1.
Tongva language
–
The Tongva language is a Uto-Aztecan language formerly spoken by the Tongva, a Native American people who live in and around Los Angeles, California. Tongva is closely related to Serrano, the last fluent native speakers of Tongva lived in the early 20th century, but no evidence to this time and date can prove a fluent speaker in the last 150 years. The language is documented in the unpublished field notes of John Peabody Harrington made during that time. There are claims of native speakers of Tongva who have died as late as in the 1970s, evidence of the language also survives in modern toponymy of Southern California, including Pacoima, Tujunga, Topanga, Azusa, Cahuenga in Cahuenga Pass, and Cucamonga in Rancho Cucamonga. Additionally, the minor planet 50000 Quaoar was named after the Tongva creator god, the Gabrielino-Tongva Language Committee has created Tongva grammar lessons and songs, and a Tongva Facebook page introduces an audio of a new word, phrase or song daily. The following is a list of the consonants and vowels of the Tongva language, in parentheses is the spelling of the specific sound. Note that there are multiple orthographies for the Tongva language and certain letters represent more than one sound, Tongva is an agglutinative language, where words use suffixes and multiple morphemes for a variety of purposes. The Lords Prayer is called Eyoonak in Tongva, the following text was derived from old Mission records. Azusa = from the word -shuuk Ashuuksanga = his grandmother The table below gives the names of various missions in the Tongva language, Indigenous peoples of North America portal Native-languages. org, Gabrieliño Language Gabrielino language — overview at the Survey of California and Other Indian Languages. The Limu Project — active in Native California languages revitalization,2002 Tongva speech spoken at Cal Poly Pomona during the opening of a Tongva ethnobotanic garden, speech begins at 35,10. Keepers of Indigenous Ways, Tongva Language History & classes
2.
Clinton Hart Merriam
–
Clinton Hart Merriam was an American zoologist, mammalogist, ornithologist, entomologist, ethnographer, and naturalist. Clinton Hart Merriam was born in New York City in 1855 to Clinton Levi Merriam, a U. S. congressman, and Caroline Hart, a judges daughter and graduate of Rutgers Institute. The name Clinton, shared by both father and son, was in honor of New York governor DeWitt Clinton, whom the Merriam family had connections. At the age of fifteen, Merriams father took him to see naturalist Spencer F. Baird at the Smithsonian Institution, beginning in the Wasatch Mountains of Utah, the expedition pushed up through Idaho, Wyoming, and Montana and into the newly established Yellowstone National Park. Merriam returned from the expedition with 313 bird skins and 67 nests with eggs and his report from the trip appears in the Sixth Annual Report of the U. S. Geological Survey of the Territories and marks his first major contribution to the zoological literature. Again Professor Baird stepped in on behalf of Merriam, resolving the issue by recommending that Merriam return to school to prepare for college. Merriam followed Professor Bairds advice and prepared for college by attending Pingry Military School in Elizabeth, New Jersey and Williston Seminary in Easthampton, in 1874, Merriam attended the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale University, where he studied natural history and anatomy. Among the faculty there, Merriam received instruction from prominent figures as Alpheus Hyatt Verrill, Sidney Irving Smith. During this time, Merriam published a paper entitled Ornithological Notes from the South following a trip to Florida with his father. This interest in medicine and surgery led Merriam to move from Yale to the College of Physicians and Surgeons at Columbia University in 1877, in 1878, while at medical school, Merriam helped organize the Linnaean Society of New York and served as its first president. Merriam also was an member of the Nuttall Ornithological Club. Merriam graduated with his M. D. from Columbia University in 1879, from 1879-1885, after earning his M. D. Merriam returned to Locust Grove to practice medicine as a country doctor, becoming quite successful in the endeavor. During this time, Merriam invented scientific and surgical instruments as well as wrote a medical treatise, while practicing medicine, Merriam corresponded with his naturalist colleagues, and continued to build his collection of animal specimens, with a growing interest in mammals. At this time, Merriam became interested in the questions of species distribution. Merriam continued to expand his collection of mammal specimens through correspondence, purchase from local taxidermists. Through these efforts he met Vernon Bailey, a boy from Elk River, Minnesota with an impressive ability to collect species considered rare at the time. Merriam continued to employ Bailey as a collector throughout his career, remotely or as a travel companion, and Bailey would eventually marry Merriams younger sister, Florence, in 1899. By 1884, the year Merriam described his first new species, Atophyrax bendirii, Merriams working collection of mammals numbered over 7,000 specimens, rivaling any public collection at the time
3.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
4.
California
–
California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
5.
Spanish language
–
Spanish —also called Castilian —is a Romance language that originated in the Castile region of Spain, with hundreds of millions of native speakers around the world. It is usually considered the worlds second-most spoken native language after Mandarin Chinese and it is one of the few languages to use inverted question and exclamation marks. Spanish is a part of the Ibero-Romance group of languages, which evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in Iberia after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. Beginning in the early 16th century, Spanish was taken to the colonies of the Spanish Empire, most notably to the Americas, as well as territories in Africa, Oceania, around 75% of modern Spanish is derived from Latin. Greek has also contributed substantially to Spanish vocabulary, especially through Latin, Spanish vocabulary has been in contact from an early date with Arabic, having developed during the Al-Andalus era in the Iberian Peninsula. With around 8% of its vocabulary being Arabic in origin, this language is the second most important influence after Latin and it has also been influenced by Basque as well as by neighboring Ibero-Romance languages. It also adopted words from languages such as Gothic language from the Visigoths in which many Spanish names and surnames have a Visigothic origin. Spanish is one of the six languages of the United Nations. It is the language in the world by the number of people who speak it as a mother tongue, after Mandarin Chinese. It is estimated more than 437 million people speak Spanish as a native language. Spanish is the official or national language in Spain, Equatorial Guinea, speakers in the Americas total some 418 million. In the European Union, Spanish is the tongue of 8% of the population. Spanish is the most popular second language learned in the United States, in 2011 it was estimated by the American Community Survey that of the 55 million Hispanic United States residents who are five years of age and over,38 million speak Spanish at home. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 uses the term castellano to define the language of the whole Spanish State in contrast to las demás lenguas españolas. Article III reads as follows, El castellano es la lengua española oficial del Estado, las demás lenguas españolas serán también oficiales en las respectivas Comunidades Autónomas. Castilian is the official Spanish language of the State, the other Spanish languages as well shall be official in their respective Autonomous Communities. The Spanish Royal Academy, on the hand, currently uses the term español in its publications. Two etymologies for español have been suggested, the Spanish Royal Academy Dictionary derives the term from the Provençal word espaignol, and that in turn from the Medieval Latin word Hispaniolus, from—or pertaining to—Hispania
6.
Indigenous peoples of California
–
With over forty groups seeking to be federally recognized tribes, California has the second largest Native American population. The California cultural area does not exactly conform to the state of Californias boundaries, many tribes on the eastern border with Nevada are classified as Great Basin tribes, and some tribes on the Oregon border are classified as Plateau tribes. Tribes in Baja California who do not cross into California are classified as Indigenous peoples of Mexico, before European contact, native Californians spoke over 300 dialects of approximately 100 distinct languages. The majority of California Indian language belong either to highly localized language families with two or three members or are language isolates, of the remainder, most are Uto-Aztecan or Athapaskan languages. The Hokan superstock has the greatest time depth and has been most difficult to demonstrate, wiyot and Yurok are distantly related to Algonquian languages in a larger grouping called Algic. The several Athapaskan languages are relatively recent arrivals, no more recent than about 2000 years ago, evidence of human occupation of California dates from at least 19,000 years ago. Prior to European contact, California Indians had 500 distinct sub-tribes or groups, the size of California tribes today are small compared to tribes in other regions of the United States. Prior to contact with Europeans, the California region contained the highest Native American population density north of what is now Mexico. Because of the climate and easy access to food sources. Early Native Californians were hunter-gatherers, with seed collection becoming widespread around 9,000 BCE, due to the local abundance of food, tribes never developed agriculture or tilled the soil. Two early southern California cultural traditions include the La Jolla Complex, from 3000 to 2000 BCE, regional diversity developed, with the peoples making fine-tuned adaptations to local environments. Traits recognizable to historic tribes were developed by approximately 500 BCE, the indigenous people practiced various forms of sophisticated forest gardening in the forests, grasslands, mixed woodlands, and wetlands to ensure availability of food and medicine plants. They controlled fire on a scale to create a low-intensity fire ecology. By burning underbrush and grass, the natives revitalized patches of land, a form of fire-stick farming was used to clear areas of old growth to encourage new in a repeated cycle, a primitive permaculture. Different tribes encountered non-native European explorers and settlers at widely different times, the southern and central coastal tribes encountered Spanish and British explorers in the mid-16th century. Tribes such as the Quechan or Yuman Indians in present-day southeast California, tribes on the coast of northwest California, like the Miwok, Yurok, and Yokut, had contact with Russian explorers and seafarers in the late 18th century. In remote interior regions, some tribes did not meet non-natives until the mid-19th century, the Spanish began their long-term occupation in California in 1769 with the founding of Mission San Diego de Alcalá in San Diego. The Spanish built 20 additional missions in California and their introduction of European invasive plant species and non-native diseases resulted in unintended havoc and high fatalities for the Native populations
7.
Los Angeles Basin
–
The Los Angeles Basin is a sedimentary basin located in southern California, in a region known as the Peninsular Ranges. The basin is connected to an anomalous group of east-west trending chain of basin collectively known as the California Transverse Ranges. The present basin is a lowland area, whose floor is marked by elongate low ridges. Along with the Los Angeles Basin, the Santa Barbara Channel, the Ventura Basin, the San Fernando Valley, on the north, northeast, and east, the lowland basin is bound by the Santa Monica Mountains mountains and Puente, Elysian, Repetto hills. To the southeast, the basin is bordered by the Santa Ana mountains, the western boundary of the basin is marked by the Continental Borderland and is part of the onshore portion. The California borderland is characterized by north-west trending offshore ridges and basins, the Los Angeles Basin is notable for its great structural relief and complexity in relation to its geologic youth and small size for its prolific oil production. Yerkes et al. identify 5 major stages of the evolution that begins in the Upper Cretaceous. This basin can be classified as an irregular pull-apart basin accompanied by rotational tectonics during the post-early Miocene, before the formation of the basin, the area that encompasses the Los Angeles basin began above ground. A rapid transgression and regression of the moved the area to a shallow marine environment. Tectonic instability coupled with volcanic activity in rapidly subsiding areas during the Middle Miocene set the stage for the modern basin, the basin formed in a submarine environment and was later brought back above sea level when the rate of subsidence slowed. There is much discussion in the literature about the geologic time boundaries when each basin forming event took place, while exact ages may not be clear, Yerkes et al. Large-scale movement along the Newport–Inglewood zone juxtaposed the two bedrock units along the east and west margins, during this phase, the basin was above sea level. The hallmarks of this phase were successive shoreline transgression and regression cycles, Deposition of older marine and non-marine sediments began to fill the basin. Towards the end of phase, the shoreline began to retreat. After the deposition of the units, there was a large emergence. Emergence did not occur at the rate or in all sections of the basin. During this time, the basin was covered by a marine embayment, rivers sourced in the highlands brought large amounts of detritus to the northeastern edge of the basin. During this period, the Topanga formation was also being deposited, clastic sedimentary rocks from the highland areas moved down the submarine slopes and infilled the basin floor
8.
Channel Islands (California)
–
The Channel Islands of California are a chain of eight islands located in the Pacific Ocean off the coast of southern California along the Santa Barbara Channel in the United States of America. Five of the islands are part of Channel Islands National Park, the islands were first colonized by the Chumash and Tongva Native Americans 13,000 years ago, who were then displaced by European settlers who used the islands for fishing and agriculture. The U. S. military uses the islands as training grounds, weapons test sites, the Channel Islands and the surrounding waters house a diverse ecosystem with many endemic species and subspecies. Eight islands are split among the jurisdictions of three separate California counties, Santa Barbara County, Ventura County, and Los Angeles County, the islands are divided into two groups, the northern Channel Islands and the southern Channel Islands. The four northern Islands used to be a single known as Santa Rosae. The archipelago extends for 160 miles between San Miguel Island in the north and San Clemente Island in the south, together, the islands’ land area totals 221,331 acres, or about 346 square miles. Five of the islands were made into the Channel Islands National Park in 1980, the Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary encompasses the waters six nautical miles off Anacapa, Santa Cruz, San Miguel, Santa Rosa, and Santa Barbara islands. Santa Catalina Island is the one of the eight islands with a significant permanent civilian settlement—the resort city of Avalon, California. Natural seepage of oil occurs at places in the Santa Barbara Channel. Tar balls or pieces of tar in small numbers are found in the kelp, Native Americans used naturally occurring tar, bitumen, for a variety of purposes which include roofing, waterproofing, paving and some ceremonial purposes. The Channel Islands at low elevations are virtually frost-free and constitute one of the few areas in the 48 contiguous US states. It snows only rarely, on mountain peaks. Separated from the California mainland throughout recent geological history, the Channel Islands provide the earliest evidence for seafaring in the Americas. It is also the site of the discovery of the earliest paleontological evidence of humans in North America, the northern Channel Islands are now known to have been settled by maritime Paleo Indian peoples at least 13,000 years ago. Archaeological sites on the island provide a unique and invaluable record of human interaction with Channel Island marine, historically, the northern islands were occupied by the island Chumash, while the southern islands were occupied by the Tongva. Author Scott ODell wrote about the peoples living on the island in his novel Island of the Blue Dolphins. Aleut hunters visited the islands to hunt otters in the early 1800s, the Aleuts purportedly clashed with the native Chumash, killing many over trading disputes. Aleut interactions with the natives were also detailed in ODells book, the Chumash and Tongva were removed from the islands in the early 19th century, taken to Spanish missions and pueblos on the adjacent mainland
9.
Spanish missions in California
–
The missions were part of a major effort by the Spanish Empire to extend colonization into the most northern and western parts of Spains North American claims. Following a long-term secular and religious policy of Spain in Latin America, Mexico achieved independence in 1821, taking Alta California along with it, but the missions maintained authority over native neophytes and control of vast land holdings until the 1830s. At the peak of its development in 1832, the mission system controlled an area equal to approximately one-sixth of Alta California. The Alta California government secularized the missions after the passage of the Mexican secularization act of 1833 and this divided the mission lands into land grants, which became many of the Ranchos of California. In the end, the missions had mixed results in their objectives, to convert, educate, today, the surviving mission buildings are the states oldest structures, and its most-visited historic monuments. Prior to 1754, grants of lands were made directly by the Spanish Crown. The missions were to be interconnected by a route which later became known as the Camino Real. The detailed planning and direction of the missions was to be carried out by Friar Junípero Serra, work on the coastal mission chain was concluded in 1823, completed after Serras death in 1784. Plans to build a mission in Santa Rosa in 1827 were canceled. The Santa Ysabel Asistencia had been founded in 1818 as a mother mission, in addition to the presidio and pueblo, the misión was one of the three major agencies employed by the Spanish sovereign to extend its borders and consolidate its colonial territories. Each frontier station was forced to be self-supporting, as existing means of supply were inadequate to maintain a colony of any size. California was months away from the nearest base in colonized Mexico, to sustain a mission, the padres required converted Native Americans, called neophytes, to cultivate crops and tend livestock in the volume needed to support a fair-sized establishment. The scarcity of imported materials, together with a lack of skilled laborers, compelled the missionaries to employ simple building materials, although the missions were considered temporary ventures by the Spanish hierarchy, the development of an individual settlement was not simply a matter of priestly whim. The padres blessed the site, and with the aid of their military escort fashioned temporary shelters out of tree limbs or driven stakes and it was these simple huts that ultimately gave way to the stone and adobe buildings that exist to the present. The first priority when beginning a settlement was the location and construction of the church, once the spot for the church had been selected, its position was marked and the remainder of the mission complex was laid out. The cuadrángulo was rarely a perfect square because the missionaries had no surveying instruments at their disposal and it was a doctrine established in 1531, which based the Spanish states right over the land and persons of the Indies on the Papal charge to evangelize them. It was employed wherever the indigenous populations were not already concentrated in native pueblos, the civilized and disciplined culture of the natives, developed over 8,000 year, was not considered. A total of 146 Friars Minor, mostly Spaniards by birth, were ordained as priests, sixty-seven missionaries died at their posts, while the remainder returned to Europe due to illness, or upon completing their ten-year service commitment
10.
Chumash people
–
They also occupied three of the Channel Islands, Santa Cruz, Santa Rosa, and San Miguel, the smaller island of Anacapa was likely inhabited seasonally due to the lack of a consistent water source. Modern place names with Chumash origins include Cayucos, Malibu, Nipomo, Lompoc, Ojai, Pismo Beach, Point Mugu, Port Hueneme, Piru, Lake Castaic, Saticoy, Simi Valley and Somis. Archaeological research demonstrates that the Chumash have deep roots in the Santa Barbara Channel area, the Chumash resided between the Santa Ynez Mountains and the California coasts where rivers and tributaries abound. Inside and around the modern-day Santa Barbara region, the Chumash lived with a bounty of resources, the tribe lived in an area of three environments, the interior, the coast, and the Northern Channel Islands. These provided an array of materials to support the Chumash lifestyle. The interior is composed of the land outside the coast and spanning the plains, rivers. The coast covers the cliffs and land close to the ocean and, in reference to resources, the Northern Channel Islands lie off the coast of the Chumash territory. All of the California coastal-interior has a Mediterranean climate due to the ocean winds. The mild temperatures, save for winter, made gathering easy, during the cold months, what villagers gathered and traded during the seasons changed depending on where they resided. With coasts populated by masses of species of fish and land covered by trees and animals. Abundant resources and a winter rarely harsh enough to cause concern meant the tribe lived a lifestyle in addition to a subsistence existence. Villages in the three aforementioned areas contained remains of sea mammals, indicating that trade networks existed for moving materials throughout the Chumash territory, such connections spread out the land’s wealth, allowing the Chumash to live comfortably without agriculture. The closer a village was to the ocean, the greater its reliance on maritime resources, due to advanced canoe designs, coastal and island people could procure fish and aquatic mammals from farther out. Shellfish were a source of nutrition, relatively easy to find. Many of the favored varieties grew in tidal zones, shellfish grew in abundance during winter to early spring, their proximity to shore made collection easier. Some of the species included mussels, abalone, and a wide array of clams. Haliotis rufescens was harvested this species along the Central California coast in the pre-contact era, the Chumash and other California Indians also used red abalone shells to make a variety of fishhooks, beads, ornaments, and other artifacts. Any village could acquire fish, but the coastal and island communities specialized in catching not just smaller fish and this feat, difficult even for today’s technology, was made possible by the tomol plank canoe
11.
Southern California
–
Southern California, often abbreviated as SoCal, is a geographic and cultural region that generally comprises Californias 10 southernmost counties. The region is described as eight counties, based on demographics and economic ties, Imperial, Los Angeles, Orange, Riverside, San Bernardino, San Diego, Santa Barbara. The more extensive 10-county definition, which includes Kern and San Luis Obispo counties, is used and is based on historical political divisions. Southern California is an economic center for the state of California. The 8-county and 10-county definitions are not used for the greater Southern California Megaregion, the megaregions area is more expansive, extending east into Las Vegas, Nevada and south across the Mexican border into Tijuana.5 million people. With over 22 million people, Southern California contains roughly 60 percent of Californias population, located east of Southern California is the Colorado Desert and the Colorado River at the border with Arizona. The Mojave Desert is located at the border with the state of Nevada while towards the south is the Mexico–United States border, within Southern California are two major cities, Los Angeles and San Diego, as well as three of the countrys largest metropolitan areas. With a population of 3,792,621, Los Angeles is the most populous city in California and the second most populous in the United States. South of Los Angeles and with a population of 1,307,402 is San Diego, the second most populous city in the state and the eighth most populous in the nation. The counties of Los Angeles, Orange, San Diego, San Bernardino, and Riverside are the five most populous in the state, the motion picture, television, and music industry are centered in the Los Angeles area in Southern California. Hollywood, a district within Los Angeles, gives its name to the American motion picture industry, headquartered in Southern California are The Walt Disney Company, Sony Pictures, Universal, MGM, Paramount Pictures, 20th Century Fox, and Warner Brothers. Universal, Warner Brothers, and Sony also run major record companies, Southern California is also home to a large homegrown surf and skateboard culture. Companies such as Vans, Volcom, Quiksilver, No Fear, RVCA, some of the worlds biggest action sports events, including the X Games, Boost Mobile Pro, and the U. S. Open of Surfing, are all held in Southern California. Southern California is also important to the world of yachting, the annual Transpacific Yacht Race, or Transpac, from Los Angeles to Hawaii, is one of yachtings premier events. The San Diego Yacht Club held the Americas Cup, the most prestigious prize in yachting, from 1988 to 1995, Southern California is home to many sports franchises and sports networks such as Fox Sports Net. Many locals and tourists frequent the Southern California coast for its popular beaches, the desert city of Palm Springs is popular for its resort feel and nearby open spaces. Southern California is not a geographic designation and definitions of what constitutes Southern California vary. Geographically, Californias North-South midway point lies at exactly 37°958.23 latitude, around 11 miles south of San Jose, however, when the state is divided into two areas, the term Southern California usually refers to the 10 southernmost counties of the state
12.
Uto-Aztecan languages
–
Uto-Aztecan or Uto-Aztekan /ˈjuːtoʊ. æzˈtɛkən/ is a Native American language family consisting of over 30 languages. Uto-Aztecan languages are found almost entirely in the Western United States, the name of the language family was created to show that it includes both the Ute language of Utah and the Aztecan languages of Mexico. The Uto-Aztecan language family is one of the largest linguistic families in the Americas in terms of number of speakers, number of languages, and geographic extension. The northernmost Uto-Aztecan language is Shoshoni, which is spoken as far north as Salmon, Idaho, Ethnologue gives the total number of languages in the family as 61, and the total number of speakers as 1,900,412. The roughly 1.5 million speakers of Nahuatl languages account for almost four-fifths of these, below this level of classification the main branches are well accepted, Numic, and the Californian languages, including Cahuilla and Luiseño, account for most of the Northern languages. Hopi and Tübatulabal are languages outside those groups, the Southern languages are divided into the Tepiman, the Tarahumaran languages including Raramuri and Guarijio language, the Cahitan languages, Corachol and Nahuan languages. The homeland of the Uto-Aztecan languages is considered to have been in the American Southwest or possibly Northwestern Mexico. Linguistic scholars have discussed the possibility that the family originated in southern Mexico. The Proto-Uto-Aztecan language is the common ancestor of the Uto-Aztecan languages. The proto-language would have been spoken by Mesolithic foragers in Aridoamerica, the homeland of the Numic languages has been placed in Southern California near Death Valley, and the homeland of the proposed Southern Uto-Aztecan group has been placed on the coast of Sonora. The geographic diffusion of speakers corresponded to the breakup of linguistic unity and this hypothesis has been criticized on several grounds, and it is not generally accepted by Uto-Aztecanists. A survey of agriculture-related vocabulary by Merrill found that the agricultural vocabulary can only be reconstructed for Southern Uto-Aztecan and this supports a conclusion that the Proto-Uto-Aztecan speech community did not practice agriculture, but only adopted it after entering Mesoamerica from the North. A recent proposal by David L. Shaul presents evidence suggesting contact between proto-Uto-Aztecan and languages of central California such as Esselen and the Yokutsan languages and this leads Shaul to suggest that proto-Uto-Aztecan was spoken in Californias Central Valley area, and formed part of an ancient Californian linguistic area. Uto-Aztecan languages are spoken in the North American mountain ranges and adjacent lowlands of the western United States, classical Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs, and its modern relatives are part of the Uto-Aztecan family. The Pipil language, an offshoot of Nahuatl, spread to Central America by a wave of migration from Mexico, now it has gone extinct in Guatemala and Honduras, and it is nearly extinct in western El Salvador, all areas dominated by use of Spanish. Uto-Aztecan has been accepted by linguists as a family since the early 1900s, and six subgroups are accepted as valid by all experts, Numic, Takic, Pimic, Taracahitic, Corachol. This leaves two ungrouped languages—Tübatulabal and Hopi, as to higher-level groupings, disagreement has persisted since the 19th century. Presently scholars also disagree as to where to draw language boundaries within dialect continua, the similarities among the Uto-Aztecan languages were noted as early as 1859 by J. C. E
13.
Nevada
–
Nevada is a state in the Western, Mountain West, and Southwestern regions of the United States of America. Nevada is the 7th most extensive, the 34th most populous, nearly three-quarters of Nevadas people live in Clark County, which contains the Las Vegas–Paradise metropolitan area where three of the states four largest incorporated cities are located. Nevada is officially known as the Silver State because of the importance of silver to its history and economy. It is also known as the Battle Born State, because it achieved statehood during the Civil War, as the Sage-brush State, for the plant of the same name. Nevada borders Oregon to the northwest, Idaho to the northeast, California to the west, Arizona to the southeast, Nevada is largely desert and semi-arid, much of it located within the Great Basin. Areas south of the Great Basin are located within the Mojave Desert, while Lake Tahoe, about 86% of the states land is managed by various jurisdictions of the U. S. federal government, both civilian and military. Before European contact, Native Americans of the Paiute, Shoshone, the first Europeans to explore the region were Spanish. They called the region Nevada because of the snow covered the mountains in winter. The area formed part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, the United States annexed the area in 1848 after its victory in the Mexican–American War, and it was incorporated as part of Utah Territory in 1850. The discovery of silver at the Comstock Lode in 1859 led to a boom that became an impetus to the creation of Nevada Territory out of western Utah Territory in 1861. Nevada became the 36th state on October 31,1864, as the second of two added to the Union during the Civil War. Nevada has a reputation for its libertarian laws, in 1940, with a population of just over 110,000 people, Nevada was by far the least-populated state, with less than half the population of the next least-populated state. However, legalized gambling and lenient marriage and divorce laws transformed Nevada into a major tourist destination in the 20th century, Nevada is the only U. S. state where prostitution is legal, though it is illegal in Clark County, Washoe County and Carson City. The tourism industry remains Nevadas largest employer, with mining continuing as a sector of the economy. The name Nevada comes from the Spanish nevada, meaning snow-covered, most Nevadans pronounce the second syllable of their state name using the vowel of trap. Many from outside the Western United States pronounce it with the vowel of father, although the latter pronunciation is closer to the Spanish pronunciation, it is not the pronunciation preferred by most Nevadans. State Assemblyman Harry Mortenson proposed a bill to recognize the alternate pronunciation of Nevada, though the bill was not supported by most legislators, the Nevadan pronunciation is the de facto official one, since it is the one used by the state legislature. Nevada is almost entirely within the Basin and Range Province, and is broken up by many mountain ranges
14.
Hokan languages
–
The Hokan /ˈhoʊkæn/ language family is a hypothetical grouping of a dozen small language families that were spoken mainly in California, Arizona and Baja California. In nearly a century since Edward Sapir first proposed the Hokan hypothesis, although some Hokan families may indeed be related, especially in northern California, few linguists today expect Hokan as a whole to prove to be valid. The name Hokan is loosely based on the word for two in the various Hokan languages, *xwak in Proto-Yuman, c-oocj in Seri, hak in Achumawi, the Yurumanguí language of Colombia was claimed to be Hokan by Rivet. This claim has not been accepted by historical linguists, the Hokan languages retained by Kaufman due to regular sound correspondences and common core vocabulary are as follows. Apart from Shasta–Palaihnihan and Yuman, all branches are single languages or shallow families, the inclusion of the Tequistlatecan languages has also not received much support. The Chumash languages were included, but that position has been almost universally abandoned. American Indian languages, the linguistics of Native America. The Wintu and Their Neighbors, A Small World-System in Northern California, a Research Program for Reconstructing Proto-Hokan, First Gropings. Papers from the 1988 Hokan–Penutian Languages Workshop, pp. 50–168, eugene, Oregon, Department of Linguistics, University of Oregon. Las relaciones entre las lenguas “hokanas” en México, ¿Cuál es la evidencia, in Cristina Buenrostro & others, Memorias del III Coloquio Internacional de Lingüística Mauricio Swadesh, 165-192. Mexico City, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México & Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas, the Seri and Salinan connection revisited. International Journal of American Linguistics 74.3, 393–99, un dialecte Hoka Colombien, le Yurumangí. Journal de la Société des Américanistes de Paris, C. Michael Hogan Ring Mountain, The Megalithic Portal, ed. Andy Burnham Greg White and Mark Basgal, there Grows a Green Tree, Papers in Honor of David A. Fredrickson, Center for Archaeological Research at Davis, Center for Archaeological Research at Davis Davis, Calif. 423 pages ISBN 1-883019-12-5, ISBN 978-1-883019-12-9 Las relaciones entre las lenguas “hokanas” en México, vocabulary Words in the Hokan Language Family
15.
Hunter-gatherer
–
A hunter-gatherer is a human living in a society in which most or all food is obtained by foraging, in contrast to agricultural societies, which rely mainly on domesticated species. Hunting and gathering was humanitys first and most successful adaptation, occupying at least 90 percent of human history, following the invention of agriculture, hunter-gatherers who did not change have been displaced or conquered by farming or pastoralist groups in most parts of the world. Only a few contemporary societies are classified as hunter-gatherers, and many supplement their activity with horticulture and/or keeping animals. In the 1970s, Lewis Binford suggested that humans were obtaining food via scavenging. Early humans in the Lower Paleolithic lived in forests and woodlands, which allowed them to collect seafood, eggs, nuts, and fruits besides scavenging. Rather than killing large animals for meat, according to this view and this hypothesis does not necessarily contradict the scavenging hypothesis, both subsistence strategies could have been in use – sequentially, alternating or even simultaneously. It remained the only mode of subsistence until the end of the Mesolithic period some 10,000 years ago and this specialization of work also involved creating specialized tools such as, fishing nets, hooks, and bone harpoons. The transition into the subsequent Neolithic period is defined by the unprecedented development of nascent agricultural practices. Agriculture originated and spread in different areas including the Middle East, Asia, Mesoamerica. Forest gardening was also being used as a production system in various parts of the world over this period. Forest gardens originated in prehistoric times along jungle-clad river banks and in the wet foothills of monsoon regions, in the gradual process of families improving their immediate environment, useful tree and vine species were identified, protected and improved, whilst undesirable species were eliminated. Eventually superior introduced species were selected and incorporated into the gardens, many groups continued their hunter-gatherer ways of life, although their numbers have continually declined, partly as a result of pressure from growing agricultural and pastoral communities. Many of them reside in the world, either in arid regions or tropical forests. Areas that were available to hunter-gatherers were—and continue to be—encroached upon by the settlements of agriculturalists. In the resulting competition for use, hunter-gatherer societies either adopted these practices or moved to other areas. In addition, Jared Diamond has blamed a decline in the availability of wild foods, as the number and size of agricultural societies increased, they expanded into lands traditionally used by hunter-gatherers. As a result of the now near-universal human reliance upon agriculture, archaeologists can use evidence such as stone tool use to track hunter-gatherer activities, including mobility. Most hunter-gatherers are nomadic or semi-nomadic and live in temporary settlements, mobile communities typically construct shelters using impermanent building materials, or they may use natural rock shelters, where they are available
16.
Population transfer
–
Banishment or exile is a similar process, but is forcibly applied to individuals and groups. Often the affected population is transferred by force to a distant region, perhaps not suited to their way of life, in addition, the loss of all immovable property and, when rushed, the loss of substantial amounts of movable property, is implied. The best-known recent example caused by economic development is resulting from the construction of the Three Gorges Dam in China. Transfer was considered a drastic but often means to end an ethnic conflict or ethnic civil war. The feasibility of population transfer was hugely increased by the creation of networks from the mid-19th century. Population transfer differs more than simply technically from individually motivated migration, but at times of war, if a state can preserve the fiction that migrations are the result of innumerable personal decisions, the state may be able to claim that it is not to blame for the expulsions. The view of law on population transfer underwent considerable evolution during the 20th century. Prior to World War II, many major population transfers were the result of treaties and had the support of international bodies such as the League of Nations. The tide started to turn when the Charter of the Nuremberg Trials of German Nazi leaders declared forced deportation of civilian populations to be both a war crime and a crime against humanity and that opinion was progressively adopted and extended through the remainder of the century. Underlying the change was the trend to assign rights to individuals, No legal distinction is made between one-way and two-way transfers since the rights of each individual are regarded as independent of the experience of others. The Occupying Power shall not deport or transfer parts of its own civilian population into the territory it occupies, the agreement of recognized States may provide one criterion for the authorization of the final terms of conflict resolution. However, the principle of voluntariness is seldom satisfied, regardless of the objective of the transfer. For the transfer to comply with human rights standards as developed, the same report warned of the difficulty of ensuring true voluntariness, some historical transfers did not call for forced or compulsory transfers, but included options for the affected populations. Nonetheless, the attending the relevant treaties created strong moral, psychological. Moreover, that consent must be free of direct or indirect negative pressure. Deportation or forcible transfer of population is defined as a crime against humanity by the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia has indicted and sometimes convicted a number of politicians and military commanders indicted for forced deportations in that region. Ethnic cleansing encompasses deportation or forcible transfer of population and the force involved may involve other crimes and his paper has, however, been rebutted by Jakob Cornidess study The Sudeten German Question after EU Enlargement. Religious warfare over the Protestants led to many seeking refuge in the Low Countries, in the early eighteenth century, some Huguenots emigrated to the Thirteen Colonies
17.
Old World
–
The Old World consists of Africa, Europe, and Asia, regarded collectively as the part of the world known to Europeans before contact with the Americas. It is used in the context of, and contrast with and these regions were connected via the Silk Road trade route, and they have a pronounced Iron Age period following the Bronze Age. The concept of the three continents in the Old World, viz. Asia, Africa, and Europe, goes back to classical antiquity and their boundaries as defined by Ptolemy and other geographers of antiquity were drawn along the Nile and Don rivers. This definition remained influential throughout the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period, the Old world has areas of North Africa, Eurasia, parts of Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands. The mainland of Afro-Eurasia has been referred to as the World Island, the term may have been coined by Sir Halford John Mackinder in The Geographical Pivot of History. The equivalent of the Old World had names in some of its ancient cultures, including Midgard in Germanic cosmology, synoptic table of the principal old world prehistoric cultures Afro-Eurasia
18.
Population of Native California
–
Estimates of the Population of Native Californians prior to and after European contact have varied substantially. Pre-contact estimates range from 133,000 to 705,000 with some recent scholars concluding that these estimates are low, following the arrival of Europeans in California, disease and primarily the late 19th century California Genocide reduced the population to as low as 25,000. During and after the California Gold Rush, it is estimated that miners and others killed about 4,500 Indigenous people of California between 1849 and 1870. As of 2005, California is the state with the largest self-identified Native American population according to the U. S. Census at 696,600, few analysts claim that these methods yield accurate numbers. The estimates developed by different analysts commonly vary by a factor of two or more, stephen Powers initially estimated that the pre-contact population of the state was 1,520,000. He later reduced this figure to 705,000, C. Hart Merriam offered the first detailed analysis. He based his estimates on mission records and extrapolated that to non-missionized areas and his estimate for the state as a whole was 260,000. Alfred L. Kroeber made a detailed re-analysis, both for the state as a whole and for the individual groups within it. He reduced Merriams figure by about half, to 133,000 Native Californians in 1770, martin A. Baumhoff used an ecological basis to evaluate the potential carrying capacity and estimated an aboriginal population of 350,000. Initially, in 1943, Cook arrived at a figure only 7% higher than the one suggested by Kroeber,133,550. Cook later raised his estimate to 310,000, some scholars now believe that waves of epidemic diseases reached California well in advance of the arrival of the Franciscans in 1769. If correct, this may imply that population estimates using the beginning of the period as a baseline have substantially underestimated the states pre-Columbian population. The decline of Native Californian populations during the late 18th and 19th centuries was investigated in most detail by Cook, Cook assessed the relative importance of the various sources of the decline, including Old World epidemic diseases, violence, nutritional changes, and cultural shock. Declines tended to be steepest in the directly affected by the missions. Other studies have addressed the changes occurred within individual regions or ethnolinguistic groups. The Native Californian population reached its nadir of around 25,000 at the end of the 19th century, based on Kroebers estimate of 133,000 people in 1770, this represents a more than 80% decrease. Using Cooks revised figure, it constitutes a decline of more than 90%, on this Cook rendered his harshest criticism, The first was the food supply. A third factor, which intensified the effect of the other two, was the social and physical disruption visited upon the Indian
19.
Mexican War of Independence
–
The Mexican War of Independence was an armed conflict, and the culmination of a political and social process which ended the rule of Spain in 1821 in the territory of New Spain. September 16 is celebrated as Mexican Independence Day, the movement for independence was inspired by the Age of Enlightenment and the liberal revolutions of the last part of the 18th century. By that time the elite of New Spain had begun to reflect on the relations between Spain and its colonial kingdoms. Changes in the social and political structure occasioned by Bourbon Reforms, political events in Europe had a decisive effect on events in most of Spanish America. In 1808, King Charles IV and Ferdinand VII abdicated in favor of French leader Napoleon Bonaparte, the same year, the ayuntamiento of Mexico City, supported by viceroy José de Iturrigaray, claimed sovereignty in the absence of the legitimate king. That led to a coup against the viceroy, when it was suppressed, despite the defeat in Mexico City, small groups of conspirators met in other cities of New Spain to raise movements against colonial rule. From 1810 the independence movement went through stages, as leaders were imprisoned or executed by forces loyal to Spain. Secular priest José María Morelos called the separatist provinces to form the Congress of Chilpancingo, after the defeat of Morelos, the movement survived as a guerrilla war under the leadership of Vicente Guerrero. By 1820, the few rebel groups survived most notably in the Sierra Madre del Sur, the reinstatement of the liberal Constitution of Cadiz in 1820 caused a change of mind among the elite groups who had supported Spanish rule. Monarchist Creoles affected by the constitution decided to support the independence of New Spain, agustín de Iturbide led the military arm of the conspirators and in early 1821 he met Vicente Guerrero. Both proclaimed the Plan of Iguala, which called for the union of all insurgent factions and was supported by both the aristocracy and clergy of New Spain and it called for monarchy in an independent Mexico. Finally, the independence of Mexico was achieved on September 27,1821, after that, the mainland of New Spain was organized as the Mexican Empire. This ephemeral Catholic monarchy changed to a republic in 1823, due to internal conflicts. After some Spanish reconquest attempts, including the expedition of Isidro Barradas in 1829, after the suppression of that mid-16th-century conspiracy, elites raised no substantial challenge to royal rule until the Hidalgo revolt of 1810. Elites in Mexico City in the century did force the removal of a reformist viceroy. The crowd was reported to shout, Long live the King, the attack was against Gelves as a bad representative of the crown and not against the monarchy or colonial rule itself. There was also a conspiracy in the mid-seventeenth century to unite creole elites, blacks. The man pushing this notion called himself Don Guillén Lampart y Guzmán, lamports conspiracy was discovered, and he was arrested by the Inquisition in 1642, and executed fifteen years later for sedition
20.
Ranchos of California
–
The Spanish and later Mexican governments encouraged settlement of Alta California by giving prominent men large land grants called ranchos, usually two or more square leagues. Land-grant titles were government-issued, permanent, unencumbered property-ownership rights to land called ranchos, devoted to raising cattle and sheep, the owners of the ranchos attempted to pattern themselves after the landed gentry of Spain. Their workers included Californian Native Americans who had learned to speak Spanish, Spain made about 30 grants between 1784 and 1821, and Mexico granted about 270 more between 1833 and 1846. The ranchos established land-use patterns and place names that are still in use in California today, Rancho boundaries became the basis for Californias land survey system, and can still be found on modern maps and land titles. Ranchos were partially based on geography, such as access to river water, Land development in the 20th and 21st century often follow the boundaries of the ranchos, and often retain the original name. For example, Rancho San Diego, an unincorporated rural-burb east of San Diego, or Rancho Bernardo, during Spanish rule, the ranchos were concessions from the Spanish crown, permitting settlement and granting grazing rights on specific tracts of land, while the crown retained the title. The land concessions were usually measured in leagues, a league of land would encompass a square that is one Spanish league on each side – approximately 4,428 acres. The Spanish and Mexican governments made a number of grants from 1785 to 1846. It was not until the Mexican era that the titles to the plots of land were granted to individuals, in 1821, Mexico achieved its independence from Spain, and California came under control of the Mexican government. The 1824 Mexican Colony Law established rules for petitioning for land grants in California, and by 1828, the Acts sought to break the land monopoly of the missions and also paved the way for luring additional settlers to California by making land grants easier to obtain. Secularization was implemented between 1834 and 1836, the Mexican government allowed the padres to keep only the church, priests quarters and priests garden. The army troops guarding each Mission were dismissed, a commissioner would oversee the missions crops and herds, while the land was divided up as communal pasture, a town plot, and individual plots for each Indian family. The Mission Indians, freed from the missions, often joined other tribes or sought work on the new ranchos along the troops formerly assigned to each mission. The number of Mexican land grants greatly increased after the secularization of the missions in 1834, the Mexican rancho grants were provisional. The boundaries, on paper, had to be surveyed and marked. This produced a diseño, a topological map, to define the area. Since there were very few surveyors this requirement was seldom met, the grantee could not initially subdivide or rent out the land. The land had to be used for grazing or cultivated, some kind of residential house had to be built within a year—most were initially simple adobe walled cabins
21.
Mexican Cession
–
The Mexican Cession was the third largest acquisition of territory in US history. The northern boundary of the 42nd parallel north was set by the Adams–Onís Treaty signed by the U. S. and Spain in 1821 and ratified by Mexico in 1831. The eastern boundary of the Mexican Cession was the Texas claim at the Rio Grande and extending north from the headwaters of the Jojo Rivera, not corresponding to Mexican territorial boundaries. The southern boundary was set by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and it was uncertain whether any treaty could be reached. Although Mexico did not overtly cede any land under the treaty, the United States also paid $15,000,000 for the land, and agreed to assume $3.25 million in debts to US citizens. While technically the territory was purchased by the United States, the $15 million payment was simply credited against Mexicos debt to the U. S. at that time. The Mexican Cession as ordinarily understood amounted to 525,000 square miles, if the disputed western Texas claims are also included, that amounts to a total of 750,000 square miles. If all of Texas had been seized, since Mexico had not previously acknowledged the loss of any part of Texas, eventually the Compromise of 1850 preserved the Union, but only for another decade. Passed by the United States House of Representatives in August 1846 and February 1847, later an effort to attach the proviso to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo also failed. Failed amendments to the Wilmot Proviso by William W, the line was again proposed by the Nashville Convention of June 1850. Popular sovereignty, developed by Lewis Cass and Douglas as the eventual Democratic Party position, none of the area would be left as an unorganized or organized territory, avoiding the question of slavery in the territories. Senator Thomas Hart Benton in December 1849 or January 1850, Texass western and northern boundaries would be the 102nd meridian west, Texas dropped its claim to the disputed northwestern areas in return for debt relief, and the areas were divided between the two new territories and unorganized territory. El Paso where Texas had successfully established county government was left in Texas, no southern territory dominated by Southerners was created. Also, the trade was abolished in Washington, D. C. It quickly became apparent that the Mexican Cession did not include a route for a transcontinental railroad connecting to a southern port. The topography of the New Mexico Territory included mountains that naturally directed any railroad extending from the southern Pacific coast northward, to Kansas City, St. Louis, or Chicago. Southerners, anxious for the business such a railroad would bring, agitated for the acquisition of land at the expense of Mexico. A Continent Divided, The U. S. -Mexico War, Center for Greater Southwestern Studies, the University of Texas at Arlington
22.
Indian reservation
–
Each of the 326 Indian reservations in the United States are associated with a particular Nation. Not all of the countrys 567 recognized tribes have a reservation—some tribes have more than one reservation, some share reservations and this jumble of private and public real estate creates significant administrative, political, and legal difficulties. The collective geographical area of all reservations is 56,200,000 acres, while most reservations are small compared to US states, there are 12 Indian reservations larger than the state of Rhode Island. The largest reservation, the Navajo Nation Reservation, is similar in size to West Virginia, Reservations are unevenly distributed throughout the country, the majority are west of the Mississippi River and occupy lands that were first reserved by treaty or granted from the public domain. Because tribes possess tribal sovereignty, even though it is limited and these laws can permit legal casinos on reservations, for example, which attract tourists. The tribal council, not the local or federal government, generally has jurisdiction over reservations, different reservations have different systems of government, which may or may not replicate the forms of government found outside the reservation. Most Native American reservations were established by the government, a limited number, mainly in the East. The name reservation comes from the conception of the Native American tribes as independent sovereigns at the time the U. S, the term remained in use even after the federal government began to forcibly relocate tribes to parcels of land to which they had no historical connection. A majority of Native Americans and Alaska Natives live somewhere other than the reservations, often in big cities such as Phoenix. In 2012, there were over 2.5 million Native Americans with about 1 million living on reservations, from the beginning of the European colonization of the Americas, Europeans often removed native peoples from lands they wished to occupy. The means varied, including voluntary moves based on agreement, treaties made under considerable duress, forceful ejection. The removal caused many problems such as tribes losing means of livelihood by being subjected to an area, farmers having inadmissible land for agriculture. In 1764 the “Plan for the Future Management of Indian Affairs” was proposed by the Board of Trade, additionally, this plan dictated that the Indians would be properly consulted when ascertaining and defining the boundaries of colonial settlement. For much of North America, the American Revolution was more of a battle against the Indians than a war against the British, the treaty was seen by Americans as a confirmation of their conquest of Indian land. The private contracts that once characterized the sale of Indian land to various individuals and this protocol was adopted by the United States Government after the America Revolution. On March 11,1824, John C. Calhoun founded the Office of Indian Affairs as a division of the United States Department of War, to solve the land problem with 38 treaties with American Indian tribes. The passage of the Indian Removal Act of 1830 marked the systematization of a US federal government policy of forcibly moving Native populations away from European-populated areas, some of the lands these tribes were given to inhabit following the removals eventually became Indian Reservations. In 1851, the United States Congress passed the Indian Appropriations Act which authorized the creation of Indian reservations in modern-day Oklahoma, relations between settlers and natives had grown increasingly worse as the settlers encroached on territory and natural resources in the West
23.
Native American gaming
–
Native American gaming comprises casinos, bingo halls, and other gambling operations on Indian reservations or other tribal land in the United States. Because these areas have tribal sovereignty, states have limited ability to forbid gambling there, as of 2011, there were 460 gambling operations run by 240 tribes, with a total annual revenue of $27 billion. The Bryans had never received a property tax bill from the county before, unwilling to pay it, they took the tax notice to local legal aid attorneys at Leech Lake Legal Services, who brought suit to challenge the tax in the state courts. The Bryans lost their case in the district court. They then sought review in the United States Supreme Court, as Gaming Law Professor Kevin K. Washburn has explained, the stage was now set for Native gaming. Within a few years, enterprising Natives and tribes began to operate Indian bingo operations in different locations around the United States. Under the leadership of Howard Tommie, the Seminole Tribe of Florida built a large high-stakes bingo building on their reservation near Fort Lauderdale, the law was enacted from the charity bingo limits set by Catholic Churches. A District court ruled in favor of the Natives, citing Chief Justice John Marshall in Worcester v. Georgia, here began the legal war of Native gaming with a win for the Seminoles. Controversy arose when Natives began putting private casinos, bingo rooms, the Natives argued for sovereignty over their reservations to make them immune from state laws such as Public Law 280, which granted states to have criminal jurisdiction over Native reservations. In the late 1970s and continuing into the decade, the delicate question concerning the legality of tribal gaming. The Court addressed the potential gambling had for organized crime through the Organized Crime Control Act of 1970, as Stuart Banner states, the Cabazon Band and the neighboring Morongo Reservation had some HUD buildings and a few trailers, but that was about it. The people simply didnt have a lot, the Cabazon Band turned to casino operations, opening bingo and poker halls in 1980. Shortly thereafter, the Indio police and the Riverside County Sheriff shut down the halls and arrested numerous Natives while seizing any cash. The Cabazon Band sued in court and won, as did the Seminole Tribe in Florida. Although the tribe won in the courts, the Supreme Court reviewed the case in 1986 to reach a decision over whether Native reservations are controlled by state law. These compacts have been used by officials to confiscate Native casino revenue which serves as a special tax on Native reservations. Essentially, the still have exclusive right to all classes of gaming except when states do not accept that class or it clashes with federal law. Currently all attempts to challenge the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act on constitutional grounds have failed, after President Reagan signed the IGRA, Native gaming revenue skyrocketed from $100 million in 1988 to $16.7 billion in 2006
24.
Native American recognition in the United States
–
There are 567 federally recognized tribal governments in the United States. Non-Acknowledged Tribes are tribes which have no federal designation as sovereign entities, the United States recognizes the right of these tribes to self-government and supports their tribal sovereignty and self-determination. These tribes possess the right to establish the requirements for membership. They may form their own government, enforce laws, tax, license and regulate activities, zone, legal definitions of Indian abound, according to a 1978 congressional survey, there were upwards of 33 separate definitions of Indian used in federal legislation. The number of definitions increased when tribal enrollment statutes were included, U. S. Government agencies may have varied definitions of Indian. For example, the National Center for Health Statistics currently assigns the mother’s race to a child born to parents of different races, when people give multiracial responses to questions of heritage, only the first race is entered. The 1978 American Indian Religious Freedom Act uses a definition which is especially influential. Federal courts have not universally required membership in federally recognized tribes for a person to be classified as Indian, at times a persons membership in a federally recognized tribe was not sufficient for classification as Indian in the eyes of the courts. The Major Crimes Act of 1885 placed seven major crimes under federal jurisdiction if committed by a Native American in Native American Territory, the Department of Justice required that a defendant be an enrolled member of a tribe to be covered by the Major Crimes Act. This Act defined a person as Indian based on three criteria, tribal membership, ancestral descent, or blood quantum, the attempt to use physical characteristics to define Indians created some paradoxical situations. In 1939, for example, the BIA sent Harvard anthropologist Carl Selzer to Robeson County, North Carolina to review the claims of the Lumbee, who were of mixed-race descent. The results of his study were absurd, listing children as Indian while omitting their parents, in the 1950s and 1960s, the federal government saw certain tribes as sufficiently capable of self-government, and thus no longer in need of federal supervision. The government terminated its relationship with numerous tribes under this policy, including the Menominees of Wisconsin, many tribes opposed this, and have sought restoration of recognition. Not all have received restoration and Brownell reports that the policy has devastated many of the groups, in particular, the tribes in California have been heavily affected by the termination era. For example, the Taylorsville Rancheria was established and participated in the IRA, the government failed to officially terminate the tribe through an act of congress, but the tribe was not included on the Federally Recognized tribes list. The Taylorsville Rancheria has been in limbo since that time and continues to struggle for their status as a recognized tribe. Native American concerns over equal protection and tribal sovereignty have led the government to reduce its role as arbiter of race-based eligibility standards. This policy of allowing tribes self-determination on membership, as well as aspects of their lives, has developed since the Nixon administration in the 1970s
25.
Uto-Aztecan
–
Uto-Aztecan or Uto-Aztekan /ˈjuːtoʊ. æzˈtɛkən/ is a Native American language family consisting of over 30 languages. Uto-Aztecan languages are found almost entirely in the Western United States, the name of the language family was created to show that it includes both the Ute language of Utah and the Aztecan languages of Mexico. The Uto-Aztecan language family is one of the largest linguistic families in the Americas in terms of number of speakers, number of languages, and geographic extension. The northernmost Uto-Aztecan language is Shoshoni, which is spoken as far north as Salmon, Idaho, Ethnologue gives the total number of languages in the family as 61, and the total number of speakers as 1,900,412. The roughly 1.5 million speakers of Nahuatl languages account for almost four-fifths of these, below this level of classification the main branches are well accepted, Numic, and the Californian languages, including Cahuilla and Luiseño, account for most of the Northern languages. Hopi and Tübatulabal are languages outside those groups, the Southern languages are divided into the Tepiman, the Tarahumaran languages including Raramuri and Guarijio language, the Cahitan languages, Corachol and Nahuan languages. The homeland of the Uto-Aztecan languages is considered to have been in the American Southwest or possibly Northwestern Mexico. Linguistic scholars have discussed the possibility that the family originated in southern Mexico. The Proto-Uto-Aztecan language is the common ancestor of the Uto-Aztecan languages. The proto-language would have been spoken by Mesolithic foragers in Aridoamerica, the homeland of the Numic languages has been placed in Southern California near Death Valley, and the homeland of the proposed Southern Uto-Aztecan group has been placed on the coast of Sonora. The geographic diffusion of speakers corresponded to the breakup of linguistic unity and this hypothesis has been criticized on several grounds, and it is not generally accepted by Uto-Aztecanists. A survey of agriculture-related vocabulary by Merrill found that the agricultural vocabulary can only be reconstructed for Southern Uto-Aztecan and this supports a conclusion that the Proto-Uto-Aztecan speech community did not practice agriculture, but only adopted it after entering Mesoamerica from the North. A recent proposal by David L. Shaul presents evidence suggesting contact between proto-Uto-Aztecan and languages of central California such as Esselen and the Yokutsan languages and this leads Shaul to suggest that proto-Uto-Aztecan was spoken in Californias Central Valley area, and formed part of an ancient Californian linguistic area. Uto-Aztecan languages are spoken in the North American mountain ranges and adjacent lowlands of the western United States, classical Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs, and its modern relatives are part of the Uto-Aztecan family. The Pipil language, an offshoot of Nahuatl, spread to Central America by a wave of migration from Mexico, now it has gone extinct in Guatemala and Honduras, and it is nearly extinct in western El Salvador, all areas dominated by use of Spanish. Uto-Aztecan has been accepted by linguists as a family since the early 1900s, and six subgroups are accepted as valid by all experts, Numic, Takic, Pimic, Taracahitic, Corachol. This leaves two ungrouped languages—Tübatulabal and Hopi, as to higher-level groupings, disagreement has persisted since the 19th century. Presently scholars also disagree as to where to draw language boundaries within dialect continua, the similarities among the Uto-Aztecan languages were noted as early as 1859 by J. C. E
26.
Archaic Southwest
–
The Archaic Southwest was the culture of the southwestern United States between 6500 BC and 200 AD. The Paleo-Indian tradition before that dates from 10,500 BC to 7500 BC, crops included maize, beans, and squash. The earliest known maize cultivation in the Southwest is about 2100 BC, settlements grew larger as agriculture became more important in subsistence. The absence of Formal Social Stratification, large cities, writing, Archaic cultural traditions include, Archaic–Early Basketmaker Era Sand-Dieguito-Pinto Oshara The Cochise Chihuahua Oasisamerica cultures. Many contemporary cultural traditions exist within the southwest, but there are four major ones, Oodham peoples, including the Akimel Oodham and Tohono Oodham. They inhabit Southern Arizona, and northern Sonora, Pueblo peoples, They inhabit the Rio Grande valley in New Mexico and areas to the west in Arizona and New Mexico. Southern Athabaskan, Apache and the Navajo peoples, Their ancestral roots trace back to Athabaskan-speaking peoples in Canada and they probably entered the southwest from the 12th to 16th centuries. Oasisamerica Prehistoric Southwestern cultural divisions List of dwellings of Pueblo peoples Fagan, Brian M. Ancient North America, london, Thames and Hudson, Ltd.2005
27.
San Gabriel Mountains
–
The San Gabriel Mountains are a mountain range located in northern Los Angeles County and western San Bernardino County, California, United States. The mountain range is part of the Transverse Ranges and lies between the Los Angeles Basin and the Mojave Desert, with Interstate 5 to the west and Interstate 15 to the east. This range lies in, and is surrounded by, the Angeles National Forest, the highest peak in the range is Mount San Antonio, commonly referred to as Mt. Baldy. Mount Wilson is another peak, famed for the Mount Wilson Observatory. The observatory may be visited by the public, on October 10,2014, President Obama designated the area the San Gabriel Mountains National Monument. Much of the range features rolling peaks, the range lacks craggy features, but contains a large number of canyons and is generally very rugged and difficult to traverse. The San Gabriel Mountains are in effect a large block that was uplifted and then dissected by numerous rivers. North of San Fernando, the San Gabriel Mountains crest abruptly up to almost 4,000 feet, pacoima and Big Tujunga Canyons cut through the range just east of San Fernando, carrying runoff into the San Fernando Valley. Little Tujunga Canyon Road bridges the range in area, connecting the San Fernando Valley to the Santa Clara River valley in the north. Towering over Big Tujunga Canyon north of Big Tujunga Reservoir is Mount Gleason, which at 6,502 feet, is the highest in this region of the San Gabriels. South of the gorge are the foothills of the mountains, which rise abruptly 4,000 feet above the Los Angeles Basin and give rise to the Arroyo Seco. Southeast of Big Tujunga Canyon, the front range of the San Gabriels gradually grows in elevation. On the north the range is dissected by the canyon of the West Fork San Gabriel River. On the north slopes of the San Gabriel crest, the ranks of mountains drop down incrementally to the floor of the Mojave Desert in a much more gradual manner than the sheer southern flank. The Angeles Crest Highway, one of the routes across the San Gabriels. Little Rock, Big Rock and Sheep Creeks drain off the part of the mountains. To the east, the San Andreas Fault cuts across the range, forming a series of long, straight and narrow depressions, including Swarthout Valley, South of Mount San Antonio, San Antonio Creek drains the mountains, cutting the deep San Antonio Canyon. However, there are several notable peaks in this region, including Telegraph Peak, at 8,985 feet, Cucamonga Peak, at 8,859 feet
28.
Azusa, California
–
Azusa is a city in the San Gabriel Valley, at the foot of the San Gabriel Mountains in Los Angeles County, California, United States. The A on the San Gabriel Mountains represents the city of Azusa, the population was 46,361 at the 2010 census, up from 44,712 at the 2000 census. Azusa is located along historic Route 66, which passes through the city on Foothill Boulevard and Alosta Avenue. Azusa stands for everything from A to Z in the U. S. A. has been a phrase used to promote the town by boosters such as the Chamber of Commerce for many years. The place name Azusa actually dates to the Mexican Alta California era in the 19th century when Azusa was used to refer to the San Gabriel Valley and it appears to have been derived from the Tongva place name Asuksagna. The area was part of the Tongva peoples homeland since at least 55 CE, the first Mexican settlement in Azusa was at the Rancho el Susa in 1841, a Mexican land grant from the Alta California Governor Juan Bautista Alvarado to Luis Arenas. In 1844 Arenas sold the land to Henry Dalton, an English immigrant and wealthy merchant from the Pueblo of Los Angeles. He renamed it Rancho Azusa de Dalton, and had built a winery, distillery, vinegar house, meat smokehouse, Dalton built a house here on a place known as Dalton Hill, near 6th Street and Cerritos Avenue in Azusa. Dalton was also the owner of the adjacent and large Rancho San Francisquito, in the end Dalton owned an unbroken expanse of land from the present day San Dimas to the eastern edge of Pasadena. The decree was reversed by the US Supreme Court, and the grant was patented to Henry Dalton in 1867. The 1870 US Census listed the area as the township of Azusa - El Monte Township and 1880 US Census listed the area as the township of San Josi and Azusa. There were a few corrections to cross out the San Josi name on most of the census pages, Dalton had borrowed money from Los Angeles banker Jonathan S. Slauson to fund 24 years of litigation, and had to sign the land over to him in 1880. Slauson laid out the plan for the city in 1887 and the city was incorporated in 1898. The completion of the Los Angeles and San Gabriel Valley Railroad in January 1887, later sold to the Santa Fe railroad, brought new people looking for homes, the Gold Line Foothill light rail line is being built on the old rail right-of-way. Part of this boom was the short lived town of Gladstone. The city is located at the entrance to the San Gabriel Canyon and it is on the east side of the San Gabriel River. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 9.7 square miles. Azusa is located at 34°7′50″N 117°54′25″W, sister cities Azusa has one sister city, Zacatecas, State of Zacatecas, Mexico
29.
Palos Verdes Peninsula
–
The Palos Verdes Peninsula is a landform and a geographic sub-region of the Los Angeles metropolitan area, within southwestern Los Angeles County in the U. S. state of California. The South Bay city of Torrance borders the peninsula on the north, the Pacific Ocean is on the west and south, the hill cities on the peninsula are known for dramatic ocean and city views, distinguished schools, extensive horse trails, and expensive homes. The peninsula was the homeland of the Tongva-Gabrieliño Native Americans people for thousands of years, in other areas of the Los Angeles Basin archeological sites date back 8,000 years. Their first contact with Europeans occurred in 1542 with João Cabrilho, chowigna and Suangna were two Tongva settlements of many in the peninsula area, which was also a departure point for their rancherías on the Channel Islands. It was named Rancho de los Palos Verdes, or ranch of the green sticks and it was also a whaling station in the mid-19th century, albeit only for a brief period. By 1882 ownership of the land had passed from the Sepulveda family through various mortgage holders to Jotham Bixby of Rancho Los Cerritos, who leased the land to Japanese farmers. Frank Vanderlip, representing a group of wealthy east coast investors, in 1914, Vanderlip vacationed at Palos Verdes in order to recover from an illness, and he was astounded by scenery he compared to the Sorrentine Peninsula and the Amalfi Drive. He quickly initiated development of Palos Verdes and he hired the Olmsted Brothers, the landscaping firm of John Charles Olmsted and Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr. to plan and landscape a new subdivision. The Olmsted Brothers contracted Koebig & Koebig to perform engineering work, including surveying, however, the project stalled as World War I started, and Vanderlip accepted a chairmanship to the War Savings Committee in Washington, D. C. in 1916. By 1921, Vanderlip had lost interest in overseeing development of Palos Verdes, Lewis was an experienced developer, but lacked the capital to purchase and develop Palos Verdes. Instead, he established a real estate trust, capitalizing the project through the sale of notes which were convertible to Palos Verdes property. Under the terms of the trust, Lewis sought to raise $30 million for infrastructure improvements and he succeeded in attracting $15 million in capital, but far short of the $35 million needed. The trust dissolved and ownership of Palos Verdes reverted to Vanderlip, Vanderlip established a new real estate trust to purchase 3200 acres from his land syndicate and establish the subdivision of Palos Verdes Estates. The new trust assumed not just the land, but also the improvements made by Lewis and they were not complete, but they were substantial, many sewers, water mains, and roads, landscaping, parks, and a golf course. They opened Palos Verdes for public inspection in June 1923, somewhat recently, around the 1980s, Rancho Palos Verdes acquired Eastview, a formerly unincorporated neighborhood of L. A. County with a San Pedro ZIP Code, areas of commerce include historic Mediterranean Revival style Malaga Cove Plaza, the Promenade on the Peninsula. Smaller shopping centers include the Peninsula Center, Lunada Bay Plaza, the largest peninsula commercial district is in Rolling Hills Estates, with many shopping centers including The Promenade on the Peninsula with a megaplex movie theater and an ice rink. The Palos Verdes area has beautiful views, coastline views
30.
Huntington Beach, California
–
Huntington Beach is a seaside city in Orange County in Southern California. The city is named after American businessman Henry E. Huntington, the population was 189,992 during the 2010 census, making it the most populous beach city in Orange County and the seventh most populous city in the Los Angeles-Long Beach-Anaheim MSA. Its estimated 2014 population was 200,809, Huntington Beach is known for its long 9. 5-mile stretch of sandy beach, mild climate, excellent surfing, and beach culture. The ocean waves are enhanced by an effect caused by the edge-diffraction of open ocean swells around Santa Catalina Island. The area was occupied by the Tongva people. The main thoroughfare of Huntington Beach, Beach Boulevard, was originally a cattle route for the industry of the Rancho. Since its time as a parcel of the enormous Spanish land grant, later it became known as Fairview and then Pacific City, as it developed into a tourist destination. The Huntington Beach pier was built in 1904 and was originally a 1,000 foot-long timber structure, Huntington Beach was incorporated on February 17,1909 during the tenure of its first mayor, Ed Manning. Its original developer was Huntington Beach Company, a development firm owned by Henry Huntington. The Huntington Beach Company is still a major land-owner in the city, the company is now wholly owned by the Chevron Corporation. The lucky buyers got more than they had bargained for when oil was discovered in the area, and enormous development of the oil reserves followed. Though many of the old reserves are depleted, and the price of land for housing has pushed many of the rigs off the landscape, Huntington Beach was primarily agricultural in its early years with crops such as celery and sugar beets. Holly Sugar was an employer with a large processing plant in the city that was later converted to an oil refinery. The citys first high school, Huntington Beach High School, located on Main Street, was built in 1906, the schools team, the Oilers, is named after the citys original natural resource. Meadowlark Airport, a general aviation airport, existed in Huntington Beach from the 1940s until 1989. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 31.9 square miles. 26.7 sq mi of it is land and 5.1 sq mi of it is water, the entire city of Huntington Beach lies in area codes 657 and 714, except for small parts of Huntington Harbour, which is in the 562 Area Code. Huntington Beach has a borderline semi-arid/Mediterranean climate, the climate is generally sunny, dry and cool, although evenings can be excessively damp
31.
Proto-Uto-Aztecan
–
Uto-Aztecan or Uto-Aztekan /ˈjuːtoʊ. æzˈtɛkən/ is a Native American language family consisting of over 30 languages. Uto-Aztecan languages are found almost entirely in the Western United States, the name of the language family was created to show that it includes both the Ute language of Utah and the Aztecan languages of Mexico. The Uto-Aztecan language family is one of the largest linguistic families in the Americas in terms of number of speakers, number of languages, and geographic extension. The northernmost Uto-Aztecan language is Shoshoni, which is spoken as far north as Salmon, Idaho, Ethnologue gives the total number of languages in the family as 61, and the total number of speakers as 1,900,412. The roughly 1.5 million speakers of Nahuatl languages account for almost four-fifths of these, below this level of classification the main branches are well accepted, Numic, and the Californian languages, including Cahuilla and Luiseño, account for most of the Northern languages. Hopi and Tübatulabal are languages outside those groups, the Southern languages are divided into the Tepiman, the Tarahumaran languages including Raramuri and Guarijio language, the Cahitan languages, Corachol and Nahuan languages. The homeland of the Uto-Aztecan languages is considered to have been in the American Southwest or possibly Northwestern Mexico. Linguistic scholars have discussed the possibility that the family originated in southern Mexico. The Proto-Uto-Aztecan language is the common ancestor of the Uto-Aztecan languages. The proto-language would have been spoken by Mesolithic foragers in Aridoamerica, the homeland of the Numic languages has been placed in Southern California near Death Valley, and the homeland of the proposed Southern Uto-Aztecan group has been placed on the coast of Sonora. The geographic diffusion of speakers corresponded to the breakup of linguistic unity and this hypothesis has been criticized on several grounds, and it is not generally accepted by Uto-Aztecanists. A survey of agriculture-related vocabulary by Merrill found that the agricultural vocabulary can only be reconstructed for Southern Uto-Aztecan and this supports a conclusion that the Proto-Uto-Aztecan speech community did not practice agriculture, but only adopted it after entering Mesoamerica from the North. A recent proposal by David L. Shaul presents evidence suggesting contact between proto-Uto-Aztecan and languages of central California such as Esselen and the Yokutsan languages and this leads Shaul to suggest that proto-Uto-Aztecan was spoken in Californias Central Valley area, and formed part of an ancient Californian linguistic area. Uto-Aztecan languages are spoken in the North American mountain ranges and adjacent lowlands of the western United States, classical Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs, and its modern relatives are part of the Uto-Aztecan family. The Pipil language, an offshoot of Nahuatl, spread to Central America by a wave of migration from Mexico, now it has gone extinct in Guatemala and Honduras, and it is nearly extinct in western El Salvador, all areas dominated by use of Spanish. Uto-Aztecan has been accepted by linguists as a family since the early 1900s, and six subgroups are accepted as valid by all experts, Numic, Takic, Pimic, Taracahitic, Corachol. This leaves two ungrouped languages—Tübatulabal and Hopi, as to higher-level groupings, disagreement has persisted since the 19th century. Presently scholars also disagree as to where to draw language boundaries within dialect continua, the similarities among the Uto-Aztecan languages were noted as early as 1859 by J. C. E
32.
Sonoran Desert
–
It is the hottest desert in Mexico. It has an area of 260,000 square kilometers, the western portion of the United States–Mexico border passes through the Sonoran Desert. In phytogeography, the Sonoran Desert is within the Sonoran Floristic Province of the Madrean Region in southwestern North America, the desert contains a variety of unique and endemic plants and animals, such as the saguaro and organ pipe cactus. It is bounded on the west by the Peninsular Ranges, which separate it from the California chaparral and woodlands, to the north in California and northwest Arizona, the Sonoran Desert transitions to the colder-winter, higher-elevation Mojave, Great Basin, and Colorado Plateau deserts. To the east and southeast, the transition to the coniferous Arizona Mountains forests and Sierra Madre. To the south the Sonoran–Sinaloan transition subtropical dry forest is the zone from the Sonoran Desert to the tropical dry forests of the Mexican state of Sinaloa. The deserts sub-regions include the Colorado Desert of southeastern California, many ecologists now consider Shreves Vizcaíno and Magdalena regions, which lie on the western side of the Baja California Peninsula, to be a separate ecoregion, the Baja California Desert. The Pinacate National Park includes the only active Erg dune region in North America, the nearest city to the Reserva de la Biosfera el Pinacate y Gran Desierto de Altar is Puerto Peñasco in the state of Sonora, Mexico. The Sonoran Desert area southeast of Tucson and near the Mexican border is vital habitat for the population of jaguars living within the United States. Many plants not only survive, but thrive in the conditions of the Sonoran Desert. Many have evolved to have specialized adaptations to the desert climate, the Sonoran Deserts biseasonal rainfall pattern results in more plant species than any other desert in the world. The Sonoran Desert includes plant genera and species from the family, palm family, cactus family, legume family. The Sonoran is the place in the world where the famous saguaro cactus grows in the wild. Cholla, beavertail, hedgehog, fishhook, prickly pear, nightblooming cereus, creosote bush and bur sage dominate valley floors. Indigo bush and Mormon tea are other shrubs that may be found, wildflowers of the Sonoran Desert include desert sand verbena, desert sunflower, and evening primroses. Ascending from the valley up bajadas, various such as velvet mesquite, palo verde, desert ironwood, desert willow. Shrubs found at higher elevations include whitethorn acacia, fairy duster, in the desert subdivisions found on Baja California, cardon cactus, elephant tree, and boojum tree occur. The California fan palm is found in the Colorado Desert section of the Sonoran Desert and it is found at spring-fed oases, such as in Anza Borrego Desert State Park, Joshua Tree National Park, and the Kofa National Wildlife Refuge
33.
Serrano language
–
The Serrano language is a language in the Serran branch of the Uto-Aztecan family spoken by the Serrano people of Southern California. The language is related to Tongva, Kitanemuk and Vanyume. According to Ethnologue, there was 1 speaker in 1994, the last fully fluent speaker was Dorothy Ramon, who died in 2002. The language is now considered extinct, however revitalization efforts have allowed the language to survive in some form, in 1891 the United States established the San Manuel Reservation for the Serrano people where many of its last speakers lived. In 1967, Researcher Kenneth Cushman Hill noted that about 6 people still spoke the now dormant language, see also, Serrano People The language was at a time considered to be extinct but there are attempts at reviving it. Language teacher Pauline Murillo helped develop an interactive CD ROM for learning Serrano, as of 2013, apps and games have been developed, and the San Manuel Bands Serrano Language Revitalization Project seeks to develop further multimedia resources for language learners. In May 2013, Cal State San Bernardino announced it would offer Serrano language classes to its students, the Limu project offers online courses in Maarrenga and Yuhaviat. The Serrano language was traditionally a spoken language, an alphabet was not used until the 1990s, a new alphabet, with 47 letters, including the glottal stop, was developed starting in 2005. University of California, Los Angeles provides a recording of a Serrano speaker reading a word list here, Serrano is an agglutinative language, where words use suffix complexes for a variety of purposes with several morphemes strung together. In 1967, the language of Serrano was charted as having 34 consonants and 9 vowels in its phonetic form, a full grammar of the Serrano language can be found here. Speaking Serrano, Revitalizing a Native Language, a Native American Encyclopedia, History, Culture, and Peoples. A Grammar of the Serrano Language, the Limu Project active language revitalization iLearn Course Portal - iLearn
34.
Romance languages
–
Today, around 800 million people are native speakers worldwide, mainly in Europe, Africa and the Americas, but also elsewhere. Additionally, the major Romance languages have many speakers and are in widespread use as lingua francas. This is especially the case for French, which is in use throughout Central and West Africa, Madagascar, Mauritius. The five most widely spoken Romance languages by number of speakers are Spanish, Portuguese, French, Italian. Because of the difficulty of imposing boundaries on a continuum, various counts of the modern Romance languages are given, for example, Dalby lists 23 based on mutual intelligibility. Between 350 BC and 150 AD, the expansion of the Empire, together with its administrative and educational policies, Latin also exerted a strong influence in southeastern Britain, the Roman province of Africa, western Germany and the Balkans north of the Jireček Line. Despite other influences, the phonology, morphology, and lexicon of all Romance languages consist mainly of evolved forms of Vulgar Latin, however, some notable differences occur between todays Romance languages and their Roman ancestor. With only one or two exceptions, Romance languages have lost the system of Latin and, as a result, have SVO sentence structure. From this adverb the noun romance originated, which applied initially to anything written romanice, the word romance with the modern sense of romance novel or love affair has the same origin. In the medieval literature of Western Europe, serious writing was usually in Latin, while popular tales, often focusing on love, were composed in the vernacular, for example, the Portuguese word fresta is descended from Latin fenestra window, but now means skylight and slit. Cognates may exist but have become rare, such as finiestra in Spanish, the Spanish and Portuguese terms defenestrar meaning to throw through a window and fenestrado meaning replete with windows also have the same root, but are later borrowings from Latin. Galician has both fiestra and the frequently used ventá and xanela. As an alternative to lei, Italian has the pronoun ella, a cognate of the words for she. Sardinian balcone comes from Old Italian and is similar to other Romance languages such as French balcon, Portuguese balcão, Romanian balcon, Spanish balcón, Catalan balcó and Corsican balconi. Documentary evidence is limited about Vulgar Latin for the purposes of research. Many of its speakers were soldiers, slaves, displaced peoples, other scholars argue that the distinctions are more rightly viewed as indicative of sociolinguistic and register differences normally found within any language. Both were mutually intelligible as one and the language, which was true until the second half of the 7th century. Central Europe and the Balkans were occupied by the Germanic and Slavic tribes, as well as by the Huns, over the course of the fourth to eighth centuries, Vulgar Latin, by this time highly dialectalized, broke up into discrete languages that were no longer mutually intelligible
35.
Serrano people
–
The Serrano are an indigenous people of California. They use the autonyms of Taaqtam, meaning people, Maarengayam, people from Morongo, today the Maarengayam are enrolled in the Morongo Band of Mission Indians, and the Yuhaviatam are enrolled in the San Manuel Band of Mission Indians. Additionally, some Serrano people are enrolled in the Soboba Band of Luiseno Indians, the Serrano historically lived in the San Bernardino Mountains and other Transverse Ranges, and in the southern Mojave Desert, within Southern California. The Serrano language is part of the Takic subset of the large Uto-Aztecan languages group of people of North America. The language family historically extended from Mexico along the West Coast and into the Great Basin and they were a branch of the Takic languages speaking people who arrived in Southern California around 2,500 years ago. Serrano means highlander or mountaineer in Spanish, the Spanish founded Mission San Gabriel Arcangel in 1771, south of the San Gabriel Mountains and southwest of the San Bernardino Mountains. With the Cahuilla and Quechan tribes, in 1812 the Serrano revolted against it, in 1834 the Mexican Alta California government forcibly relocated many Serrano to the missions. They suffered devastating smallpox outbreaks in 1840 and 1860, as they had no immunity to the Eurasian disease, in 1867 the Yuhaviatam band of Serrano were the victims of a massacre conducted by American settlers of the San Bernardino Valley, during a 32-day campaign at Chimney Rock. The massacre was a response to a raid, probably carried out by Chemehuevi Southern Paiutes, on a settlement at Lake Arrowhead. Three American ranch hands were killed at a ranch called Los Flores in Summit Valley, tribal leader Santos Manuel led the survivors from the mountains to the valley, where they established permanent residence adjacent to the hot springs near present-day Highland. In 1891 the United States established the San Manuel Reservation for the Serrano people, the Serrano populated the San Bernardino Mountains and extended northwest into the Mojave River area of the Mojave Desert and west into the Tejon Creek watershed in the Tehachapi Mountains. The Serrano populations along Tejon Creek were identified as the Cuahajai or Cuabajay, mountain camps were used for hunting. One such encampment was accidentally unearthed by the U. S. Forest Service fighting a wildfire in 2003 near Baldwin Lake, uncovered were artifacts of non-local jasper and obsidian, ash and charcoal, grinding stones, and fire pits possibly dating back 1,000 years. Their society was divided into two exogamous moieties and their villages had from 25 to a hundred people. Their dwellings were large and communal, framed with willow branches and covered over with woven mats, the lodges were made with fireplaces inside for each family. The men did not wear clothing and the women wore deerskin, otter, the Serrano who inhabited the San Bernardino Mountains would go to the milder areas of Apple Valley and Lucerne Valley during the winter, and the area in and around Big Bear Lake during the summer. They hunted small game such as rabbits, using traps along with bows and arrows and they did not hunt the grizzly bears, which they believed were reincarnations of their ancestors spirits. They were skilled craftsmen and experts in basketweaving, which created in a variety of sizes and shapes for different purposes, such as storage, carrying
36.
Mission Indians
–
Spanish explorers arrived on Californias coasts as early as the mid-16th century. In 1769 the first Spanish Franciscan mission was built in San Diego, local tribes were relocated and conscripted into forced labor on the mission, stretching from San Diego to San Francisco. Disease, starvation, over work, and torture decimated these tribes, many were baptized as Roman Catholics by the Franciscan missionaries at the missions. Mission Indians were from many regional Native American tribes, their members were often relocated together in new mixed groups, for instance, the Payomkowishum were renamed Luiseños after the Mission San Luis Rey, and the Acjachemem were renamed the Juaneños after the Mission San Juan Capistrano. The Catholic priests forbade the Indians from practicing their native culture, resulting in the disruption of many linguistic, spiritual. When Mexico gained its independence in 1834, it assumed control of the Californian missions from the Franciscans, Mexico secularized the missions and transferred or sold the lands to other non-Native administrators or owners. Many of the Mission Indians worked on the newly established ranchos with little improvement in their living conditions, around 1906 Alfred L. Kroeber and Constance G. On January 12,1891 the U. S, in 1927, Sacramento Bureau of Indian Affairs Superintendent Lafayette A. Dorrington was instructed by Assistant Commissioner E. B. Merritt in Washington D. C. to list tribes in California that Congress had not yet purchased land to be used as reservations. As part of the 1928 California Indian Jurisdictional Act enrollment, Native Americans were asked to identify their “Tribe or Band. ”The majority of applicants supplied the name of the mission that they knew their ancestors were associated with. The enrollment was part of a plan to provide reservation lands promised, some bands also occupy trust lands—Indian Reservations—identified under the Mission Indian Agency. The Mission Indian Act of 1891 formed the administrative Bureau of Indian Affairs unit which governs San Diego County, Riverside County, San Bernardino County, there is one Chumash reservation in the last county, and more than thirty reservations in the others. Los Angeles, San Luis Obispo, and Orange counties do not contain any tribal trust lands. But, resident tribes, including the Tongva in the first and these and the tribal governments of fifteen other reservations operate casinos today. The total acreage of the Mission group of reservations constitutes approximately 250,000 acres, los Coyotes Band of Mission Indians Manzanita Band of Mission Indians Mesa Grande Band of Mission Indians Mission Creek Band of Mission Indians - Mission Creek Reservation of Cahuilla. Morongo Band of Mission Indians Pala Band of Mission Indians Pauma Band of Mission Indians Pechanga Band of Mission Indians Ramona Band or Village of Mission Indians San Cayetano Band of Cahuilla. San Manuel Band of Mission Indians San Miguel Arcangel, descandants of Mission San Miguel Indians in San Miguel, Mythology of the Mission Indians, The Journal of the American Folk-Lore Society, Vol. XVII, No. Two Myths of the Mission Indians of California, Journal of the American Folk-Lore Society, Vol. XIX, a Native American Encyclopedia, History, Culture, and Peoples
37.
Aliso Creek (Orange County)
–
Aliso Creek is a 19-mile -long urban stream that runs through Orange County in the U. S. state of California from the Santa Ana Mountains to the Pacific Ocean, collecting seven main tributaries. The creek is channelized, and as of 2004, the 30. 4-square-mile watershed had a population of 149,000 divided among seven incorporated cities. The creek flows generally south-southwest through a narrow coastal watershed at the extreme end of the arid Los Angeles Basin in a fairly straight course. Owing to the submersion of Southern California in the Pacific Ocean as recently as 10 million years ago, the name was given to the creek by Spanish explorers in the 18th century, although there are now many places in California that use the name. Historically, the served as the boundary between the Juaneño and Gabrieleño Indians. The creeks watershed then became a portion of the 1842 Rancho Niguel Mexican Land Grant to Juan Avila. Although attempts to use the creek and its watershed as a water source date to the early 20th century. As a result, the creek became neglected throughout the part of the century. Despite this general decline, the Aliso Creek watershed still supports some biodiversity, pollution continues to be a major problem for the creek—the subject of many water quality and feasibility studies—but, as with many other Orange County streams, little has been done to correct it. The Native American name for Aliso Creek has almost certainly been lost, the current name of Aliso Creek was given by Spanish conquistadors sometime between the 1750s and the 1800s. The word aliso means alder tree in Spanish, and likely refers to the vegetation that lines the creek especially near its mouth. The California sycamore, Platanus racemosa, is known as aliso in Spanish. Other derivatives for Aliso Creeks name have arisen since then—including Los Alisos Creek, several nearby geographical features also are named for the creek, including Aliso Peak, a 683-foot headland. A middle school in the Saddleback Valley Unified School District, Los Alisos Intermediate School, the creek is also the namesake of Aliso Creek Road, which crosses the creek once and only parallels it for a short length. The city of Aliso Viejo and several communities that lie near the stream also share their name with the creek. Aliso Creek rises in the foothills of the Santa Ana Mountains, near the community of Portola Hills, part of Lake Forest, the Loma Ridge rises about 1,500 feet above the creeks headwaters, which are at an elevation of 2,300 feet. There is no pond, lake or spring at the ultimate source. The creek then continues generally southwest for 19 miles to the Pacific Ocean at Laguna Beach, collecting water from seven major tributaries and over forty minor drains, for much of its course, the creek is channelized and confined by urban development
38.
San Pedro, Los Angeles
–
San Pedro is a community within the city of Los Angeles, California. Formerly a separate city, it consolidated with Los Angeles in 1909, the Port of Los Angeles, a major international seaport, is partially located within San Pedro. The district has grown from being dominated by the industry to become primarily a working class community within the city of Los Angeles. The site, at the end of the Palos Verdes Peninsula. The peninsula, including all of San Pedro, was the homeland of the Tongva-Gabrieleño Native American people for thousands of years, in other areas of the Los Angeles Basin archeological sites date back 8, 000–15,000 years. The Tongva believe they have been here since the beginning of time, once called the lords of the ocean, due to their mastery of oceangoing canoes, many Tongva villages covered the coastline. Their first contact with Europeans in 1542 with João Cabrilho, the Portuguese explorer who also was the first to write of them, chowigna and Suangna were two Tongva settlements of many in the peninsula area, which was also a departure point for their rancherias on the Channel Islands. Legend has it that the Native Americans blessed the land of Palos Verdes, the Tongva called the San Pedro area Chaaw. San Pedro was named for St. Peter of Alexandria, a bishop in Alexandria. His feast day is November 24 on the ecclesiastical calendar of Spain. Santa Catalina Island, named after Catherine of Alexandria, was claimed for the Spanish Empire the next day, on her feast day, in 1602–1603, Sebastián Vizcaíno officially surveyed and mapped the California coastline, including San Pedro Bay, for New Spain. The anglicized pronunciation, popularized by the English-speaking people of Midwestern America, is san-PEE-dro, european settlement began in 1769 as part of an effort to populate California, although trade restrictions encouraged more smuggling than regular business. Rancho San Pedro is the site of the first Spanish land grant in Alta California, the land was granted in 1784 by King Carlos III to Juan Jose Dominguez, a retired Spanish soldier who came to California with the Gaspar de Portolà expedition. When New Spain won its independence from the Spanish Empire and Alta California became part of Mexico, the restrictions were lifted. In 1888, the War Department took control of a tract of land next to the bay and this became Fort MacArthur in 1914 and was a coastal defense site for many years. Woodrow Wilson transferred 200 United States Navy ships from the Atlantic to the Pacific in 1919 when tension arose between the United States and Japan over the fate of China. San Diego Bay was considered too shallow for the largest ships, local availability of fuel oil minimized transportation costs, and consistently good weather allowed frequent gunnery exercises off the nearby Channel Islands of California. The heavy cruisers of the Scouting Force were transferred from the Atlantic to San Pedro in response to the 1931 Japanese invasion of Manchuria, by 1934,14 battleships, two aircraft carriers,14 cruisers, and 16 support ships were based at San Pedro
United States (
California)
