established local fraternities. Zeta Chi at Baker University was one local which unsuccessfully petitioned for annexation by Delta Upsilon, in 1909, Charles Evans Hughes led the incorporation of the fraternity. By 1920 the fraternity had grown to 44 chapters, gen. Clark became the first Canadian to hold the Delta Upsilon presidency
Delta Upsilon
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Duck (unofficial)
Delta Upsilon
Delta Upsilon
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Delta Upsilon's mother chapter was founded in 1834 in the West College building (pictured) at Williams College.
Delta Upsilon
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Kōjirō Matsukata (bottom right), the son of
Prince Matsukata, was initiated into Delta Upsilon at
Rutgers University in 1885.
39.
University of Texas at Arlington
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The University of Texas at Arlington is a public research university located in Arlington, Texas. The campus is in the Dallas–Fort Worth–Arlington metropolitan area, and is adjacent to downtown Arlington, the university was founded in 1895 and was in the Texas A&M University System for several decades until joining The University of Texas System in 1965. In fall 2016, the student population of 39,714 was the largest in North Texas, the Carnegie Foundation in 2016 classified UT Arlington as one of 115 universities in the category of R-1, Doctoral Universities – Highest Research Activity. The Chronicle of Higher Education named UT Arlington one of the fastest growing research universities in the nation. Times Higher Education ranks UT Arlington #123 in its list of best universities in the US for 2016, the Center for World University Rankings places UT Arlington at #175 in the US for 2016. The university is the third largest producer of college graduates in Texas and offers 85 baccalaureate,74 masters, UT Arlington participates in 14 intercollegiate sports as a Division I member of the NCAA and Sun Belt Conference. UT Arlington sport teams are known as the Mavericks. The university traces its roots back to the opening of Arlington College in September 1895, Arlington College was established as a private school for primary through secondary level students, equivalent to the modern 1st–10th grades. At the time, the school system in the city of Arlington was underfunded and understaffed. Local merchant Edward Emmett Rankin organized fellow citizens of the city to donate materials, Rankin also convinced the two co-principals of the public school in Arlington, Lee Morgan Hammond and William H. Trimble, to invest in and hold the same positions at Arlington College. In the first few years, between 75 and 150 students were enrolled in the college, the public school began to rent space at Arlington College, and was eventually sold to the city in 1900. Although the public system was set to improve, Arlington College was closed. Carlisle was already established as an educator in the North Texas region. His program consisted of a balance between work and military training. Enrollment increased to 150 students by 1905, and he began an expansion of the campus. Baseball, football, basketball, and track teams were begun between 1904–1908, around the same time, new barracks, a track, a gymnasium, and an indoor pool were built. The academy became known as one of the best at its level in the country, unfortunately, enrollment did not continue to increase with the expansion in facilities and Carlisle ran into serious financial problems. Lawsuits for the mortgages on the property were filed in 1911, in the fall of 1913, Henry Kirby Taylor moved from Missouri where he was president of the Northwest State Teachers College to set up another military academy called Arlington Training School
University of Texas at Arlington
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An undated image of the first building on the campus of Arlington College
University of Texas at Arlington
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The University of Texas at Arlington
University of Texas at Arlington
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Bird's-eye painting of Carlisle Military Academy, 1911
University of Texas at Arlington
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The Science Building at the North Texas Agricultural College in 1941. The building was constructed in 1928 and has since been renamed Preston Hall. It is one of the oldest surviving structures on the campus of the University of Texas at Arlington.
40.
Master of Public Administration
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Instruction includes the roles, development, and principles of public administration, public policy management and implementation. More recently, Governance Network management has emerged as an approach to public administration. S. Other notable MPA graduates include Bill OReilly, in recent years, there has been a gradual convergence between the MPA and the Master of Public Policy degrees. Many educational institutions are now offering MPA degrees via online instruction, there are also Executive MPA programs for professionals who have prior work and management experience. However, some MPA programs in the United States are housed in Business schools, in other cases, they bring together multidisciplinary approaches and methodologies as to give their students a more comprehensive overview of the current challenges of public administration. A Master of Public Administration can be acquired at various institutions, see List of schools offering MPA degrees. S
Master of Public Administration
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Example of a diploma from
Harvard University conferring the MPA degree. It belongs to
Felipe Calderón, former president of Mexico.
41.
Shippensburg University of Pennsylvania
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It is one of the 14 state universities that comprise the Pennsylvania State System of Higher Education. Shippensburg University is accredited by the Middle States Association of Colleges, in 1917 the school was purchased by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. On June 4,1926, the school was authorized to grant the bachelor of science in education degree in elementary, the school received a charter on October 12,1926, making it the first normal school in Pennsylvania to become a state teachers college. On June 3,1927, the State Council of Education authorized the school to change its name to the State Teachers College at Shippensburg, the business education curriculum was approved on December 3,1937. The State Council of Education approved graduate work leading to the master of education degree on January 7,1959, on January 8,1960, the name change to Shippensburg State College was authorized. On November 12,1982, the governor of the Commonwealth signed Senate Bill 506 establishing the State System of Higher Education, Shippensburg State College was designated Shippensburg University of Pennsylvania effective July 1,1983. In 1985, many of the historic buildings of the campus. More than 100 undergraduate programs are offered in the College of Arts and Sciences, the College of Education and Human Services, and the John L. Grove College of Business. More than 50 masters degree programs in 17 fields of study are offered by the School of Graduate Studies,2 doctoral programs, Arts and Sciences Education and Human Services John L. Grove College of Business Elnetta G. S. News & World Report again ranked Shippensburg University among the top universities in the North in its book Americas Best Colleges 2016. In the annual rankings, Shippensburg is tied for 82nd among all institutions in the North region and it was named one of the 100 best values among public colleges in Kiplingers Personal Finance. Shippensburgs John L. Grove College of Business has maintained an AACSB accreditation since 1981, in addition to the university being recognized overall, Grove College was again recognized in the U. S. News & World Reports Best Undergraduate Business Programs category. The college was ranked 309 out of 655 undergraduate programs accredited by the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business, the library collection includes over 2 million items, including bound volumes, micro-form pieces, periodicals, audiovisual titles, government documents, and University archives. The Information and Computing Technologies Center maintains a network with a number of computer labs for student use. Each student at SU receives an email account and access to the Internet, at the end of the 2009 school year, the Ezra Lehman Memorial Library first floor was completely renovated with new work stations, computers, and a new look. Shippensburg University is an NCAA Division II school and one of eighteen schools to compete in the Pennsylvania State Athletic Conference. The school maintains intercollegiate programs for baseball, basketball, cross country, field hockey, football, lacrosse, soccer, softball, track & field, swimming, tennis, volleyball and wrestling. Several club sports, such as rugby, Ultimate Frisbee and the hockey team
Shippensburg University of Pennsylvania
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Old Main
Shippensburg University of Pennsylvania
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Shippensburg University of Pennsylvania
Shippensburg University of Pennsylvania
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Keystone marker for the university
Shippensburg University of Pennsylvania
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Luhrs Performing Art Center was completed in Fall of 2005.
42.
Armed Forces Staff College
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The Joint Forces Staff College located in Norfolk, Virginia, was established as the Armed Forces Staff College in 1946 and incorporated into the National Defense University in August 1981. It educates and acculturates joint and multinational warfighters to plan and lead at the operational level, military operations increasingly require the Armed Services to work jointly and JFSC provides students the tools to operate in a joint environment. JFSC is composed of four schools, each with different student populations, the demands of World War II brought out the urgent need for joint action by ground, sea, and air forces. To alleviate the friction and misunderstanding resulting from lack of joint experience, ANSCOL conducted a four-month course that was successful in training officers for joint command and staff duties. ANSCOL, which had established to meet the immediate needs of war, was discontinued upon its conclusion. A joint committee was appointed to prepare a directive for a new school and this directive, which was approved by the Joint Chiefs of Staff on 28 June 1946, established the Armed Forces Staff College. Responsibility for the operation and maintenance of its facilities was charged to the Chief of Naval Operations, following a temporary residence in Washington, D. C. AFSC was established in Norfolk, Virginia, on August 13,1946, the site, formerly a U. S. Naval Receiving Station, was selected by the Secretaries of War and Navy because of its immediate availability and its proximity to varied high-level military activities. There were 150 students from all Services in the first class and they assembled in converted administration buildings on February 3,1947 to be greeted by the first commandant, Air Force Lieutenant General Delos C. The faculty officers came from joint assignments in all theaters of World War II, with the construction of Normandy Hall in 1962, AFSC completed its transition from a temporary to a permanent institution. AFSC was assigned to the National Defense University on 12 August 1981, on 30 October 2000, the President Bill Clinton signed the Defense Authorization Bill renaming Armed Forces Staff College to the Joint Forces Staff College. The staff, faculty, and students are assigned by each Service to foster a joint atmosphere. This 10-week satellite program course with equal air, land, and sea service is offered by JFSC and this model reflects input from the combatant commands, which preferred the 10-week, full-time option rather than a longer-term, after-hours option that was originally proposed. In the 2012 National Defense Authorization Act, Congress authorized a five-year test of non-resident JPME II at no more than two combatant command headquarters. S, although most of the students come from USCENTCOM and USSOCOM, one international fellow and one interagency student also attend each class. Congress requires the Secretary of Defense to report on the value of the program in 2015, pending congressional approval, the satellite option may be offered to other combatant commands as soon as 2016. The satellite program complements the existing JPME II course offered on-site at JFSC in Norfolk, being identical in length, the only academic difference is in the lessons on the elements of operational design, which use locally relevant case studies. Each year, about a students graduate from the 10-week Joint. The course had been taught since 2004. S, Congress, since the Department of Defense had already initiated an investigative inquiry
Armed Forces Staff College
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Joint Forces Staff College
43.
United States Army War College
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The United States Army War College is a U. S. Army educational institution in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, on the 500-acre campus of the historic Carlisle Barracks. It provides graduate-level instruction to senior officers and civilians to prepare them for senior leadership assignments. Each year, a number of Army colonels and lieutenant colonels are considered by a board for admission, approximately 800 students attend at any one time, half in a two-year-long distance learning program, and the other half in an on-campus, full-time resident program lasting ten months. Upon completion, the college grants its graduates a masters degree in Strategic Studies, Army applicants must have already completed the U. S. Army Command and General Staff College, the required Professional Military Education for officers in the rank of major. Majors with the specialty of Function Area 59, Strategist, formerly Strategic Plans and Policy, also attend their qualification course, the Basic Strategic Arts Program, at the college. The Army War College is one of the three senior service colleges of the U. S. Department of Defense, joined by the Naval War College for the U. S. Navy, the Army War College is a split-functional institution. While a great deal of emphasis is placed on research, students are instructed in leadership, strategy. Established from the learned in the Spanish–American War, the College was founded by Secretary of War, Elihu Root. Washington Barracks—now called Fort Lesley J. McNair—in Washington, D. C. was chosen as the site, theodore Roosevelt attended the Masonic laying of the cornerstone of Roosevelt Hall on 21 February 1903. The first president of the Army War College was Major General Samuel B. M. Young in July 1902, the College remained at Washington Barracks until the 1940s, when it was closed due to World War II. It reopened in 1950 at Fort Leavenworth, and moved one year later to its present location, the Basic Strategic Art Program is one of the academic programs taught at the U. S. Army War College. FA59 officers have deployed to combat since the onset of the Global War on Terror in 2001, since then, graduates of this program served in key positions in Iraq, Afghanistan, all combatant commands, and at the Pentagon. The Peacekeeping and Stability Operations Institute is located at the War College, the institutes mission is to serve as the U. S. S. S. Army heraldic entitlements for the War College What Is the War College, a May 2004 article from Slate
United States Army War College
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Elihu Root
United States Army War College
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U.S. Army War College
Shoulder Sleeve Insignia
44.
United States Army Basic Training
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It is carried out at several different Army posts around the United States. Basic Training is designed to be intense and challenging. The challenge comes as much from the difficulty of training as it does from the psychological adjustment to an unfamiliar way of life. Basic Training is divided into two parts, Basic Combat Training and Advanced Individual Training, Basic Combat Training consists of the first ten weeks of the total Basic Training cycle, and is identical for all Army, Army Reserve, and Army National Guard recruits. Advanced Individual Training consists of the remainder of the total Basic Training period, as such, AIT is different for each available Army career path, or Military Occupational Specialty. AIT courses can last anywhere from 4 to 52 weeks, soldiers are still continually tested for physical fitness and weapons proficiency, and are subject to the same duties, strict daily schedule, and disciplinary rules as in BCT. Drill sergeants are the responsible for most of the training that takes place in Basic Training. They are recognizable by their distinctive headgear, often called Smokey Bear hats, Battle buddies generally refer to partners in a combat scenario. However, throughout Basic Training, the term is used to describe a disciplinary principle whereby recruits are generally prohibited from walking anywhere alone, when traveling away from the platoon or a drill sergeant, recruits are expected to travel in pairs, known as battle buddies. Battle buddies are sometimes assigned, or can be chosen by recruits when the need to travel arises, a typical day in Basic Training generally follows this schedule. Times can change depending on location, commanding officers, or when drill sergeants see a need for variation and they wake the next pair of recruits at the end of their one-hour shift. This duty is called fire guard, fire guard stems back to the days of wooden barracks and wood-burning stoves. The fire guard would watch the stoves to make sure that the barracks would not catch fire, charge of quarters, commonly called CQ, functions in a somewhat similar manner. CQ shifts rotate throughout the company, with just two recruits from the company staying awake per shift. The actual charge of quarters is the sergeant, and the pair of recruits staying awake are the runners. They perform some of the duties as the fire guard shift. Only the CQ on duty is permitted to open the doors. For many hands-on instructional sessions, recruits are transported to other locations on-post that specialize in the given subject, classes are also given in the use of the AT4 shoulder-fired anti-tank missile launcher
United States Army Basic Training
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Contents
United States Army Basic Training
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Morning company formation at Fort Jackson in Columbia, South Carolina.
United States Army Basic Training
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Fort Jackson BCT emblem
United States Army Basic Training
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Reception in the Army
45.
Fort Leonard Wood (military base)
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Fort Leonard Wood is a United States Army installation located in the Missouri Ozarks. The main gate is located on the boundary of St. Robert. The post was created in December 1940 and named in honor of General Leonard Wood in January 1941, originally intended to train infantry troops, in 1941 it became an engineer training post with the creation of the Engineer Replacement Training Center. During World War II Italian and German POWs were interned at the fort, in 1984, as part of the Base Realignment and Closure process, most of the U. S. Army Engineer Schools operations were consolidated at Fort Leonard Wood. Before that, officer training was conducted at Fort Belvoir Virginia, the current commanding general is Major General Kent D. Savre and the command sergeant major is Command Sergeant Major Roy Ward. However, after a time the change of name was successfully challenged by US legislators from Pennsylvania where George G. Meade hero of Gettysburg was from. This left the name Leonard Wood unused and available for when the current base was built in 1941, the installation has historically had a training role under TRADOC rather than a FORSCOM role dating back to its origins in World War II as an engineer replacement training post. During the Gulf War, the 5th Engineer Battalion from the fort saw action in the Middle East, the 4th Maneuver Enhancement Brigade was activated at the fort on 2 October 2008 and was inactivated June 17,2015. The Maneuver Support Center of Excellence offers Basic Combat Training for most non-combat arms soldiers and it also provides non-combat engineer MOS training, OSUT for combat engineers and bridging engineers, and AIT for military police. All training is gender integrated as is Fort Jackson, newly commissioned second lieutenants in the CBRN, Engineer, and Military Police branches attend the Basic Officer Leader Course Phase B at the Maneuver Support Center of Excellence. Waynesville Regional Airport at Forney Field serves the community with air service, even though it is on Fort Leonard Wood, it is jointly run by the cities of Waynesville and St. Robert, and is available for civilian use by private pilots and scheduled commercial passenger service. Names for U. S. Route 66 vary – at different places, it is called Teardrop Road, Highway Z, Old Route 66, Historic Route 66, state-posted signs mark most of the alignment of the road. Route 7 runs north from Interstate 44 exit 150 about three miles west of Buckhorn to Richland, then out of the county toward the Lake of the Ozarks region. Route 17 crosses Interstate 44 at exit 153 at Buckhorn, runs east through Waynesville, turns north to Crocker, Highway T runs north from Highway 17 at Waynesville to Swedeborg, where it meets and ends at Highway 133 about halfway between Richland and Crocker. Route 28 crosses Interstate 44 at exit 163 at the edge of St. Robert, runs north through Dixon. It was used as a Civil War hospital for Union troops who were garrisoned above the city in Fort Wayne, the Old Courthouse Museum in downtown Waynesville is near the Old Stagecoach Stop. The Elbow Inn is a bar that is a frequent stop on the original U. S. Route 66 alignment. Fort Leonard Wood also has its own post utility railway connecting to the railway system
Fort Leonard Wood (military base)
46.
Missouri
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Missouri is a state in the Midwestern region of the United States, achieving statehood in 1821. With over six million residents, it is the eighteenth most populous state, the largest urban areas are St. Louis, Kansas City, Springfield, and Columbia. The capitol is in Jefferson City on the Missouri River, the state is the twenty-first most extensive by area and is geographically diverse. The Northern Plains were once covered by glaciers, then tallgrass prairie, in the South are the Ozarks, a forested highland, providing timber, minerals, and recreation. The Mississippi River forms the border of the state, eventually flowing into the swampy Missouri Bootheel. Humans have inhabited what we now call Missouri for at least 12,000 years, the Mississippian culture built cities and mounds, before declining in the 1300s. When European explorers arrived in the 1600s they encountered the Osage, the French established Louisiana, a part of New France, and founded Ste. Genevieve in 1735 and St. Louis in 1764, after a brief period of Spanish rule, the United States acquired the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. Americans from the Upland South, including enslaved African Americans, rushed into the new Missouri Territory, many from Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee settled in the Boonslick area of Mid-Missouri. Soon after, heavy German immigration formed the Missouri Rhineland, Missouri played a central role in the westward expansion of the United States, as memorialized by the Gateway Arch. The Pony Express, Oregon Trail, Santa Fe Trail, as a border state, Missouris role in the American Civil War was complex and there were many conflicts within. After the war, both Greater St. Louis and the Kansas City metropolitan area became centers of industrialization and business, today, the state is divided into 114 counties and the independent city of St. Louis. Missouris culture blends elements from the Midwestern and Southern United States, the musical styles of ragtime, Kansas City jazz, and St. Louis Blues, developed in Missouri. The well-known Kansas City-style barbecue, and lesser known St. Louis-style barbecue can be found across the state, St. Louis is also a major center of beer brewing, Anheuser-Busch is the largest producer in the world. Missouri wine is produced in the nearby Missouri Rhineland and Ozarks, Missouris alcohol laws are among the most permissive in the United States. Outside of the large cities popular tourist destinations include the Lake of the Ozarks, U. S. President Harry S. Truman is from Missouri. Other well known Missourians include Mark Twain, Walt Disney, Chuck Berry, some of the largest companies based in the state include Express Scripts, Monsanto, Emerson Electric, Edward Jones, and OReilly Auto Parts. Missouri has been called the Mother of the West and the Cave State, however, Missouris most famous nickname is the Show Me State, the state is named for the Missouri River, which was named after the indigenous Missouri Indians, a Siouan-language tribe
Missouri
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A physiographic map of Missouri.
Missouri
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Flag
Missouri
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The
Bell Mountain Wilderness of southern Missouri's
Mark Twain National Forest
Missouri
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External video
47.
Cryptanalysis
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Cryptanalysis is the study of analyzing information systems in order to study the hidden aspects of the systems. Cryptanalysis is used to breach cryptographic security systems and gain access to the contents of encrypted messages, methods for breaking modern cryptosystems often involve solving carefully constructed problems in pure mathematics, the best-known being integer factorization. Given some encrypted data, the goal of the cryptanalyst is to gain as much information as possible about the original, attacks can be classified based on what type of information the attacker has available. Ciphertext-only, the cryptanalyst has access only to a collection of ciphertexts or codetexts, known-plaintext, the attacker has a set of ciphertexts to which he knows the corresponding plaintext. Chosen-plaintext, the attacker can obtain the corresponding to an arbitrary set of plaintexts of his own choosing. Adaptive chosen-plaintext, like an attack, except the attacker can choose subsequent plaintexts based on information learned from previous encryptions. Related-key attack, Like a chosen-plaintext attack, except the attacker can obtain ciphertexts encrypted under two different keys, the keys are unknown, but the relationship between them is known, for example, two keys that differ in the one bit. Attacks can also be characterised by the resources they require and those resources include, Time — the number of computation steps which must be performed. Memory — the amount of required to perform the attack. Data — the quantity and type of plaintexts and ciphertexts required for a particular approach and its sometimes difficult to predict these quantities precisely, especially when the attack isnt practical to actually implement for testing. But academic cryptanalysts tend to provide at least the estimated order of magnitude of their attacks difficulty, saying, for example, the results of cryptanalysis can also vary in usefulness. Global deduction — the attacker discovers a functionally equivalent algorithm for encryption and decryption, instance deduction — the attacker discovers additional plaintexts not previously known. Information deduction — the attacker gains some Shannon information about plaintexts not previously known, distinguishing algorithm — the attacker can distinguish the cipher from a random permutation. Academic attacks are often against weakened versions of a cryptosystem, such as a cipher or hash function with some rounds removed. In academic cryptography, a weakness or a break in a scheme is defined quite conservatively, it might require impractical amounts of time, memory. Furthermore, it might reveal a small amount of information, enough to prove the cryptosystem imperfect. Finally, an attack might only apply to a version of cryptographic tools, like a reduced-round block cipher. In practice, they are viewed as two sides of the coin, secure cryptography requires design against possible cryptanalysis
Cryptanalysis
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Close-up of the rotors in a
Fialka cipher machine
Cryptanalysis
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The decrypted
Zimmermann Telegram.
Cryptanalysis
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The
Bombe replicated the action of several
Enigma machines wired together. Each of the rapidly rotating drums, pictured above in a
Bletchley Park museum mockup, simulated the action of an Enigma rotor.
48.
Fort Devens
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Fort Devens is a United States Army Reserve military installation in the towns of Ayer and Shirley, in Middlesex County and Harvard in Worcester County in the U. S. state of Massachusetts. It was named after jurist and Civil War general Charles Devens, the nearby Devens Reserve Forces Training Area is located in Lancaster. Although closed in 1996, the fort was reopened the day as the Devens Reserve Forces Training Area. The name reverted to Fort Devens in May 2007, the fort has a population of 306 enlisted personnel,2,151 reservists,348 civilians, and 1,399 family members. It also maintains 25 ranges,21 training areas, and 15 maneuver areas on nearly 5,000 acres of land, furthermore, it is also home to the United States Army Base Camp Systems Integration Laboratory as well as the United States Army System Integration Laboratory. Part of the area of the military base is now home to Federal Medical Center, Devens. The first military base on the site was established by Major Simon Willard, willards home was situated near the Verbeck Gate of Fort Devens, and was destroyed in 1676 in a Nehântick raid during King Philips War. A memorial erected in 1934 marks the location today, during the Civil War the site was used for Camp Stevens, home to the 53rd Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry. Camp Devens was established on September 5,1917 as a cantonment for training soldiers during World War I. It was a center for war selectees and became a demobilization center after the war. Three divisions were activated and trained at Devens during the war, Robert Goddard briefly used the post for his rocket operations in 1929. The camp became a permanent installation in 1931 and was named Fort Devens the following year, a few years later, Fort Devens Army Airfield was established. In 1940, at the onset of World War II, Fort Devens was designated a reception center for all men in New England who would serve one year as draftees, a massive $25 million building project was begun, including more than 1200 wooden buildings and an airfield. The 1st, 32nd, and 45th Divisions trained at Devens during the war, Devens also housed a prisoner of war camp for German and Italian prisoners from 1944 to 1946. It was designated as early as 1942 for detaining enemy aliens of Italian, German, the 7th Infantry Regiment, 3rd Infantry Division was located at Fort Devens from 1946 to 1950. The 7th Infantry deployed to San Francisco, California and sailed for Japan on 20 August 1950, arriving on 16 September 1950 to marry-up with the 15th Infantry Regiment and the division headquarters. In the 1950s or 1960s the fort was home to the 56th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, part of 1st Region, on 15 February 1958 the 2nd Infantry Brigade was re-activated at Fort Devens, Massachusetts as the Pentomic 2nd Infantry Brigade with its own shoulder sleeve insignia. It spent the five years training in northern Massachusetts and Cape Cod
Fort Devens
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Old postcard of Army cantonment at Camp Devens
Fort Devens
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Barracks as seen from the air in 1995, now demolished
49.
Massachusetts
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It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
Massachusetts
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A portion of the north-central
Pioneer Valley in
Sunderland
Massachusetts
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Flag
Massachusetts
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Many coastal areas in Massachusetts provide breeding areas for species such as the
piping plover
Massachusetts
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The
Mayflower in Plymouth Harbor by
William Halsall (1882). The
Pilgrims were a group of
Puritans who founded
Plymouth in 1620.
50.
Private First Class
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Private first class is a military rank held by junior enlisted personnel. In the United States Army, recruits usually enter service as a private, Private, designated by a single chevron, is typically an automatic promotion after six months of service. Private first class, equivalent to NATO grade OR-3, is designated by a single chevron, soldiers who have achieved an associate degree or its equivalent are entitled to enter the Army at this pay grade. Advancement from private first class is typically to specialist, although occasionally it may be to corporal, the rank of private first class has existed since 1846 and, prior to 1919, its insignia consisted of the branch of service insignia without any arcs or chevrons. The Secretary of War approved an arc of one bar under the branch of service or trade insignia for privates first class on 22 July 1919. From August 5,1920 to May 28,1968, the insignia for private first class was a single chevron. On May 28,1968, the insignia was changed to its current form, consisting of a single chevron with one arc. In the United States Marine Corps, the rank of Private First Class is the second lowest, just under Lance Corporal and just above Private, equivalent to NATO grade OR-2, at the time the two ranks were directly equivalent. However, since 1968 when the US Army redesignated the E-3 paygrade as PFC, france has the rank of Soldat de première classe indicated with a single red chevron. The rank of private first class in the Singapore Armed Forces lies between the ranks of private and lance-corporal, introduced in 1983, it is awarded to hardworking conscript citizen-soldiers who performed well in their National Service term. Privates first class wear an insignia of a single chevron pointing down. The PFC rank is rarely awarded nowadays by the SAF since 2010s, all private enlistees are eligible to be promoted directly to lance corporal should they meet the minimum qualifying requirements and work performance. In the Vietnam Peoples Army, private first class is the highest junior enlisted rank, Private first class is below corporal and above private second class. The rank of private first class is similar to its original American counterpart, the insignia consist of a single chevron with a triangle below. The rank is also in use with the Philippine Marine Corps, comparative military ranks Gefreiter U. S. Army enlisted rank insignia U. S. Marine Corps enlisted rank insignia U. S. uniformed services pay grades United States military pay
Private First Class
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The SAF Private First Class rank insignia.
United States of America
United States Army
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