1.
Turtle shell
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It is constructed of modified bony elements such as the ribs, parts of the pelvis and other bones found in most reptiles. The bone of the consists of both skeletal and dermal bone, showing that the complete enclosure of the shell probably evolved by including dermal armor into the rib cage. Hence understanding the structure of the shell in living species gives us comparable material with fossils, the turtle shell is made up of numerous bony elements, generally named after similar bones in other vertebrates, and a series of keratinous scutes which are also uniquely named. Some of those bones that make the top of the shell, carapace, the ventral surface is called the plastron. These are joined by a called the bridge. The actual suture between the bridge and the plastron is called the anterior bridge strut, in Pleurodires the posterior pelvis is also part of the carapace, fully fused with it. This is not the case in Cryptodires which have a floating pelvis, the anterior bridge strut and posterior bridge strut are part of the plastron, on the carapace are the sutures into which they insert, known as the Bridge carapace suture. The bones of the shell are named for standard vertebrate elements, as such the carapace is made up of 8 pleurals on each side, these are a combination of the ribs and fused dermal bone. Outside of this at the anterior of the shell is the single nuchal bone, at the posterior of the shell is the pygal bone and in front of this nested behind the eighth pleurals is the suprapygal. Between each of the pleurals are a series of neural bones, beneath the neural bone is the Neural arch which forms the upper half of the encasement for the spinal chord. Below this the rest of the vertebral column, some species of turtles have some extra bones called mesoplastra, which are located between the carapace and plastron in the bridge area. They are present in most Pelomedusid turtles, the skeletal elements of the plastron are also largely in pairs. Anteriorly there are two epiplastra, with the hyoplastra behind them and these make up the front half of the plastron and the hyoplastron contains the anterior bridge strut. The posterior half is made up of two hypoplastra and the rear is a pair of xiphiplastra, overlying the boney elements are a series of scutes, which are made of keratin and are a lot like horn or nail tissue. In the center of the carapace are 5 vertebral scutes and out from these are 4 pairs of costal scutes, around the edge of the shell are 12 pairs of marginal scutes. All these scutes are aligned so that for the most part the sutures between the bones are in the middle of the scutes above. At the anterior of the shell there may be a cervical scute however the presence or absence of this scute is highly variable, on the plastron there are two gular scutes at the front, followed by a pair of pectorals, then abdominals, femorals and lastly anals. A particular variation is the Pleurodiran turtles have an intergular scute between the gulars at the front, giving them a total of 13 plastral scutes, compared to the 12 in all Cryptodiran turtles
2.
Micronesia
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Micronesia is a subregion of Oceania, comprising thousands of small islands in the western Pacific Ocean. It has a cultural history with two other island regions, Polynesia to the east and Melanesia to the south. The region has a marine climate, and is part of the Oceania ecozone. There are four main archipelagos along with numerous outlying islands, Micronesia is divided politically among several sovereign countries. One of these is the Federated States of Micronesia, which is often called Micronesia for short and is not to be confused with the overall region, Micronesia began to be settled several millennia ago, although there are competing theories about the origin and arrival of the first settlers. The earliest known contact with Europeans occurred in 1521, when Ferdinand Magellan reached the Marianas, the coinage of the term Micronesia is usually attributed to Jules Dumont dUrvilles usage in 1832, however Domeny de Rienzi had used the term a year previously. Micronesia is a region that includes approximately 2100 islands, with a land area of 2,700 km2, the largest of which is Guam. The total ocean area within the perimeter of the islands is 7,400,000 km2, there are four main island groups in Micronesia, the Caroline Islands the Gilbert Islands the Mariana Islands the Marshall Islands Plus the island country of Nauru. The Caroline Islands are a widely scattered archipelago consisting of about 500 small coral islands, north of New Guinea, the Gilbert Islands are a chain of sixteen atolls and coral islands, arranged in an approximate north-to-south line. In a geographical sense, the equator serves as the line between the northern Gilbert Islands and the southern Gilbert Islands. The Republic of Kiribati contains all of the Gilberts, as well as the island of Tarawa, the Mariana Islands are an arc-shaped archipelago made up by the summits of fifteen volcanic mountains. Guam and the Northern Marianas are two of the five remaining U. S, the Marshall Islands is an island country, located north of Nauru and Kiribati, east of the Federated States of Micronesia, and south of the U. S. territory of Wake Island. The country consists of 29 low-lying atolls and 5 isolated islands, comprising 1,156 individual islands, the atolls and islands form two groups, the Ratak Chain and the Ralik Chain. All the islands in the chain are part of the Republic of the Marshall Islands, having few natural resources, the islands wealth is based on a service economy, as well as some fishing and agriculture. Of the 29 atolls,24 of them are inhabited, Bikini Atoll is an atoll in the Marshall Islands. There are 23 islands in the Bikini Atoll, the islands of Bokonijien, Aerokojlol, and Nam were vaporized during nuclear tests that occurred there. The islands are composed of low coral limestone аnd sand, the average elevation is only about 2.1 metres above low tide level. Nauru is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean,42 km south of the Equator, listed as the worlds smallest republic
3.
Singing bird box
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A singing bird box is a box, usually rectangular-shaped, which contains within a miniature automaton singing bird concealed below an oval lid and activated by means of an operating lever. Its origins are found in the city of Geneva and its invention in 1784/85 is attributed to Pierre Jaquet-Droz, the French term tabatière has also come to be used for any small decorative box resembling a snuffbox in form but not necessarily any longer used to contain snuff. This object is made up of two parts, habitually crafted by different makers. The outer casing is a rectangular box variable in size, although with a measurement of approximately 100 ×65 ×40 mm, made of base metal, precious metal. It has a hole, some 45 x 35 mm in its top. At the end of the performance the automaton falls back into the box, while the bird is calling, a decorative pierced grille appears with a bird-shaped hole cut into it through which the performer rises and falls. While singing, a piece of grille jumps up to cover the hole through which the automaton has passed. All bird box movements have a motor which must be wound up. In some movements the flapping of the wings and its ability to turn its head are also cam-controlled. The final cam determines the point at which the ends, the bird folds away, the lid drops. The birds beak movements are connected to the cam controlling the air supply to the whistle, in this way the sound. The whistle consists of an organ pipe containing a close-fitting piston which can be moved up. The winged performer varies in size but 30 mm from beak to tail is common, the bird itself consists of a brass frame to which two half-body shells are attached, each half-shell having one wing pivoted to its side. As for the movement, this is a device located between two brass plates. Two mechanisms have been used during the more than two centuries of singing bird boxes, each with its own characteristics, The fusee-driven movement, besides sharing the same nationality, the major names in the early history of the singing bird box are all united by professional links. To Pierre Jaquet-Droz, regarded as one of the most celebrated automata maker of all times, is credited the invention of the boîte à oiseau chanteur and it is possible that this was mainly the work of Leschot, who became a partner in the Jaquet-Droz business in 1782. Whoever it was, it is clear that by 1785 snuffbox or tabatière-sized movements were known in France, Germany, in November 1790, Pierre Jaquet-Droz died and this logically ended the partnership with Leschot. However, Leschot continued to produce singing birds in Geneva under the old name of Jaquet-Droz & Leschot – London
4.
Tortoise
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Tortoises are a family, Testudinidae, of land-dwelling reptiles in the order Testudines. Tortoises are shielded from predators by a shell, the top part of the shell is the carapace, the underside is the plastron, and the two are connected by the bridge. The carapace is fused to both the vertebrae and ribcage, and tortoises are unique among vertebrates in that the pectoral, Tortoises can vary in size from a few centimeters to two meters. They are usually diurnal animals with tendencies to be depending on the ambient temperatures. Tortoises are the longest living animal in the world, although the longest living species of tortoise is a matter of debate. Galapagos tortoises are noted to live over 150 years, but an Aldabra giant tortoise named Adwaita may having been the longest living at an estimated 255 years. It is important to note that tortoises are not the longest living animal, period, with bowhead whales reaching over 200 years, and the ocean quahog clam reaching 500 years old. Differences exist in usage of the common terms turtle, tortoise and these terms are common names and do not reflect precise biological or taxonomic distinctions. In America, for example, the members of the genus Terrapene dwell on land, in Britain, terrapin is used to refer to a larger group of semiaquatic turtles than the restricted meaning in America. Australian usage is different from both American and British usage, land tortoises are not native to Australia, yet traditionally freshwater turtles have been called tortoises in Australia. Female tortoises dig nesting burrows in which lay from one to 30 eggs. Egg-laying typically occurs at night, after which the mother covers her clutch with sand, soil. The eggs are unattended, and depending on the species. The size of the egg depends on the size of the mother, the plastron of a female tortoise often has a noticeable V-shaped notch below the tail which facilitates passing the eggs. Upon completion of the period, a fully formed hatchling uses an egg tooth to break out of its shell. It digs to the surface of the nest and begins a life of survival on its own and they are hatched with an embryonic egg sac which serves as a source of nutrition for the first three to seven days until they have the strength and mobility to find food. Juvenile tortoises often require a different balance of nutrients than adults, for example, the young of a strictly herbivorous species commonly will consume worms or insect larvae for additional protein. Moreover, some tortoises grow more than one ring per season, Tortoises generally have one of the longest lifespans of any animal, and some individuals are known to have lived longer than 150 years
5.
Turtle
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Turtles are reptiles of the order Testudines characterised by a special bony or cartilaginous shell developed from their ribs and acting as a shield. Turtle may refer to the order as a whole or to fresh-water, the order Testudines includes both extant and extinct species. The earliest known members of this date from 157 million years ago, making turtles one of the oldest reptile groups. Of the 327 known species alive today, some are highly endangered, turtles are ectotherms—animals commonly called cold-blooded—meaning that their internal temperature varies according to the ambient environment. However, because of their metabolic rate, leatherback sea turtles have a body temperature that is noticeably higher than that of the surrounding water. Turtles are classified as amniotes, along with reptiles, birds. Like other amniotes, turtles breathe air and do not lay eggs underwater, Chelonia is based on the Greek word χελώνη chelone tortoise, turtle, also denoting armor or interlocking shields, testudines, on the other hand, is based on the Latin word testudo tortoise. Turtle may either refer to the order as a whole, or to particular turtles that make up a form taxon that is not monophyletic, the meaning of the word turtle differs from region to region. In North America, all chelonians are commonly called turtles, including terrapins, in Great Britain, the word turtle is used for sea-dwelling species, but not for tortoises. The term tortoise usually refers to any land-dwelling, non-swimming chelonian, most land-dwelling chelonians are in the Testudinidae family, only one of the 14 extant turtle families. Terrapin is used to describe several species of small, edible, hard-shell turtles, typically found in brackish waters. Some languages do not have this distinction, as all of these are referred to by the same name, for example, in Spanish, the word tortuga is used for turtles, tortoises, and terrapins. A sea-dwelling turtle is tortuga marina, a freshwater species tortuga de río, the largest living chelonian is the leatherback sea turtle, which reaches a shell length of 200 cm and can reach a weight of over 900 kg. Freshwater turtles are generally smaller, but with the largest species, the Asian softshell turtle Pelochelys cantorii, a few individuals have been reported up to 200 cm. This dwarfs even the better-known alligator snapping turtle, the largest chelonian in North America and they became extinct at the same time as the appearance of man, and it is assumed humans hunted them for food. The only surviving giant tortoises are on the Seychelles and Galápagos Islands and can grow to over 130 cm in length, the largest ever chelonian was Archelon ischyros, a Late Cretaceous sea turtle known to have been up to 4.6 m long. The smallest turtle is the speckled padloper tortoise of South Africa and it measures no more than 8 cm in length and weighs about 140 g. Two other species of turtles are the American mud turtles
6.
Hawksbill sea turtle
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The hawksbill sea turtle is a critically endangered sea turtle belonging to the family Cheloniidae. It is the extant species in the genus Eretmochelys. The species has a distribution, with Atlantic and Indo-Pacific subspecies—E. I. imbricata and E. i. bissa, respectively, the hawksbills appearance is similar to that of other marine turtles. In general, it has a body shape, a protective carapace. E. imbricata is easily distinguished from other sea turtles by its sharp, curving beak with prominent tomium, Hawksbill shells slightly change colors, depending on water temperature. While this turtle lives part of its life in the ocean, it spends more time in shallow lagoons. The World Conservation Union, primarily as a result of Human fishing practices, classifies E. imbricata as critically endangered, Hawksbill shells were the primary source of tortoiseshell material used for decorative purposes. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species outlaws the capture and trade of sea turtles. Adult hawksbill sea turtles grow to 1 m in length. The heaviest hawksbill ever captured weighed 127 kg, the turtles shell, or carapace, has an amber background patterned with an irregular combination of light and dark streaks, with predominantly black and mottled-brown colors radiating to the sides. Several characteristics of the sea turtle distinguish it from other sea turtle species. Its elongated, tapered head ends in a mouth. The hawksbills fore limbs have two claws on each flipper. One of the more easily distinguished characteristics is the pattern of thick scutes that make up its carapace. The turtles carapace has been known to reach almost 1 m in length, the hawksbill appears to frequently employ its sturdy shell to insert its body into tight spaces in reefs. Crawling with an alternating gait, hawksbill tracks left in the sand are asymmetrical, in contrast, the green sea turtle and the leatherback turtle have a more symmetrical gait. Due to its consumption of venomous cnidarians, hawksbill sea turtle flesh can become toxic, the hawksbill sea turtle has been shown to be biofluorescent and is the first reptile recorded with this characteristic
7.
Scute
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A scute or scutum is a bony external plate or scale overlaid with horn, as on the shell of a turtle, the skin of crocodilians, and the feet of birds. The term is used to describe the anterior portion of the mesonotum in insects. Scutes are similar to scales and serve the same function, unlike the scales of lizards and snakes, which are formed from the epidermis, scutes are formed in the lower vascular layer of the skin and the epidermal element is only the top surface. Forming in the dermis, the scutes produce a horny outer layer that is superficially similar to that of scales. Scutes will usually not overlap as snake scales, the outer keratin layer is shed piecemeal, and not in one continuous layer of skin as seen in snakes or lizards. The dermal base may contain bone and produce dermal armour, scutes with a bony base are properly called osteoderms. Dermal scutes are found in the feet of birds and tails of some mammals. The turtles shell is covered by scutes formed mostly of keratin and they are built similarly to horn, beak, or nail in other species. The tarsometatarsus and toes of most birds are covered in two types of scales, large scutes run along the dorsal side of the tarsometatarsus and toes, whereas smaller scutellae run along the sides. Unblocking the feather suppression program results in growing in place of scales along the tarsometatarsus. The bottoms of feet are covered in small, keeled scale-like structures known as reticulae. Evolutionary developmental studies on these structures have revealed that they are composed entirely of alpha keratin. In some species of Opiliones, fused abdominal segments are referred to as a scutum, osteoderms Scale Snake scales Keratin Skin Skeleton
8.
Tortoiseshell cat
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Tortoiseshell is a cat coat coloring named for its similarity to tortoiseshell material. Tortoiseshell cats are almost exclusively female, male tortoiseshells are rare and are usually sterile. Also called torties for short, tortoiseshell cats combine two colors other than white, either mixed or in larger patches. The colors are described as red and black, but the red patches can instead be orange, yellow, or cream. Tortoiseshell cats with the pattern as one of their colors are sometimes referred to as a torbie. Tortoiseshell is typically reserved for particolored cats with relatively small or no white markings and those that are largely white with tortoiseshell patches are described as tricolor, tortoiseshell-and-white, or calico. Tortoiseshell markings appear in different breeds, as well as in non-purebred domestic cats. This pattern is preferred in the Japanese Bobtail breed. Tortoiseshell cats have particolored coats with patches of various shades of red and black, a tortoiseshell can also have splotches of orange or gold, but these colors are rarer on the breed. The size of the patches can vary from a fine speckled pattern to large areas of color, typically, the more white a cat has, the more solid the patches of color. Dilution genes may modify the coloring, lightening the fur to a mix of cream and blue, lilac or fawn, occasionally tabby patterns of black and brown and red colors are also seen. These patched tabbies are often called a tortie-tabby, torbie or, with white areas. Not uncommonly there will be a face pattern with black on one side of the face and orange on the other. Tortoiseshell coloring can also be expressed in the point pattern, referred to as a tortie point, tortoiseshell and calico coats result from an interaction between genetic and developmental factors. The primary gene for color for the colors brown, chocolate, cinnamon. The tortoiseshell and calico cats are indicated, Oo to indicate they are heterozygous on the O gene, the and genes can be further modified by a recessive dilute gene which softens the colors. Orange becomes cream, black gray, etc. Various terms are used for colors, for example, gray is also called blue
9.
Nymphalis
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Nymphalis, commonly known as the tortoiseshells or anglewing butterflies, is a genus of brush-footed butterflies. The genera Aglais, Inachis, Polygonia and Kaniska, were included as subgenera of Nymphalis. For other butterflies named tortoiseshells, see the genus, Aglais, the name Nymphalis, established by Jan Krzysztof Kluk in 1780, is the oldest name among the generic names for a relatively small group of butterflies collectively known as anglewing butterflies. In zoological nomenclature, the oldest name has a priority over other names, the collective name anglewing butterflies is derived from a Latinised term Papiliones angulati. This name was used for the first time by Ignaz Schiffermüller in 1775-1776. The anglewing butterflies as a group are characterized by a silhouette and by the colouration. This signature mark is an important taxonomic characteristic as well as a significant evolutionary adaptation, during winter months, in latitudes with snow cover, all members of this group hibernate as adult butterflies. During hibernation, hidden in various shelters, the butterflies are dormant, the camouflage provided by crypsis is obviously advantageous to hibernating butterflies. The potential predators will have difficulties in seeing the dormant butterflies, with their wings closed, exposing only the ventral cryptically coloured underside, they blend in with their surroundings. Today, the butterflies are found only in the Northern Hemisphere. Since Carl Linnaeus described the first members of group in 1758, it is now clear. The sister group of Nymphalis is Vanessa
10.
Comb
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A comb is a toothed device used for styling, cleaning and managing hair and scalp. Combs are among the oldest tools found by archaeologists, having discovered in very refined forms from settlements dating back to 5,000 years ago in Persia. Combs consist of a shaft and teeth that are placed at an angle to the shaft. Combs can be out of a number of materials, most commonly plastic. Combs made from ivory and tortoiseshell were once common but concerns for the animals that produce them have reduced their usage, when made from wood, combs are largely made of boxwood, cherry wood or other fine-grained wood. Good quality wooden combs are usually handmade and polished, combs can vary in shape according to function. A hairdressing comb may have a thin, tapered handle for parting hair, common hair combs usually have wider teeth halfway and finer teeth for the rest of the comb. Hot combs were used solely for straightening hair during the era in North America. A hairbrush comes in manual and electric models. It is larger than a comb, and is commonly used for shaping, styling and cleaning hair. A combination comb and hairbrush was patented in the 19th century, combs can be used for many purposes. Historically, their purpose was securing long hair in place, decorating the hair, matting sections of hair for dreadlocks. In Spain, a peineta is a decorative comb used to keep a mantilla in place. In industry and craft, combs are used in separating cotton fibres from seeds, a comb is used to distribute colours in paper marbling to make the swirling colour patterns in comb-marbled paper. This was the inspiration for the kazoo, moreover, the comb is also a lamellophone. Comb teeth have harmonic qualities of their own, determined by their shape, length, a comb with teeth of unequal length, capable of producing different notes when picked, eventually evolved into the thumb piano and musical box. This type of comb has loose, thick teeth and is used on kinky or Afro-textured hair. It is longer and thinner than the typical comb, and it is worn in the hair
11.
Guitar pick
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A guitar pick is a plectrum used for guitars. Picks are generally made of one uniform material—such as some kind of plastic, rubber, felt, tortoiseshell, wood, metal, glass, tagua and they are often shaped in an acute isosceles triangle with the two equal corners rounded and the third corner less rounded. They are used to strum chords or to individual notes on a guitar. In British English, guitar picks are referred to as plectrums reserving the term pick to identify the difference between this and finger picks, musicians have used plectrums to play stringed instruments for thousands of years. Feather quills were likely the first standardized plectra and became widely used until the late 19th century, other alternatives had come and gone, but tortoiseshell provided the best combination of tonal sound and physical flexibility for plucking a taut string. There have been innovations in the design of the guitar pick. Most of these were out of the issue of guitar picks slipping and flying out of the hand of the player. In 1896, a Cincinnati man affixed two rubber disks to either side of a pick, which made it the first popular solution to the problem. Over the next two decades more innovations were made, such as corrugating the rounded surface of the pick or drilling a hole through the center to fit the pad of a players thumb. A more notable improvement was attaching cork to the part of the pick. Some of these new designs made picks undesirably expensive, eventually, pickers realized that all they needed was something to sink their fingerprints into so the pick wouldnt slip, such as a high relief imprinted logo. Celluloid was a material on which this could easily be done, tony DAndrea was the one of the first people to use celluloid to produce and sell guitar picks. From the 1920s through the 1950s, DAndrea Manufacturing would dominate the worlds international pick market, providing to major businesses such as Gibson, Fender, and Martin. One of the main reasons celluloid was so popular as guitar pick material was that it very closely imitated the sound and flexibility of a tortoise shell guitar pick. Musicians had been partial to shell picks, and when DAndrea provided an alternative, DAndrea Manufacturing became very successful, Celluloid provided a good alternative in many ways. Tortoise shell was rare, expensive, and had a tendency to break, Celluloid was made from cellulose, one of the most abundant raw materials in the world, and nitrocellulose combined with camphor under heat and pressure produced celluloid. Later, other materials, such as nylon and less popularly wood, glass, or metal would become popular for making guitar picks for their increased grip, flexibility, or tonal qualities. Pick shapes started with guitarists shaping bone, shell, wood, cuttlebone, metal, amber, most of todays guitar pick shapes were created by the company that made the first plastic pick in 1922, DAndrea Picks
12.
Knitting needle
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A knitting needle or knitting pin is a tool in hand-knitting to produce knitted fabrics. They generally have a shaft and taper at their end. The long shaft holds the stitches of the fabric, to prevent them from unravelling. In specialized forms of knitting the needle may be passed between active stitches being held on another needle, or indeed between/through inactive stitches that have been knit previously, the size of a needle is described first by its diameter and secondly by its length. The size of the new stitch is determined in part by the diameter of the knitting needle used to form it. Thus, large stitches can be made with needles, whereas fine knitting requires fine needles. In most cases, the knitting needles being used in hand-knitting are of the diameter, however, in uneven knitting. Larger stitches may also be made by wrapping the yarn more than once around the needles with every stitch, various sizing systems for needles are in common use. The most widely recognized form of needle is the single-pointed needle and it is a slender, straight stick tapered to a point at one end, with a knob at the other end to prevent stitches from slipping off. Such needles are used in pairs and are usually 10-16 inches long but, due to the compressibility of knitted fabrics. The knitting of new stitches occurs only at the tapered ends, fictional depictions of knitting in movies, television programs, animation, and comic strips almost always show knitting done on straight needles. Both Wallace and Gromit and Monty Python, for example, show this type of knitting, the oldest type of needle is the straight double-pointed needle. Double-pointed needles are tapered at both ends, which allows them to be knit from either end and they are typically used in sets of four and five, and are commonly used for circular knitting. Since the invention of the needle, they have been most commonly used to knit smaller tube-shaped pieces such as sleeves, collars. Usually two needles are active while the others hold the remaining stitches, double-pointed needles are somewhat shorter than single-pointed or circular needles, and are usually used in the 13–20 cm length range, although they are also made longer. Double-pointed needles are depicted in a number of 14th-century oil paintings, typically called Knitting Madonnas, a cable needle is a special type of double-pointed needle that is typically very short and used to hold a very small number of stitches temporarily while the knitter is forming a cable pattern. They are often U-shaped, or have a U-shaped bend, to keep the held stitches from falling off while the needle is being used. The first US patent for a needle was issued in 1918
13.
Carapace
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A carapace is a dorsal section of the exoskeleton or shell in a number of animal groups, including arthropods, such as crustaceans and arachnids, as well as vertebrates, such as turtles and tortoises. In turtles and tortoises, the underside is called the plastron, in crustaceans, the carapace functions as a protective cover over the cephalothorax. Where it projects forward beyond the eyes, this projection is called a rostrum, the carapace is calcified to varying degrees in different crustaceans. Zooplankton within the phylum Crustacea also have a carapace and these include Cladocera, ostracods, and isopods, but isopods only have a developed cephalic shield carapace covering the head. In arachnids, the carapace is formed by the fusion of prosomal tergites into a plate which carries the eyes, ocularium, ozopores. In a few orders, such as Solifugae and Schizomida, the carapace may be subdivided, alternative terms for the carapace of arachnids and their relatives, which avoids confusion with crustaceans, are prosomal dorsal shield and peltidium. The carapace is the convex part of the shell structure of a turtle, consisting primarily of the animals rib cage, dermal armor
14.
CITES
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CITES is a multilateral treaty to protect endangered plants and animals. It was drafted as a result of a resolution adopted in 1963 at a meeting of members of the International Union for Conservation of Nature, the convention was opened for signature in 1973 and CITES entered into force on 1 July 1975. In order to ensure that the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade was not violated, as of 2015, Secretary-General of the CITES Secretariat is John E. Scanlon. CITES is one of the largest and oldest conservation and sustainable use agreements in existence, participation is voluntary, and countries that have agreed to be bound by the Convention are known as Parties. Although CITES is legally binding on the Parties, it does not take the place of national laws, rather it provides a framework respected by each Party, which must adopt their own domestic legislation to implement CITES at the national level. Often, domestic legislation is either non-existent, or with penalties with the gravity of the crime, funding for the activities of the Secretariat and Conference of the Parties meetings comes from a Trust Fund derived from Party contributions. Trust Fund money is not available to Parties to improve implementation or compliance and these activities, and all those outside Secretariat activities must find external funding, mostly from donor countries and regional organizations such as the European Union. The Secretariat, when informed of an infraction by a Party, the Secretariat will give the Party time to respond to the allegations and may provide technical assistance to prevent further infractions. Other actions the Convention itself does not provide for but that derive from subsequent COP resolutions may be taken against the offending Party, infractions may include negligence with respect to permit issuing, excessive trade, lax enforcement, and failing to produce annual reports. As of 2013 the demand was massive and had expanded to thousands of species previously considered unremarkable. The text of the Convention was finalized at a meeting of representatives of 80 countries in Washington, united States, on 3 March 1973. It was then open for signature until 31 December 1974 and it entered into force after the 10th ratification by a signatory country, on 1 July 1975. Countries that signed the Convention become Parties by ratifying, accepting or approving it, by the end of 2003, all signatory countries had become Parties. States that were not signatories may become Parties by acceding to the Convention, as of October 2016, the Convention has 183 parties, including 182 states and the European Union. The CITES Convention includes provisions and rules for trade with non-Parties, UN observer the Holy See is also not a member. The Faroe Islands, a country in the Kingdom of Denmark, is also treated as a non-Party to CITES. The REIO can vote at CITES meetings with the number of votes representing the number of members in the REIO, at that time it entered into force only for those States that had accepted the amendment. The amended text of the Convention will apply automatically to any State that becomes a Party after 29 November 2013, for States that became party to the Convention before that date and have not accepted the amendment, it will enter into force 60 days after they accept it
15.
Horn (anatomy)
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A horn is a permanent pointed projection on the head of various animals consisting of a covering of keratin and other proteins surrounding a core of live bone. Horns are distinct to antlers which are not permanent, in mammals, true horns are found mainly among the ruminant artiodactyls, in the families Antilocapridae and Bovidae. One pair of horns is usual, however, two or more occur in a few wild species and domesticated breeds of sheep. Polycerate sheep breeds include the Hebridean, Icelandic, Jacob, Manx Loaghtan, horns usually have a curved or spiral shape, often with ridges or fluting. In many species only males have horns, horns start to grow soon after birth, and continue to grow throughout the life of the animal. Partial or deformed horns in livestock are called scurs, similar growths on other parts of the body are not usually called horns, but spurs, claws or hoofs depending on the part of the body on which they occur. These are covered with furred skin, cervidae, Most deer have antlers, which are not true horns. When fully developed, antlers are dead bone without a horn or skin covering, they are only by adults and are shed. Rhinocerotidae, The horns of rhinoceroses are made of keratin, the substance as fingernails, and grow continuously. Chamaeleonidae, Many chameleons, most notably the Jacksons Chameleon, possess horns on their skulls, ceratopsidae, The horns of the Triceratops were extensions of its skull bones although debate exists over whether they had a keratin covering. Horned lizards, These lizards have horns on their heads which have a keratin covering over a bony core. Insects, Some insects have horn-like structures on the head or thorax and these are pointed outgrowths of the hard chitinous exoskeleton. Some have greatly enlarged jaws, also made of chitin, canidae, Golden jackals are known to occasionally develop a horny growth on the skull, which is associated with magical powers in south-eastern Asia. Many mammal species in various families have tusks, which serve the same functions as horns. These include the Moschidae, Suidae, Proboscidea, Monodontidae and Odobenidae, Polled animals or pollards are those of normally-horned species whose horns have been removed, or which have not grown. In some cases animals have small horny growths in the skin where their horns would be – these are known as scurs. Cutaneous horns are the examples of horns growing on people. They are most often benign growths and can be removed by a razor, cases of people growing horns have been historically described, sometimes with mythical status
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Plastic
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Plastic is a material consisting of any of a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic compounds that are malleable and can be molded into solid objects. Plastics are typically organic polymers of high mass, but they often contain other substances. They are usually synthetic, most commonly derived from petrochemicals, due to their relatively low cost, ease of manufacture, versatility, and imperviousness to water, plastics are used in an enormous and expanding range of products, from paper clips to spaceships. They have already displaced many traditional materials, such as wood, stone, horn and bone, leather, paper, metal, glass, and ceramic, in most of their former uses. In developed countries, about a third of plastic is used in packaging, other uses include automobiles, furniture, and toys. In the developing world, the ratios may be different - for example, the worlds first fully synthetic plastic was bakelite, invented in New York in 1907 by Leo Baekeland who coined the term plastics. Toward the end of the century, one approach to this problem was met with wide efforts toward recycling, the word plastic is derived from the Greek πλαστικός meaning capable of being shaped or molded, from πλαστός meaning molded. The common word plastic should not be confused with the technical adjective plastic, used for insulating parts in electrical fixtures, paper laminated products, thermally insulation foams. Problems include the probability of moldings naturally being dark colors, One of the most expensive commercial polymers. It forms the basis of artistic and commercial acrylic paints when suspended in water with the use of other agents, polytetrafluoroethylene – Heat-resistant, low-friction coatings, used in things like non-stick surfaces for frying pans, plumbers tape and water slides. It is more known as Teflon. Urea-formaldehyde – One of the aminoplasts and used as an alternative to phenolics. Used as an adhesive and electrical switch housings. Early plastics were bio-derived materials such as egg and blood proteins, in 1600 BC, Mesoamericans used natural rubber for balls, bands, and figurines. Treated cattle horns were used as windows for lanterns in the Middle Ages, materials that mimicked the properties of horns were developed by treating milk-proteins with lye. In the 1800s, as industrial chemistry developed during the Industrial Revolution, the development of plastics also accelerated with Charles Goodyears discovery of vulcanization to thermoset materials derived from natural rubber. Parkesine is considered the first man-made plastic, the plastic material was patented by Alexander Parkes, In Birmingham, UK in 1856. It was unveiled at the 1862 Great International Exhibition in London, parkesine won a bronze medal at the 1862 Worlds fair in London
17.
Polyoxymethylene
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POM is characterized by its high strength, hardness and rigidity to −40 °C. POM is intrinsically opaque white, due to its high crystalline composition, POM has a density of 1. 410–1.420 g/cm3. The material is used in the automotive and consumer electronics industry. Polyoxymethylene was discovered by Hermann Staudinger, a German chemist who received the 1953 Nobel Prize in Chemistry and he had studied the polymerization and structure of POM in the 1920s while researching macromolecules, which he characterized as polymers. Due to problems with stability, POM was not commercialized at that time. Around 1952, research chemists at DuPont synthesized a version of POM, DuPont credits R. N. MacDonald as the inventor of high-molecular-weight POM. Patents by MacDonald and coworkers describe the preparation of high-molecular-weight hemiacetal-terminated POM, in 1960, DuPont completed construction of a plant to produce its own version of acetal resin, named Delrin, at Parkersburg, West Virginia. Also in 1960, Celanese completed its own research, both remain in production under the auspices of Celanese and are sold as parts of a product group now called Hostaform/Celcon POM. Different manufacturing processes are used to produce the homopolymer and copolymer versions of POM, to make polyoxymethylene homopolymer, anhydrous formaldehyde must be generated. The formaldehyde is then polymerized by anionic catalysis and the polymer stabilized by reaction with acetic anhydride. Due to the process, large diameter cross sections may have pronounced centerline porosity. A typical example is DuPont’s Delrin, the polyoxymethylene copolymer replaces about 1–1. 5% of the –CH2O– groups with –CH2CH2O–. To make polyoxymethylene copolymer, formaldehyde is generally converted to trioxane and this is done by acid catalysis followed by purification of the trioxane by distillation and/or extraction to remove water and other active hydrogen containing impurities. Typical copolymers are Hostaform from Celanese and Ultraform from BASF, the co-monomer is typically dioxolane but ethylene oxide can also be used. Dioxolane is formed by reaction of ethylene glycol with aqueous formaldehyde over an acid catalyst, other diols can also be used. Trioxane and Dioxolane are polymerized using an acid catalyst, often boron trifluoride etherate, the polymerization can take place in a non-polar solvent or in neat trioxane. After polymerization, the acidic catalyst must be deactivated and the polymer stabilized by melt or solution hydrolysis to remove unstable end groups, stable polymer is melt compounded, adding thermal and oxidative stabilizers and optionally lubricants and miscellaneous fillers. POM is supplied in a form and can be formed into the desired shape by applying heat
18.
Brand
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A brand is a name, term, design, symbol, or other feature that distinguishes one seller’s product from those of others. Brands are used in business, marketing, and advertising, however, the term has been extended to mean a strategic personality for a product or company, so that ‘brand’ now suggests the values and promises that a consumer may perceive and buy into. Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company from competitors, the key components that form a brands toolbox include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty, and various branding strategies. Brand equity is the totality of a brands worth and is validated by assessing the effectiveness of these branding components. To reach such an invaluable brand prestige requires a commitment to a way of doing business. A corporation who exhibits a strong brand culture is dedicated on producing intangible outputs such as customer satisfaction, reduced price sensitivity and customer loyalty. A brand is in essence a promise to its customers that they can expect long-term security, when a customer is familiar with a brand or favours it incomparably to its competitors, this is when a corporation has reached a high level of brand equity. Many companies are beginning to understand there is often little to differentiate between products in the 21st century. Branding remains the last bastion for differentiation, in accounting, a brand defined as an intangible asset is often the most valuable asset on a corporation’s balance sheet. The word ‘brand’ is often used as a referring to the company that is strongly identified with a brand. Marque or make are often used to denote a brand of motor vehicle, a concept brand is a brand that is associated with an abstract concept, like breast cancer awareness or environmentalism, rather than a specific product, service, or business. A commodity brand is a associated with a commodity. The word, brand, derives from Dutch brand meaning to burn and this product was developed at Dhosi Hill, an extinct volcano in northern India. Roman glassmakers branded their works, with Ennion being the most prominent, the Italians used brands in the form of watermarks on paper in the 13th century. Blind Stamps, hallmarks, and silver-makers marks are all types of brand, industrialization moved the production of many household items, such as soap, from local communities to centralized factories. When shipping their items, the factories would literally brand their logo or insignia on the barrels used, Bass & Company, the British brewery, claims their red-triangle brand as the worlds first trademark. Another example comes from Antiche Fornaci Giorgi in Italy, which has stamped or carved its bricks with the same proto-logo since 1731, cattle-branding has been used since Ancient Egypt. The term, maverick, originally meaning an un-branded calf, came from a Texas pioneer rancher, Sam Maverick, use of the word maverick spread among cowboys and came to apply to unbranded calves found wandering alone
19.
Chelys
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The chelys, was a stringed musical instrument, the common lyre of the ancient Greeks, which had a convex back of tortoiseshell or of wood shaped like the shell. The word chelys was used in allusion to the oldest lyre of the Greeks, which was said to have been invented by Hermes. According to the Homeric Hymn to Hermes, he came across a tortoise near the threshold of his mothers home, the word has been applied arbitrarily since classic times to various stringed instruments, some bowed and some twanged, probably owing to the back being much vaulted. Athanasius Kircher applied the name of chelys to a kind of viol with eight strings, numerous representations of the chelys lyre or testudo occur on Greek vases, in which the actual tortoiseshell is depicted. A good illustration is given in Le Antichità di Ercolano, propertius calls the instrument the lyra testudinea. Joseph Justus Scaliger was probably the first writer to draw attention to the difference between the chelys and the kithara, the acoustics of an authentically reconstructed ancient Greek tortoise-shell lyre, known as chelys, was investigated recently. Modern experimental methods were employed, such as electronic speckle pattern laser interferometry and impulse response, to extract the behavior of the instrument. Additionally, the sound from the instrument was recorded, under controlled conditions. The experimental results validate the historical evidence that chelys was used in Greek antiquity as an accompaniment instrument to the human voice and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Schlesinger, Kathleen
20.
Lyre
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The lyre is a string instrument known for its use in Greek classical antiquity and later periods. The lyre is similar in appearance to a small harp but with distinct differences, the word comes via Latin from the Greek, the earliest reference to the word is the Mycenaean Greek ru-ra-ta-e, meaning lyrists and written in the Linear B script. The lyres of Ur, excavated in ancient Mesopotamia, date to 2500 BC, the earliest picture of a lyre with seven strings appears in the famous sarcophagus of Hagia Triada. The sarcophagus was used during the Mycenaean occupation of Crete, the recitations of the Ancient Greeks were accompanied by lyre playing. The lyre of classical antiquity was ordinarily played by being strummed with a plectrum, the fingers of the free hand silenced the unwanted strings in the chord. However, later lyres were played with a bow in Europe, one example from Wales that has been resurrected recently is the crwth. In organology, lyres are defined as yoke lutes, being lutes in which the strings are attached to a yoke which lies in the plane as the sound-table. A classical lyre has a body or sound-chest, which. Extending from this sound-chest are two raised arms, which are hollow, and are curved both outward and forward. They are connected near the top by a crossbar or yoke, an additional crossbar, fixed to the sound-chest, makes the bridge which transmits the vibrations of the strings. They were stretched between the yoke and bridge, or to a tailpiece below the bridge, according to ancient Greek mythology, the young god Hermes stole a herd of sacred cows from Apollo. In order not to be followed, he made shoes for the cows which forced them to walk backwards, Apollo, following the trails, could not follow where the cows were going. Along the way, Hermes slaughtered one of the cows and offered all, from the entrails and a tortoise/turtle shell, he created the Lyre. Apollo, figuring out it was Hermes who had his cows, Apollo was furious, but after hearing the sound of the lyre, his anger faded. Apollo offered to trade the herd of cattle for the lyre, hence, the creation of the lyre is attributed to Hermes. Other sources credit it to Apollo himself, locales in southern Europe, western Asia, or north Africa have been proposed as the historic birthplace of the genus. The instrument is played in north-eastern parts of Africa. Some of the cultures using and developing the lyre were the Aeolian and Ionian Greek colonies on the coasts of Asia bordering the Lydian empire, some mythic masters like Musaeus, and Thamyris were believed to have been born in Thrace, another place of extensive Greek colonization
21.
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
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The text has been ascribed to different dates between the 1st and 3rd centuries CE, but a mid-1st-century date is now the most commonly accepted. The Erythraean Sea, or in modern spelling, Eritrean Sea is presently a Greek name for the Red Sea, to the ancient Greeks it included the Indian Ocean, the work consists of 66 chapters, most of them about the length of a long paragraph in English. For instance, the short Chapter 9 reads in its entirety, the imports to this are as aforesaid, and from it likewise are exported the same goods, and fragrant gum called mokrotou. The inhabitants who trade here are more peaceful, in many cases, the description of places is sufficiently accurate to identify their present locations, for others, there is considerable debate. The description of the Indian coast mentions the Ganges River clearly, yet after that is somewhat garbled, the Periplus says that a direct sailing route from the Red Sea to the Indian peninsula across the open ocean was discovered by Hippalus. Many trade goods are mentioned in the Periplus, but some of the words naming trade goods are seen nowhere else in ancient literature, for example, one trade good mentioned is lakkos chromatinos. The name lakkos appears nowhere else in ancient Greek or Roman literature, some other named trade goods remain obscure. In the 10th-century manuscript, the text is attributed to Arrian, the Periplus was edited by Sigmund Gelen and first published in a modern edition by Hieronymus Froben in 1533. One historical analysis, published by Schoff in 1912, narrowed the date of the text to 60 CE. Schoff additionally provides an analysis as to the texts original authorship, and arrives at the conclusion that the author must have been a Greek in Egypt. By Schoffs calculations, this would have been during the time of Tiberius Claudius Balbilus, john Hill maintains that the Periplus can now be confidently dated to between 40 and 70 AD and, probably, between AD40 and 50. Because of the absence of any account of the journey up the Nile and across the desert from Coptos, ships from Himyar regularly traveled the East African coast. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea describes the empire of Himyar and Saba, regrouped under a single ruler Charibael. The Frankincense kingdom is described further east along the southern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, the ruler of this kingdom is named Eleazus, or Eleazar, thought to correspond to King Iliazz Yalit I,27. Inland from this lies the metropolis Sabbatha, in which the King lives. All the frankincense produced in the country is brought by camels to that place to be stored, and to Cana on rafts held up by inflated skins after the manner of the country, and in boats. And this place has a trade also with the ports, with Barygaza and Scythia and Ommana. Ras Hafun in northern Somalia is believed to be the location of the ancient trade center of Opone, Ancient Egyptian, Roman and Persian Gulf pottery has been recovered from the site by an archaeological team from the University of Michigan
22.
Cabinetmaker
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A cabinet is a box-shaped piece of furniture with doors or drawers for storing miscellaneous items. Some cabinets stand alone while others are built into a wall or are attached to it like a medicine cabinet, cabinets are typically made of wood or, now increasingly, of synthetic materials. Commercial grade cabinets, which differ in the used, are called casework. Cabinets usually have one or more doors on the front, which are mounted with door hardware, many cabinets have doors and drawers or only drawers. Short cabinets often have a surface on top that can be used for display, or as a working surface. A cabinet intended for clothing storage is usually called a wardrobe or an armoire, before the advent of industrial design, cabinet makers were responsible for the conception and the production of any piece of furniture. In the last half of the 18th century, cabinet makers, such as Thomas Sheraton, Thomas Chippendale, Shaver, cabinet Constructors, and George Hepplewhite, also published books of furniture forms. These books were compendiums of their designs and those of other cabinet makers, in parallel to this evolution there came a growing demand by the rising middle class in most industrialised countries for finely made furniture. This eventually resulted in a growth in the number of traditional cabinet makers. Before 1650, fine furniture was a rarity in Western Europe, generally, people did not need it and for the most part could not afford it. They made do with simple but serviceable pieces, the arts and craft movement which started in the United Kingdom in the middle of the 19th century spurred a market for traditional cabinet making, and other craft goods. It rapidly spread to the United States and to all the countries in the British Empire and this movement exemplified the reaction to the eclectic historicism of the Victorian era and to the soulless machine-made production which was starting to become widespread. After World War II woodworking became a hobby among the middle classes. The more serious and skilled amateurs in this field now turn out pieces of furniture which rival the work of professional cabinet makers and this style of design is typified by clean horizontal and vertical lines. Compared to other designs there is an absence of ornamentation. While Scandinavian design is easy to identify, it is more about the materials than the design. This style of design is very ornate, French Provincial objects are often stained or painted, leaving the wood concealed. Corners and bevels are often decorated with gold leaf or given some kind of gilding
23.
Louis XIV of France
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Louis XIV, known as Louis the Great or the Sun King, was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1643 until his death in 1715. His reign of 72 years and 110 days is the longest of any monarch of a country in European history. In the age of absolutism in Europe, Louis XIVs France was a leader in the centralization of power. Louis began his rule of France in 1661, after the death of his chief minister. By these means he became one of the most powerful French monarchs, under his rule, the Edict of Nantes, which granted rights to Huguenots, was abolished. The revocation effectively forced Huguenots to emigrate or convert in a wave of dragonnades, which managed to virtually destroy the French Protestant minority. During Louis reign, France was the leading European power, and it fought three wars, the Franco-Dutch War, the War of the League of Augsburg. There were also two lesser conflicts, the War of Devolution and the War of the Reunions, warfare defined Louis XIVs foreign policies, and his personality shaped his approach. Impelled by a mix of commerce, revenge, and pique, in peacetime he concentrated on preparing for the next war. He taught his diplomats their job was to create tactical and strategic advantages for the French military, Louis XIV was born on 5 September 1638 in the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, to Louis XIII and Anne of Austria. He was named Louis Dieudonné and bore the title of French heirs apparent. At the time of his birth, his parents had married for 23 years. His mother had experienced four stillbirths between 1619 and 1631, leading contemporaries thus regarded him as a divine gift and his birth a miracle of God. Sensing imminent death, Louis XIII decided to put his affairs in order in the spring of 1643, in defiance of custom, which would have made Queen Anne the sole Regent of France, the king decreed that a regency council would rule on his sons behalf. His lack of faith in Queen Annes political abilities was his primary rationale and he did, however, make the concession of appointing her head of the council. Louis relationship with his mother was uncommonly affectionate for the time, contemporaries and eyewitnesses claimed that the Queen would spend all her time with Louis. Both were greatly interested in food and theatre, and it is likely that Louis developed these interests through his close relationship with his mother. This long-lasting and loving relationship can be evidenced by excerpts in Louis journal entries, such as, but attachments formed later by shared qualities of the spirit are far more difficult to break than those formed merely by blood
24.
Marquetry
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Marquetry is the art and craft of applying pieces of veneer to a structure to form decorative patterns, designs or pictures. The technique may be applied to case furniture or even seat furniture, to small objects with smooth. Marquetry differs from the ancient craft of inlay, or intarsia. The word derives from a Middle French word meaning inlaid work, the veneers used are primarily woods, but may include bone, ivory, turtle-shell, mother-of-pearl, pewter, brass or fine metals. Marquetry using colored straw was a specialty of some European spa resorts from the end of the 18th century, the French cabinet maker Andre-Charles Boulle specialized in furniture using metal and either wood or tortoiseshell together, the latter acting as the background. The simplest kind of marquetry uses only two sheets of veneer, which are glued together and cut with a fine saw. Marquetry as a craft most commonly uses knife-cut veneers. However, the technique usually requires a lot of time. For that reason, many marquetarians have switched to fret or scroll saw techniques, other requirements are a pattern of some kind, some brown gummed tape, PVA glue and a base-board with balancing veneers on the alternate face to compensate stresses. Finishing the piece will require fine abrasive paper always backed by a sanding block, either ordinary varnish, special varnishes, modern polyurethane -oil or water based- good waxes and even the technique of french polish are different methods used to seal and finish the piece. Sand shading is a used to make a picture appear to be more three-dimensional. A piece of veneer to be incorporated into a picture is partially submerged into hot sand for a few seconds, another process is engraving fine lines into a picture and filling them with a mixture of India ink and shellac. The technique of veneered marquetry had its inspiration in 16th century Florence, Marquetry elaborated upon Florentine techniques of inlaying solid marble slabs with designs formed of fitted marbles, jaspers and semi-precious stones. This work, called opere di commessi, has parallels in Central Italian Cosmati-work of inlaid marble floors, altars. The technique is known in English as pietra dura, for the used, onyx, jasper, cornelian, lapis lazuli. In Florence, the Chapel of the Medici at San Lorenzo is completely covered in a colored marble facing using this demanding jig-sawn technique, techniques of wood marquetry were developed in Antwerp and other Flemish centers of luxury cabinet-making during the early 16th century. Boulle marquetry dropped out of favor in the 1720s, but was revived in the 1780s, in the decades between, carefully matched quarter-sawn veneers sawn from the same piece of timber were arranged symmetrically on case pieces and contrasted with gilt-bronze mounts. Floral marquetry came into favor in Parisian furniture in the 1750s, employed by cabinet-makers like Bernard van Risenbergh, Jean-Pierre Latz, the most famous royal French furniture veneered with marquetry are the pieces delivered by Jean Henri Riesener in the 1770s and 1780s
25.
Decorative box
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A decorative box is a form of packaging that is generally more than just functional, but also intended to be decorative and artistic. Many such boxes are used for packaging, both commercially and privately. Historical objects are usually called caskets if larger than a few inches in more than one dimension, traditionally gift boxes used for promotional and seasonal gifts are made from sturdy paperboard or corrugated fiberboard. These boxes normally consist of a base and detachable lid and are made by using a die cutting process to cut the board, the box is then covered with decorative paper. Gift boxes can be dressed with other gift packaging material, such as decorative ribbons, the most common type of decorative box is the feminine work box. It is usually fitted with a divided into many small compartments for needles, reels of silk and cotton. The date of its origin is unclear, but 17th-century examples exist, covered with silk and adorned with beads, no lady would have been without her work box in the 18th century. In the second half of century, elaborate pains were taken to make these boxes dainty. Work boxes are portable, but at times they form the top of a stationary table. A jewelry box, also known as a casket, is a receptacle for trinkets, snuff boxes are made in two sizes, ones for the pocket and communal boxes made for table use. Pocket boxes are made to hold a small amount of snuff for immediate consumption. High-quality boxes have tightly-sealed lids to ensure that air does not penetrate the box, pocket boxes are intended keep a day or twos supply. Table boxes are still to be found in the mess of certain old regiments - often in the rams head style -. Boxes made for the poorer snuff taker were more ordinary, popular and cheap boxes were made in papier-mâché and even potato-pulp, alloys that resembled gold or silver were developed in the 18th and 19th centuries such as the ersatz gold Pinchbeck and the silver look-alike, Sheffield Plate. The lids were often adorned with a portrait, a vignette, portrait miniature, hardstone inlays. Some of the most expensive just used subtly different colours of gold, perhaps the most widely used semi-precious metal was silver and snuffs of all shapes and sizes were made in that metal during snuffs great popularity. Monarchs retained the habit of bestowing snuff-boxes upon ambassadors and other intermediaries as a form of honor, as Talleyrand explained, the diplomatic corps found a ceremonious pinch to be a useful aid to reflection in a business interview. At the coronation of George IV of England, Messrs, rundell and Bridge, the court jewellers, were paid £8,205 for snuff-boxes for gifts to foreign representatives
26.
Sapwuahfik
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Sapwuahfik, formerly Ngatik, or the Raven Islands is a 110 square kilometres total area atoll of the Federated States of Micronesia. It is a village and municipality of roughly 430 people on an area of 1.5 square kilometres in the state of Pohnpei. It is located 150 km southwest of the island of Pohnpei in the Eastern Caroline Islands. The largest and only inhabited island is Ngatik, at the western end, the atoll is 22.5 km long and up to 9.6 km wide. The lagoon measures 78.56 km² in area, and the area is 114 km². The aggregate land area of the 10 islands is 1.75 km², of which the main island Ngatik is 0.91 km², or more than half. While Ngatik is the inhabited island, the six larger of the remaining islands are used by the population for harvesting coconuts and growing taro. There is a total of 12 buildings for shelter on those islands. The islands clockwise, starting at Ngatik in the west, Sapwuahfik has an airstrip that lies just off the island of Ngatik, the Sapwuahfik Civil Airfield. Coastal erosion has cut the airstrip off from the island by about 20 meters, there are on-call personnel who go to the airfield whenever a flight is expected. The population of Sapwuahfik is approximately 433, the culture is closely related to that of Pohnpei, its closest neighbor, however it retains its own distinctive character. Some of the Europeans and Pohnpeians settled and repopulated the island, the island formed a new culture and language, a mixture of English and Ngatikese. In addition to the creole, which is spoken by men, all of the residents speak Ngatikese. Tompson charted the island as Los Valientes, at some point between 1793 and 1796, William Raven, captain of Britannia gave a firm sighting to the island
27.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
28.
Royal Society of Arts
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The Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce is a London-based, British organisation committed to finding practical solutions to social challenges. The shorter version, The Royal Society of Arts and the related RSA acronym, are used more frequently than the full name, the RSA award three medals, the Albert Medal, the Benjamin Franklin Medal and the Bicentenary Medal. Medal winners include Nelson Mandela, Sir Frank Whittle, and Professor Stephen Hawking, on the RSA buildings frieze The Royal Society of Arts words are engraved, although its full name is Royal Society for the encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce. The short name and the related R S of A abbreviation is used more frequently than the full name, on its website, the RSA characterises itself as an enlightenment organisation committed to finding innovative practical solutions to today’s social challenges. The RSAs Patron is currently HM Elizabeth II, the RSAs President is HRH The Princess Royal, its Chairman is Vikki Heywood, life Fellows must have demonstrated exceptionally high achievement. The RSA says, The RSA Fellowship is an international community achievers and influencers from an array of backgrounds and professions. Fellows are social entrepreneurs to scientists, community leaders to commercial innovators, artists and journalists to architects and engineers, edwin Landseer who at the age of 10 was awarded a silver medal for his drawing of a dog. The RSA originally specifically precluded premiums for patented solutions, today the RSA continues to offer premiums. The Faculty currently has 120 Royal Designers and 45 Honorary Royal Designers, the Faculty consists of the world’s leading practitioners from fields as disparate as engineering, furniture, fashion and textiles, graphics, theater and film design. Early members include Eric Gill, Enid Marx, Sir Frank Whittle, the RSA moved to its current home in 1774. The House, situated in John Adam Street, near the Strand in central London, had been purpose-designed by the Adam Brothers as part of their innovative Adelphi scheme. The former private dining room of the Tavern contains a magnificent Adam ceiling with painted roundels by the school of Kauffman and Zucchi. A major refurbishment in 2012 by Matthew Lloyd Architects won a RIBA London Award in 2013, the first of these plaques was, in fact, of red terracotta erected outside a former residence of Lord Byron. The Society erected 36 plaques until, in 1901, responsibility for them was transferred to the London County Council and, later, similar schemes are now operated in all the constituent countries of the United Kingdom. The Society for the encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce hosted the first exhibition of art in 1760. Thomas Gainsborough and Sir Joshua Reynolds, who had exhibited at this first exhibition were subsequently members of The Royal Academy of Arts in 1768. The Society was a pioneer in examinations, offering the first national public examinations in 1882 that led to the formation of the RSA Examinations Board now included in the. In 1876, a predecessor of the Royal College of Music, in 1929 The Society purchased the entire village of West Wycombe
