1.
Austin Lane Crothers
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Austin Lane Crothers, a member of the United States Democratic Party, was the 46th Governor of Maryland in the United States from 1908 to 1912. Crothers was born near Conowingo in Cecil County, Maryland, the son of Alpheus. He was raised on his fathers farm, spending much of his life there, educated at West Nottingham Academy, he spent several years in the work force, first as a store clerk, then as a public school teacher. He was inspired to become a lawyer, and graduated from the University of Maryland Law School in 1890 and he practiced law in Elkton until becoming the States Attorney for Cecil County, a post he held from 1891 to 1895. In 1897, Austin Crothers was elected to the Maryland State Senate as a Democrat, during the session of 1900, he became his partys leader in the Senate after becoming chairman of the Senate Finance Committee. He was re-nominated for the 1901 election, but was defeated by the Republican Henry M. McCullough, Crothers continued to act as party leader in Cecil County, but still failed another re-election attempt in 1905. In 1906, Governor Edwin Warfield appointed Crothers to succeed the late Judge Edwin H. Brown as a judge for the Second Judicial Circuit. However, he refused to run for a term. Despite being an unknown, Crothers was elected into office. Crothers tenure as governor was notable for its reform aspects. S, Crothers also pushed for the creation of the Public Service Commission and the State Bank Commissioner. He supported pure food laws, better care for the mentally ill and he tried to reform the Baltimore Board of Police Commissioners, initiating an extensive investigation that led to charges against them. Crothers removed the three supposedly corrupt members and tried to fill their posts with chosen replacements while the originals awaited trial, however, the Maryland Court of Appeals determined that the governor did not have such power, neither to remove them or replace them before their time in court. Crothers still tried to bring the charges against them, but nothing came of it, Crothers also supported the 1910 Digges Amendment to the Maryland Constitution, which would have used property qualifications to disenfranchise African Americans. He also barely refrained from supporting a bill which would have passed the bills requirements into law even before the people ratified it. The Amendment was rejected by the people of Maryland, crotherss actions led to some problems with Marylands other politicians, including members of his own party, near the end of his time as governor. Crothers was sick when he left office in 1912, and eventually died at his home in Elkton on May 25 of that year, Crothers, Austin Lane – also known as Austin L. Crothers at The Political Graveyard Works by or about Austin Lane Crothers at Internet Archive
2.
Hat
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In the past, hats were an indicator of social status. In the military, hats may denote nationality, branch of service, rank, Police typically wear distinctive hats such as peaked caps or brimmed hats, such as those worn by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. Some hats have a protective function, some hats are worn for ceremonial purposes, such as the mortarboard, which is worn during university graduation ceremonies. Some hats are worn by members of a profession, such as the Toque worn by chefs. Some hats have religious functions, such as the mitres worn by Bishops, while there are not many official records of hats before 3,000 BC, they probably were commonplace before that. Archaeologists think that the Venus of Brassempouy from 26,000 years ago may depict a hat. One of the earliest known confirmed hats was worn by a bronze age man whose body was frozen in a mountain between Austria and Italy, where hed been since around 3,300 BC. He was found wearing bearskin cap with a strap, made of several hides stitched together. One of the first pictorial depictions of a hat appears in a painting from Thebes, Egypt. Hats were commonly worn in ancient Egypt, many upper-class Egyptians shaved their head, then covered it in a headdress intended to help them keep cool. Ancient Mesopotamians often wore conical hats or ones shaped somewhat like an inverted vase. Other early hats include the Pileus, a skull like cap, the Phrygian cap, worn by freed slaves in Greece and Rome, and the Greek petasos. Women wore veils, kerchiefs, hoods, caps and wimples, like Otzi, Tollund Man was preserved to the present day with a hat on, probably having died around 400 BC in a Danish bog, which mummified him. He wore a cap made of sheepskin and wool, fastened under the chin by a hide thong. St. Clement, the saint of felt hatmakers, is said to have discovered wool felt when he filled his sandals with flax fibers to protect his feet. In the Middle Ages, hats were a marker of social status, the 1215 Fourth Council of the Lateran required that all Jews identify themselves by wearing the Judenhat, marking them as targets for anti-Semitism. The hats were usually yellow and were pointed or square. In the Middle Ages, hats for women ranged from simple scarves to elaborate hennin, structured hats for women similar to those of male courtiers began to be worn in the late 16th century
3.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
4.
Bank of England
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The Bank of England, formally the Governor and Company of the Bank of England, is the central bank of the United Kingdom and the model on which most modern central banks have been based. Established in 1694, it is the second oldest central bank in the world, after the Sveriges Riksbank, and it was established to act as the English Governments banker and is still one of the bankers for the Government of the United Kingdom. The Bank was privately owned by stockholders from its foundation in 1694 until it was nationalised in 1946, in 1998, it became an independent public organisation, wholly owned by the Treasury Solicitor on behalf of the government, with independence in setting monetary policy. The Banks Monetary Policy Committee has a responsibility for managing monetary policy. The Banks Financial Policy Committee held its first meeting in June 2011 as a macro prudential regulator to oversee regulation of the UKs financial sector, the Banks headquarters have been in Londons main financial district, the City of London, on Threadneedle Street, since 1734. It is sometimes known by the metonym The Old Lady of Threadneedle Street or The Old Lady, the busy road junction outside is known as Bank junction. Until 2016, the bank provided banking services as a popular privilege for employees. Englands crushing defeat by France, the dominant naval power, in naval engagements culminating in the 1690 Battle of Beachy Head, England had no choice but to build a powerful navy. No public funds were available, and the credit of William IIIs government was so low in London that it was impossible for it to borrow the £1,200,000 that the government wanted. To induce subscription to the loan, the subscribers were to be incorporated by the name of the Governor, the Bank was given exclusive possession of the governments balances, and was the only limited-liability corporation allowed to issue bank notes. The lenders would give the government cash and issue notes against the government bonds, the £1. 2m was raised in 12 days, half of this was used to rebuild the navy. This helped the new Kingdom of Great Britain – England and Scotland were formally united in 1707 – to become powerful, the power of the navy made Britain the dominant world power in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The establishment of the bank was devised by Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax, the plan of 1691, which had been proposed by William Paterson three years before, had not then been acted upon. The Royal Charter was granted on 27 July through the passage of the Tonnage Act 1694, the first governor was Sir John Houblon, who is depicted in the £50 note issued in 1994. The charter was renewed in 1742,1764, and 1781, the Bank moved to its current location in Threadneedle Street in 1734, and thereafter slowly acquired neighbouring land to create the edifice seen today. When the idea and reality of the National Debt came about during the 18th century, the 1844 Bank Charter Act tied the issue of notes to the gold reserves and gave the Bank sole rights with regard to the issue of banknotes. Private banks that had previously had that right retained it, provided that their headquarters were outside London, a few English banks continued to issue their own notes until the last of them was taken over in the 1930s. Scottish and Northern Irish private banks still have that right, the bank acted as lender of last resort for the first time in the panic of 1866
5.
City of London
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The City of London is a city and county within London. It constituted most of London from its settlement by the Romans in the 1st century AD to the Middle Ages, the City is now only a tiny part of the metropolis of London, though it remains a notable part of central London. Administratively, it one of the 33 local authority districts of Greater London, however, the City of London is not a London borough. The City of London is widely referred to simply as the City and is colloquially known as the Square Mile. Both of these terms are often used as metonyms for the United Kingdoms trading and financial services industries. The name London is now used for a far wider area than just the City. London most often denotes the sprawling London metropolis, or the 32 London boroughs and this wider usage of London is documented as far back as 1888, when the County of London was created. The local authority for the City, namely the City of London Corporation, is unique in the UK and has some unusual responsibilities for a local council and it is also unusual in having responsibilities and ownerships beyond its boundaries. The Corporation is headed by the Lord Mayor of the City of London, the current Lord Mayor, as of November 2016, is Andrew Parmley. The City is a business and financial centre. Throughout the 19th century, the City was the primary business centre. London came top in the Worldwide Centres of Commerce Index, published in 2008, the insurance industry is focused around the eastern side of the City, around Lloyds building. A secondary financial district exists outside of the City, at Canary Wharf,2.5 miles to the east, the City has a resident population of about 7,000 but over 300,000 people commute to and work there, mainly in the financial services sector. It used to be held that Londinium was first established by merchants as a trading port on the tidal Thames in around 47 AD. However, this date is only supposition, many historians now believe London was founded some time before the Roman conquest of Britain in 43 AD. They base this notion on evidence provided by both archaeology and Welsh literary legend, archaeologists have claimed that as much as half of the best British Iron Age art and metalwork discovered in Britain has been found in the London area. One of the most prominent examples is the famously horned Waterloo Helmet dredged from the Thames in the early 1860s and now exhibited at the British Museum. Also, according to an ancient Welsh legend, a king named Lud son of Heli substantially enlarged and improved a pre-existing settlement at London which afterwards came to be renamed after him, the same tradition relates how this Lud son of Heli was later buried at Ludgate
6.
Court
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Similarly, the rights of those accused of a crime include the right to present a defense before a court. The system of courts that interprets and applies the law is known as the judiciary. The place where a court sits is known as a venue, the practical authority given to the court is known as its jurisdiction – the courts power to decide certain kinds of questions or petitions put to it. It is also usual in the courts to have barristers, and attorneys or counsel, as assistants, though, often, courts consist of additional barristers, bailiffs, reporters. The term the court is used to refer to the presiding officer or officials. The judge or panel of judges may also be referred to as the bench. In the United States, and other common law jurisdictions, the court by law is used to describe the judge himself or herself. In the United States, the authority of a court to take action is based on personal jurisdiction, subject-matter jurisdiction. The English word court is a cognate of the Latin word hortus, the verb to court, meaning to win favor, derives from the same source since people traveled to the sovereigns court to win his favor. The word jurisdiction comes from juris and dictio, jurisdiction is defined as the official authority to make legal decisions and judgements over an individual or materialistic item within a territory. Whether a given court has jurisdiction to preside over a case is a key question in any legal action. Three basic components of jurisdiction are jurisdiction over the person (personal jurisdiction, jurisdiction over the subject matter or thing. Other concepts of jurisdiction include general jurisdiction, exclusive jurisdiction, territorial jurisdiction, appellate jurisdiction, trial courts are courts that hold trials. Sometimes termed courts of first instance, trial courts have varying original jurisdiction, trial courts may conduct trials with juries as the finders of fact or trials in which judges act as both finders of fact and finders of law. Juries are less common in court systems outside the Anglo-American common law tradition, appellate courts are courts that hear appeals of lower courts and trial courts. Some courts, such as the Crown Court in England and Wales may have both trial and appellate jurisdictions, the two major legal traditions of the western world are the civil law courts and the common law courts. These two great legal traditions are similar, in that they are products of western culture although there are significant differences between the two traditions, civil law courts are profoundly based upon Roman Law, specifically a civil body of law entitled Corpus iuris civilis. Civil law is firmly ensconced in the French and German legal systems, Common law courts were established by English royal judges of the Kings Council after the Norman Invasion of Britain in 1066
7.
Lincoln's Inn
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The Honourable Society of Lincolns Inn is one of the four Inns of Court in London to which barristers of England and Wales belong and where they are called to the Bar. It is recognised to be one of the worlds most prestigious professional bodies of judges and it is the largest Inn and it covers 11 acres. The other three are Middle Temple, Inner Temple and Grays Inn, the Inn is believed to be named after Henry de Lacy, 3rd Earl of Lincoln. The Inn is also known for its large garden and library. The nearest tube station is Holborn tube station or Chancery Lane, Lincolns Inn does not declare a specific foundation date, as there is a tradition that none of the Inns of Court regards itself to be any older than the others. The Inn was home to influential people, including Prime Ministers, Chief Judges. During the 12th and 13th century, the law was taught in the City of London primarily by the clergy, as a result, the system of legal education fell apart. The common lawyers migrated to the hamlet of Holborn, the nearest place to the law courts at Westminster Hall that was outside the City, as with the other Inns of Court, the precise date of founding of Lincolns Inn is unknown. The third Earl of Lincoln had encouraged lawyers to move to Holborn and it is felt that Lincolns Inn became a formally organised Inn of Court soon after the Earls death in 1310. At some point before 1422, the part of Lincolns Inn, as they had become known, after the Earl, moved to the estate of Ralph Neville. They retained Thavies and Furnivals Inn, using them as training houses for young lawyers, in 1537, the land Lincolns Inn sat on was sold by Bishop Richard Sampson to a Bencher named William Suliard, and his son sold the land to Lincolns Inn in 1580. The Inn became formally organised as a place of legal education thanks to a decree in 1464, during the 15th century, the Inn was not a particularly prosperous one, and the Benchers, particularly John Fortescue, are credited with fixing this situation. Lincolns Inn had no constitution or fundamental form of governance, admissions were recorded in the black books and divided into two categories, Clerks who were admitted to Clerks Commons, and Fellows Socii who were admitted to Fellows Commons. By 1466, the Fellows were divided into Benchers, those at the Bar, by 1502, the extra barram Fellows were being referred to as inner barristers, in contrast to the utter or outer barristers. A Bencher, Benchsitter or Master of the Bench is a member of the Council, the term originally referred to one who sat on the benches in the main hall of the Inn, which were used for dining and during moots, and the term originally had no significance. In Lincolns Inn, the idea of a Bencher was believed to have far earlier than elsewhere, there are records of four Benchers being sworn in 1440. William Holdsworth and the editor of the Black Books both concluded that Benchers were, from the earliest times, the governors of the Inn, the Governors were elected to serve a year-long term, with between four and six sitting at any one time. By the late 15th century, the group were the Governors with assistance and advice from the other masters of the Bench
8.
Queen's Counsel
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A Queens Counsel, or Kings Counsel during the reign of a king, is an eminent lawyer who is appointed by the Queen to be one of Her Majestys Counsel learned in the law. The term is recognised as an honorific. Queens Counsel is a status, conferred by the Crown, that is recognised by courts, members have the privilege of sitting within the Bar of court. As members wear silk gowns of a design, the award of Queens Counsel is known informally as taking silk. Appointments are made from within the profession on the basis of merit rather than a particular level of experience. However, successful applicants tend to be barristers, or advocates with 15 years of experience or more, the Attorney-General, Solicitor-General, and Kings Serjeants were Kings Counsel in Ordinary in the Kingdom of England. The first Queens Counsel Extraordinary was Sir Francis Bacon, who was given a patent giving him precedence at the Bar in 1597, the new rank of Kings Counsel contributed to the gradual obsolescence of the formerly more senior serjeant-at-law by superseding it. The Attorney-General and Solicitor-General had similarly succeeded the Kings Serjeants as leaders of the Bar in Tudor times, but the Kings Counsel emerged into eminence only in the early 1830s, prior to when they were relatively few in number. It became the means to recognise a barrister as a senior member of the profession. It became of greater importance to become a KC. The KCs inherited the prestige of the serjeants and their priority before the courts, the earliest English law list, published in 1775, lists 165 members of the Bar, of whom 14 were Kings Counsel, a proportion of about 8. 5%. As of 2010 roughly the same proportion existed, though the number of barristers had increased to about 12,250 in independent practice, in 1839 the number of Queens Counsel was seventy. In 1882, the number of Queens Counsel was 187, the list of Queens Counsel in the Law List of 1897 gave the names of 238, of whom hardly one-third appeared to be in actual practice. In 1959, the number of practising Queens Counsel was 181, in each of the five years up to 1970, the number of practising Queens Counsel was 208,209,221,236 and 262, respectively. In each of the years 1973 to 1978, the number of practising Queens Counsel was 329,345,370,372,384 and 404, in 1989, the number of practising Queens Counsel was 601. In each of the years 1991 to 2000, the number of practising Queens Counsel was 736,760,797,845,891,925,974,1006,1043, the title traditionally depends on the sex of the sovereign. The current Queen, Elizabeth II has had a long reign and it can be assumed that, should the Queen die and the title pass to a descendant, the title will again become KC, as the next three in line to the throne are male heirs. Queens Counsel and serjeants were prohibited, at least from the century, from drafting pleadings alone
9.
Ascot Racecourse
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Ascot Racecourse is a British racecourse, located in Ascot, Berkshire, England, which is used for thoroughbred horse racing. It is one of the racecourses in the United Kingdom. The course, owned by Ascot Racecourse Ltd, enjoys close associations with the British Royal Family, Ascot today stages twenty-six days of racing over the course of the year, comprising eighteen flat meetings held between the months of May and October inclusive. It also stages important jump racing throughout the winter months, the Royal Meeting held each June, remains a major draw, its highlight being The Gold Cup. The most prestigious race is the King George VI and Queen Elizabeth Stakes run over the course in July, Ascot Racecourse was founded in 1711 by Queen Anne. The first race, Her Majestys Plate, with a purse of 100 guineas, was held on 11 August 1711, seven horses competed, each carrying a weight of 12 stones. This first race comprised three separate four-mile heats, in 1813 Parliament passed an Act to ensure that the grounds would remain a public racecourse. A new grandstand was opened in 1839 at a cost of £10000, a further Act of Parliament of 1913 establishing the Ascot Authority which entity manages the racecourse to this day. From its creation until 1945 the only racing that took place at Ascot was the Royal Meeting, since that date, more fixtures have been introduced to the grounds, notably steeplechase and hurdles in 1965. Ascot racecourse closed for a period of twenty months on 26 September 2004, for a £185 million redevelopment funded by Allied Irish Bank and designed by Populous, as owner of the Ascot estate, Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth reopened the racecourse on Tuesday 20 June 2006. However, the upper levels provide far less accommodation for the everyday racegoer than was present in the former stand, in July 2009 Ascot Racecourse also hosted the third round of the UAE Presidents Cup. The Royal Ascot is the centrepiece of Ascots year and dates back to 1711 when it was founded by Queen Anne and it is a major event in the British social calendar, and press coverage of the attendees and what they are wearing often exceeds coverage of the actual racing. There are three enclosures attended by guests on Royal Ascot week, the Royal Enclosure is the most prestigious of the three enclosures, with recent visits from the Queen and Royal Family members. Access to the Royal Enclosure is restricted, with security on the day. First-time applicants must apply to the Royal Enclosure Office and gain membership from someone who has attended the enclosure for at least four years, for existing badgeholders, an invitation is sent out by Her Majestys Representative to request badges. The badgeholders name is written onto the badge and can be used only by that person and those in the Royal Enclosure have the options of fine dining and hospitality, and a selection of bars. The dress code is strictly enforced, for women, only a day dress with a hat is acceptable, with rules applying to the length and style of the dress. In addition, women must not show bare midriffs or shoulders, for men, black or grey morning dress with top hat is required
10.
Choir of King's College, Cambridge
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The Kings College Choir is one of todays most accomplished and renowned representatives of the great English choral tradition. It was created by King Henry VI, who founded Kings College, Cambridge, in 1441, to provide daily singing in his Chapel, the choir commissions a carol from a contemporary composer for each years Festival. The statutes of the College provide for sixteen choristers and these are boys who are educated at Kings College School. From the beginning of the 20th century fourteen undergraduates have also sung in the choir as Choral Scholars, former members of the Choir are able to join the Kings College Choir Association. The Choir of Kings College, Cambridge maintains a recording and touring schedule, in addition to its performances at Kings College Chapel. In recent years, the choir has toured throughout Europe, the US, South America, the choir regularly performs in the United Kingdom, giving concerts in the major London concert halls, as well as at numerous festivals around the country. In 2013, the Choir of Kings College, Cambridge sang at the Prime Ministers Easter reception held at 10 Downing Street. The Choir of Kings College, Cambridge has recorded more than 100 albums, on the EMI and Decca labels, the choir has also begun making available recordings of its choral services. These can be listened to from the web site. The Choir often tours externally, usually involving longer tours in the summer and at Christmas, Choral Scholars must succeed at both the general entry requirements of the College as well as the Choral Trials to join the Choir. Two of the Choral Scholars are assigned the role of Beater, as Senior and Junior Beater and these two Choral Scholars usually beat the psalms, and often the introit, during the service, even when the Director of Music is present. Such Lay Clerks have, to all intents and purposes, the status as a Choral Scholar. The few Lay Clerks that have existed have often been Choral Scholars agreeing to remain for an additional year. An Organ Scholarship is awarded as necessary to ensure there are always two undergraduate Organists in the College - a new Scholar is appointed to arrive when the previous one graduates. If the Director of Music is not present for any reason, an Organ Scholar takes responsibility for conducting the Choir
11.
Morning dress
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Morning dress is the daytime formal dress code, consisting chiefly of, for men, a morning coat, waistcoat, and striped trousers, and an appropriate dress for women. The semi-formal counterpart of this code is the stroller and it will also be seen sometimes worn at services in St Pauls Cathedral, London and St Giles Cathedral, Edinburgh. The name originated from the practice of gentlemen in the nineteenth century riding a horse in the morning with a cutaway front, in the Edwardian era it took over in popularity from the frock coat as the standard daytime form of mens full dress. The waistcoat may also match, or not, Morning suits will sometimes be a middle-tone gray. Morning suits, especially the ones, are considered slightly less formal than morning coat ensembles. The following can optionally be worn or carried with morning dress, alternatively, a top hat made of fur felt or wool felt, is another common option. The formal trousers worn with it are either cashmere striped, or black, the most traditional colours for a waistcoat are grey, buff, or black. At social or festive occasions, e. g, other colours sold by traditional English tailors include powder blue and a pale pink. Generally, traditional waistcoats are made from wool or linen, waistcoats may be either single-breasted with, or without, lapels or double-breasted with lapels. Single-breasted models with lapels usually feature a step collar, whilst double-breasted models commonly have either a shawl collar or a peak lapel, formal trousers should not have turn-ups, and should have one or two forward pleats to each leg. Braces should be worn to prevent the waistband from appearing beneath the waistcoat, belts should not be worn with morning dress. Less common alternatives to striped trousers are houndstooth check, and grey flannel trousers, a white stiff collar is traditional, with the plain turn-down cutaway variety standard since the World War II, in this case a normal long tie is worn. Because of this Debretts, for example, considers the Ascot, if the shirt has turn-down collars it usually has sleeves with double cuffs fastened with cufflinks as standard. Contemporary shirts often do not have a collar at all. The most formal colour for a shirt is white, but if a coloured or striped shirt is worn, traditional formal colourings are Wedgwood blue, solid or in thin vertical stripes. Previously, a grey or a black neck-tie was obligatory, now all colours are worn, in many clubs and societies the Club Tie is acceptable to distinguish members from guests at formal lunches and breakfasts. The original silver Macclesfield design is used particularly with cravats. The English etiquette authority, Debretts, dictate that ties are preferred to cravats, bow ties may be worn as an alternative to the necktie
12.
White tie
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White tie, also called full evening dress, is the most formal evening dress code in Western high fashion. For men, it consists of a black tailcoat worn over a white starched shirt, marcella waistcoat, high-waisted black trousers and patent leather shoes complete the outfit, although decorations can be worn and a top hat and white scarf are acceptable as accessories. Women wear full evening or ball gown and, optionally, jewellery, tiaras. By the 1840s the minimalist black and white combination had become the standard evening wear for upper class men, despite the emergence of the dinner jacket as a less formal and more comfortable alternative in the 1880s, full evening dress remained the staple. From the 1920s onward black tie slowly replaced white tie as the default evening wear for important events, the Vienna Opera Ball and the Nobel Prize ceremony are white tie events, and some European universities retain it as the dress code for doctoral conferment ceremonies. Over this is worn a black single-breasted barathea wool or ultrafine herringbone tailcoat with silk peak lapels, the trousers have double-braiding down the outside of both legs, while the correct shoes are patent leather or highly polished black dress shoes. Although a white scarf remains popular in winter, the white gloves, top hats, canes. Women wear an evening dress, with the option of jewellery, a tiara, a pashmina, coat or wrap. The waistcoat should not be visible below the front of the tailcoat, as one style writer for GQ magazine summarises The simple rule of thumb is that you should only ever see black and white not black, white and black again. Decorations may also be worn and, unlike Debretts, Cambridge Universitys Varsity student newspaper suggests a top hat, opera cloak and silver-topped cane are acceptable accessories. As the 18th century drew to a close, high society began adopting more austere clothing which drew inspiration from the dark hues and simpler designs adopted by country gentlemen. From around 1815, a garment called the frock coat became increasingly popular and was eventually established, along with the morning coat. The dress coat, meanwhile, became reserved for wear in the evening, the dandy Beau Brummell adopted a minimalistic approach to evening wear—a white waistcoat, dark blue tailcoat, black pantaloons and striped stockings. Although Brummell felt black an ugly colour for evening dress coats, it was adopted by other dandies, like Charles Baudelaire, over the course of the 19th century, the monotone colour scheme became a codified standard for evening events after 6pm in upper class circles. The styles evolved and evening dress consisted of a dress coat and trousers, white or black waistcoat. Despite its growing popularity, the dinner jacket remained the reserve of family dinners, by the turn of the 20th century, full evening dress consisted of a black tailcoat made of heavy fabric weighing 16-18 oz per yard. According to The Delineator, the years after World War I saw white tie almost abandoned, White tie was worn with slim-cut trousers in the early 1920s, by 1926, wide-lapelled tailcoats and double-breasted waistcoats were in vogue. White tie is worn in the early 21st century
13.
Dressage
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Dressage is a highly skilled form of riding performed in exhibition and competition, as well as an art sometimes pursued solely for the sake of mastery. Competitions are held at all levels from amateur to the Olympic Games, at the peak of a dressage horses gymnastic development, the horse responds smoothly to a skilled riders minimal aids. The rider is relaxed and appears effort-free while the horse performs the requested movement. The discipline has a history with ancient roots in the writings of Xenophon. Much about training systems used today reflects practices of classical dressage, in modern dressage competition, successful training at the various levels is demonstrated through the performance of tests, prescribed series of movements ridden within a standard arena. A score of 9 is very good and is a high mark, all riding horses can benefit from use of dressage principles and training techniques. The most popular horse breeds seen at the Olympics and other international FEI competitions are warmblood horses bred for dressage, in classical dressage training and performances that involve the airs above the ground, the baroque breeds of horses are popular and purposely bred for these specialties. There are two sizes of arenas, small and standard, each has letters assigned to positions around the arena for dressage tests to specify where movements are to be performed. Cones with letters on them are positioned on the sidelines of the arena for reference as to where a movement is to be performed. The small arena is 20 by 40 m and is used for the levels of eventing in the dressage phase. Its letters around the edge, starting from the point of entry. Letters also mark locations along the line in the middle of the arena. Moving down the line from A, they are D-X-G. The standard arena is 20 by 60 m, and is used for tests in both dressage and eventing. The standard dressage arena letters are A-K-V-E-S-H-C-M-R-B-P-F, the letters on the long sides of the arena, nearest the corners, are 6 m in from the corners, and are 12 m apart from each other. The letters along the line are D-L-X-I-G, with X again being halfway down the arena. There is speculation as to why these letters were chosen, most commonly it is believed because the German cavalry had a 20 × 60-meter area in-between the barracks which had the letters posted above the doors. At the start of the test, the horse enters the arena at an opening at A, ideally this opening is then closed for the duration of the test, however, this is not always logistically possible, particularly at smaller competitions with few volunteers
14.
Livery
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Often, elements of the heraldry relating to the individual or corporate body feature in the livery. Alternatively, some kind of an emblem or badge, or a distinctive colour, is featured. The word itself derives from the French livrée, meaning dispensed, handed over. Most often it would indicate that the wearer of the livery was a servant, dependant, follower or friend of the owner of the livery, or, in the case of objects, that the object belonged to them. In the late medieval phenomenon of bastard feudalism, livery badges worn by the retainers of great lords, sometimes in effect private armies, in the 14th century, livery referred to an allowance of any kind, but especially clothes provided to servants and members of the household. Such things might be kept in a livery cupboard, during the 14th century, specific colours denoting a great person began to be used for both his soldiers and his civilian followers, and the modern sense of the term began to form. Usually two different colours were used together, but the ways in which they were combined varied with rank, often the colours used were different each year. As well as embroidered badges, metal ones were sewn on to clothing, municipalities and corporations copied the behaviour of the great households. The grandest of these is the livery collar, william, Lord Hastings the favourite of King Edward IV of England had a Coller of gold of K. Edwards lyverys valued at the enormous sum of £40 in an inventory of 1489. This would have similar to the collars worn by Hastings sister and her husband Sir John Donne in the Donne Triptych by Hans Memling. Lords gave their servants lead or pewter badges to sew onto their clothes, in the 15th century European royalty sometimes distributed uniform suits of clothes to courtiers, as the House of Fugger, the leading bankers, did to all employees. This practice later contracted to the provision of standardized clothing to male servants, the term most notably referred to the embroidered coats, waistcoats, knee breeches and stockings in 18th-century style, worn by footmen on formal occasions in grand houses. Plainer clothing in dark colours and without braiding was worn by footmen, chauffeurs, for reasons of economy the employment of such servants, and their expensive dress, died out after World War I except in royal households. Most European royal courts still use their state liveries on formal occasions and these are generally in traditional national colours, and are based on 18th century clothing with fine gold embroidery. Only male royal servants normally wear livery, knee breeches are worn, normally with white silk stockings, one exception being the Spanish court which prescribes red. At the British royal court red state livery are still worn by pages, footmen, coachmen, the state livery worn by footmen includes foils. The scarlet coats are handmade, and embroidered in gold braid with the cypher of the monarch. Gold buttons and other trimmings are of designs and patterns which date from the 18th century, unlike the tailor-made uniform clothing issued to full-time royal staff, the seldom-worn full-state dress reserved for court pages is not bespoke
15.
Upper class
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The upper class in modern societies is the social class composed of the wealthiest members of society, who also wield the greatest political power. According to this view, the class is generally distinguished by immense wealth which is passed on from generation to generation. Prior to the 20th century, the aristocracy was widely used. The term is used in conjunction with terms like upper-middle class, middle class. Upper-class status commonly derived from the position of ones family. Much of the population that composed the upper consisted of aristocrats, ruling families, titled people. These people were born into their status and historically there was not much movement across class boundaries. This is to say that it was harder for an individual to move up in class simply because of the structure of society. The Transatlantic Slave Trade also helped create a class of white Europeans while maintaining a lower class of black Europeans, Americans and Africans. This fact is often edited out of academic research both in publications and online ones such as Wikipedia. In many countries, the upper class was intimately associated with hereditary land ownership. Political power was often in the hands of the landowners in many pre-industrial societies despite there being no legal barriers to land ownership for other social classes. Upper-class landowners in Europe were often members of the titled nobility, though not necessarily. Some upper classes were almost entirely untitled, for example, the Szlachta of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, in England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, the upper class traditionally comprised the landed gentry and the aristocracy of noble families with hereditary titles. The vast majority of post-medieval aristocratic families originated in the merchant class and were ennobled between the 14th and 19th centuries while intermarrying with the old nobility and gentry. Since the Second World War, the term has come to encompass rich, members of the English gentry organized the colonization of Virginia and New England and ruled these colonies for generations forming the foundation of the American upper class or East Coast Elite. In this respect, the US differs little from such as the UK where membership of the upper class is also dependent on other factors. The American upper class is estimated to less than 1% of the population
16.
Capitalism
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Capitalism is an economic system based on private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit. Characteristics central to capitalism include private property, capital accumulation, wage labor, voluntary exchange, a price system, economists, political economists, and historians have adopted different perspectives in their analyses of capitalism and have recognized various forms of it in practice. These include laissez-faire or free market capitalism, welfare capitalism, different forms of capitalism feature varying degrees of free markets, public ownership, obstacles to free competition, and state-sanctioned social policies. Most existing capitalist economies are mixed economies, which elements of free markets with state intervention. Capitalism has existed under many forms of government, in different times, places. Following the decline of mercantilism, mixed capitalist systems became dominant in the Western world, Capitalism has been criticized for prioritizing profit over social good, natural resources, and the environment, and that is a cause of inequality and economic instabilities. Supporters believe that it provides better products through competition, and creates strong economic growth, the term capitalist, meaning an owner of capital, appears earlier than the term capitalism. It dates back to the mid-17th century, capitalist is derived from capital, which evolved from capitale, a late Latin word based on caput, meaning head – also the origin of chattel and cattle in the sense of movable property. Capitale emerged in the 12th to 13th centuries in the sense of referring to funds, stock of merchandise, sum of money, by 1283 it was used in the sense of the capital assets of a trading firm. It was frequently interchanged with a number of other words – wealth, money, funds, goods, assets, property, the Hollandische Mercurius uses capitalists in 1633 and 1654 to refer to owners of capital. In French, Étienne Clavier referred to capitalistes in 1788, six years before its first recorded English usage by Arthur Young in his work Travels in France, David Ricardo, in his Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, referred to the capitalist many times. Samuel Taylor Coleridge, an English poet, used capitalist in his work Table Talk, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon used the term capitalist in his first work, What is Property. To refer to the owners of capital, benjamin Disraeli used the term capitalist in his 1845 work Sybil. The initial usage of the term capitalism in its modern sense has been attributed to Louis Blanc in 1850, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels referred to the capitalistic system. And to the capitalist mode of production in Das Kapital, the use of the word capitalism in reference to an economic system appears twice in Volume I of Das Kapital, p.124, and in Theories of Surplus Value, tome II, p.493. Marx did not extensively use the form capitalism but instead those of capitalist, and capitalist mode of production, also according to the OED, Carl Adolph Douai, a German-American socialist and abolitionist, used the phrase private capitalism in 1863. Capital has existed incipiently on a scale for centuries, in the form of merchant, renting and lending activities. Simple commodity exchange, and consequently simple commodity production, which are the basis for the growth of capital from trade, have a very long history
17.
Politics
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Politics is the process of making decisions applying to all members of each group. More narrowly, it refers to achieving and exercising positions of governance — organized control over a human community, furthermore, politics is the study or practice of the distribution of power and resources within a given community as well as the interrelationship between communities. It is very often said that politics is about power, a political system is a framework which defines acceptable political methods within a given society. History of political thought can be traced back to antiquity, with seminal works such as Platos Republic, Aristotles Politics. Formal Politics refers to the operation of a system of government and publicly defined institutions. Political parties, public policy or discussions about war and foreign affairs would fall under the category of Formal Politics, many people view formal politics as something outside of themselves, but that can still affect their daily lives. Semi-formal Politics is Politics in government associations such as neighborhood associations, informal Politics is understood as forming alliances, exercising power and protecting and advancing particular ideas or goals. Generally, this includes anything affecting ones daily life, such as the way an office or household is managed, informal Politics is typically understood as everyday politics, hence the idea that politics is everywhere. The word comes from the same Greek word from which the title of Aristotles book Politics also derives, the book title was rendered in Early Modern English in the mid-15th century as Polettiques, it became politics in Modern English. The history of politics is reflected in the origin, development, the origin of the state is to be found in the development of the art of warfare. Historically speaking, all communities of the modern type owe their existence to successful warfare. Kings, emperors and other types of monarchs in many countries including China, of the institutions that ruled states, that of kingship stood at the forefront until the French Revolution put an end to the divine right of kings. Nevertheless, the monarchy is among the political institutions, dating as early as 2100 BC in Sumeria to the 21st century AD British Monarchy. Kingship becomes an institution through the institution of Hereditary monarchy, the king often, even in absolute monarchies, ruled his kingdom with the aid of an elite group of advisors, a council without which he could not maintain power. As these advisors and others outside the monarchy negotiated for power, constitutional monarchies emerged, long before the council became a bulwark of democracy, it rendered invaluable aid to the institution of kingship by, Preserving the institution of kingship through heredity. Preserving the traditions of the social order, being able to withstand criticism as an impersonal authority. Being able to manage a greater deal of knowledge and action than an individual such as the king. The greatest of the subordinates, the earls and dukes in England and Scotland
18.
Diplomacy
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Diplomacy is the art and practice of conducting negotiations between representatives of states. International treaties are negotiated by diplomats prior to endorsement by national politicians. The scholarly discipline of diplomatics, dealing with the study of old documents, derives its name from the same source, but its modern meaning is quite distinct from the activity of diplomacy. Some of the earliest known records are the Amarna letters written between the pharaohs of the Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt and the Amurru rulers of Canaan during the 14th century BC. Following the Battle of Kadesh in c, Relations with the government of the Ottoman Empire were particularly important to Italian states. The maritime republics of Genoa and Venice depended less and less upon their nautical capabilities, interactions between various merchants, diplomats and clergy men hailing from the Italian and Ottoman empires helped inaugurate and create new forms of diplomacy and statecraft. Eventually the primary purpose of a diplomat, which was originally a negotiator and it became evident that all other sovereigns felt the need to accommodate themselves diplomatically, due to the emergence of the powerful political environment of the Ottoman Empire. One could come to the conclusion that the atmosphere of diplomacy within the modern period revolved around a foundation of conformity to Ottoman culture. One of the earliest realists in international relations theory was the 6th century BC military strategist Sun Tzu, author of The Art of War. However, a deal of diplomacy in establishing allies, bartering land, and signing peace treaties was necessary for each warring state. The treaty was renewed no less than nine times, but did not restrain some Xiongnu tuqi from raiding Han borders. The Koreans and Japanese during the Chinese Tang Dynasty looked to the Chinese capital of Changan as the hub of civilization, the Japanese sent frequent embassies to China in this period, although they halted these trips in 894 when the Tang seemed on the brink of collapse. After the devastating An Shi Rebellion from 755 to 763, the Tang Dynasty was in no position to reconquer Central Asia, after several conflicts with the Tibetan Empire spanning several different decades, the Tang finally made a truce and signed a peace treaty with them in 841. Both diplomats secured the borders of the Song Dynasty through knowledge of cartography. There was also a triad of warfare and diplomacy between these two states and the Tangut Western Xia Dynasty to the northwest of Song China. After warring with the Lý Dynasty of Vietnam from 1075 to 1077, Song, long before the Tang and Song dynasties, the Chinese had sent envoys into Central Asia, India, and Persia, starting with Zhang Qian in the 2nd century BC. Another notable event in Chinese diplomacy was the Chinese embassy mission of Zhou Daguan to the Khmer Empire of Cambodia in the 13th century, Chinese diplomacy was a necessity in the distinctive period of Chinese exploration. Since the Tang Dynasty, the Chinese also became heavily invested in sending diplomatic envoys abroad on missions into the Indian Ocean, to India, Persia, Arabia, East Africa
19.
John F. Kennedy
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Kennedy was a member of the Democratic Party, and his New Frontier domestic program was largely enacted as a memorial to him after his death. Kennedy also established the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1963, Kennedys time in office was marked by high tensions with Communist states. He increased the number of American military advisers in South Vietnam by a factor of 18 over President Dwight D. Eisenhower, in Cuba, a failed attempt was made at the Bay of Pigs to overthrow the government of Fidel Castro in April 1961. He subsequently rejected plans by the Joint Chiefs of Staff to orchestrate false-flag attacks on American soil in order to gain approval for a war against Cuba. After military service in the United States Naval Reserve in World War II and he was elected subsequently to the U. S. Senate and served as the junior Senator from Massachusetts from 1953 until 1960. Kennedy defeated Vice President, and Republican presidential candidate, Richard Nixon in the 1960 U. S, at age 43, he became the youngest elected president and the second-youngest president. Kennedy was also the first person born in the 20th century to serve as president, to date, Kennedy has been the only Roman Catholic president and the only president to have won a Pulitzer Prize. Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, on November 22,1963, Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested that afternoon and determined to have fired the shots that hit the President from a sixth floor window of the Texas School Book Depository. Dallas nightclub owner Jack Ruby fatally shot Oswald two days later in a jail corridor, then-Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson succeeded Kennedy after he died in the hospital. The FBI and the Warren Commission officially concluded that Oswald was the lone assassin, the majority of Americans alive at the time of the assassination, and continuing through 2013, believed that there was a conspiracy and that Oswald was not the only shooter. Since the 1960s, information concerning Kennedys private life has come to light, including his health problems, Kennedy continues to rank highly in historians polls of U. S. presidents and with the general public. His average approval rating of 70% is the highest of any president in Gallups history of systematically measuring job approval and his grandfathers P. J. Kennedy and Boston Mayor John F. Fitzgerald were both Massachusetts politicians. All four of his grandparents were the children of Irish immigrants, Kennedy had an elder brother, Joseph Jr. and seven younger siblings, Rosemary, Kathleen, Eunice, Patricia, Robert, Jean, and Ted. Kennedy lived in Brookline for ten years and attended the Edward Devotion School, the Noble and Greenough Lower School, and the Dexter School through 4th grade. In 1927, the Kennedy family moved to a stately twenty-room, Georgian-style mansion at 5040 Independence Avenue in the Hudson Hill neighborhood of Riverdale, Bronx and he attended the lower campus of Riverdale Country School, a private school for boys, from 5th to 7th grade. Two years later, the moved to 294 Pondfield Road in the New York City suburb of Bronxville, New York. The Kennedy family spent summers at their home in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts, in September 1930, Kennedy—then 13 years old—attended the Canterbury School in New Milford, Connecticut. In late April 1931, he required an appendectomy, after which he withdrew from Canterbury, in September 1931, Kennedy attended Choate, a boarding school in Wallingford, Connecticut, for 9th through 12th grade
20.
Uncle Sam
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Uncle Sam represents a manifestation of patriotic emotion. The first use of Uncle Sam in formal literature was in the 1816 allegorical book The Adventures of Uncle Sam in Search After His Lost Honor by Frederick Augustus Fidfaddy, Esq. An Uncle Sam is mentioned as early as 1775, in the original Yankee Doodle lyrics of the American Revolutionary War and it is not clear whether this reference is to Uncle Sam as a metaphor for the United States, or to an actual person named Sam. The lyrics as a whole celebrate the efforts of the young nation. The 13th stanza is, The earliest known personification of the United States was Columbia, with the American Revolutionary War came Brother Jonathan as another personification, and Uncle Sam finally appeared after the War of 1812. Here of late Uncle Sam alias Brother Jonathan has been doing a lot of complaining. The term Uncle Sam is reputedly derived from Samuel Wilson, a meat packer from Troy, there was a requirement at the time for contractors to stamp their name and where the rations came from onto the food they were sending. Wilsons packages were labeled E. A – US, when someone asked what that stood for, a coworker joked and said, Elbert Anderson and Uncle Sam, referring to Sam Wilson, though it actually stood for United States. Doubts have been raised as to this being the source of the term, additionally, the earliest reference to the term that has been found is from 1810, predating Wilsons contract with the government. Similarly, the appearance of both personifications varied wildly, more than four million copies of this image were printed between 1917 and 1918. Flaggs image also was used extensively during World War II, during which the U. S. was codenamed Samland by the German intelligence agency Abwehr, the term was central in the song The Yankee Doodle Boy, which was featured in 1942 in the musical Yankee Doodle Dandy. Wilsons boyhood home can still be visited in Mason, New Hampshire and he died on July 31,1854, aged 87, and is buried in Oakwood Cemetery, Troy, New York. In 1989, Uncle Sam Day became official, a Congressional joint resolution designated September 13,1989 as Uncle Sam Day, the birthday of Samuel Wilson. In 2015, the family history company MyHeritage researched Uncle Sams family tree, Uncle Sam billboard Mouraux, Cecile, and Jean-Pierre Mouraux. Who Was Uncle Sam, Illustrated Story of the Life of Our National Symbol, the Straight Dope Civil War Harpers Weekly newspapers
21.
Magic (illusion)
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Magic is one of the oldest performing arts in the world in which audiences are entertained by staged tricks or illusions of seemingly impossible or supernatural feats using natural means. These feats are called magic tricks, effects, or illusions, the term magic etymologically derives from the Greek word mageia. In ancient times, Greeks and Persians had been at war for centuries, ritual acts of Persian priests came to be known as mageia, and then magika—which eventually came to mean any foreign, unorthodox, or illegitimate ritual practice. The first book containing explanations of magic tricks appeared in 1584, during the 17th century, many similar books were published that described magic tricks. Until the 18th century, magic shows were a source of entertainment at fairs. A founding figure of modern entertainment magic was Jean Eugène Robert-Houdin, John Henry Anderson was pioneering the same transition in London in the 1840s. Towards the end of the 19th century, large magic shows permanently staged at big theatre venues became the norm, as a form of entertainment, magic easily moved from theatrical venues to television magic specials. Performances that modern observers would recognize as conjuring have been practiced throughout history, for many recorded centuries, magicians were associated with the devil and the occult. During the 19th and 20th centuries, many stage magicians even capitalized on this notion in their advertisements. The same level of ingenuity that was used to produce famous ancient deceptions such as the Trojan Horse would also have used for entertainment. They were also used by the practitioners of various religions and cults from ancient times onwards to frighten uneducated people into obedience or turn them into adherents, however, the profession of the illusionist gained strength only in the 18th century, and has enjoyed several popular vogues since. Opinions vary among magicians on how to categorize a given effect, Magicians may pull a rabbit from an empty hat, make something seem to disappear, or transform a red silk handkerchief into a green silk handkerchief. Magicians may also destroy something, like cutting a head off, other illusions include making something appear to defy gravity, making a solid object appear to pass through another object, or appearing to predict the choice of a spectator. Many magical routines use combinations of effects, one of the earliest books on the subject is Gantzionys work of 1489, Natural and Unnatural Magic, which describes and explains old-time tricks. Among the tricks discussed were sleight-of-hand manipulations with rope, paper, at the time, fear and belief in witchcraft was widespread and the book tried to demonstrate that these fears were misplaced. All obtainable copies were burned on the accession of James I in 1603 and it began to reappear in print in 1651. In the early 18th century, as belief in witchcraft was waning, a notable figure in this transition was the English showman, Isaac Fawkes, who began to promote his act in advertisements from the 1720s – he even claimed to have performed for King George II. He throws up a Pack of Cards, and causes them to be living birds flying about the room and he causes living Beasts, Birds, and other Creatures to appear upon the Table
22.
Hat-trick (magic trick)
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The hat-trick is a classic magic trick where a performer will produce an object out of an apparently empty top hat. In its simplest form, the works by placing the hat on a specially made table or chest. Both the hat and the surface it is placed on will have an opening in them. Alternatively, the performer can produce an item hidden in their sleeve using sleight of hand and this eliminates the need to place the hat on a surface, and also allows the performer to give the hat to an audience member for inspection. This trick is also performed for children, since it is a basic trick with basic props. However, producing a rabbit from a hat using nothing but sleight of hand is a more difficult trick. It is said that the earliest magician to pull a rabbit out of a hat was Louis Comte, in 1814 and this magic trick is so well known that it has been referenced in a wide variety of media. The top hat used for the trick has become almost synonymous with stage magicians, likewise, rabbits are so commonly associated with the trick that rabbits are often used to represent magic in general
23.
Capotain
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Earlier capotains had rounded crowns, later, the crown was flat at the top. The capotain is especially associated with Puritan costume in England in the leading up to the English Civil War. It is also called a Flat Topped Hat and a Pilgrim hat. Contrary to popular myth, capotains never included buckles on the front of them, ashelford, Jane, The Art of Dress, Clothing and Society 1500–1914, Abrams,1996. ISBN 0-8109-6317-5 Arnold, Janet, Patterns of Fashion, the cut and construction of clothes for men and women 1560–1620, black, J. Anderson and Madge Garland, A History of Fashion, Morrow,1975. ISBN 0-688-02893-4 1550–1600 in fashion 1600–1650 in fashion 1650–1700 in fashion
24.
Tricorne
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The tricorne or tricorn is a style of hat that was popular during the 18th century, falling out of style by 1800, though actually not called a tricorne until the mid 1800s. During the 18th century hats of this style were referred to as cocked hats. At the peak of its popularity, the tricorne varied greatly in style and size, and was not only by the aristocracy, but also as common civilian dress. Tricornes with laced sides could have the laces loosened and the sides dropped down to better protection from the weather, sun. Tricornes had a broad brim, pinned up on either side of the head and at the back. The crown is low, unlike the steeple hats worn by the Puritans or the top hat of the 19th century, tricornes ranged from the very simple and cheap to the extravagant, occasionally incorporating gold or silver lace trimming and feathers. In addition, military and naval versions usually bore a cockade or other national emblem at the front, the tricorne appeared as a result of the evolution of the broad-brim round hat used by Spanish soldiers in Flanders during the 17th century. By pledging the brims, a shape was obtained. This shape was favored by Spanish soldiers, as standing at arms their muskets could be held at their shoulders right or left without hitting the hat brim. War broke out between France and Spain in 1667 over the Spanish Netherlands, and during the subsequent struggle its use spread to the French armies, by the end of the 17th century, the tricorne was popular in both civilian fashion and in military uniforms. They remained one of the predominant European styles of hat throughout the 18th century, in the United States, only the first five Presidents, from George Washington to James Monroe, wore this style of hat according to the fashion of the 18th century. James Monroe earned the nickname The Last Cocked Hat because of this, the tricorne quickly declined in use at the end of the 18th century. It evolved into the bicorne, which was used by military officers in Europe from the 1790s until World War I. For enlisted soldiers, the tricorne was replaced by the shako at the turn of the 19th century, as the fashionable hat for civilian men, the tricorne was overtaken by the top hat. Tricornes survive today as part of the dress of the Chelsea Pensioners. And the distinctive hat of the Spanish Guardia Civil, called a tricornio in Spanish, in the United States, the tricorne is associated with the American Revolution and American Patriots of that era, especially Minutemen. The Tea Party movement uses the tricorne as an icon to associate itself with the American Revolution, in France, synagogue officiants, wear the tricorne on formal occasions. In the French navy and air force, tricornes are still worn by women as a piece of uniform, the tricorne is a key feature in the University of Minhos academic dress, in Portugal
25.
Carle Vernet
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Carle Vernet was a French painter, the youngest child of Claude Joseph Vernet, and the father of Horace Vernet. Born in Bordeaux, Vernet was a pupil of his father, strangely, after winning the grand prix, his father had to recall him back from Rome to France to prevent him from entering a monastery. In his Triumph of Aemilius Paulus, he broke tradition and drew the horse with the forms he had learnt from nature in stables. His hunting-pieces, races, landscapes, and work as a lithographer were also very popular, carles sister was executed by the guillotine during the Revolution. After this, he gave up art, when he again began to produce under the French Directory, his style had changed radically. He started drawing in minute detail battles and campaigns to glorify Napoleon and his drawings of Napoleons Italian campaign won acclaim as did the Battle of Marengo, and for his Morning of Austerlitz Napoleon awarded him the Legion of Honour. Louis XVIII of France awarded him the Order of Saint Michael, afterwards he excelled in hunting scenes and depictions of horses. In addition to being a painter and lithographer, Carle Vernet was an avid horseman, just days before his death at the age of seventy-eight, he was seen racing as if he were a sprightly young man. Les Neuf Sœurs This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
26.
Dandy
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A dandy could be a self-made who strove to imitate an aristocratic lifestyle despite coming from a middle-class background, especially in late 18th- and early 19th-century Britain. Previous manifestations of the petit-maître and the Muscadin have been noted by John C, prevost, but the modern practice of dandyism first appeared in the revolutionary 1790s, both in London and in Paris. The dandy cultivated cynical reserve, yet to such extremes that novelist George Meredith, himself no dandy, some took a more benign view, Thomas Carlyle wrote in Sartor Resartus that a dandy was no more than a clothes-wearing man. Dandyism is a form of Romanticism, contrary to what many thoughtless people seem to believe, dandyism is not even an excessive delight in clothes and material elegance. For the perfect dandy, these things are no more than the symbol of the superiority of mind. The linkage of clothing with political protest had become a particularly English characteristic during the 18th century, nigel Rodgers in The Dandy, Peacock or Enigma. Questions Wildes status as a dandy, seeing him as someone who only assumed a dandified stance in passing. The origin of the word is uncertain, a slightly later Scottish border ballad, circa 1780, also features the word, but probably without all the contextual aspects of its more recent meaning. The original, full form of dandy may have been jack-a-dandy and it was a vogue word during the Napoleonic Wars. In that contemporary slang, a dandy was differentiated from a fop in that the dress was more refined. The model dandy in British society was George Bryan Beau Brummell, in his days, an undergraduate student at Oriel College, Oxford and later. Brummell was not from a background, indeed, his greatness was based on nothing at all. From the mid-1790s, Beau Brummell was the incarnation of the celebrity. In 1799, upon coming of age, Beau Brummell inherited from his father a fortune of thirty pounds, which he spent mostly on costume, gambling. In 1816 he suffered bankruptcy, the dandys stereotyped fate, he fled his creditors to France, quietly dying in 1840, in an asylum in Caen. In that spirit, he had his portrait painted in Albanian costume, another prominent dandy of the period was Alfred Guillaume Gabriel dOrsay, the Count dOrsay, who had been friends with Byron and who moved in the highest social circles of London. In 1836 Thomas Carlyle wrote, A Dandy is a clothes-wearing Man, a Man whose trade, office and existence consists in the wearing of Clothes. Every faculty of his soul, spirit, purse, and person is heroically consecrated to one object
27.
Incroyables and Merveilleuses
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The Incroyables and their female counterparts, the Merveilleuses, were members of a fashionable aristocratic subculture in Paris during the French Directory. Whether as catharsis or in a need to reconnect with other survivors of the Reign of Terror, they greeted the new regime with an outbreak of luxury, decadence, and even silliness. They held hundreds of balls and started fashion trends in clothing and mannerisms that today seem exaggerated, affected, some devotees of the trend preferred to be called incoyable or meveilleuse, thus avoiding the letter R, as in révolution. When this period ended, society took a sober and modest turn. Members of the classes were also among the movements leading figures, and the group heavily influenced the politics, clothing. There were masters and servants once more in Paris, and the city erupted in a furor of pleasure-seeking, theaters thrived, and popular music satirized the excesses of the Revolution. One popular song of the period called on the French people to share my horror and its lyrics rejoiced that your tormentors finally grow pale at the tardy dawn of vengeance. A ball held at the Hôtel Thellusson on the rue de Provence in the 9th arrondissement of Paris restricted its guest list to the children of the guillotined. The Merveilleuses scandalized Paris with dresses and tunics modeled after the ancient Greeks and Romans, cut of light or even transparent linen, sometimes so revealing they were termed woven air, many gowns displayed cleavage and were too tight to allow pockets. To carry even a handkerchief, the ladies had to use small bags known as reticules and they were fond of wigs, often choosing blonde because the Paris Commune had banned blonde wigs, but they also wore them in black, blue, and green. Enormous hats, short curls like those on Roman busts, the sandals tied above the ankle with crossed ribbons or strings of pearls. Exotic and expensive scents fabricated by perfume houses like Parfums Lubin were worn as both for style and as indicators of social station, thérésa Tallien, known as Our Lady of Thermidor, wore expensive rings on the toes of her bare feet and gold circlets on her legs. The Incroyables wore eccentric outfits, large earrings, green jackets, wide trousers, huge neckties, thick glasses and their musk-based fragrances earned them too the derogatory nickname muscadins among the lower classes, already applied to a wide group of anti-jacobins. They wore bicorne hats and carried bludgeons, which referred to as their executive power. Hair was often shoulder-length, sometimes pulled up in the back with a comb to imitate the hairstyles of the condemned, some sported large monocles, and they frequently affected a lisp and sometimes a stooped hunchbacked posture. Hortense, a daughter of the Empress Josephine, married Louis Bonaparte, fortunée was not born rich, but she became famous for her salons and her string of prominent lovers. The leading Incroyable, Paul François Jean Nicolas, vicomte de Barras, was one of five directors who ran the Republic of France and he hosted luxurious feasts attended by royalists, repentant Jacobins, ladies, and courtesans. Since divorce was now legal, sexuality was looser than in the past, however, de Barras reputation for immorality may have been a factor in his later overthrow, a coup that brought the French Consulate to power and paved the way for Napoleon Bonaparte
28.
Felt
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Felt is a textile material that is produced by matting, condensing and pressing fibers together. Felt can be made of fibers such as wool, or from synthetic fibers such as petroleum-based acrylic or acrylonitrile or wood pulp-based rayon. Felt from wool is considered to be the oldest known textile, many cultures have legends as to the origins of felt making. Sumerian legend claims that the secret of feltmaking was discovered by Urnamman of Lagash, the story of Saint Clement and Saint Christopher relates that while fleeing from persecution, the men packed their sandals with wool to prevent blisters. At the end of their journey, the movement and sweat had turned the wool into felt socks, feltmaking is still practised by nomadic peoples in Central Asia, where rugs, tents and clothing are regularly made. Some of these are items, such as the classic yurt, while others are designed for the tourist market. Wrapping the properly arranged fiber in a sturdy, textured material, such as a mat or burlap. The felted material may be finished by fulling, only certain types of fiber can be wet felted successfully. Most types of fleece, such as those taken from the alpaca or the Merino sheep, one may also use mohair, angora, or hair from rodents such as beavers and muskrats. These types of fiber are covered in scales, similar to the scales found on a strand of human hair. Heat, motion, and moisture of the causes the scales to open, while agitating them causes them to latch onto each other. There is a theory that the fibers wind around each other during felting. Plant fibers and synthetic fibers will not wet felt, needle felting is a method of creating felted objects without using water. The special needles used to make 3D sculpture, jewelry, adornments and 2D art have notches along the shaft of the needle that catch fibers and tangle them with other fibers to produce felt. These notches are sometimes erroneously called barbs, but barbs are protrusion, there are many sizes and types of notched needles for different uses while working. Needle felting is used in processes as well as in individual crafting. Invented in the mid 17th century and used until the mid-20th centuries, beaver, rabbit or hare skins were treated with a dilute solution of the mercury compound mercuric nitrate. The skins were dried in an oven where the fur at the sides turned orange
29.
Beaver hat
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A beaver hat is a hat made from felted beaver fur. They were fashionable across much of Europe during the period 1550–1850 because the soft yet resilient material could be easily combed to make a variety of hat shapes, smaller hats made of beaver were sometimes called beaverkins, as in Thomas Carlyles description of his wife as a child. Used winter coats worn by Native Americans were actually a prized commodity for hat making because their wear helped prepare the skins, to make felt, the underhairs were shaved from the beaver pelt and mixed with a vibrating hatters bow. The matted fabric was pummeled and boiled repeatedly, resulting in a shrunken, filled over a hat-form block, the felt was pressed and steamed into shape. The hat maker then brushed the outside surface to a sheen, beaver hats were made in various styles as a matter of civil status, the Wellington, the Paris beau, the DOrsay, the Regent and the clerical. In addition, beaver hats were made in styles as a matter of military status, the continental cocked hat, Navy cocked hat. The popularity of the hat declined in the early/mid-19th century as silk hats became more fashionable
30.
Abraham Lincoln
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Abraham Lincoln was an American politician and lawyer who served as the 16th President of the United States from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. Lincoln led the United States through its Civil War—its bloodiest war and perhaps its greatest moral, constitutional, in doing so, he preserved the Union, abolished slavery, strengthened the federal government, and modernized the economy. Born in Hodgenville, Kentucky, Lincoln grew up on the frontier in Kentucky. Largely self-educated, he became a lawyer in Illinois, a Whig Party leader, elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1846, Lincoln promoted rapid modernization of the economy through banks, tariffs, and railroads. Reentering politics in 1854, he became a leader in building the new Republican Party, in 1860, Lincoln secured the Republican Party presidential nomination as a moderate from a swing state. Though he gained little support in the slaveholding states of the South. Subsequently, on April 12,1861, a Confederate attack on Fort Sumter inspired the North to enthusiastically rally behind the Union. Politically, Lincoln fought back by pitting his opponents against each other, by carefully planned political patronage and his Gettysburg Address became an iconic endorsement of the principles of nationalism, republicanism, equal rights, liberty, and democracy. Lincoln initially concentrated on the military and political dimensions of the war and his primary goal was to reunite the nation. He suspended habeas corpus, leading to the ex parte Merryman decision. Lincoln closely supervised the war effort, especially the selection of top generals, including his most successful general, Lincoln tried repeatedly to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond, each time a general failed, Lincoln substituted another, until finally Grant succeeded. As the war progressed, his moves toward ending slavery included the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863. On April 14,1865, five days after the surrender of Confederate commanding general Robert E. Lee, Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, a Confederate sympathizer. Secretary of War Edwin Stanton launched a manhunt for Booth, and 12 days later on April 26, Lincoln has been consistently ranked both by scholars and the public as among the greatest U. S. presidents. Abraham Lincoln was born February 12,1809, the child of Thomas and Nancy Hanks Lincoln, in a one-room log cabin on the Sinking Spring Farm near Hodgenville. He was a descendant of Samuel Lincoln, an Englishman who migrated from Hingham, Norfolk to its namesake of Hingham, samuels grandson and great-grandson began the familys western migration, which passed through New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. Lincolns paternal grandfather and namesake, Captain Abraham Lincoln, moved the family from Virginia to Jefferson County, Captain Lincoln was killed in an Indian raid in 1786. His children, including eight-year-old Thomas, the presidents father
31.
National Museum of American History
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Among the items on display is the original Star-Spangled Banner. The museum is part of the Smithsonian Institution and located on the National Mall at 14th Street and Constitution Avenue NW in Washington, the museum opened in 1964 as the Museum of History and Technology. It was one of the last structures designed by the architectural firm McKim Mead & White. In May 2012, John Gray was announced as the new director, the museum underwent an $85 million renovation from September 5,2006 to November 21,2008, during which time it was closed. Skidmore, Owings and Merrill provided the architecture and interior design services for the renovation, major changes made during the renovation include, A new, five-story sky-lit atrium, which is surrounded by displays of artifacts that showcase the breadth of the museums collection. A new, grand staircase that links the museums first and second floors, a new welcome center, and the addition of six landmark objects to orient visitors. New galleries, such as the Jerome and Dorothy Lemelson Hall of Invention, an environmentally controlled chamber to protect the original Star-Spangled Banner. In 2012, the museum began a $37 million renovation of the west wing to add new spaces, public plazas. The renovation will also include panoramic windows overlooking the National Mall on all three floors and new features to the exhibits. The first floor of the west wing reopened on July 1,2015 with the second and third floors of the west wing reopening in 2016 and 2017, each wing of the museums three exhibition floors is anchored by a landmark object to highlight the theme of that wing. These include the John Bull locomotive, the Greensboro, North Carolina lunch counter, landmarks from pre-existing exhibits include the 1865 Vassar Telescope, a George Washington Statue, a Red Cross ambulance, and a car from Disneylands Dumbo Flying Elephant ride. Artifact walls,275 feet of glass-fronted cases, line the first, the lower level of the museum displays Taking America to Lunch, which celebrates the history of American lunch boxes. The museums food court, the Stars and Stripes Café, the first floors East Wing has exhibits that feature transportation and technology, they include America on the Move and Lighting a Revolution. The John Bull locomotive is the signature artifact, the exhibits in the West Wing address science and innovation. They include Science in American Life featuring Robots on the Road, spark. Lab is a hands-on exhibit of the Lemelson Center for the Study of Invention and Innovation. The Vassar Telescope is the signature artifact, a café and the main museum store are also located on the first floor. The first floor contains the Constitution Avenue lobby, as well as a space for a temporary exhibit. The exhibitions in 2 East, the east wing of the floor, consider American ideals
32.
Isambard Kingdom Brunel
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Brunel built dockyards, the Great Western Railway, a series of steamships including the first propeller-driven transatlantic steamship, and numerous important bridges and tunnels. His designs revolutionised public transport and modern engineering, though Brunels projects were not always successful, they often contained innovative solutions to long-standing engineering problems. Brunel set the standard for a railway, using careful surveys to minimise grades and curves. This necessitated expensive construction techniques, new bridges, new viaducts, one controversial feature was the wide gauge, a broad gauge of 7 ft 1⁄4 in, instead of what was later to be known as standard gauge of 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in. Brunel astonished Britain by proposing to extend the Great Western Railway westward to North America by building steam-powered iron-hulled ships and he designed and built three ships that revolutionised naval engineering, the Great Western, the Great Britain, and the Great Eastern. In 2002, Brunel was placed second in a BBC public poll to determine the 100 Greatest Britons, in 2006, the bicentenary of his birth, a major programme of events celebrated his life and work under the name Brunel 200. Brunels name is an amalgamation of his parents names and he inherited the family name of his father, and his middle name is his mothers surname. Brunels first name, Isambard, comes from his fathers middle name, Isambard is a Norman name of Germanic origin, meaning iron-bright. A cognate name is the German surname Eisenbarth, which can still be found today among Bavarians and German-Americans and he had two older sisters, Sophia and Emma, and the whole family moved to London in 1808 for his fathers work. Brunel had a childhood, despite the familys constant money worries. His father taught him drawing and observational techniques from the age of four, during this time he also learned fluent French and the basic principles of engineering. He was encouraged to draw interesting buildings and identify any faults in their structure, when Brunel was eight he was sent to Dr Morrells boarding school in Hove, where he learned the classics. When Brunel was 15, his father Marc, who had accumulated debts of over £5,000, was sent to a debtors prison. After three months went by with no prospect of release, Marc let it be known that he was considering an offer from the Tsar of Russia. In August 1821, facing the prospect of losing a prominent engineer, Brunel subsequently studied under the prominent master clockmaker and horologist Abraham-Louis Breguet, who praised Brunels potential in letters to his father. In late 1822, having completed his apprenticeship, Brunel returned to England, Brunels father, Marc, was the chief engineer, and the project was funded by the Thames Tunnel Company. The composition of the riverbed at Rotherhithe was often more than waterlogged sediment. The latter incident, in 1828, killed the two most senior miners, and Brunel himself narrowly escaped death and he was seriously injured, and spent six months recuperating
33.
William Harrison (merchant navy officer)
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William Harrison was a British merchant navy officer. He was the son of a master in the merchant navy, Harrison was bound an apprentice to Mr. Porter, a shipowner of Liverpool, and went to sea in October 1825. On the expiration of his articles he obtained the command of a vessel, and served in the East and West Indies, and on the coast of South America. In the course of the disagreements among the rival powers on the American coast, he was more than once in action. In 1834 he transferred his services to Barton, Erlam, & Higgonson, from 1842 to 31 December 1855 he was connected with the Cunard Line of packets trading between Liverpool and America. During that period he crossed the Atlantic upwards of one hundred and eighty times, in the following years he was appointed to superintend the arrangements for internal accommodation and navigation. The ship being at last completed after delay, and renamed the SS Great Eastern, was sent on a trial trip from Deptford to Portland Roads. Off Hastings on 9 September 1859, an explosion of steam killed ten of the firemen. Harrison showed prompt courage and resource, and brought the vessel into Portland, the Great Eastern was then put into winter quarters near Hurst Castle. He was buried in St. Jamess cemetery, Liverpool on 27 January, some time previously he had become surety for a friend, by whose sudden death all his savings were lost. A sum of money was raised for the benefit of his aged mother, wife. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Harrison
34.
John Scott Russell
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John Scott Russell FRSE FRS was a Scottish civil engineer, naval architect and shipbuilder who built the Great Eastern in collaboration with Isambard Kingdom Brunel. He made the discovery of the wave of translation that gave birth to the study of solitons. Russell was a promoter of the Great Exhibition of 1851, John Russell was born on 9 May 1808 in Parkhead, Glasgow, the son of Reverend David Russell and Agnes Clark Scott. He spent one year at St. Andrews University before transferring to Glasgow University and it was while at Glasgow University that he added his mothers maiden name, Scott, to his own, to become John Scott Russell. Arthur Sullivan and his friend Frederic Clay were frequent visitors at the Scott Russell home in the mid-1860s, Clay became engaged to Alice, at some point in 1868, Sullivan started a simultaneous affair with Louise. Both relationships had ceased by early 1869, the American engineer Alexander Lyman Holley befriended Scott Russell and his family on his various visits to London at the time of the construction of Great Eastern. Holley also visited Scott Russells house in Sydenham, as a result of this, Holley, and his colleague Zerah Colburn, travelled on the maiden voyage of Great Eastern from Southampton to New York in June 1860. Scott Russells son, Norman, stayed with Holley at his house in Brooklyn — Norman also travelled on the maiden voyage and his son, Norman, followed his father in becoming a naval architect, contributing to the Institution of Naval Architects which his father had founded. While in Edinburgh he experimented with engines, using a square boiler for which he developed a method of staying the surface of the boiler which became universal. The Scottish Steam Carriage Company was formed producing a steam carriage with two cylinders developing 12 horsepower each, six were constructed in 1834, well-sprung and fitted out to high standard, which ran between Glasgow and Paisley at hourly intervals at 15 mph. The road trustees objected that it wore out the road and placed various obstructions of logs and stones in the road, but eventually one of the carriages was overturned and the boiler smashed, causing the death of several passengers. Two of the coaches were sent to London where they ran for a time between London and Greenwich. In 1834, while conducting experiments to determine the most efficient design for canal boats, in fluid dynamics the wave is now called Russells solitary wave. Its height gradually diminished, and after a chase of one or two miles I lost it in the windings of the channel. Such, in the month of August 1834, was my first chance interview with that singular, Scott Russell spent some time making practical and theoretical investigations of these waves. Unlike normal waves they will never merge—so a small wave is overtaken by a large one, if a wave is too big for the depth of water, it splits into two, one big and one small. Scott Russells experimental work seemed at contrast with Isaac Newtons and Daniel Bernoullis theories of hydrodynamics and his contemporaries spent some time attempting to extend the theory but it would take until the 1870s before an explanation was provided. Lord Rayleigh published a paper in Philosophical Magazine in 1876 to support John Scott Russells experimental observation with his mathematical theory, in his 1876 paper, Lord Rayleigh mentioned Scott Russells name and also admitted that the first theoretical treatment was by Joseph Valentin Boussinesq in 1871
35.
SS Great Eastern
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SS Great Eastern was an iron sailing steam ship designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel, and built by J. Scott Russell & Co. at Millwall on the River Thames, London. She was by far the largest ship built at the time of her 1858 launch. Her length of 692 feet was only surpassed in 1899 by the 705-foot 17, 274-gross-ton RMS Oceanic, the ships five funnels were rare. This was later reduced to four, Brunel knew her affectionately as the Great Babe. He died in 1859 shortly after her maiden voyage, during which she was damaged by an explosion. Finishing her life as a music hall and advertising hoarding in Liverpool. On 25 March 1852, Brunel made a sketch of a steamship in his diary and wrote beneath it, using paddle wheels meant that the ship would be able to reach Calcutta, where the Hooghly River was too shallow for screws. Brunel showed his idea to John Scott Russell, a naval architect. Scott Russell examined Brunels plan and made his own calculations as to the ships feasibility and he calculated that it would have a displacement of 20,000 tons and would require 8,500 horsepower to achieve 14 knots, but believed it was possible. At Scott Russells suggestion, they approached the directors of the Eastern Steam Navigation Company, the Eastern Company was formed in January 1851 with the plan of exploiting the increase in trade and emigration to India, China and Australia. However, in March 1852 the Government awarded the contracts to the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company and this left them in the position of having a company without a purpose. He was unable to due to illness and Scott Russell took his place. The Company then set up a committee to investigate the proposal, and they reported in favour, Brunel was appointed Engineer to the project and he began to gather tenders to build the hull, paddle engines and screw engines. If any doubt ever arises on these points I must cease to be responsible, Scott Russell even offered to reduce the tender to £258,000 if an order for a sister ship was placed at the same time. In the spring of 1854 work could at last begin, the first problem to arise was where the ship was to be built. Eventually it was decided to build the ship sideways to the river, later the mechanical design was dropped on the grounds of cost, although the sideways plan remained. Having decided on a launch, a suitable site had to be found, as Scott Russells Millwall, London. The adjacent yard belonging to David Napier was empty, available and suitable, so it was leased, the site of the launch is still visible on the Isle of Dogs
36.
Battle of Antietam
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After pursuing the Confederate general Robert E. Lee into Maryland, Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan of the Union Army launched attacks against Lees army, in defensive positions behind Antietam Creek. At dawn on September 17, Maj. Gen. Joseph Hookers corps mounted an assault on Lees left flank. Attacks and counterattacks swept across Millers Cornfield, and fighting swirled around the Dunker Church, Union assaults against the Sunken Road eventually pierced the Confederate center, but the Federal advantage was not followed up. In the afternoon, Union Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnsides corps entered the action, capturing a bridge over Antietam Creek. At a crucial moment, Confederate Maj. Gen. A. P. Hills division arrived from Harpers Ferry and launched a counterattack, driving back Burnside. Although outnumbered two-to-one, Lee committed his entire force, while McClellan sent in less than three-quarters of his army, during the night, both armies consolidated their lines. In spite of crippling casualties, Lee continued to skirmish with McClellan throughout September 18, despite having superiority of numbers, McClellans attacks failed to achieve force concentration, which allowed Lee to counter by shifting forces and moving interior lines to meet each challenge. Therefore, despite ample reserve forces that could have been deployed to exploit localized successes, McClellan had halted Lees invasion of Maryland, but Lee was able to withdraw his army back to Virginia without interference from the cautious McClellan. McClellans refusal to pursue Lees army led to his removal from command by President Abraham Lincoln in November, although the battle was tactically inconclusive, the Confederate troops had withdrawn first from the battlefield, making it, in military terms, a Union victory. Robert E. Lees Army of Northern Virginia—about 55,000 men—entered the state of Maryland on September 3,1862, emboldened by success, the Confederate leadership intended to take the war into enemy territory. Lees invasion of Maryland was intended to run simultaneously with an invasion of Kentucky by the armies of Braxton Bragg and it was also necessary for logistical reasons, as northern Virginias farms had been stripped bare of food. They sang the tune Maryland, My Maryland, as they marched, but by the fall of 1862 pro-Union sentiment was winning out, especially in the western parts of the state. Civilians generally hid inside their houses as Lees army passed through their towns, or watched in cold silence, while the Army of the Potomac was cheered and encouraged. While McClellans 87, 000-man Army of the Potomac was moving to intercept Lee, the order indicated that Lee had divided his army and dispersed portions geographically, thus making each subject to isolation and defeat if McClellan could move quickly enough. McClellan waited about 18 hours before deciding to take advantage of this intelligence and reposition his forces, McClellans Army of the Potomac, bolstered by units absorbed from John Popes Army of Virginia, included six infantry corps. The I Corps, under Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker, consisted of the divisions of, the II Corps, under Maj. Gen. Edwin V. Sumner, consisted of the divisions of, Maj. Gen. Israel B. The V Corps, under Maj. Gen. Fitz John Porter, consisted of the divisions of, the VI Corps, under Maj. Gen. William B. Franklin, consisted of the divisions of, Maj. Gen. Henry W. Slocum, Maj. Gen. William F. Baldy Smith
37.
Albert, Prince Consort
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Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha was the husband of Queen Victoria. He was born in the Saxon duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld to a family connected to many of Europes ruling monarchs, at the age of 20, he married his first cousin, Queen Victoria, they had nine children. He was heavily involved with the organisation of the Great Exhibition of 1851, the Queen came to depend more and more on his support and guidance. Albert died at the young age of 42, plunging the Queen into deep mourning for the rest of her life. Upon Queen Victorias death in 1901, their eldest son succeeded as Edward VII, Albert was born at Schloss Rosenau, near Coburg, Germany, the second son of Ernest III, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, and his first wife, Louise of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg. Alberts future wife, Victoria, was earlier in the same year with the assistance of the same midwife. Albert was baptised into the Lutheran Evangelical Church on 19 September 1819 in the Marble Hall at Schloss Rosenau with water taken from the local river, in 1825, Alberts great-uncle, Frederick IV, Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg, died. His death led to a realignment of Saxon duchies the following year and Alberts father became the first reigning duke of Saxe-Coburg, Albert and his elder brother, Ernest, spent their youth in a close companionship marred by their parents turbulent marriage and eventual separation and divorce. After their mother was exiled from court in 1824, she married her lover, Alexander von Hanstein, Count of Polzig and she presumably never saw her children again, and died of cancer at the age of 30 in 1831. The brothers were educated privately at home by Christoph Florschütz and later studied in Brussels, like many other German princes, Albert attended the University of Bonn, where he studied law, political economics, philosophy and the history of art. He played music and excelled at sport, especially fencing and riding and his tutors at Bonn included the philosopher Fichte and the poet Schlegel. By 1836, the idea of marriage between Albert and his cousin, Victoria, had arisen in the mind of their ambitious uncle Leopold, at this time, Victoria was the heiress presumptive to the British throne. Her father, Edward Augustus, Duke of Kent, the son of King George III, had died when she was a baby. Her mother the Duchess of Kent, was the sister of both Alberts father—the Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha—and King Leopold. Leopold arranged for his sister, Victorias mother, to invite the Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, William IV, however, disapproved of any match with the Coburgs, and instead favoured the suit of Prince Alexander, second son of the Prince of Orange. Victoria was well aware of the matrimonial plans and critically appraised a parade of eligible princes. Alexander, on the hand, she described as very plain. Victoria wrote to her uncle Leopold to thank him for the prospect of great happiness you have contributed to give me and he possesses every quality that could be desired to render me perfectly happy
38.
Beaver
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The beaver is a large, primarily nocturnal, semiaquatic rodent. Castor includes two extant species, the North American beaver and Eurasian beaver, Beavers are known for building dams, canals, and lodges. They are the second-largest rodent in the world and their colonies create one or more dams to provide still, deep water to protect against predators, and to float food and building material. The North American beaver population was more than 60 million. Beavers, along with pocket gophers and kangaroo rats, are castorimorph rodents, Beavers are known for their natural trait of building dams on rivers and streams, and building their homes in the resulting pond. Beavers also build canals to float building materials that are difficult to haul over land and they use powerful front teeth to cut trees and other plants that they use both for building and for food. In the absence of existing ponds, beavers must construct dams before building their lodges, first they place vertical poles, then fill between the poles with a crisscross of horizontally placed branches. They fill in the gaps between the branches with a combination of weeds and mud until the dam impounds sufficient water to surround the lodge and this serves as a warning to beavers in the area. Once a beaver has sounded the alarm, nearby beavers will dive, Beavers are slow on land, but are good swimmers, and can stay under water for as long as 15 minutes. Beavers are herbivores, and prefer the wood of quaking aspen, cottonwood, willow, alder, birch, maple and they also eat sedges, pondweed, and water lilies. Beavers do not hibernate, but store sticks and logs in a pile in their ponds, some of the pile is generally above water and accumulates snow in the winter. This insulation of snow often keeps the water freezing in and around the food pile. Beavers have webbed hind-feet, and a broad, scaly tail and they have poor eyesight, but keen senses of hearing, smell, and touch. A beavers teeth grow continuously so that they not be worn down by chewing on wood. Their four incisors are composed of hard orange enamel on the front, the chisel-like ends of incisors are maintained by their self-sharpening wear pattern. The enamel in a beavers incisors contains iron and is resistant to acid than enamel in the teeth of other mammals. Beavers continue to grow throughout their lives, adult specimens weighing over 25 kg are not uncommon. Females are as large as or larger than males of the same age, Beavers live up to 24 years of age in the wild
39.
James Laver
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James Laver, CBE, FRSA was an English author, critic, art historian, and museum curator who acted as Keeper of Prints, Drawings and Paintings for the Victoria and Albert Museum between 1938 and 1959. He was also an important and pioneering fashion historian described as the man in England who made the study of costume respectable and his academic progress was put on hold by the First World War, in which he served as a second lieutenant. In 1919 he resumed his residency at New College, Oxford, the next year, he earned a B. Litt in theology for a thesis on John Wesley. His college fees and travel expenses were subsidised by a shipping magnate. At Oxford, he contributed to the student magazine Isis and won the 1921 Newdigate Prize for his poem on Cervantes, in 1922, Laver entered the Department of Engraving, Illustration, Design and Painting at the Victoria & Albert Museum. He arrived shortly before the International Theatre Exhibition was transferred to the V&A from Amsterdam and was shown as part of his department. It showcased work by all the leading European designers of the time, and the Museum purchased several designs and models, Laver was put in charge of this collection. Stage design became one of his passions, possibly in reaction against his upbringing, in 1938 he succeeded Martin Hardie as Keeper of the department, a post he held until his retirement in 1958. Despite his significant contributions to object-centred dress history, he was never Keeper of Textiles for the Museum, Laver is perhaps best remembered for his contributions to the field of fashion history, an interest in which emerged through a desire to date images accurately through the clothing depicted within. Laver defined the relationships between design and other applied arts, and discussed the influence of economic and social factors upon the development of fashionable taste. In 1962, Laver received a Neiman Marcus Fashion Award in recognition of his work in the field of fashion history, in 1937 Laver, with Pearl Binder, co-presented the first television programme to be dedicated to fashion history. Clothes-Line, a series, was so successful that in 1938, Laver and Binder reunited to present a revised re-tread of the programme. Laver followed the theories of Thorstein Veblen and John Flügel, using them to develop his favourite theories and these were, Hierarchical Principle = dressing to indicate ones position in society Utility Principle = dressing for warmth and comfort Seduction Principle = dressing to attract the opposite sex. Lavers Law was an attempt to compress the complex cycle of fashion change, one of the plays he translated was Klabunds The Circle of Chalk from the original German. A sequel in 1929 followed, Loves Progress, the two poems being published together as Ladies Mistakes in 1933. In 1932 he published a novel, Nymph Errant, about a returning to her finishing school. It was an instant best-seller and in 1933, Charles B, cochran turned it into a musical featuring songs by Cole Porter and Gertrude Lawrence as the leading lady. Laver felt as if he was leading a double life, Laver continued to write fiction and work for the theatre and film on a less ambitious scale, but did not attempt becoming a full-time writer
40.
Beau Brummell
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George Bryan Beau Brummell was an iconic figure in Regency England, the arbiter of mens fashion, and a friend of the Prince Regent, the future King George IV. He established the mode of dress for men that rejected overly ornate fashions for one of understated and this look was based on dark coats, full-length trousers rather than knee breeches and stockings, and above all immaculate shirt linen and an elaborately knotted cravat. Beau Brummell is credited with introducing, and establishing as fashion and he claimed he took five hours a day to dress, and recommended that boots be polished with champagne. The style of dress was referred to as dandyism, Brummell was born in London, the younger son of William Brummell, a politician, of Donnington Grove in Berkshire. The family was middle class, but the elder Brummell was ambitious for his son to become a gentleman, and young George was raised with that understanding. Brummell was educated at Eton and made his precocious mark on fashion when he not only modernised the white stock, or cravat, that was the mark of the Eton boy, but added a gold buckle to it. He progressed to Oxford University, where, by his own example, he made cotton stockings and dingy cravats a thing of the past. While an undergraduate at Oriel College in 1793, he competed for the Chancellors Prize for Latin Verse, coming second to Edward Copleston and he left the university after only a year at the age of sixteen. In June 1794 Brummell joined the illustrious Tenth Royal Hussars as a cornet, the lowest rank of commissioned officer and his father died in 1795, by which time George had been promoted to lieutenant. His father had left an inheritance of £65,000, of which Brummell was entitled to a third, ordinarily a considerable sum, it was inadequate for the expenses of an aspiring officer in the personal regiment of the Prince of Wales. The officers, many of whom were heirs to noble titles and lands, for such a junior officer, Brummell took the regiment by storm, fascinating the prince, the first gentleman of England, by the force of his personality. He was allowed to parade, shirk his duties and, in essence. Within three years, by 1796, he was made a captain, to the envy and disgust of older officers who felt that our general’s friend was now the general. When his regiment was sent from London to Manchester he immediately resigned his commission, citing the poor reputation, undistinguished ambience and want of culture. Although he was now a civilian, Brummells friendship with, and influence over and his simple yet elegant and understated manner of dress, coupled with his natural wit, gained him entry to the Princes society. Brummell took a house on Chesterfield Street in Mayfair and for a managed to avoid the nightly gaming. That amount is approximately £103,000 in 2012 currency, the wage for a craftsman at that time was £52 a year. Brummell put into practice the principles of harmony of shape and contrast of colours with such a result that men of superior rank sought his opinion on their dress
41.
John Leech (caricaturist)
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John Leech was an English caricaturist and illustrator. He is best known for his work for Punch, a magazine for a broad middle-class audience, combining verbal. Leech catered to contemporary prejudices, such as anti-Americanism and anti-Semitism, Leechs critical yet humorous cartoons on the Crimean War help shape public attitudes toward heroism, warfare, and Britons role in the world. John Leech was born in London and his mother was descended from the family of Richard Bentley. It was from his father that Leech inherited his skill with the pencil, when he was only three, he was discovered by John Flaxman, who was visiting, seated on his mothers knee, drawing with much gravity. The sculptor admired his sketch, adding, Do not let him be cramped with lessons in drawing, let his genius follow its own bent, a mail-coach, done when he was six years old, is already full of surprising vigour and variety in its galloping horses. His nickname also being Blicky stuck with him during his life and he was eighteen when his first designs were published, a quarto of four pages, entitled Etchings and Sketchings by A. Pen, Esq. comic character studies from the London streets. In company with the elder master Leech designed for the Ingoldsby Legends and Stanley Thorn, then in the 1850s come the numerous etchings of sporting scenes, contributed, together with woodcuts, to the Handley Cross novels by Robert Smith Surtees. Amid all the squalor which they depict, they are full of beauties in the delicate or touching expression of a face. It was in work for the wood-engravers that Leech was most prolific and it was in 1841 that Leechs connection with Punch began, a connexion which subsisted until his death, and resulted in the production of the best-known and most admirable of his designs. His first contribution appeared in the issue of 7 August, a full-page illustration—entitled Foreign Affairs of character studies from the neighbourhood of Leicester Square, in 1862 Leech appealed to the public with a very successful exhibition of some of the most remarkable of his Punch drawings. These were enlarged by a process, and coloured in oils by the artist himself, with the assistance. Millais had earlier painted a portrait of a child reading Leechs comic book Mr Briggs Sporting Tour, Leech was a rapid and indefatigable worker. Dean Hole claims to have observed the artist produce three finished drawings on the wood, designed, traced, and rectified, without effort as it seemed. Turning to the qualities of his art, it would be a mistaken criticism which ranked him as a comic draughtsman. The purity and manliness of Leechs own character are impressed on his art and we find in it little of the exaggeration and grotesqueness, and none of the fierce political enthusiasm, of which the designs of James Gillray are so full. Compared with that of his contemporary, George Cruikshank, his work is restricted both in compass of subject and in artistic dexterity. Biographies of Leech have been written by John Brown Frederick G. Kitton, John Leech, artist and humorist, Leech, John, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, online edn,2014 accessed 13 June 2015 Houfe, Simon
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Anachronism
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An anachronism is a chronological inconsistency in some arrangement, especially a juxtaposition of person, events, objects, or customs from different periods of time. An anachronism may be intentional or unintentional. Intentional anachronisms may be introduced into a literary or artistic work to help a contemporary audience engage more readily with a historical period, Anachronism can also be used for purposes of rhetoric, comedy, or shock. Unintentional anachronisms may occur when a writer, artist, or performer is unaware of differences in technology, language, customs, attitudes, a parachronism is anything that appears in a time period in which it is not normally found. They may be objects or ideas which were common, but are now considered rare or inappropriate. They can take the form of technology or outdated fashion. Examples of parachronisms could include a suburban housewife in the United States around 1960 using a washboard for laundry, often, parachronism is identified when a work based on a particular eras state of knowledge is read within the context of a later era—with a different state of knowledge. Parachronism differs from prochronism, in which the object or idea has not yet been invented when the situation takes place, a prochronism occurs when an item appears in a temporal context in which it could not yet be present. The intentional use of older, often obsolete cultural artifacts may be regarded as anachronistic, for example, it could be considered anachronistic for a modern-day person to wear a top hat, write with a quill, or carry on a conversation in Latin. Such choices may reflect an eccentricity, or an aesthetic preference, some writings and works of art promoting a political, nationalist or revolutionary cause use anachronism to depict an institution or custom as being more ancient than it actually is. These flags date only from the 1830s, here anachronism promotes legitimacy for the unification of Moldavia and Wallachia into the Kingdom of Romania at the time the painting was made. Anachronism is used especially in works of imagination that rest on a historical basis and they vary from glaring inconsistencies to scarcely perceptible misrepresentation. It is only since the close of the 18th century that this kind of deviation from historical reality has jarred on a general audience. Nothing becomes obsolete like a vision of an older period, writes Anthony Grafton. Come in and practice your piano now and we are jerked from our suspension of disbelief by what was intended as a means of reinforcing it, and plunged directly into the American bourgeois world of the filmmaker. Anachronism can also be an aesthetic choice, anachronisms abound in the works of Raphael and Shakespeare, as well as in those of less celebrated painters and playwrights of earlier times. Anachronisms can exist in ancient texts, carol Meyers says that these anachronisms can be used to better understand the stories by asking what the anachronism represents. Repeated anachronisms and historical errors can become an part of popular culture
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Tiberius Gracchus
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Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus was a Roman Popularis politician of the 2nd century BC, together with Gaius Gracchus, one of the Gracchi brothers. As a plebeian tribune, he caused turmoil in the Republic with his reforms of agrarian legislation that sought to transfer wealth from the wealthy, patricians and otherwise. These reforms threatened the holdings of rich landowners in Italy and he was murdered, along with many of his supporters, by members of the Roman Senate and supporters of the conservative Optimate faction. Tiberius was born between 168 and 163 BC, he was the son of Tiberius Gracchus the Elder and Cornelia Africana and his family, the Gracchi branch of the gens Sempronia, was one of the most politically connected in Rome. Tiberius was raised by his mother, with his sister and his brother Gaius Gracchus, later he married Claudia Pulchra, daughter of Appius Claudius Pulcher. Tiberius military career started in the Third Punic War, as military tribune appointed to the staff of his brother in law, during his tenure as military tribune under Aemilianus, Tiberius became known for his bravery and discipline, recorded as the first to scale the enemy walls. In 137 BC he was appointed quaestor to consul Gaius Hostilius Mancinus, Tiberius, as quaestor, saved the army from destruction by signing a peace treaty with the Numantines, an action generally reserved for a Legate. In the negotiations, Tiberius recalled the exploits of his father Tiberius, Tiberius, however, refused to take anything else save some incense used for sacrificial rituals. The people voted to have Mancinus sent back to the Numantines in chains, romes internal political situation was not peaceful. In the last hundred years, there had been several wars, since legionaries were required to serve in a complete campaign, no matter how long it was, soldiers often left their farms in the hands of wives and children. Small farms in this often went bankrupt and were bought up by the wealthy upper class. Furthermore, some ended up being taken by the state in war. After the war was over, much of this land would then be sold to or rented to various members of the populace. Much of this land was given to only a few farmers who then had large amounts of land that were more profitable than the smaller farms, the farmers with large farms had their land worked by slaves and did not do the work themselves, unlike landowners with smaller farms. When the soldiers returned from the legions, they had nowhere to go, as only men who owned property were allowed to enroll in the army, the number of men eligible for army duty was therefore shrinking, and hence the military power of Rome. In 133 BC Tiberius was elected tribune of the people, soon he started to legislate on the matter of the homeless legionaries. Speaking before a crowd at the Rostra, Tiberius said, The wild beasts that roam over Italy have their dens, each has a place of repose and refuge. But the men who fight and die for Italy enjoy nothing but the air and light, without house or home they wander about with their wives, seeking to improve the lot of the poor, Tiberius Gracchus proposed a law known as Lex Sempronia Agraria
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Silk
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Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The protein fiber of silk is composed mainly of fibroin and is produced by insect larvae to form cocoons. The best-known silk is obtained from the cocoons of the larvae of the mulberry silkworm Bombyx mori reared in captivity, Silk is produced by several insects, but generally only the silk of moth caterpillars has been used for textile manufacturing. There has been research into other types of silk, which differ at the molecular level. Silk is mainly produced by the larvae of insects undergoing complete metamorphosis, Silk production also occurs in Hymenoptera, silverfish, mayflies, thrips, leafhoppers, beetles, lacewings, fleas, flies, and midges. Other types of arthropod produce silk, most notably various arachnids such as spiders, the word silk comes from Old English sioloc, from Greek σηρικός serikos, silken, ultimately from an Asian source. Several kinds of silk, which are produced by caterpillars other than the mulberry silkworm, have been known and used in China, South Asia. However, the scale of production was far smaller than for cultivated silks. Thus, the way to obtain silk suitable for spinning into textiles in areas where commercial silks are not cultivated was by tedious. Commercial silks originate from reared silkworm pupae, which are bred to produce a silk thread with no mineral on the surface. The pupae are killed by either dipping them in boiling water before the adult moths emerge or by piercing them with a needle. These factors all contribute to the ability of the cocoon to be unravelled as one continuous thread. Wild silks also tend to be difficult to dye than silk from the cultivated silkworm. Genetic modification of domesticated silkworms is used to facilitate the production of more types of silk. Silk fabric was first developed in ancient China, the earliest example of silk fabric is from 3630 BC, and it was used as wrapping for the body of a child from a Yangshao culture site in Qingtaicun at Xingyang, Henan. Legend gives credit for developing silk to a Chinese empress, Leizu, because of its texture and lustre, silk rapidly became a popular luxury fabric in the many areas accessible to Chinese merchants. Silk was in demand, and became a staple of pre-industrial international trade. In July 2007, archaeologists discovered intricately woven and dyed silk textiles in a tomb in Jiangxi province, Silk is described in a chapter on mulberry planting by Si Shengzhi of the Western Han
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Gossamer (fabric)
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For terms specifically related to sewing, see Glossary of sewing terms. For terms specifically related to dyeing, see Glossary of dyeing terms, the manufacture of textiles is one of the oldest of human technologies. To make textiles, the first requirement is a source of fibre from which a yarn can be made, the yarn is processed by knitting or weaving, which turns yarn into cloth. The machine used for weaving is the loom, for decoration, the process of colouring yarn or the finished material is dyeing. For more information of the steps, see textile manufacturing. Absorbency A measure of how much amount of water a fabric can absorb, Acetate Acetate is a synthetic fiber. Acrylic Acrylic fiber is a polymer fiber that contains at least 85% acrylonitrile. Aida cloth Aida cloth is a coarse open-weave fabric traditionally used for cross-stitch, Alnage Alnage is the official supervision of the shape and quality of manufactured woolen cloth. Alpaca Alpaca is a given to two distinct things, The wool of the Peruvian alpaca. A style of fabric made from alpaca fiber but now frequently made from a similar type of fiber. Angora Angora refers to the hair of the Angora rabbit, or the fabric made from Angora rabbit fur, Appliqué Appliqué is a sewing technique in which fabric shapes, lace or trim, are sewn onto a foundation fabric to create designs. Aramid Aramid fiber is a fire-resistant and strong synthetic fiber, argyle An argyle pattern is one containing diamonds in a sort of diagonal checkerboard pattern. Backstrap loom Backstrap looms, as the name implies, are tied around the weavers waist on one end and around an object such as a tree, post. Tension can be adjusted simply by leaning back, Backstrap looms are very portable, since they can simply be rolled up and carried. Baize Baize is a woollen or cotton cloth, often coloured red or green. Ballistic nylon Ballistic nylon is a thick, tough synthetic fabric used for a variety of applications, Barathea Barathea is an indistinct twill or broken rib – usually a twilled hopsack weave – with a fine textured, slightly pebbled surface. Often of silk or silk blended with wool, used for neckties, womens fine suits and coats, Batik Batik is an Indonesian traditional word and refers to a generic wax-resist dyeing technique used on fabric. Bedford cord Bedford cord is a combination of two kinds of weave, namely plain and drill and it is a durable fabric that is often used in upholstery or outerwear
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Cheesecloth
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Cheesecloth is a loose-woven gauze-like cotton cloth used primarily in cheese making and cooking. Cheesecloth is available in at least seven different grades, from open to extra-fine weave, grades are distinguished by the number of threads per inch in each direction. The primary use of cheesecloth is in some styles of cheesemaking, where it is used to remove whey from cheese curds, cheesecloth is also used in straining stocks and custards, bundling herbs, making tofu and ghee, and thickening yogurt. Queso blanco and queso fresco are Spanish and Mexican cheeses that are made from whole milk using cheesecloth, quark is a type of German unsalted cheese that is sometimes formed with cheesecloth. Paneer is a kind of Indian fresh cheese that is made with cheesecloth. Fruitcake is wrapped in rum-infused cheesecloth during the process of feeding the fruitcake as it ripens, cheesecloth can also be used for several printmaking processes including lithography for wiping up gum arabic. In intaglio a heavily starched cheesecloth called tarlatan is used for wiping away excess ink from the printing surface, cheesecloth #60 is used in product safety and regulatory testing for potential fire hazards. Cheesecloth is wrapped tightly over the device under test, which is subjected to simulated conditions such as lightning surges conducted through power or telecom cables, power faults. The device may be destroyed but must not ignite the cheesecloth and this is to ensure that the device can fail safely, and not start electrical fires in the vicinity. Cheesecloth made to United States Federal Standard CCC-C-440 is used to test the durability of optical coatings per United States Military Standard MIL-C-48497, the optical surface is examined for streaks or scratches, and then its optical performance is measured to ensure that no deterioration occurred. Cheesecloth is used in India and Pakistan for making summer shirts, cheesecloth material shirts were popular for beachwear during the 1960s and 1970s in the United States. Cheesecloth has been used to create the illusion of ectoplasm during spirit channelings or other ghost related phenomena
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