1.
President of Estonia
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The President of the Republic of Estonia is the head of state of the Republic of Estonia. Estonia is a republic in which the President is a ceremonial figurehead with no executive power. The President is obliged to suspend their membership in any party for the term in office. Upon assuming office, the authority and duties of the President in all other elected or appointed offices terminate automatically and these measures should theoretically help the President to function in a more independent and impartial manner. The President is elected by the Riigikogu or an electoral body for a five-year term. The electoral body is convened in case no candidate secures a two-thirds supermajority in the Riigikogu after three rounds of balloting, the President holds office for five years. They can be reelected any number of times, but not more than twice consecutively, the current President is Kersti Kaljulaid, elected by Parliament on 3 October 2016, becoming the first woman and youngest person ever to hold the position. The authors of the first Estonian constitution, with memories of the Russian emperors abuses of power and this eventually led to a creation of an ultra-parliamentary system. The power of the Parliament was practically unlimited, until 1934, the nominal head of state was the State Elder, who also served as de jure chairman of the cabinet—officially known as the Government. However, he could not play a role in the event of conflict between the Parliament and the Government. The State Elder and the Government were completely dependent on the Parliament, the functions that are usually vested on a president in parliamentary systems were divided among the speaker of the Riigikogu, the State Elder and the Government. Estonias constitution was amended in 1933, instituting a strongly presidential system, the head of state, according to the new constitution, was also called the State Elder. However, it never came into effect as a result of Konstantin Pätss self-coup in 1934, in 1938, another constitution was enacted, and the head of states title was changed to President of the Republic. He was given very broad executive power, though he was less powerful than the State Elder of the 1933 constitution. Konstantin Päts became the first person to bear this title and his term was to last for six years. The Vares government had actually chosen by Soviet official Andrei Zhdanov. Following the sham elections in July, Päts was dismissed from office, later in July Päts, along with his son, daughter-in-law and two grandsons, was deported to Ufa in Russia. In accordance with this provision, Vares took over the functions of the president in order to legal sanction to the formal annexation of Estonia by the Soviet Union in August
2.
Andrus Ansip
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Andrus Ansip is an Estonian politician, the current European Commissioner for Digital Single Market and Vice President of the European Commission, in office since 2014. Previously, he was Prime Minister of Estonia from 2005 to 2014, before his entry into politics Ansip trained as a chemist, before working in banking and business. He entered Parliament in 2004, quickly becoming Minister of Economic Affairs, on 1 November 2014, he was appointed to the European Commission. Born in Tartu, Ansip graduated from the University of Tartu with a degree in Chemistry in 1979 and he worked as an engineer at the university from 1979 to 1983. He was an Instructor in the Industry Department and Head of the Organisational Department of the Tartu District Committee of the Estonian Communist Party from 1986 to 1988, Ansip has been involved in several banking and investment ventures. He has served as a Member of the Board of Directors of the People’s Bank of Tartu, Chairman of the Board of Livonia Privatisation IF and he also has served as Chairman of the board for Radio Tartu. He had run in elections for the Riigikogu, the Estonian Parliament. He was succeeded by fellow Reform Party member Laine Jänes, Ansip became his successor on 13 September. His track record as Minister is more difficult to evaluate because of the duration of his service. On 31 March 2005, Ansip was charged by President Arnold Rüütel to form a government, Ansip was able to form a coalition with the Centre Party and the Peoples Union of Estonia, which was approved by the Riigikogu on 12 April 2005. Ansip thus became Prime Minister of Estonia and he was backed by 53 out of 101 members of the Riigikogu,40 deputies voting against. He and the ministers were inaugurated in office the next day, on 4 March 2007, Ansips Reform Party won 27 percent of the vote in the Estonian parliamentary elections, raising its mandate in the Riigikogu to 31 seats from 19. Ansip personally received over 22,500 votes and he was charged by President Toomas Hendrik Ilves to form a government. This time the Reform Party formed a coalition with the Union of Pro Patria and Res Publica and his second term as Prime Minister began on 5 April 2007. Ansip was once again charged by President Toomas Hendrik Ilves to form a government, the Reform Party continued in a coalition with the Union of Pro Patria and Res Publica. Ansips third term as Prime Minister began on 6 April 2011, but Ansips center-right coalition soon struggled in polls amid signs of voter fatigue at years of a government focused on fiscal austerity as well as several high-profile party funding scandals. The center-left opposition also gained popularity, on 4 March 2014, Ansip announced his resignation to enable a successor to lead his party into 2015 elections. From 4 December 2013 to 26 March 2014 he was the prime minister in the European Union
3.
Mart Laar
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Mart Laar is an Estonian politician and historian. He served as the Prime Minister of Estonia from 1992 to 1994, Laar is credited with having helped bring about Estonia’s rapid economic development during the 1990s. He is a member of Pro Patria and Res Publica Union, in April 2011, Mart Laar became Minister of Defence in the cabinet of Prime Minister Andrus Ansip and served until his resignation for reasons of health in May 2012. In April 2013, Riigikogu appointed Laar as chairman of the board of the Bank of Estonia. Mart Laar was born in Viljandi and he studied history at the University of Tartu, graduating in 1983, he received his masters degree in philosophy and his doctorate in history in 2005. Laar has written books on Estonian and Soviet history, among them War in the Woods, Estonias Struggle for Survival, 1944–1956. Laars political career began when he became a member of the conservative Pro Patria Union party and he was elected prime minister by the Riigikogu on 21 October 1992. Laar claims the book on economics he had read before becoming prime minister at the age of 32 was Free to Choose by Milton Friedman. Due to several scandals, Laar was defeated in 1994 by no-confidence vote, reasons for the vote were publicized details of arms deal with Israel and so called Ruble scandal - the sale of 2. Five years later, in 1999, Laar returned to the post, with his main goals being to pull the economy out of a slump. He remained in the post until he stepped down in 2002, later he explained that during shooting he acted as a private person, not as the Prime Minister. Mart Laar apologized for this event as Prime Minister and army officer, Laar has multiple Orders from Estonia and other countries. The results of the reforms have been recognized by Cato Institute. The Acton Institute awarded Dr. Laar their Faith & Freedom Award on 24 October 2007, Mart Laar is member of Honorary Board of the European Association of History Educators. He is also a member of the advisory council of the Victims of Communism Memorial Foundation. The House of Terror Museum in Hungary awarded Mart Laar the Petőfi Prize in 2011 for his contributions to investigating the crimes of communism, Laar is a member of the International Council of the New York-based Human Rights Foundation and a founding member of the Unitas Foundation. In 2003, Laar received the Wharton Infosys Business Transformation Award brought about the development of systems in Estonia to upgrade the countrys infrastructure. After the Rose Revolution in Georgia, Laar became advisor to the countrys President Mikheil Saakashvili, in September 2006, Laar announced that he will come out of political retirement to run for the candidacy for Prime Minister of the new Union of Pro Patria and Res Publica party
4.
Kristiina Ojuland
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Kristiina Ojuland is an Estonian politician. She was the Foreign Minister of Estonia from 2002 through 2005, in June 2004 she ran for the post of secretary-general of the Council of Europe, but was defeated, receiving 51 of 299 votes. She was a member of the Estonian Reform Party from 1995 till 5 June 2013 and she was expelled from the Reform Party because of alleged vote rigging on 5 June 2013. She later founded the Peoples Unity Party, which failed to cross the 5% barrier in the 2015 parliamentary election and she is a member of the Reconciliation of European Histories Group. In 1990 she received her LL. B. from University of Tartu, in 1992 she graduated from the Estonian School of Diplomacy in Tallinn and attended the Graduate Institute of International Studies in Geneva special program. In 1993 she attended the Vienna School of International Studies, special program, between 1990 and 1992 Ojuland worked in the Draft Legislation Department of the Estonian Ministry of Justice. In 1994 she moved into politics, becoming a member of the Riigikogu and she joined the Estonian Reform Party in 1995, becoming their Foreign Affairs Spokesperson. From 2002 to 2005 Ojuland was the Estonian minister of foreign affairs and she was the first vice-speaker of the parliament from 2007 to 2009, at which point she became a Member of the European Parliament for the ALDE. From 2007 to 2014 she was the Vice President of the ELDR and Vice-chair of the Alliance of Liberals, commander of the Legion of Honour Grand Cross of the Order of Infante D. Her professional dancing partner was Aleksandr Makarov, from 1987 to 2000, Ojuland was married to Erik Siigur. Her current partner of seven years is Estonian businessman Raimo Kägu
5.
Mart Siimann
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Mart Siimann was the Prime Minister of Estonia from 1997 to 1999, representing the liberal/centrist Estonian Coalition Party. He was the president of the Estonian Olympic Committee from 2001 to 2012, born at Kilingi-Nõmme, Siimann studied at the University of Tartu from 1965 to 1971. In 1971, he graduated as a philologist-psychologist, from 1989 to 1992, he was the director of the Estonian Television and from 1992 to 1995, Managing Director of Advertising Television Co. He was a member of the Estonian Parliament from 1995 to 1997 and from 1999 to 2003, media related to Mart Siimann at Wikimedia Commons
6.
Siim Kallas
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Siim Kallas is an Estonian politician, who most recently served as European Commissioner for Transport between 2010 and 2014. Before that he was European Commissioner for Administrative Affairs, Audit, in both Barroso Commissions he was also vice-president. Kallas has been Prime Minister of Estonia, Estonian Minister of Finance, Estonian Minister of Foreign Affairs, Member of the Supreme Council of the Soviet Union, Kallas is a member and former leader of the free-market liberal Estonian Reform Party. Kallas was a vice-president of Liberal International, 1966–1969 Budget and Finance, University of Tartu, B. Sc. 1969–1972 Junior Sergeant, Soviet Armed Forces Corps of Signals, 1972–1974 Economics of environmental protection, University of Tartu, M. Sc. 1974-1977 Economics of environmental protection, University of Tartu, Kandidat Nauk, married to doctor Kristi Kallas, one son and one daughter Kaja, who is a member of the Estonian Parliament. The ancestors of Siim Kallas were of Estonian and Baltic German origin, Kallas has been an active participant in the restoration of Estonian statehood. Avoidance of tackling the issues in public caused him to renounce his candidacy to the office of Prime Minister of Estonia in 2014, Siim Kallas, Official Media Gallery Official website KALLAS Siim International Whos Who European Parliament Answers to Commissioner Designate M. Kallas
7.
Stockholm
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The city is spread across 14 islands on the coast in the southeast of Sweden at the mouth of Lake Mälaren, by the Stockholm archipelago and the Baltic Sea. The area has settled since the Stone Age, in the 6th millennium BC. It is also the capital of Stockholm County, Stockholm is the cultural, media, political, and economic centre of Sweden. The Stockholm region alone accounts for over a third of the countrys GDP and it is an important global city, and the main centre for corporate headquarters in the Nordic region. The city is home to some of Europes top ranking universities, such as the Stockholm School of Economics, Karolinska Institute and it hosts the annual Nobel Prize ceremonies and banquet at the Stockholm Concert Hall and Stockholm City Hall. One of the citys most prized museums, the Vasa Museum, is the most visited museum in Scandinavia. The Stockholm metro, opened in 1950, is known for its decoration of the stations. Swedens national football arena is located north of the city centre, Ericsson Globe, the national indoor arena, is in the southern part of the city. The city was the host of the 1912 Summer Olympics, and hosted the equestrian portion of the 1956 Summer Olympics otherwise held in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. Stockholm is the seat of the Swedish government and most of its agencies, including the highest courts in the judiciary, and the official residencies of the Swedish monarch and the Prime Minister. The government has its seat in the Rosenbad building, the Riksdag is seated in the Parliament House, and the Prime Ministers residence is adjacent at the Sager House. After the Ice Age, around 8,000 BCE, there were already a number of people living in the present-day Stockholm area. Thousands of years later, as the ground thawed, the climate became tolerable, at the intersection of the Baltic Sea and lake Mälaren is an archipelago site where the Old Town of Stockholm was first built from about 1000 CE by Vikings. They had a positive impact on the area because of the trade routes they created. Stockholms location appears in Norse sagas as Agnafit, and in Heimskringla in connection with the legendary king Agne, the earliest written mention of the name Stockholm dates from 1252, by which time the mines in Bergslagen made it an important site in the iron trade. The first part of the name means log in Swedish, although it may also be connected to an old German word meaning fortification, the second part of the name means islet, and is thought to refer to the islet Helgeandsholmen in central Stockholm. Stockholms core, the present Old Town was built on the island next to Helgeandsholmen from the mid 13th century onward. The city originally rose to prominence as a result of the Baltic trade of the Hanseatic League, Stockholm developed strong economic and cultural linkages with Lübeck, Hamburg, Gdańsk, Visby, Reval, and Riga during this time
8.
Sweden
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Sweden, officially the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and Finland to the east, at 450,295 square kilometres, Sweden is the third-largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of 10.0 million. Sweden consequently has a low density of 22 inhabitants per square kilometre. Approximately 85% of the lives in urban areas. Germanic peoples have inhabited Sweden since prehistoric times, emerging into history as the Geats/Götar and Swedes/Svear, Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural, while the north is heavily forested. Sweden is part of the area of Fennoscandia. The climate is in very mild for its northerly latitude due to significant maritime influence. Today, Sweden is a monarchy and parliamentary democracy, with a monarch as head of state. The capital city is Stockholm, which is also the most populous city in the country, legislative power is vested in the 349-member unicameral Riksdag. Executive power is exercised by the government chaired by the prime minister, Sweden is a unitary state, currently divided into 21 counties and 290 municipalities. Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages, in the 17th century, it expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire, which became one of the great powers of Europe until the early 18th century. Swedish territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were gradually lost during the 18th and 19th centuries, the last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Norway was militarily forced into personal union. Since then, Sweden has been at peace, maintaining a policy of neutrality in foreign affairs. The union with Norway was peacefully dissolved in 1905, leading to Swedens current borders, though Sweden was formally neutral through both world wars, Sweden engaged in humanitarian efforts, such as taking in refugees from German-occupied Europe. After the end of the Cold War, Sweden joined the European Union on 1 January 1995 and it is also a member of the United Nations, the Nordic Council, Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Sweden maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. The modern name Sweden is derived through back-formation from Old English Swēoþēod and this word is derived from Sweon/Sweonas. The Swedish name Sverige literally means Realm of the Swedes, excluding the Geats in Götaland, the etymology of Swedes, and thus Sweden, is generally not agreed upon but may derive from Proto-Germanic Swihoniz meaning ones own, referring to ones own Germanic tribe
9.
Social Democratic Party (Estonia)
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The Social Democratic Party is a social-democratic political party in Estonia, currently led by Jevgeni Ossinovski. The party was known as the Moderate Peoples Party. The SDE has been a member of the Party of European Socialists since 16 May 2003, in spite of its nominal ideology, it has normally governed with the right-wing parties. The party has served as a coalition partner in the Rõivas cabinet since 26 March 2014. The ESDPs first leader was Marju Lauristin and they restored their contacts with the Socialist International in 1990. ESDP formed an alliance with the agrarian Estonian Rural Centre Party for 1992 and 1995 elections. In 1996, after electoral defeat these two parties merged and named themselves the Moderates. The Moderates were accepted as a member of the Socialist International at its 20th congress in September 1999. In 1999 the Moderates and the centre-right Peoples Party, set up in May 1998 after a fusion of Peasants Party and Peoples Party of Republicans and Conservatives, the seemingly unlikely decision to fuse took place on 29 May 1999, with some foreign commentators drawing parallels with right-wing socialists. In November the same year, the unification was approved by partys general assembly. The Moderates contacts with Peoples Party predecessors had started in 1998, the two parties had a joint list in 1999 parliamentary election and formed a governing coalition with Pro Patria Union and Reform Party. In 2003, the Moderate Peoples Party joined the Party of European Socialists, after disappointing election results in 2003, the party renamed itself the Social Democratic Party on 7 February 2004. It was the most successful party in the 2004 European Parliamentary Election, obtaining 36. 8% of the national vote, the SDE is committed to the social market economy model, in addition to conventional social-democratic values including equality, social justice, solidarity, and the welfare state. On 10 May 2005 former social-liberals Peeter Kreitzberg and Sven Mikser joined them, on 28 November former social-liberal Mark Soosaar re-joined the SDE. After last elections to the government councils on 16 October 2005, the party in most major cities is in opposition. The party improved its position in most areas, in Tallinn, it formed a joint list with the agrarian Peoples Union, which got 6 seats out of 63 seats with 11. 1% share of votes. Elections to the government council in Tallinn SDE and Peoples Union gained seats. In the 2003 election, SDE got a 4. 9% share of votes and Peoples Union 3. 4% share of votes, in Estonia, SDE local lists won 6. 43% share of votes
10.
Evelin Ilves
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Evelin Ilves is the second wife of President of Estonia Toomas Hendrik Ilves. She was the First Lady of Estonia from 9 October 2006 until their divorce on 30 April 2015 and she was president of the Estonian Rollerskating Federation from 2008 to 2014. Ilves grew up in Tallinn and graduated from Saku Gymnasium in 1986, in 1993, she received a bachelors degree in medicine from Tartu University. In her professional life, Ilves has worked in advertising and public relations, from 2001 to 2002, she worked for Enterprise Estonia, leading the Brand Estonia project which developed the widely used slogan and logo Welcome to Estonia. In 2005, she began a project of developing a guesthouse in Ärma farm. The farm has belonged to Toomas Hendrik Ilvess ancestors since the 18th century, as First Lady, Ilves championed a number of initiatives supporting children, health, and the advancement of women. She took part in numerous state visits. She married her partner, Toomas Hendrik Ilves, in 2004 after a five-year relationship and they have one daughter, Kadri Keiu. She was previously married to Karli Lambot between 1992 and 1997, on 22 August 2014, footage of Ilves kissing a younger man at a cafe in Tallinn appeared in the Estonian media. Ilves later responded on her own Facebook page, requesting forgiveness from those she had hurt, two days later it was reported that Ilves had left Estonia for Germany with her daughter. Ilvess consort was named as one Vincent Aranega, allegedly a French national, Evelin and Toomas Hendrik Ilves were divorced on 30 April 2015. Evelin Ilves page on official Website of the President of the Republic of Estonia archived on Archive. org Media related to Evelin Ilves at Wikimedia Commons
11.
Alma mater
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Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
12.
Columbia College, Columbia University
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Columbia College is the oldest undergraduate college at Columbia University, situated on the universitys main campus in Morningside Heights in the borough of Manhattan in New York City. It was founded in 1754 by the Church of England as Kings College, Columbia College is the oldest institution of higher learning in the state of New York and the fifth oldest in the United States. The college is distinctive for its comprehensive Core Curriculum, Columbia College is highly selective in its admissions. For the class of 2021, the college accepted 5. 8% of its applicants, Columbia College was founded as King’s College by royal charter of King George II of Great Britain in the Province of New York in 1754. Due in part to the influence of Church of England religious leaders, samuel Johnson was chosen as the college’s first president and was also the college’s first professor. During this period, classes and examinations, both oral and written, were conducted entirely in Latin, hamiltons first experience with the military came while a student during the summer of 1775, after the outbreak of fighting at Boston. Along with Nicholas Fish, Robert Troup, and a group of students from Kings, he joined a volunteer militia company called the Hearts of Oak. In August 1775, while under fire from HMS Asia, the Hearts of Oak participated in a raid to seize cannon from the Battery. With the successful Treaty of Paris in 1783, the situation was stable enough for the college to resume classes in 1784. This 1787 charter remains in effect, the Columbia School of Mines awarded the first Ph. D. from Columbia in 1875. Also by this time, graduate faculties issuing the Doctor of Philosophy degree in philosophy, political science, and the natural sciences had also developed. Thus, in 1896, the trustees of Columbia College, under the guidance of Seth Low, approved a new name for the university as a whole, Columbia University in the City of New York. At this point, the name Columbia College returned to being used solely to refer to the undergraduate college, founded as King’s College in 1754. A tract for the campus was purchased which extended from 114th St. to 120th St. between Broadway and Amsterdam Avenue. Charles McKim of McKim, Mead, and White was selected to design the new campus, Columbia College and Columbia University as a whole relocated to the new campus in 1897. Also in 1919, a course, War and Peace, was required of all Columbia College students in addition to the Great Books Honors Seminar. During the 1960s, Columbia College, like others across the United States, experienced unrest and turmoil due to the ongoing civil rights movement. University officials wished to build new facilities in the park
13.
University of Pennsylvania
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The University of Pennsylvania is a private Ivy League research university located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. Incorporated as The Trustees of the University of Pennsylvania, Penn is one of 14 founding members of the Association of American Universities, the university coat of arms features a dolphin on the red chief, adopted directly from the Franklin familys own coat of arms. Penn was one of the first academic institutions to follow a multidisciplinary model pioneered by several European universities and it was also home to many other educational innovations. The first school of medicine in North America, the first collegiate school. With an endowment of $10.72 billion, Penn had the seventh largest endowment of all colleges in the United States, all of Penns schools exhibit very high research activity. In fiscal year 2015, Penns academic research budget was $851 million, over its history, the university has also produced many distinguished alumni. S. House of Representatives,8 signers of the United States Declaration of Independence, in addition, some 30 Nobel laureates,169 Guggenheim Fellows, and 80 members of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, have been affiliated with Penn. In addition, Penn has produced a significant number of Fortune 500 CEOs, in 1740, a group of Philadelphians joined together to erect a great preaching hall for the traveling evangelist George Whitefield, who toured the American colonies delivering open air sermons. The building was designed and built by Edmund Woolley and was the largest building in the city at the time and it was initially planned to serve as a charity school as well, however, a lack of funds forced plans for the chapel and school to be suspended. According to Franklins autobiography, it was in 1743 when he first had the idea to establish an academy, however, Peters declined a casual inquiry from Franklin and nothing further was done for another six years. Unlike the other Colonial colleges that existed in 1749—Harvard, William and Mary, Yale, Franklin assembled a board of trustees from among the leading citizens of Philadelphia, the first such non-sectarian board in America. At the first meeting of the 24 members of the Board of Trustees the issue of where to locate the school was a prime concern. The original sponsors of the dormant building still owed considerable construction debts and asked Franklins group to assume their debts and, accordingly, on February 1,1750 the new board took over the building and trusts of the old board. On August 13,1751, the Academy of Philadelphia, using the hall at 4th and Arch Streets. A charity school also was chartered July 13,1753 in accordance with the intentions of the original New Building donors, June 16,1755, the College of Philadelphia was chartered, paving the way for the addition of undergraduate instruction. All three schools shared the same Board of Trustees and were considered to be part of the same institution, the institution of higher learning was known as the College of Philadelphia from 1755 to 1779. In 1779, not trusting then-provost the Rev. William Smiths Loyalist tendencies, the result was a schism, with Smith continuing to operate an attenuated version of the College of Philadelphia. In 1791 the Legislature issued a new charter, merging the two institutions into a new University of Pennsylvania with twelve men from each institution on the new Board of Trustees
14.
Estonians
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Estonians are a Finnic ethnic group related to the Finns that mainly inhabit Estonia, a country located south of Finland and the Finnish Gulf. Their national language belongs to Finnic branch and is known as Estonian, Estonia was first inhabited about 10,000 years ago, just after the Baltic ice lake had retreated from Estonia. Living in the area for more than 5,000 years would put the ancestors of Estonians among the oldest permanent inhabitants in Europe. On the other hand, some recent linguistic estimations suggest that Fenno-Ugrian language arrived around the Baltic Sea considerably later, the oldest known endonym of the Estonians is Maarahvas. Eesti, the endonym of Estonia, is thought to be derived from the word Aestii. The Roman historian Tacitus in 98 AD was the first to mention the Aestii people, and early Scandinavians called the south of the Gulf of Finland Eistland. Proto-Estonians were also called Chuds in Old East Slavic chronicles, the Estonian language belongs to the Finnic branch of the Uralic family of languages, as does the Finnish language. The first known book in Estonian was printed in 1525, while the oldest known examples of written Estonian originate in 13th-century chronicles, Estonians are genetically closest to their neighbouring Tver region Russians and Latvians. However, Estonians are still the nearest genetic relatives of Finns, although Estonian national consciousness spread in the course of the 19th century during the Estonian national awakening, some degree of ethnic awareness preceded this development. By the 18th century the self-denomination eestlane spread among Estonians along with the older maarahvas, anton thor Helles translation of the Bible into Estonian appeared in 1739, and the number of books and brochures published in Estonian increased from 18 in the 1750s to 54 in the 1790s. By the end of the more than a half of adult peasants could read. The first university-educated intellectuals identifying themselves as Estonians, including Friedrich Robert Faehlmann, Kristjan Jaak Peterson and Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald, the ruling elites had remained predominantly German in language and culture since the conquest of the early 13th century. By the end of 1860 the Estonians became unwilling to reconcile with German cultural and political hegemony, before the attempts at Russification in the 1880s, their view of Imperial Russia remained positive. Estonians have strong ties to the Nordic countries stemming from important cultural and religious influences gained over centuries during Scandinavian and German rule, indeed, Estonians consider themselves Nordic rather than Baltic, in particular because of close ethnic and linguistic affinities with the Finns. An estimated 40,000 Estonians lived in Russia in 1920, in sum,37,578 people moved from Soviet Russia to Estonia. During World War II, when Estonia was invaded by the Soviet Army in 1944, many refugees who survived the risky sea voyage to Sweden or Germany later moved from there to Canada, the United Kingdom, the United States or Australia. Some of these refugees and their descendants returned to Estonia after the nation regained its independence in 1991 and this is at least partly due to the easy access to oscillating migration to Finland. Recognising the problems arising from low birth rate and high emigration, the country has launched various measures to both increase the birth rate and to lure migrant Estonians back to Estonia
15.
Estonia
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Estonia, officially the Republic of Estonia, is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland, to the west by the Baltic Sea, to the south by Latvia, across the Baltic Sea lies Sweden in the west and Finland in the north. The territory of Estonia consists of a mainland and 2,222 islands and islets in the Baltic Sea, covering 45,339 km2 of land and water, and is influenced by a humid continental climate. The territory of Estonia has been inhabited since at least 6500 BC, in 1988, during the Singing Revolution, the Estonian Supreme Soviet issued the Estonian Sovereignty Declaration in defiance of Soviet rule, and independence was restored on 20 August 1991. Estonia is a parliamentary republic divided into fifteen counties. Its capital and largest city is Tallinn, with a population of 1.3 million, it is one of the least-populous member states of the European Union, Eurozone, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, OECD and Schengen Area. Estonia is a country with an advanced, high-income economy that is among the fastest growing in the EU. Its Human Development Index ranks very highly, and it performs favourably in measurements of economic freedom, civil liberties, the 2015 PISA test places Estonian high school students 3rd in the world, behind Singapore and Japan. Citizens of Estonia are provided with health care, free education. Since independence the country has developed its IT sector, becoming one of the worlds most digitally advanced societies. In 2005 Estonia became the first nation to hold elections over the Internet, in the Estonian language, the oldest known endonym of the Estonians was maarahvas, meaning country people or people of the land. The land inhabited by Estonians was called Maavald meaning Country Parish or Land Parish, one hypothesis regarding the modern name of Estonia is that it originated from the Aesti, a people described by the Roman historian Tacitus in his Germania. The historic Aesti were allegedly Baltic people, whereas the modern Estonians are Finno-Ugric, the geographical areas between Aesti and Estonia do not match, with Aesti being further down south. Ancient Scandinavian sagas refer to a land called Eistland, as the country is called in Icelandic. Early Latin and other ancient versions of the name are Estia and Hestia, esthonia was a common alternative English spelling prior to 1921. Human settlement in Estonia became possible 13,000 to 11,000 years ago, the oldest known settlement in Estonia is the Pulli settlement, which was on the banks of the river Pärnu, near the town of Sindi, in south-western Estonia. According to radiocarbon dating it was settled around 11,000 years ago, the earliest human inhabitation during the Mesolithic period is connected to Kunda culture, which is named after the town of Kunda in northern Estonia. At that time the country was covered with forests, and people lived in communities near bodies of water
16.
Journalist
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A journalist is a person who collects, writes, or distributes news or other current information. A journalists work is called journalism, a journalist can work with general issues or specialize in certain issues. However, most journalists tend to specialize, and by cooperating with other journalists, for example, a sports journalist covers news within the world of sports, but this journalist may be a part of a newspaper that covers many different topics. A reporter is a type of journalist who researches, writes, and reports on information in order to present in sources, conduct interviews, engage in research, and make reports. The information-gathering part of a job is sometimes called reporting. Reporters may split their time working in a newsroom and going out to witness events or interviewing people. Reporters may be assigned a beat or area of coverage. Depending on the context, the term journalist may include various types of editors, editorial writers, columnists, Journalism has developed a variety of ethics and standards. While objectivity and a lack of bias are of concern and importance, more liberal types of journalism, such as advocacy journalism and activism. This has become prevalent with the advent of social media and blogs, as well as other platforms that are used to manipulate or sway social and political opinions. These platforms often project extreme bias, as sources are not always held accountable or considered necessary in order to produce a written, nor did they often directly experience most social problems, or have direct access to expert insights. These limitations were made worse by a media that tended to over-simplify issues and to reinforce stereotypes, partisan viewpoints. As a consequence, Lippmann believed that the public needed journalists like himself who could serve as analysts, guiding “citizens to a deeper understanding of what was really important. ”Journalists sometimes expose themselves to danger. Organizations such as the Committee to Protect Journalists and Reporters Without Borders publish reports on press freedom, as of November 2011, the Committee to Protect Journalists reports that 887 journalists have been killed worldwide since 1992 by murder, crossfire or combat, or on dangerous assignment. The ten deadliest countries for journalists since 1992 have been Iraq, Philippines, Russia, Colombia, Mexico, Algeria, Pakistan, India, Somalia, Brazil and Sri Lanka. The Committee to Protect Journalists also reports that as of December 1st 2010,145 journalists were jailed worldwide for journalistic activities. The ten countries with the largest number of currently-imprisoned journalists are Turkey, China, Iran, Eritrea, Burma, Uzbekistan, Vietnam, Cuba, Ethiopia, apart from the physical harm, journalists are harmed psychologically. This applies especially to war reporters, but their offices at home often do not know how to deal appropriately with the reporters they expose to danger
17.
Member of the European Parliament
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A Member of the European Parliament is a person who has been elected to serve as a popular representative in the European Parliament. When the European Parliament was first established, MEPs were directly appointed by the governments of states from among those already sitting in their own national parliaments. Since 1979, however, MEPs have been elected by universal suffrage. Each member state establishes its own method for electing MEPs – and in some states this has changed over time –, in some member states the MEPs are elected to represent a single national constituency, in others they are elected from sub-national regions. For a list of current MEPs, see Members of the European Parliament 2014–2019, from 1 January 2007, when Romania and Bulgaria joined the EU, there were 785 MEPs, but their number was reduced to 736 at the elections in 2009. With effect from the elections held in May 2014 the number has risen again and now stands at 751, with member state having at least six. Elections are held every five years, on the basis of universal adult suffrage. The electoral area may be subdivided if this will not generally affect the nature of the voting system. Any election threshold on the level must not exceed five percent. As the number of MEPs granted to each state has arisen from treaty negotiations. No change in this configuration can occur without the consent of all national governments. The most recent elections to the European Parliament were the European elections of 2014 and they were the largest simultaneous transnational elections ever held anywhere in the world, since nearly 500 million citizens were eligible to vote. The European Parliament has a turnover of members compared to some national parliaments. For instance, after the 2004 elections, the majority of elected members had not been members in the parliamentary session. Only one has served continuously since the first elections in 1979, MEPs are organised into seven different cross-nationality political groups, except the 15 non-attached members known as non-inscrits. The two largest groups are the European Peoples Party and the Socialists & Democrats and these two groups have dominated the Parliament for much of its life, continuously holding between 50 and 70 percent of the seats together. No single group has held a majority in Parliament. Although, the European groups, between 2004 and 2009, were more cohesive than their US counterparts
18.
Refugee
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A refugee, generally speaking, is a displaced person who has been forced to cross national boundaries and who cannot return home safely. Such a person may be called an asylum seeker until granted refugee status by the state or the UNHCR if they formally make a claim for asylum. The lead international agency coordinating refugee protection is the United Nations Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, the United Nations have a second Office for refugees, which is the UNRWA. This however is solely responsible for supporting Palestinian refugees and it refers to shelter or protection from danger or distress, from Latin fugere, to flee, and refugium, a taking refuge, place to flee back to. In Western history, the term was first applied to French Huguenots, after the Edict of Fontainebleau, who again migrated from France after the Edict of Nantes revocation. The word meant one seeking asylum, until around 1914, when it evolved to mean one fleeing home and this legal concept of a refugee was expanded by the Conventions 1967 Protocol. European Unions minimum standards definition of refugee, underlined by Art, in UN parlance, the concept of refugee also includes descendants of refugees but only in the case of two specific groups, viz. Palestinian refugees and Sahrawi refugees. The UN does not consider refugee status to be hereditary for any other group, the UNHCR also protects people in refugee-like situations. It gives credence to the notion that personal individualized ‘fear of being persecuted’ is the reason for needing support. War, upheaval, famine and pestilence do not in the conventional definition make for refugee status. It does not matter that civilian deaths as a proportion of deaths in war escalated to 10% in World War I and it only matters that persons fear the persecution of their state. Furthermore, not all reasons for seeking asylum in another country satisfy the definition of refugee according to article 1A of the 1951 Refugee Convention, fleeing droughts and hunger, fleeing economic hardship, natural disasters and not even war or terror satisfied the definition of 1951. The idea that a person who sought sanctuary in a place could not be harmed without inviting divine retribution was familiar to the ancient Greeks. However, the right to asylum in a church or other holy place was first codified in law by King Æthelberht of Kent in about AD600. Similar laws were implemented throughout Europe in the Middle Ages, the related concept of political exile also has a long history, Ovid was sent to Tomis, Voltaire was sent to England. By the 1648 Peace of Westphalia, nations recognized each others sovereignty, the term refugee is sometimes applied to people who might fit the definition outlined by the 1951 Convention, were it to be applied retroactively. The repeated waves of pogroms that swept Eastern Europe in the 19th, beginning in the 19th century, Muslim people emigrated to Turkey from Europe. The Balkan Wars of 1912–1913 caused 800,000 people to leave their homes, various groups of people were officially designated refugees beginning in World War I
19.
Russians
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Russians are an East Slavic ethnic group native to Eastern Europe. The majority of Russians inhabit the state of Russia, while notable minorities exist in Ukraine, Kazakhstan. A large Russian diaspora exists all over the world, with numbers in the United States, Germany, Israel. Russians are the most numerous group in Europe. They are predominantly Orthodox Christians by religion, the Russian language is official in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan, and also spoken as a secondary language in many former Soviet states. There are two Russian words which are translated into English as Russians. One is русские, which most often means ethnic Russians, another is россияне, which means citizens of Russia. The former word refers to ethnic Russians, regardless of what country they live in, under certain circumstances this term may or may not extend to denote members of other Russian-speaking ethnic groups from Russia, or from the former Soviet Union. The latter word refers to all people holding citizenship of Russia, regardless of their ethnicity, translations into other languages often do not distinguish these two groups. The name of the Russians derives from the Rus people, the name Rus would then have the same origin as the Finnish and Estonian names for Sweden, Ruotsi and Rootsi. According to other theories the name Rus is derived from Proto-Slavic *roud-s-ь, the modern Russians formed from two groups of East Slavic tribes, Northern and Southern. The tribes involved included the Krivichs, Ilmen Slavs, Radimichs, Vyatiches, genetic studies show that modern Russians do not differ significantly from Belarusians and Ukrainians. Some ethnographers, like Zelenin, affirm that Russians are more similar to Belarusians, such Uralic peoples included the Merya and the Muromians. Outside archaeological remains, little is known about the predecessors to Russians in general prior to 859 AD when the Primary Chronicle starts its records and it is thought that by 600 AD, the Slavs had split linguistically into southern, western, and eastern branches. Later, both Belarusians and South Russians formed on this ethnic linguistic ground, the same Slavic ethnic population also settled the present-day Tver Oblast and the region of Beloozero. With the Uralic substratum, they formed the tribes of the Krivichs, in 2010, the worlds Russian population was 129 million people of which 86% were in Russia,11. 5% in the CIS and Baltic countries, with a further 2. 5% living in other countries. Roughly 111 million ethnic Russians live in Russia, 80% of whom live in the European part of Russia, ethnic Russians historically migrated throughout the area of former Russian Empire and Soviet Union, sometimes encouraged to re-settle in borderlands by the Tsarist and later Soviet government. On some occasions ethnic Russian communities, such as Lipovans who settled in the Danube delta or Doukhobors in Canada, after the Russian Revolution and Russian Civil War starting in 1917, many Russians were forced to leave their homeland fleeing the Bolshevik regime, and millions became refugees
20.
Saint Petersburg
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Saint Petersburg is Russias second-largest city after Moscow, with five million inhabitants in 2012, and an important Russian port on the Baltic Sea. It is politically incorporated as a federal subject, situated on the Neva River, at the head of the Gulf of Finland on the Baltic Sea, it was founded by Tsar Peter the Great on May 271703. In 1914, the name was changed from Saint Petersburg to Petrograd, in 1924 to Leningrad, between 1713 and 1728 and 1732–1918, Saint Petersburg was the capital of imperial Russia. In 1918, the government bodies moved to Moscow. Saint Petersburg is one of the cities of Russia, as well as its cultural capital. The Historic Centre of Saint Petersburg and Related Groups of Monuments constitute a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Saint Petersburg is home to The Hermitage, one of the largest art museums in the world. A large number of consulates, international corporations, banks. Swedish colonists built Nyenskans, a fortress, at the mouth of the Neva River in 1611, in a then called Ingermanland. A small town called Nyen grew up around it, Peter the Great was interested in seafaring and maritime affairs, and he intended to have Russia gain a seaport in order to be able to trade with other maritime nations. He needed a better seaport than Arkhangelsk, which was on the White Sea to the north, on May 1703121703, during the Great Northern War, Peter the Great captured Nyenskans, and soon replaced the fortress. On May 271703, closer to the estuary 5 km inland from the gulf), on Zayachy Island, he laid down the Peter and Paul Fortress, which became the first brick and stone building of the new city. The city was built by conscripted peasants from all over Russia, tens of thousands of serfs died building the city. Later, the city became the centre of the Saint Petersburg Governorate, Peter moved the capital from Moscow to Saint Petersburg in 1712,9 years before the Treaty of Nystad of 1721 ended the war, he referred to Saint Petersburg as the capital as early as 1704. During its first few years, the city developed around Trinity Square on the bank of the Neva, near the Peter. However, Saint Petersburg soon started to be built out according to a plan, by 1716 the Swiss Italian Domenico Trezzini had elaborated a project whereby the city centre would be located on Vasilyevsky Island and shaped by a rectangular grid of canals. The project was not completed, but is evident in the layout of the streets, in 1716, Peter the Great appointed French Jean-Baptiste Alexandre Le Blond as the chief architect of Saint Petersburg. In 1724 the Academy of Sciences, University and Academic Gymnasium were established in Saint Petersburg by Peter the Great, in 1725, Peter died at the age of fifty-two. His endeavours to modernize Russia had met opposition from the Russian nobility—resulting in several attempts on his life
21.
Leonia, New Jersey
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Leonia is a borough in Bergen County, New Jersey, United States. It is a suburb of New York City located near the approach to the George Washington Bridge. Leonia was formed as the result of a referendum passed on December 5,1894, the borough was formed during the Boroughitis phenomenon then sweeping through Bergen County, in which 26 boroughs were formed in the county in 1894 alone. Portions of Leonia were taken on February 19,1895, to form the Township of Teaneck, New Jersey Monthly magazine ranked Leonia as its 31st best place to live in its 2008 rankings of the Best Places To Live in New Jersey. The original inhabitants of Leonia were the Hackensack tribe of Native Americans, the population was about 1,000 before the Europeans settled in the area. At the time of the American Revolutionary War, Leonia was known as part of the English Neighborhood and it was settled in 1668 mainly by Dutch and English farmers, making it one of the oldest communities in the state and county. A third of the population was African slaves and it was located on the western slope of the Palisades, and started as a quiet farming community. J. Vreeland Moore and other town leaders chose the name Leonia in 1865 in honor of American Revolutionary War General Charles Lee, for whom Fort Lee was named. His advertising attracted many academics and artists who were drawn to Leonias small size, culture, in 1915, the Leonia School of Illustration was established by Harvey Dunn, fostering the artists colony that subsequently emerged over the next decade. By the 1930s, it had the highest number of residents, per capita, in Whos Who in America, for 200 years, one of the two major avenues that run north-to-south through Leonia, Grand Avenue was called the English Neighborhood Road. In colonial times, this served as the main inland route between Paulus Hook, Bergen, and the English Neighborhood. Leonia was a crossroads of the American Revolution and a ground for American Civil War soldiers. The Vreeland House, constructed in 1786 by Dirck Vreeland and expanded in 1815, was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1978, Leonia celebrates Leonia Day annually on the third Sunday in May. According to the United States Census Bureau, the borough had an area of 1.635 square miles. While the borough centers elevation is 105 feet, the part of the borough can reach 5 feet. The borough borders Englewood, Fort Lee, Palisades Park, Ridgefield Park, Leonia is designated as a Tree City USA, receiving its 21st annual recognition in 2010 from the National Arbor Day Foundation. As of the census of 2010, there were 8,937 people,3,284 households, the population density was 5,819.5 per square mile. There were 3,428 housing units at a density of 2,232.2 per square mile
22.
Leonia High School
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Students from Edgewater attend the school as part of a sending/receiving relationship with the Edgewater Public Schools. As of the 2014-15 school year, the school had an enrollment of 689 students and 58.4 classroom teachers, there were 86 students eligible for free lunch and 28 eligible for reduced-cost lunch. Constructed at a cost of $4.5 million and offering 50% more space than its predecessor, a $6 million expansion of the school included science laboratories, a digital TV-Media Workshop, a music room, and new classrooms. In the 2011 Ranking Americas High Schools issue by The Washington Post, the school had been ranked 52nd in the state of 328 schools in 2012, after being ranked 49th in 2010 out of 322 schools listed. The magazine ranked the school 51st in 2008 out of 316 schools, the school was ranked 67th in the magazines September 2006 issue, which included 316 schools across the state. In 1957, the chess team was the New Jersey high school team champion. Prior to the realignment that took effect in the fall of 2010, the team finished 9-3 which was the most wins in Leonia school history, and Head Coach David Schuman was awarded NJIC coach of the year and The Record ranked the team #12 in North Jersey. Core members of the administration are, Edward Bertolini – Principal Charles Kalender – Vice Principal Barbara Corcoran, real estate investor. Toomas Hendrik Ilves, class of 1972, President of Estonia, lim Kim, South Korean musical artist. Christiane Noll, singer and actress known for her work in musicals, nick Prisco, football tailback who played one season in the NFL with the Philadelphia Eagles. Ivory Sully, former NFL cornerback who played for nine seasons, mostly with the Los Angeles Rams
23.
Valedictorian
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The chosen valedictorian is often the student with the highest ranking among their graduating class. So the valedictory address generally is considered a farewell to classmates. In Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Ireland, India, and the United Kingdom, in Australia, the title is sometimes awarded to a member of a graduating university class on the basis of contribution to the school rather than academic success. The highest-ranking student in a class is often referred to as dux. In France the term Major de promotion is used, although the term is not related to any ceremonial role, how an individual school confers the title is typically based upon the highest grade point average. Some institutions confer the title on the class chosen to deliver the final graduation address, regardless of the speakers academic credentials. Generally, the graduate deemed to be the highest academically ranked student in the class, historically and traditionally, however, schools confer the title upon the highest ranking graduate of the class, who thereby earns the honor of delivering the valedictory address. In other schools, the position may be elected by the body or appointed directly by the school administration based on various systems of merit. Some schools may feature co-valedictorians in lieu of conferring the title on an individual from among the graduating class. This may occur in the case of a tie in grade point averages. The awarding of the valedictorian honor may be the subject of heated controversy, some schools have dropped the honor or changed the rules to allow multiple recipients. In turn, such changes have led to complaints that it is unfair to change the rules after a competition has begun. The New Jersey Commissioner of Education, for example, required schools to make changes to valedictorian award policy effective only for the freshman class. Another New Jersey case raised the question of whether accommodations for students under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act and related laws should affect valedictorian honors. In Hornstine v. Township of Moorestown, a U. S. District Court judge blocked the Moorestown Superintendent of Schools from retroactively changing school policy to deny a disabled student sole honors. The valedictory address, or valediction, is the closing or farewell statement delivered at a graduation ceremony and it is an oration at commencement exercises in U. S. and some Canadian high schools, colleges, and universities delivered by one of the graduates. The mode of discourse generally is inspirational and persuasive, the various aims of this address are to inspire the graduates and to thank individuals responsible for their successes while reflecting on youthful frivolity and the accomplishments of the class. Class rank Dux Grade inflation Latin honors Salutatorian
24.
Bachelor's degree
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A bachelors degree or baccalaureate is an undergraduate academic degree awarded by colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study lasting three to seven years. In some institutions and educational systems, some bachelors degrees can only be taken as graduate or postgraduate degrees after a first degree has been completed. The term bachelor in the 12th century referred to a knight bachelor, by the end of the 13th century, it was also used by junior members of guilds or universities. By folk etymology or wordplay, the word came to be associated with bacca lauri in reference to laurels being awarded for academic success or honours. An honours degree generally requires an academic standard than a pass degree. In most African countries, the university systems follow the model of their former colonizing power, for example, the Nigerian university system is similar to the British system, while the Ivorian system is akin to the French. The degree is typically identical to the program of Frances universities, bachelors degree programs cover most of the fields in Algerian universities, except some fields, such as Medicine and Pharmaceutical Science. Bachelors degrees at the University of Botswana normally take four years, the system draws on both British and American models. Degrees are classified as First Class, Second Class Division One, Second Class Division Two and Third as in English degrees, but without being described as honours. The main degrees are named by British tradition, but in recent years there have been a numbers of degrees named after specific subjects, such as Bachelor of Library, in Morocco, a bachelors degree is referred to as al-ʾijāzah. The course of study takes three years, which are divided into two cycles. The first cycle comprises the first, or propaedeutic, year, after successfully completing their first two years, students can pursue either theoretical specialization or professional specialization. The second cycle is one long, after whose completion students receive the licence détudes fondamentales or the licence professionnelle. This academic degree system was introduced in September 2003, University admission is extremely competitive, with attendant advantages and disadvantages. Nonetheless, it takes four to five years to complete a bachelors degree, in cases of poor performance, the time limit is double the standard amount of time. For example, one may not study for more than 10 years for a five-year course, students are normally asked to leave if they must take longer. B. Arch. and other specialized undergraduate degrees, such as B. Eng, Science undergraduate degrees may require six months or a semester dedicated to SIWES but it is usually mandatory for all engineering degrees. A semester for project work/thesis is required, not excluding course work, the classifications of degrees, first-class, second-class, third-class and a pass
25.
Psychology
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Psychology is the science of behavior and mind, embracing all aspects of conscious and unconscious experience as well as thought. It is a discipline and a social science which seeks to understand individuals and groups by establishing general principles. In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist and can be classified as a social, behavioral, Psychologists explore behavior and mental processes, including perception, cognition, attention, emotion, intelligence, phenomenology, motivation, brain functioning, and personality. This extends to interaction between people, such as relationships, including psychological resilience, family resilience, and other areas. Psychologists of diverse orientations also consider the unconscious mind, Psychologists employ empirical methods to infer causal and correlational relationships between psychosocial variables. Psychology has been described as a hub science, with psychological findings linking to research and perspectives from the sciences, natural sciences, medicine, humanities. By many accounts psychology ultimately aims to benefit society, the majority of psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role, practicing in clinical, counseling, or school settings. Many do scientific research on a range of topics related to mental processes and behavior. The word psychology derives from Greek roots meaning study of the psyche, the Latin word psychologia was first used by the Croatian humanist and Latinist Marko Marulić in his book, Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae in the late 15th century or early 16th century. In 1890, William James defined psychology as the science of mental life and this definition enjoyed widespread currency for decades. Also since James defined it, the more strongly connotes techniques of scientific experimentation. Folk psychology refers to the understanding of people, as contrasted with that of psychology professionals. The ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China, India, historians note that Greek philosophers, including Thales, Plato, and Aristotle, addressed the workings of the mind. As early as the 4th century BC, Greek physician Hippocrates theorized that mental disorders had physical rather than supernatural causes, in China, psychological understanding grew from the philosophical works of Laozi and Confucius, and later from the doctrines of Buddhism. This body of knowledge involves insights drawn from introspection and observation and it frames the universe as a division of, and interaction between, physical reality and mental reality, with an emphasis on purifying the mind in order to increase virtue and power. Chinese scholarship focused on the advanced in the Qing Dynasty with the work of Western-educated Fang Yizhi, Liu Zhi. Distinctions in types of awareness appear in the ancient thought of India, a central idea of the Upanishads is the distinction between a persons transient mundane self and their eternal unchanging soul. Divergent Hindu doctrines, and Buddhism, have challenged this hierarchy of selves, yoga is a range of techniques used in pursuit of this goal
26.
Master's degree
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A masters degree normally requires previous study at the bachelors level, either as a separate degree or as part of an integrated course. The original meaning of the degree was thus that someone who had been admitted to the rank of master in one university should be admitted to the same rank in other universities. This gradually became formalised as the licentia docendi, initially, the Bachelor of Arts was awarded for the study of the trivium and the Master of Arts for the study of the quadrivium. The nineteenth century saw an expansion in the variety of masters degrees offered. By 1861 this had been adopted throughout Scotland as well as by Cambridge and Durham in England, when the Philadelphia College of Surgeons was established in 1870, it too conferred the Master of Surgery, the same as that in Europe. In the United States, the first masters degrees were awarded at Harvard University soon after its foundation, at Harvard the 1700 regulations required that candidates for the masters degree had to pass a public examination, but by 1835 this was awarded Oxbridge-style 3 years after the BA. In Scotland, Edinburgh maintained separate BA and MA degrees until the mid nineteenth century, in Scotland all the statutes of the Universities which enforced conditions on the grant of degrees were a dead letter. Probably the most important masters degree introduced in the 19th century was the Master of Science, at the University of Michigan this was introduced in two forms in 1858, in course, first awarded in 1859, and on examination, first awarded in 1862. The in course MS was last awarded in 1876, in Britain, however, the degree took a while longer to arrive. The same two degrees, again omitting the masters, were awarded at Edinburgh, despite the MA being the undergraduate degree for Arts in Scotland. In 1862, a Royal Commission suggested that Durham should award masters degrees in theology and science and this scheme would appear to have then been quietly dropped, with Oxford going on to award BAs and MAs in science. The Master of Science degree was introduced in Britain in 1878 at Durham. At the Victoria University both the MA and MSc followed the lead of Durhams MA in requiring an examination for those with an ordinary bachelors degree. The Bologna declaration in 1999 started the Bologna Process, leading to the creation of the European Higher Education Area, as the process continued, descriptors were introduced for all three levels in 2004, and ECTS credit guidelines were developed. This led to questions as to the status of the masters degrees. In 1903, the London Daily News criticised the practice of Oxford and Cambridge, calling their MAs the most stupendous of academic frauds, in 1900, Dartmouth College introduced the Master of Commercial Science, first awarded in 1902. This was the first masters degree in business, the forerunner of the modern MBA, the idea quickly crossed the Atlantic, with Manchester establishing a Faculty of Commerce, awarding Bachelor and Master of Commerce degrees, in 1903. Over the first half of the century the masters degrees for honours graduates vanished as honours degrees became the standard undergraduate qualification in the UK
27.
St. Olaf College
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Carleton College is a private liberal arts college in the historic town of Northfield, Minnesota. The college enrolled 2,014 undergraduate students and employed 245 instructional faculty members in fall 2015, Carleton is one of few liberal arts colleges that runs on the trimester system. In its 2017 edition of national liberal arts college rankings, U. S, the schools location in Northfield places it 40 miles from the Minneapolis–Saint Paul metropolitan complex. The school was founded on October 12,1866, when the Minnesota Conference of Congregational Churches unanimously accepted a resolution to locate a college in Northfield, two Northfield businessmen, Charles Augustus Wheaton and Charles Moorehouse Goodsell, each donated 10 acres of land for the first campus. The first students enrolled at the unit of Northfield College in the fall of 1867. In 1870, the first college president, James Strong, traveled to the East Coast to raise funds for the college. On his way from visiting a potential donor, William Carleton of Charlestown, Massachusetts, impressed by Strongs survival of the accident, Carleton donated $50,000 to the fledgling institution in 1871. As a result, the Board of Trustees renamed the school in his honor, the college graduated its first college class in 1874, in which the first two graduates, James J. Dow and Myra A. Brown, married each other later that year, on September 7,1876, the James-Younger Gang, led by outlaw Jesse James, tried to rob the First National Bank of Northfield. Joseph Lee Heywood, Carletons Treasurer, was acting cashier at the bank that day and he was shot and killed for refusing to open the safe. Carleton later named a library fund after Heywood, the Heywood Society is the name for a group of donors who have named Carleton in their wills. In its early years under the presidency of James Strong, Carleton reflected the theological conservatism of its Minnesota Congregational founders, in 1903, modern religious influences were introduced by William Sallmon, a Yale Divinity School graduate, who was hired as college president. Sallmon was opposed by conservative faculty members and alumni, and left the presidency by 1908, after Sallmon left, the trustees hired Donald J. Cowling, another theologically liberal Yale Divinity School graduate, as his successor. In 1916, under Cowlings leadership, Carleton began an affiliation with the Minnesota Baptist Convention. It lasted until 1928, when the Baptists severed the relationship as a result of fundamentalist opposition to Carletons liberalism, non-denominational for a number of years, in 1964 Carleton abolished its requirement for weekly attendance at some religious or spiritual meeting. In 1927, students founded the first student-run pub in the nation, located in the basement of Evans Hall, it continues to host live music shows and other events several times each week. In 1942, Carleton purchased land in Stanton, about 10 miles east of campus, during World War II, several classes of male students went through air basic training at the college. Since being sold by the college in 1944, the Stanton Airfield has been operated for commercial use, the world premiere production of the English translation of Bertolt Brechts play, The Caucasian Chalk Circle, was performed in 1948 at Carletons Nourse Little Theater
28.
Estonian language
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Estonian is the official language of Estonia, spoken natively by about 922,000 people in Estonia and 160,000 outside Estonia. It belongs to the Finnic branch of the Uralic language family, Estonian belongs to the Finnic branch of the Uralic languages, along with Finnish, Karelian, and other nearby languages. The Uralic languages do not belong to the Indo-European languages, Estonian is distantly related to Hungarian and to the Sami languages. Estonian has been influenced by Swedish, German, and Russian, furthermore, the apocope of word-final sounds is extensive and has contributed to a shift from a purely agglutinative to a fusional language. The basic word order is subject–verb–object, modern standard Estonian has evolved on the basis of the dialects of Northern Estonia. The domination of Estonia after the Northern Crusades, from the 13th century to 1918 by Denmark, Germany, Sweden, the oldest written records of the Finnic languages of Estonia date from the 13th century. Originates Livoniae in Chronicle of Henry of Livonia contains Estonian place names, words, the earliest extant samples of connected Estonian are the so-called Kullamaa prayers dating from 1524 and 1528. In 1525 the first book published in the Estonian language was printed, the book was a Lutheran manuscript, which never reached the reader and was destroyed immediately after publication. The first extant Estonian book is a bilingual German-Estonian translation of the Lutheran catechism by S. Wanradt and J. Koell dating to 1535, an Estonian grammar book to be used by priests was printed in German in 1637. The New Testament was translated into southern Estonian in 1686, the two languages were united based on northern Estonian by Anton thor Helle. Writings in Estonian became more significant in the 19th century during the Estophile Enlightenment Period, the birth of native Estonian literature was in 1810 to 1820 when the patriotic and philosophical poems by Kristjan Jaak Peterson were published. His birthday on March 14 is celebrated in Estonia as the Mother Tongue Day, a fragment from Petersons poem Kuu expresses the claim reestablishing the birthright of the Estonian language, Kas siis selle maa keel Laulutuules ei või Taevani tõustes üles Igavikku omale otsida. In English, Can the language of this land In the wind of incantation Rising up to the heavens Not seek for eternity. Kristjan Jaak Peterson From 1525 to 191714,503 titles were published in Estonian, in modern times Jaan Kross and Jaan Kaplinski remain as two of Estonias best known and most translated writers. Writings in Estonian became significant only in the 19th century with the spread of the ideas of the Age of Enlightenment, after the Estonian War of Independence in 1919, the Estonian language became the state language of the newly independent country. In 1945,97. 3% of Estonia considered itself ethnic Estonian, when Estonia was invaded and occupied by the Soviet Union in World War II, the status of the Estonian language changed to the first of two official languages. As with Latvia many immigrants entered Estonia under Soviet encouragement, in the second half of the 1970s, the pressure of bilingualism intensified, resulting in widespread knowledge of Russian throughout the country. The Russian language was termed as ‘the language of friendship of nations’ and was taught to Estonian children, although teaching Estonian to non-Estonians in schools was compulsory, in practice learning the language was often considered unnecessary
29.
German language
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German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, South Tyrol, the German-speaking Community of Belgium and it is also one of the three official languages of Luxembourg. Major languages which are most similar to German include other members of the West Germanic language branch, such as Afrikaans, Dutch, English, Luxembourgish and it is the second most widely spoken Germanic language, after English. One of the languages of the world, German is the first language of about 95 million people worldwide. The German speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of publication of new books. German derives most of its vocabulary from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, a portion of German words are derived from Latin and Greek, and fewer are borrowed from French and English. With slightly different standardized variants, German is a pluricentric language, like English, German is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects, with many unique varieties existing in Europe and also other parts of the world. The history of the German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the migration period, when Martin Luther translated the Bible, he based his translation primarily on the standard bureaucratic language used in Saxony, also known as Meißner Deutsch. Copies of Luthers Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region that translated words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Roman Catholics initially rejected Luthers translation, and tried to create their own Catholic standard of the German language – the difference in relation to Protestant German was minimal. It was not until the middle of the 18th century that a widely accepted standard was created, until about 1800, standard German was mainly a written language, in urban northern Germany, the local Low German dialects were spoken. Standard German, which was different, was often learned as a foreign language with uncertain pronunciation. Northern German pronunciation was considered the standard in prescriptive pronunciation guides though, however, German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire, which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the mid-19th century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire and its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Some cities, such as Prague and Budapest, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain, others, such as Pozsony, were originally settled during the Habsburg period, and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest and Bratislava as well as cities like Zagreb, the most comprehensive guide to the vocabulary of the German language is found within the Deutsches Wörterbuch. This dictionary was created by the Brothers Grimm and is composed of 16 parts which were issued between 1852 and 1860, in 1872, grammatical and orthographic rules first appeared in the Duden Handbook. In 1901, the 2nd Orthographical Conference ended with a standardization of the German language in its written form
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Latvian language
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Latvian is the official state language of Latvia. It was previously known in English as Lettish which remains the standard today in various forms in most other Germanic languages, there are about 1.3 million native Latvian speakers in Latvia and 100,000 abroad. Altogether,2 million, or 80% of the population of Latvia, of those,1.16 million or 56% use it as their primary language at home. The use of the Latvian language in areas of social life in Latvia is increasing. Latvian is a Baltic language and is most closely related to Lithuanian, in addition there is some disagreement whether Latgalian and New Curonian, which are mutually intelligible with Latvian, should be considered varieties or separate languages. Latvian first appeared in Western print in the century with the reproduction of the Lords Prayer in Latvian in Sebastian Münsters Cosmographia Universalis. Latvian belongs to the Baltic branch of the Indo-European language family and it is one of two living Baltic languages with an official status. The Baltic languages are of particular interest to linguists because they retain many archaic features believed to have present in the early stages of the Proto-Indo-European language. There is some evidence to suggest the existence of a Balto-Slavic language group after the break-up of Proto-Indo-European, there exist a number of Baltic words that are similar to Sanskrit or Latin and which lack counterparts in Slavic languages. Latvian, Lithuanian, Armenian, Albanian, Slavic and Indo-Iranian languages are grouped as satem languages, while the possession of many archaic features is undeniable, the exact manner by which the Baltic languages have developed from the Proto-Indo-European language is not clear. According to some speculations, the Eastern Baltic languages split from Western Baltic between 400 and 600. The differentiation between Lithuanian and Latvian started after 800, with a period of being one language. At a minimum, transitional dialects existed until the 14th century or 15th century and this process of consolidation started in the 13th century after the Livonian Crusade and forced christianization. These tribes came under Livonian rule thus forming a political, economic. The oldest known examples of written Latvian are from a 1530 translation of a made by Nikolaus Ramm. Until the 19th century, the Latvian language was influenced by the German language. In the middle of the 19th century the First Latvian National Awakening was started, led by “Young Latvians” who popularized the use of Latvian language, participants to this movement laid the foundations for standard Latvian and also popularized the Latvianization of loan words. However, in the 1880s, when Czar Alexander III came into power, during this period, some Latvian scholars even suggested adopting Cyrillic for use in Latvian
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Spanish language
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Spanish —also called Castilian —is a Romance language that originated in the Castile region of Spain, with hundreds of millions of native speakers around the world. It is usually considered the worlds second-most spoken native language after Mandarin Chinese and it is one of the few languages to use inverted question and exclamation marks. Spanish is a part of the Ibero-Romance group of languages, which evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in Iberia after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. Beginning in the early 16th century, Spanish was taken to the colonies of the Spanish Empire, most notably to the Americas, as well as territories in Africa, Oceania, around 75% of modern Spanish is derived from Latin. Greek has also contributed substantially to Spanish vocabulary, especially through Latin, Spanish vocabulary has been in contact from an early date with Arabic, having developed during the Al-Andalus era in the Iberian Peninsula. With around 8% of its vocabulary being Arabic in origin, this language is the second most important influence after Latin and it has also been influenced by Basque as well as by neighboring Ibero-Romance languages. It also adopted words from languages such as Gothic language from the Visigoths in which many Spanish names and surnames have a Visigothic origin. Spanish is one of the six languages of the United Nations. It is the language in the world by the number of people who speak it as a mother tongue, after Mandarin Chinese. It is estimated more than 437 million people speak Spanish as a native language. Spanish is the official or national language in Spain, Equatorial Guinea, speakers in the Americas total some 418 million. In the European Union, Spanish is the tongue of 8% of the population. Spanish is the most popular second language learned in the United States, in 2011 it was estimated by the American Community Survey that of the 55 million Hispanic United States residents who are five years of age and over,38 million speak Spanish at home. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 uses the term castellano to define the language of the whole Spanish State in contrast to las demás lenguas españolas. Article III reads as follows, El castellano es la lengua española oficial del Estado, las demás lenguas españolas serán también oficiales en las respectivas Comunidades Autónomas. Castilian is the official Spanish language of the State, the other Spanish languages as well shall be official in their respective Autonomous Communities. The Spanish Royal Academy, on the hand, currently uses the term español in its publications. Two etymologies for español have been suggested, the Spanish Royal Academy Dictionary derives the term from the Provençal word espaignol, and that in turn from the Medieval Latin word Hispaniolus, from—or pertaining to—Hispania
32.
Englewood, New Jersey
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Englewood is a city located in Bergen County, New Jersey, United States. Englewood was incorporated as a city by an act of the New Jersey Legislature on March 17,1899, from portions of Ridgefield Township, with the creation of the City of Englewood, Englewood Township was dissolved. An earlier referendum on March 10,1896, was declared unconstitutional, Englewood Township, the citys predecessor, is believed to have been named in 1859 for the Engle family. Other sources indicate that the name is derived from wood ingle, meaning woody nook, numerous other settlements in the United States were named for Englewood as settlement in North America expanded westward. J. Wyman Jones is credited with convincing residents to choose Englewood for the name when it was incorporated over such alternatives as Brayton. Englewood, like the rest of New Jersey, was populated by Lenape Native Americans prior to European colonization, the Lenape who lived in the Englewood region were of the turtle clan which used a stylized turtle as its symbol, but little else is known of those inhabitants. In 1664, after the Dutch surrendered all of New Netherland to England, the English were generous with land grants, and many families, not only English but also Dutch and Huguenot, settled the area, which during the colonial era was known as the English Neighborhood. From 1906 until March 16,1907, when it burned down, Englewood was the site of Upton Sinclairs socialist-inflected intentional community, associated with the project were Charlotte Perkins Gilman and Sinclair Lewis. The United States telephone industry introduced direct distance dialing to the public in Englewood, on November 10,1951, Englewood Mayor M. Leslie Denning made the first customer-dialed long distance call, to Mayor Frank Osborne of Alameda, California. Two years after his graduation from Fordham University, Vince Lombardi began his coaching career at Englewoods St. Cecilia High School. Unincorporated communities, localities and place names located partially or completely within the city include Highwood, the city borders Bergenfield, Englewood Cliffs, Fort Lee, Leonia, Teaneck and Tenafly. As of the census of 2010, there were 27,147 people,10,057 households, the population density was 5,524.6 per square mile. There were 10,695 housing units at a density of 2,176.5 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 45. 28% White,32. 58% Black or African American,0. 54% Native American,8. 10% Asian,0. 04% Pacific Islander,9. 73% from other races, and 3. 72% from two or more races. [[Hispanic |Hispanic or Latino of any race were 27. 48% of the population,27. 3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9. 6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.68 and the family size was 3.24. In the city, the population was out with 22. 2% under the age of 18,7. 7% from 18 to 24,28. 9% from 25 to 44,27. 0% from 45 to 64. The median age was 38.9 years, for every 100 females there were 90.0 males
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Vancouver
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Vancouver is a coastal seaport city in Canada, located in the Lower Mainland region of British Columbia. As the most populous city in the province, the 2016 census recorded 631,486 people in the city, the Greater Vancouver area had a population of 2,463,431 in 2016, making it the third largest metropolitan area in Canada. Vancouver has the highest population density in Canada with over 5,400 people per square kilometre. With over 250,000 residents, Vancouver municipality is the fourth most densely populated city in North America behind New York City, San Francisco, and Mexico City according to the 2011 census. In that census, Vancouver was one of the most ethnically and linguistically diverse cities in Canada, Vancouver is classed as a Beta global city. In 2014, following thirty years in California, the annual TED conference made Vancouver its indefinite home, several matches of the 2015 FIFA Womens World Cup were played in Vancouver, including the final at BC Place Stadium. From that first enterprise, other stores and some hotels quickly appeared along the waterfront to the west, Gastown became formally laid out as a registered townsite dubbed Granville, B. I. As of 2014, Port Metro Vancouver is the third largest port by tonnage in the Americas, 27th in the world, the busiest and largest in Canada, and the most diversified port in North America. While forestry remains its largest industry, Vancouver is well known as an urban centre surrounded by nature, archaeological records indicate the presence of Aboriginal people in the Vancouver area from 8,000 to 10,000 years ago. The city is located in the territories of the Squamish, Musqueam. They had villages in various parts of present-day Vancouver, such as Stanley Park, False Creek, Kitsilano, Point Grey, the city takes its name from George Vancouver, who explored the inner harbour of Burrard Inlet in 1792 and gave various places British names. The explorer and North West Company trader Simon Fraser and his became the first known Europeans to set foot on the site of the present-day city. In 1808, they travelled from the east down the Fraser River, perhaps as far as Point Grey. The Fraser Gold Rush of 1858 brought over 25,000 men, mainly from California, to nearby New Westminster on the Fraser River, on their way to the Fraser Canyon, a sawmill established at Moodyville in 1863, began the citys long relationship with logging. It was quickly followed by mills owned by Captain Edward Stamp on the shore of the inlet. This mill, known as the Hastings Mill, became the nucleus around which Vancouver formed, the mills central role in the city waned after the arrival of the Canadian Pacific Railway in the 1880s. It nevertheless remained important to the economy until it closed in the 1920s. The settlement which came to be called Gastown grew up quickly around the original makeshift tavern established by Gassy Jack Deighton in 1867 on the edge of the Hastings Mill property
34.
Albany Cottage Hospital
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Albany Cottage Hospital is the heritage site of a former hospital in Albany, Western Australia. The site is named the Vancouver Arts Centre Group for its later use as a community arts centre. The buildings and grounds are situated on Vancouver Street, Albany, the main building is constructed from local limestone, with a roof of split jarrah shingles. The hospital was completed in 1897, from the 1886 design of George Temple-Poole and this work by Poole was the first of his many public buildings in the state, and a significant departure in architectural style for the Public Works Department. The design followed a contemporary movement of architects, such as Edwin Lutyens, the work is identified as Federation Arts and Crafts, and as an aesthetically exceptional example of the architects work. It is the oldest remaining hospital of the historic township, the views of the harbour make this a significant landmark. The building was established as a centre and various conservation works were done in the early 2000s. List of places on the State Register of Heritage Places in the City of Albany Albany Cottage Hospital, Oldham, Ray, John Oldham, Tish Phillips. George Temple-Poole, architect of the years, 1885-1897. University of Western Australia Press,1980
35.
Simon Fraser University
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Simon Fraser University, commonly referred to as SFU, is a public research university in British Columbia, Canada with campuses in Burnaby, Surrey, and Vancouver. The 1.7 km2 Burnaby campus on Burnaby Mountain, located 20 km from downtown Vancouver, was established in 1965 and comprises more than 30,000 students and approximately 950 faculty members. Undergraduate and graduate programs at SFU operate on a year-round tri-semester schedule, SFU is the first Canadian research university with U. S. accreditation and is accredited by the Northwest Commission on Colleges and Universities. SFU is consistently ranked as one of the top universities in Canada, placing first in Macleans annual University Rankings in 1993, 1996–1998,2000. To date, SFU faculty and alumni have won 43 fellowships to the Royal Society of Canada, Simon Fraser University was founded upon the recommendation of a 1962 report entitled Higher Education in British Columbia and a Plan for the Future, by John B. He recommended the creation of a new university in the Lower Mainland, the university was named after Simon Fraser, a North West Company fur trader and explorer. The original name of the school was Fraser University, but was changed because the initials FU evoked the profane phrase fuck you, in May of the same year, Gordon M. Shrum was appointed as the universitys first Chancellor. From a variety of sites which were offered, Shrum recommended to the government that the summit of Burnaby Mountain,365 meters above sea level. Architects Arthur Erickson and Geoffrey Massey won a competition to design the university, the campus faces northwest over Burrard Inlet. Eighteen months later, on September 9,1965, the university began its first semester with 2,500 students, the resolution to the crisis included the dismantling of the department into todays separate departments. In 2007, the university decided to both the old coat of arms and the revised coat of arms featuring the books. In 2007, a new marketing logo was unveiled, consisting of letters on block red. SFUs president is Andrew Petter, whose term began on September 1,2010, Petter succeeded Dr. Michael Stevenson, who held a decade-long post as President from 2000 to 2010. In 2009, SFU became the first Canadian university to be accepted into the National Collegiate Athletic Association, starting in the 2011-2012 season, SFU competed in the NCAAs Division II Great Northwest Athletic Conference and has now transitioned all 19 Simon Fraser Clan teams into the NCAA. On September 9,2015, SFU celebrated its 50th anniversary, over its 50 years, the university educated over 130,000 graduates. SFU has been rated as Canadas best comprehensive university in the rankings of Canadian universities in Macleans magazine since 1991. The Higher Education Strategy Associates ranked Simon Fraser University 6th in Science and Engineering, Research Infosource, Canadas leading provider of research intelligence evaluation, named SFU the top comprehensive university in Canada for publication effectiveness in 2006. Similar to most Canadian universities, SFU is a university, with more than half of funding coming from taxpayers
36.
Munich Security Conference
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The Munich Security Conference is an annual conference on international security policy that has taken place since 1963. Former names are Wehrkundetagung and Münchner Konferenz für Sicherheitspolitik and it is the worlds largest gathering of its kind. Over the past four decades the Munich Security Conference has become the most important independent forum for the exchange of views by international security policy decision-makers. Each year it brings together about 350 senior figures from more than 70 countries around the world to engage in a debate on current. The conference is held annually in February, the venue is the Hotel Bayerischer Hof in Munich, Germany. The 53rd Security Conference was held from 17 to 19 February 2017, the conference evolved from the Internationale Wehrkundebegegnung / Münchner Wehrkundetagung, which was founded in 1963 by Ewald-Heinrich von Kleist-Schmenzin. The first meeting was limited to about 60 participants, among them were Helmut Schmidt, von Kleist led the meetings until 1997, his successor who led them from 1999 until 2008 was politician and business manager Horst Teltschik. Since 2009, the conference is headed by the former diplomat Wolfgang Ischinger, Ischinger established the Munich Security Conference gGmbH non-profit foundation in 2011, which he has led since then. The Munich Security Conference was canceled twice, in 1991 due to the First Gulf War and 1997 as a result of the retirement of Kleist-Schmenzin. A focal point of the conference is the discussion and the exchange of views on the development of the relations as well as European. The conference is organized privately and therefore not a government event. It is used exclusively for discussion, an authorization for binding intergovernmental decisions does not exist, furthermore, there is - contrary to usual conventions - no common final communiqué. The high-level meeting is also used to discrete background discussions between the participants, at the 39th Conference 2003, German Minister for Foreign Affairs Fischer doubted to the reasoning of the US government for a war against Iraq with the words Excuse me, I am not convinced. In 2009 the MSC inaugurated the Ewald von Kleist Award, the new award highlights the political life and work of Ewald von Kleist, who founded the Munich Security Conference. The award will be given to prominent individuals who have made a contribution to peace. The winners of the Ewald von Kleist Award were in 2009 Dr Henry Kissinger, also in 2009, the MSC initiated a new event format, called MSC Core Group Meeting. This new and smaller-scale event was introduced in addition to the annual main, Meetings took place 2009 in Washington D. C.2010 in Moscow and 2011 in Beijing. S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton and Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov whilst Belarus has been excluded from the circle of MSC attendees because of the human rights situation. S
37.
Munich
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Munich is the capital and largest city of the German state of Bavaria, on the banks of River Isar north of the Bavarian Alps. Munich is the third largest city in Germany, after Berlin and Hamburg, the Munich Metropolitan Region is home to 5.8 million people. According to the Globalization and World Rankings Research Institute Munich is considered an alpha-world city, the name of the city is derived from the Old/Middle High German term Munichen, meaning by the monks. It derives from the monks of the Benedictine order who ran a monastery at the place that was later to become the Old Town of Munich, Munich was first mentioned in 1158. From 1255 the city was seat of the Bavarian Dukes, black and gold—the colours of the Holy Roman Empire—have been the citys official colours since the time of Ludwig the Bavarian, when it was an imperial residence. Following a final reunification of the Wittelsbachian Duchy of Bavaria, previously divided and sub-divided for more than 200 years, like wide parts of the Holy Roman Empire, the area recovered slowly economically. In 1918, during the German Revolution, the house of Wittelsbach, which governed Bavaria since 1180, was forced to abdicate in Munich. In the 1920s, Munich became home to political factions, among them the NSDAP. During World War II, Munich was heavily bombed and more than 50% of the entire city, the postwar period was characterised by American occupation until 1949 and a strong increase of population and economic power during the years of the Wirtschaftswunder after 1949. The city is home to corporations like BMW, Siemens, MAN, Linde, Allianz and MunichRE as well as many small. Munich is home to national and international authorities, major universities, major museums. Its numerous architectural attractions, international events, exhibitions and conferences. Munich is one of the most prosperous and fastest growing cities in Germany and it is a top-ranked destination for migration and expatriate location, despite being the municipality with the highest density of population in Germany. Munich nowadays hosts more than 530,000 people of foreign background, the year 1158 is assumed to be the foundation date, which is the earliest date the city is mentioned in a document. The document was signed in Augsburg, by that time the Guelph Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria, had built a bridge over the river Isar next to a settlement of Benedictine monks—this was on the Old Salt Route and a toll bridge. In 1175, Munich was officially granted city status and received fortification, in 1180, with the trial of Henry the Lion, Otto I Wittelsbach became Duke of Bavaria and Munich was handed over to the Bishop of Freising. In 1240, Munich was transferred to Otto II Wittelsbach and in 1255, Duke Louis IV, a native of Munich, was elected German king in 1314 and crowned as Holy Roman Emperor in 1328. He strengthened the position by granting it the salt monopoly
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Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty
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During the Cold War, Radio Free Europe was broadcast to Soviet satellite countries and Radio Liberty targeted the Soviet Union. RFE was founded as an anti-communist propaganda source in 1949 by the National Committee for a Free Europe, RL was founded two years later and the two organizations merged in 1976. Communist governments frequently sent agents to infiltrate RFEs headquarters, Radio transmissions into the Soviet Union were regularly jammed by the KGB. RFE/RL received funds from the Central Intelligence Agency until 1972, RFE/RL was headquartered at Englischer Garten in Munich, Germany, from 1949 to 1995. In 1995, the headquarters were moved to Prague in the Czech Republic, european operations have been significantly reduced since the end of the Cold War. In addition to the headquarters, the service maintains 20 local bureaus in countries throughout their broadcast region, as well as an office in Washington. RFE/RL broadcasts in 28 languages to 21 countries including Armenia, Russia, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, the committee was composed of an A list of powerful U. S. Radio Free Europe received widespread support from Eisenhowers Crusade for Freedom campaign. In 1950, over 16 million Americans signed Eisenhower’s Freedom Scrolls on a publicity trip to over 20 U. S. cities, the NCFEs mission was to support the refugees and provide them with a useful outlet for their opinions and creativity while increasing exposure to the modern world. The NCFE divided its program into three parts, exile relations, radio, and American contacts, although exile relations were initially its first priority, Radio Free Europe became the NCFEs greatest legacy. The United States funded a long list of projects to counter the Communist appeal among intellectuals in Europe, RFE was developed out of a belief that the Cold War would eventually be fought by political rather than military means. American policymakers such as George Kennan and John Foster Dulles acknowledged that the Cold War was essentially a war of ideas, the implementation of surrogate radio stations was a key part of the greater psychological war effort. RFE was modeled after Radio in the American Sector a U. S. government-sponsored radio service initially intended for Germans living in the American sector of Berlin, staffed almost entirely by Germans with minimal U. S. supervision, the station provided free media to German listeners. In January 1950 the NCFE obtained a base at Lampertheim, West Germany. In late 1950, RFE began to assemble a full-fledged foreign broadcast staff, teams of journalists were hired for each language service and an elaborate system of intelligence gathering provided up-to-date broadcast material. Most of this came from a network of well-connected émigrés. RFE did not use paid agents inside the Iron Curtain and based its bureaus in regions popular with exiles, RFE also extensively monitored Communist bloc publications and radio services, creating an impressive body of information that would later serve as a resource for organizations across the world. From October 1951 to November 1956, the skies of Central Europe were filled with more than 350,000 balloons carrying over 300 million leaflets, posters, books, the project served as a publicity tool to solidify RFEs reputation as an unbiased broadcaster
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Estonian parliamentary election, 1999
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Parliamentary elections were held in Estonia on 7 March 1999. The elections proved disastrous for the Estonian Coalition Party, which won seven seats together with two of its smaller allies. The Estonian Country Peoples Union, which participated the election on its own list, the programme of Mart Laar’s government was signed by Pro Patria Union, Reform Party, Moderates and People’s Party. The latter two merged soon after, so Mart Laar’s second government is known as Kolmikliit, or Tripartite coalition. After resignation of Laar, Reform Party and Estonian Centre Party formed a coalition that lasted until next election,2003. The threshold was 5% of the national vote, Electoral cartels were not allowed any more, but it didnt prevent a party from including members of another party in its list. A The Moderates list included representatives of the Estonian Peoples Party, B The Estonian Coalition Party list included members of the Estonian Country Union and the Party of Estonian Pensioners and Families. C The Estonian United Peoples Party included members of the Estonian Social Democratic Labour Party, election results on the Estonian Electoral Commission website
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Norway 1999 Knight First Class of the Royal Norwegian Order of Merit
Greece 1999 Grand Cross of the Order of Honour of Greece
France 2001 Commander of the Légion d'Honneur of the French Republic
Estonia 2004 Third Class Order of the Seal of the Republic of Estonia
Latvia 2004 Three Star Order of the Republic of Latvia
United Kingdom 2006 The Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath of Great Britain
Finland 2007 The Grand Cross of the Order of the White Rose of Finland with collar
Japan 2007 The Grand Cordon of the Supreme Order of the Chrysanthemum of Japan[22]
Georgia 2007 The Golden Fleece Order of Georgia
Spain 2007 The Order of Isabella the Catholic with Collar of Spain[23]
Lithuania 2008 The Order of Vytautas the Great with the Golden Chain of Lithuania
Netherlands 2008 The Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion
Belgium 2008 Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold [24]
Hungary 2009 The Grand Cross of the Order of Merit
Romania 2011 National Order Star of Romania in rank of Collar
Kazakhstan 2011 "Dostyk" (Friendship) the Star of Award I of Kazakhstan
Malta 2012 The Grand Collar of the National Order of Merit of the Republic of Malta
Poland 2014 Order of the White Eagle
Slovakia 2015 Slovak Republic's Order of the White Double Cross, First Class[26]
