1.
Tradition
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A tradition is a belief or behavior passed down within a group or society with symbolic meaning or special significance with origins in the past. Common examples include holidays or impractical but socially meaningful clothes, there are about 150 new traditions made each year. Traditions can persist and evolve for thousands of years—the word tradition itself derives from the Latin tradere or traderer literally meaning to transmit, to hand over, to give for safekeeping. While it is assumed that traditions have ancient history, many traditions have been invented on purpose, whether that be political or cultural. Various academic disciplines also use the word in a variety of ways, one way tradition is used more simply, often in academic work but elsewhere also, is to indicate the quality of a piece of information being discussed. For example, According to tradition, Homer was born on Chios and this tradition may never be proven or disproven. In another example, King Arthur, by tradition a true British king, has inspired many well loved stories, of course whether they are documented fact or not does not decrease their value as cultural history and literature. Aside from this use in describing the quality of information, various scholarly fields define the term differently, for example, anthropology and biology have each defined tradition it more precisely than in conventional, as described below, in order to facilitate scholarly discourse. The concept of tradition, as the notion of holding on to a time, is also found in political and philosophical discourse. For example, it is the basis of the concept of traditionalism. In artistic contexts, tradition is used to decide the correct display of an art form, for example, in the performance of traditional genres, adherence to guidelines dictating how an art form should be composed are given greater importance than the performers own preferences. A number of factors can exacerbate the loss of tradition, including industrialization, globalization, in response to this, tradition-preservation attempts have now been started in many countries around the world, focusing on aspects such as traditional languages. Tradition is usually contrasted with the goal of modernity and should be differentiated from customs, conventions, laws, norms, routines, rules and similar concepts. The English word tradition comes from the Latin traditio, the noun from the verb traderere or tradere, it was used in Roman law to refer to the concept of legal transfers. As with many other terms, there are many definitions of tradition. Tradition can also refer to beliefs or customs that are Prehistoric, with lost or arcane origins, originally, traditions were passed orally, without the need for a writing system. Tools to aid this process include poetic devices such as rhyme, the stories thus preserved are also referred to as tradition, or as part of an oral tradition. Even such traditions, however, are presumed to have originated at some point, Traditions are often presumed to be ancient, unalterable, and deeply important, though they may sometimes be much less natural than is presumed
2.
Anglicanism
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Anglicanism is a tradition within Christianity comprising the Church of England and churches which are historically tied to it or hold similar beliefs, worship practices and church structures. The word Anglican originates in ecclesia anglicana, a medieval Latin phrase dating to the Magna Carta and before, adherents of Anglicanism are called Anglicans. As the name suggests, the churches of the Anglican Communion are linked by bonds of tradition, affection and they are in full communion with the See of Canterbury, and thus the Archbishop of Canterbury, in his person, is a unique focus of Anglican unity. He calls the once-a-decade Lambeth Conference, chairs the meeting of primates, Anglicans base their Christian faith on the Bible, traditions of the apostolic Church, apostolic succession, and writings of the Church Fathers. Anglicanism forms one of the branches of Western Christianity, having declared its independence from the Holy See at the time of the Elizabethan Religious Settlement. Many of the new Anglican formularies of the mid-16th century corresponded closely to those of contemporary Protestantism, the word Anglican originates in ecclesia anglicana, a medieval Latin phrase dating to at least 1246 that means the English Church. Adherents of Anglicanism are called Anglicans, as an adjective, Anglican is used to describe the people, institutions and churches, as well as the liturgical traditions and theological concepts developed by the Church of England. As a noun, an Anglican is a member of a church in the Anglican Communion, the word is also used by followers of separated groups which have left the communion or have been founded separately from it, although this is sometimes considered as a misuse. The word Anglicanism came into being in the 19th century, although the term Anglican is found referring to the Church of England as far back as the 16th century, its use did not become general until the latter half of the 19th century. Elsewhere, however, the term Anglican Church came to be preferred as it distinguished these churches from others that maintain an episcopal polity, as such, it is often referred to as being a via media between these traditions. Anglicans understand the Old and New Testaments as containing all necessary for salvation and as being the rule. Reason and Tradition are seen as means to interpret Scripture. Anglicans understand the Apostles Creed as the symbol and the Nicene Creed as the sufficient statement of the Christian faith. Anglicans celebrate the sacraments, with special emphasis being given to the Eucharist, also called Holy Communion. Unique to Anglicanism is the Book of Common Prayer, the collection of services that worshippers in most Anglican churches used for centuries and it was called common prayer originally because it was intended for use in all Church of England churches which had previously followed differing local liturgies. The term was kept when the church became international because all Anglicans used to share in its use around the world, in 1549, the first Book of Common Prayer was compiled by Thomas Cranmer, who was then Archbishop of Canterbury. The founding of Christianity in Britain is commonly attributed to Joseph of Arimathea, according to Anglican legend, Saint Alban, who was executed in 209 AD, is the first Christian martyr in the British Isles. A new culture emerged around the Irish Sea among the Celtic peoples with Celtic Christianity at its core, what resulted was a form of Christianity distinct from Rome in many traditions and practices
3.
Traditionalist Catholicism
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They are commonly associated with an attachment to the Eucharistic liturgy often called the Tridentine, Traditional Latin or extraordinary form of the Mass. Traditionalist Catholics may be divided into four broad groups, since the Second Vatican Council, several traditionalist organizations have been started with or have subsequently obtained approval from the Catholic Church. In addition, many traditionalist Catholics in good standing with Rome are served by local diocesan or religious priests who are willing, others may attend the liturgies of Eastern Catholic Churches, if they are available. There are also local and international lay organizations of traditionalist Catholics. Catholics in good standing with Rome who attend the liturgy have diverse worldviews. Some traditionalists practise their faith outside the structures of the Church. The largest priestly society to fit this description is the Society of St Pius X, which was established in 1970 by Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre, members of this category view many of the post-Conciliar changes as being doctrinally and pastorally unacceptable. They conclude, on the basis of their rejection of the revised Mass rite and their rejection of certain aspects of postconciliar Church teaching as false, the most well known, and most likely well organized Sedevacantist organization is the Congregation of Mary Immaculate Queen. They are often classified as sedevacantists because they reject the official papal succession for the same reasons, many traditionalists further believe that errors have crept into the presentation and understanding of Catholic teachings since the time of the Council. Most traditionalists view the Council as a valid, albeit problematic, Ecumenical Council of the Catholic Church, the Catholic Church in union with the Pope is, according to him, the Conciliar Church which has broken with its own past. It seems indeed that he is no longer able to see that we are dealing with the Catholic Church in the totality of its Tradition, on other questions, there are a variety of opinions. Many traditionalist Catholics associate themselves with a particular priestly society, other small groups of traditionalists sometimes form around an individual independent priest who has no ties with any particular organisation. Some leaders of Independent Catholic Churches also claim to be traditionalist Catholics and to be preserving the Tridentine Mass, examples are the Apostolic Catholic Church, the Canonical Old Roman Catholic Church, and the Fraternité Notre-Dame. They claim that this new ecclesiology contradicts Pope Pius XIIs Mystici corporis Christi, a new ecumenism which they see as aiming at a false pan-Christian religious unity which does not require non-Catholics to convert to the Catholic faith. They see this as contradicting the teachings of the Bible, Pope Pius XIs Mortalium animos, Pope Pius XIIs Humani generis and they therefore generally refuse to attend it. Some, including many sedevacantists, see it as invalid in principle. Some hold that celebration of any modern-language translation even of the Tridentine Mass would have to be presumed invalid and they see this orientation as contradicting Pope Pius XIs Quas Primas, Pope Leo XIIIs Rerum Novarum, and other papal and conciliar documents. They also claim that national bishops conferences, whose influence was increased following the Council
4.
Loyalism
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In general, loyalism refers to an individuals allegiance toward an established government, political party, or sovereign, especially during times of war and revolt. In the United States, the most common usage of the term refers to loyalty to the British Crown, especially to opponents of the American Revolution and those exiles who went to Canada. The term loyalist was used during the Spanish Civil War. In North America, the term loyalist characterised colonists who rejected the American Revolution in favour of remaining within the British Empire. This high level of political polarisation leads historians to argue that the American Revolution was as much a civil war as it was a war of independence from the British Crown, British military strategy during the American Revolution relied on mobilising loyalist soldiers throughout the Thirteen Colonies. Throughout the war, the British military formed over 100 loyalist line regiments whose strength totaled 19,000 of which 9,700 served most at one time, including militia and marine forces more than 50,000 served. The Patriots used tactics such as property confiscation to suppress loyalism, after the war, approximately 80-90% of the Loyalists stayed in the new United States, and adapted to the new conditions and changes of a republic. However, over 70,000 Loyalists sought refuge elsewhere in Lower Canada, Quebec, the Maritime provinces, Jamaica, most re-settled in the British North American Provinces of Quebec and Nova Scotia in present-day Canada. The term loyalist was first used in Irish politics in the 1790s to refer to Protestant British settlers in Ireland who opposed Catholic Emancipation, prominent Irish loyalists included John Foster, John Fitzgibbon and John Beresford. In the subsequent Irish Rebellion of 1798, the term ultra loyalist was used to describe those who were opposed to the United Irishmen, in 1795, Ulster loyalists founded the Orange Order and organised the Yeoman Militia, which helped to put down the rebellion. Some loyalists, such as Richard Musgrave, considered the rebellion a Catholic plot to drive Protestant colonists out of Ireland, during the early 19th century, nearly every English and Welsh county formed a Loyalist Association of Workers in an effort to counter a perceived threat from radical societies. The first such association was founded in Westminster on 20 November 1792, generally, the term loyalist in Northern Ireland is typified by a militant opposition to Irish republicanism, and also often to Roman Catholicism. An Ulster loyalist is most commonly a unionist who strongly favours the political union between Great Britain and Northern Ireland, although some may also support an independent Northern Ireland. The Progressive Unionist Party, a pro-Belfast Agreement loyalist party, won seats in the Northern Ireland Assembly in 1998,2003 and 2007, loyalism in the post-partition Republic of Ireland has declined since independence. The Scottish loyalist movement originated during the Industrial Revolution when a significant number of Ulster Protestants migrated to Scotland from Ireland, Scottish loyalism is typified by militant opposition to Irish republicanism, Scottish independence and the Roman Catholic Church – particularly the existence of Catholic denominational schools. Scottish loyalism is visible through participation at Orange parades with supporters from Rangers, Heart of Midlothian F. C. some loyalists in Scotland also support Ulster paramilitary groups. There are relatively few loyalists in areas such as Aberdeen, the Scottish Borders, monarchism Royalist American Loyalists British Ulster Alliance Ulster-Scots Online CAIN – University of Ulster Haldimand Collection Welsh Loyalists Scottish Loyalists
5.
Counter-revolutionary
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A counter-revolutionary is anyone who opposes a revolution, particularly those who act after a revolution to try to overturn or reverse it, in full or in part. The adjective, counter-revolutionary, pertains to movements that would restore the state of affairs, or the principles, for example, the transitory success of Agis and Cleomenes of ancient Sparta in restoring the constitution of Lycurgus was considered by Plutarch to be counter-revolutionary in a positive sense. In some ways, the supporters of Jacobitism may be placed in this category, the Jacobites were supporters of the Stuart houses claim to the English throne since 1688. The Jacobites survive to this day in their support for the Stuart familys claim to the English throne, more recently, it has been used in France to describe political movements that reject the legacy of the 1789 Revolution, which historian René Rémond has referred to as légitimistes. The royalist legitimist counter-revolutionary French movement survives to day, albeit marginally. After the French Revolution, anti-clerical policies and the execution of King Louis XVI led to the Revolt in the Vendee and this counter-revolution produced what is debated to be the first modern genocide. Monarchists and Catholics took up arms against the revolutionaries French Republic in 1793 after the government asked that 300,000 Vendeans be conscripted into the Republican military, the Vendeans would also rise up against Napoleons attempt to conscript them in 1815. In Italy, after the conquer of the Napoleons army in the late 18th century, a resurgence of the phenomenon happened during the Napoleons second Italian campaign in the early 19th century. Another example of counter-revolution was the rebellion in Southern Italy after the national unification, fomented by the Bourbon government in exile. The revolt, labelled as brigandage, resulted in a civil war that lasted almost ten years. The supporters of Carlism during the 19th century to the present day are perhaps the oldest surviving counter-revolutionary group in Spain, supporters uphold the legitimist view of royal succession, as well as regional autonomy under the monarchy, tradition and Catholicism. The Carlist cause began with the First Carlist War in 1833, general Victoriano Huerta, and later the Felicistas, attempted to thwart the Mexican Revolution in the 1910s. In the late 1920s, Mexican Catholics took up arms against the Mexican Federal Government in what known as the Cristero War. The President of Mexico, Plutarco Elias Calles, was elected in 1924, Calles began carrying out anti-Catholic policies which caused peaceful resistance from Catholics in 1926. The counter-revolution began as a movement of resistance against the anti-clerical laws. In the Summer of 1926, fighting broke out, the Spanish Civil War was in some respects, a counter-revolution. Supporters of Carlism, monarchy, and nationalism joined forces against the Spanish Republic in 1936, the counter-revolutionaries saw the Spanish Constitution of 1931 as a revolutionary document that defied Spanish culture, tradition and religion. On the Republican side, the acts of the Communist Party of Spain against the rural collectives can also be considered counter-revolutionary, more recently, the 1961 Bay of Pigs invasion into Cuba was conducted by counter-revolutionaries who hoped to overthrow the revolutionary government of Fidel Castro
6.
Classicism
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Classicism, in the arts, refers generally to a high regard for a classical period, classical antiquity in the Western tradition, as setting standards for taste which the classicists seek to emulate. Classicism is a genre of philosophy, expressing itself in literature, architecture, art, and music, which has Ancient Greek and Roman sources. It was particularly expressed in the Neoclassicism of the Age of Enlightenment, Classicism is a recurrent tendency in the Late Antique period, and had a major revival in Carolingian and Ottonian art. Until that time the identification with antiquity had been seen as a history of Christendom from the conversion of Roman Emperor Constantine I. Renaissance classicism introduced a host of elements into European culture, including the application of mathematics and empiricism into art, humanism, literary and depictive realism, importantly it also introduced Polytheism, or paganism, and the juxtaposition of ancient and modern. The classicism of the Renaissance led to, and gave way to and this period sought the revival of classical art forms, including Greek drama and music. Opera, in its modern European form, had its roots in attempts to recreate the combination of singing and dancing with theatre thought to be the Greek norm, examples of this appeal to classicism included Dante, Petrarch, and Shakespeare in poetry and theatre. Tudor drama, in particular, modeled itself after classical ideals, studying Ancient Greek became regarded as essential for a well-rounded education in the liberal arts. They also began reviving plastic arts such as bronze casting for sculpture, for example, the painting of Jacques-Louis David which was seen as an attempt to return to formal balance, clarity, manliness, and vigor in art. Various movements of the period saw themselves as classical revolts against a prevailing trend of emotionalism and irregularity. The 20th century saw a number of changes in the arts, thus, both pre-20th century disciplines were labelled classical and modern movements in art which saw themselves as aligned with light, space, sparseness of texture, and formal coherence. Examples of classicist playwrights are Pierre Corneille, Jean Racine and Moliere, the influence of these French rules on playwrights in other nations is debatable. In the English theatre, Restoration playwrights such as William Wycherly and those of Shakespeares plays that seem to display the unities, such as The Tempest, probably indicate a familiarity with actual models from classical antiquity. Classicism in architecture developed during the Italian Renaissance, notably in the writings and designs of Leon Battista Alberti and this style quickly spread to other Italian cities and then to France, Germany, England, Russia and elsewhere. In the 16th century, Sebastiano Serlio helped codify the classical orders, building off of these influences, the 17th-century architects Inigo Jones and Christopher Wren firmly established classicism in England. For the development of classicism from the mid-18th-century onwards, see Neoclassical architecture, for Greek art of the 5th century B. C. E. See Classical art in ancient Greece and the Severe style Italian Renaissance painting and sculpture are marked by their renewal of classical forms, motifs and subjects. In the 15th century Leon Battista Alberti was important in theorizing many of the ideas for painting that came to a fully realised product with Raphaels School of Athens during the High Renaissance
7.
High culture
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The term high culture comprehends the cultural products of aesthetic value, which a society collectively esteem as art. The Preface defines culture as “the disinterested endeavour after man’s perfection” pursued, obtained, moreover, the philosophy of aesthetics proposed in high culture is a force for moral and political good. Critically, the term “high culture” is contrasted with the terms “popular culture”, in Notes Towards the Definition of Culture, T. S. Eliot said that high culture and popular culture are necessary and complementary parts of the culture of a society. In the U. S. Harold Bloom and F. R. Leavis pursued the definition of high culture, history The high culture of the West originated in the Classical-world traditions of intellect and aesthetics in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. In the Classical Greco-Roman tradition, the mode of language was published and preserved in works of elevated style. Certain forms of language used by authors in valorized epochs were held up in antiquity and this ideal associated with humanism, was communicated in Renaissance Italy through institutions such as the Renaissance court schools. Renaissance humanism soon spread through Europe becoming much of the basis of upper class education for centuries, of comparable importance are those works of art and music considered to be of the highest excellence and broadest influence. Together these texts and art works constitute the artefacts representative of the culture of the Western world. Cultural traditions In the Western and some East Asian traditions, art that demonstrates the imagination of the artist is accorded the status of high art, much of high culture consists of the appreciation of what is sometimes called High Art. This term is broader than Arnolds definition and besides literature includes music, visual arts. The decorative arts would not generally be considered High Art, such an environment enables artists, as near as possible, to realize their creative potential with as few as possible practical and technical constraints. Art music is a term used to refer to musical traditions implying advanced structural and theoretical considerations. In this regard, art music frequently occurs as a term to popular music. Art film is the result of filmmaking which is typically a serious, film critics and film studies scholars typically define an art film using a. According to the film scholar David Bordwell, art cinema itself is a film genre, there was a drive, beginning in the 19th century, to open museums and concert halls to give the general public access to high culture. University liberal arts courses still play an important role in the promotion of the concept of high culture, organisations such as the Arts Council of Great Britain, and in most European countries, whole ministries administer these programmes. This includes the subsidy of new works by composers, writers, there are also many private philanthropic sources of funding, which are especially important in the US, where the federally funded Corporation for Public Broadcasting also funds broadcasting. These may be seen as part of the concept of official culture
8.
Noblesse oblige
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Noblesse oblige is a French phrase literally meaning nobility obligates. It denotes the concept that nobility extends beyond mere entitlements and requires the person who holds such status to fulfill social responsibilities, the Dictionnaire de lAcadémie française defines it thus, Whoever claims to be noble must conduct himself nobly. One must act in a fashion that conforms to ones position, the Oxford English Dictionary meanwhile says that the term suggests noble ancestry constrains to honorable behavior, privilege entails to responsibility. Noblesse oblige is generally used to imply that with wealth, power, in ethical discussion, it is sometimes used to summarize a moral economy wherein privilege must be balanced by duty towards those who lack such privilege or who cannot perform such duty. It has also used to describe a person taking the blame for something in order to solve an issue or save someone else. An early instance of this concept in literature may be found in Homers Iliad, in Book XII, the Trojan prince Sarpedon delivers a famous speech in which he urges his comrade Glaucus to fight with him in the front ranks of battle. His advice had included comments like others will respect you for detesting people who have done detestable things, the phrase is carved into Bertram Goodhues Los Angeles Public Library on a sculpture by Lee Lawrie as part of Hartley Burr Alexanders iconographic scheme for the building. Noblesse oblige, while seeming to impose on the nobility a duty to behave nobly and their argument is as nobles, we have rights, but we have duties also, so such duties validate our rights. Jurists Dias and Hohfeld have pointed out that rights and duties are jural correlatives and this reasoning of Dias was used in Murphy v Brentwood District Council to disapprove Lord Denning MRs judgment in Dutton v Bognor Regis Urban District Council. Chivalry The Gospel of Wealth Mandate of Heaven The White Mans Burden Notes Sources Oxford English Dictionary, athens on Trial, The Antidemocratic Tradition in Western Thought. Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University Press
9.
Unionism in the United Kingdom
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Unionism was historically a major issue in Ireland, where Irish nationalism was a significant force. Most of Ireland gained independence from the UK in the 1920s, in Northern Ireland, which remained part of the UK, unionism has continued to be a major issue and the main political divide is between unionists/loyalists and Irish nationalists/republicans. This has led to violent conflict in Northern Ireland, most notably the Troubles. Since the late 20th century support for the Union has become an issue in Scotland and, to a lesser extent. The Kingdom of Great Britain was formed on 1 May 1707 through the Acts of Union 1707 and these created a political union between the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland. This event was the result of the Treaty of Union that was agreed on 22 July 1706, the Acts created a single Parliament of Great Britain at Westminster as well as a customs and monetary union. However, England and Scotland remained separate legal jurisdictions, in 1801, the Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain with the Kingdom of Ireland, through two similar independent acts of the Parliament of Great Britain and the Parliament of Ireland. This created the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland on a basis to how England and Scotland had been united a century earlier. A campaign to repeal the Union in Ireland began immediately, Northern Ireland remained part of the union and the United Kingdom became known formally as the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in 1927. Prior to the creation of the Kingdom of Great Britain, the three kingdoms had been separate states in personal union, when James VI of Scotland succeeded his cousin, Elizabeth I of England, as king of England, the crowns of England, Ireland and Scotland were united. Before then, in 1542, the crowns of England and Ireland had been united through the creation of the Kingdom of Ireland under the Crown of Ireland Act 1542, since the 12th century, the King of England had acted as Lord of Ireland, under papal overlordship. The act of 1542 created the title of King of Ireland for King Henry VIII of England and his successors, support for the Union was historically highest in England and lowest in Ireland, with significant anti-Union minorities in Scotland and Wales. Today, polls show that a majority of people in all four countries of the United Kingdom support the continuation of the Union. This is despite the rise of pro-independence sentiment in Scotland, and to an extent in Wales. In England, English nationalist parties have never won a seat in Parliament, in 2014, the extent of UK-wide support for the Union came under considerable investigation as a result of the prospect of Scottish independence. The final result of the referendum saw a majority of Scottish voters electing to remain in the Union, polls conducted in 2014 found that 70% of voters in England opposed Scottish independence, as did 83% of the Welsh population. The Scottish referendum prompted an increase in activity and vocalism across the United Kingdom. In Northern Ireland, support for the Union has been found to increase since the end of The Troubles, in part, this is as a result of a decreasing association of the Union with radical or extremist political ideologies following the Good Friday Agreement
10.
Cavalier
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It was later adopted by the Royalists themselves. Prince Rupert, commander of much of Charles Is cavalry, is considered to be an archetypal Cavalier. Cavalier derives from the same Latin root as the French word chevalier, Cavalier is chiefly associated with the Royalist supporters of King Charles I in his struggle with Parliament in the English Civil War. Charles, in the Answer to the Petition 13 June 1642 speaks of Cavaliers as a word by what mistake soever it seemes much in disfavour, Cavalier was not understood at the time as primarily a term describing a style of dress, but a whole political and social attitude. Most Parliamentarian generals wore their hair at much the length as their Royalist counterparts. The best patrons in the nobility of Charles Is court painter Sir Anthony van Dyck, probably the most famous image identified as of a cavalier, Frans Hals Laughing Cavalier, shows a gentleman from the strongly Calvinist Dutch town of Haarlem, and is dated 1624. These derogatory terms also showed what the typical Parliamentarian thought of the Royalist side – capricious men who cared more for vanity than the nation at large. Although they did not share the same outlook on how to worship God as the English Independents of the New Model Army, if I forget Thee, do not forget me. However, the word was coined by the Roundheads as a propaganda image of a licentious, hard drinking and frivolous man. It is this image which has survived and many Royalists, for example Henry Wilmot, 1st Earl of Rochester, fitted this description to a tee. Of all his qualifications dissimulation was his masterpiece, in which he so much excelled and this sense has developed into the modern English use of cavalier to describe a recklessly nonchalant attitude, although still with a suggestion of stylishness. Likewise during Exclusion Bill crisis the term Roundhead was replaced with Whig, an example of the Cavalier style can be seen in the painting Charles I, King of England, from Three Angles by Anthony van Dyck. The mascot of Cavalier has been commonly used in the sports world. Most prominently it has been that of the professional Cleveland Cavaliers in the NBA since 1970 and it has also been adopted by smaller organizations such as Johnson County Community College, Kankakee Community College, St. Gregorys University, and the University of Virginias College at Wise. Cavaliers have been represented as a class and subclass of role-playing character since 1983 in Advanced Dungeons & Dragons, Cavalier Generals, King Charles I and His Commanders in the English Civil War, 1642–46. Going to the Wars, The Experience of the British Civil Wars 1638-1651, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Goring, George Goring, Lord. Clarendon, Edward Hyde, 1st earl of, the history of the rebellion and civil wars in England. The History of England from the Invasion of Julius Caesar to the Revolution 1688, the Concise Encyclopedia of the Revolutions and Wars of England, Scotland, and Ireland, 1639-1660
11.
Cavalier Parliament
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The Cavalier Parliament of England lasted from 8 May 1661 until 24 January 1679. It was the longest English Parliament, enduring for nearly 18 years of the reign of Charles II of England. Like its predecessor, the Convention Parliament, it was overwhelmingly Royalist and is known as the Pensioner Parliament for the many pensions it granted to adherents of the King. The first session of the Cavalier Parliament opened on May 8,1661, among the first orders of business was the confirmation of the acts of the previous years irregular Convention of 1660 as legitimate. Parliament immediately ordered the burning of the Solemn League and Covenant by a common hangman. It also repealed the 1642 Bishops Exclusion Act, thereby allowing Church of England bishops to resume their temporal positions, other notable pieces of first session legislation include the Militia Act placing the armed forces unambiguously under the kings authority, and the Sedition Act. It also continued proceedings against the regicides of Charles I, later that same year, Parliament passed the Corporation Act, the first of a series of acts known as the Clarendon Code, to cement the episcopal Anglican church as the official church of England. The Clarendon code is given as the following four acts. The Quaker Act 1662, specifically targeting Quakers, can also be cited as part of the new religious code. In January 1661, the Fifth Monarchists, anticipating the arrival of Jesus Christ to claim the throne, led a succession of revolts under the command of Vavasor Powell and Thomas Venner. To silence radical agitators and pamphleteers, Parliament passed the Licensing of the Press Act 1662, on the economic legislation, the Cavalier parliament had a notable Mercantilist bent. It repealed old domestic restrictions on linen manufacturing, the importation of Irish cattle into Britain was forbidden, giving English beef producers a protected home market. To encourage the inflow of gold and silver from abroad and into circulation, the Coinage Act 1666 abolished seignorage, the prior Convention of 1660 had promised King Charles II a generous annual revenue of £1.2 million, secured on customs duties and excise taxes. It was up to Cavalier parliament to ensure that the promise was kept, but in the first few years, the revenue fell short of the promised amount, and parliament had to look for new ways to make up for it. Parliament was responsible for the introduction of the hearth tax, with its unpopular. Another problem also emerged at this time, the rise in the number of paupers. It was feared they would migrate en masse to the better-off parishes, in 1664, the Cavalier parliament amended the old Triennial Act so that it was now only suggested that the king summon a parliamentary session at least once every three years. In 1665, parliament met in Oxford to escape the Great Plague of London, Mercantilist agitation had prompted parliament to support the Second Anglo-Dutch War in 1665
12.
Jacobitism
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The movement took its name from Jacobus, the Renaissance Latin form of Iacomus, the original Latin form of James. Adherents rebelled against the British government on several occasions between 1688 and 1746, the strongholds of Jacobitism were parts of the Scottish Highlands and the lowland north-east of Scotland, Ireland, and parts of Northern England. Significant support also existed in Wales and South-West England, the Jacobites believed that parliamentary interference with the line of succession to the English and Scottish thrones was illegal. Catholics also hoped the Stuarts would end recusancy, in Scotland, the Jacobite cause became intertwined with the clan system. The emblem of the Jacobites is the White Cockade, White Rose Day is celebrated on 10 June, the anniversary of the birth of the Old Pretender in 1688. From the second half of the 17th century onwards, a time of political, the Commonwealth ended with the Restoration of Charles II. During his reign the Church of England was re-established, and episcopal government was restored in Scotland. The authorities attempted some accommodation with Presbyterian dissidents, introducing official Indulgences in 1669 and 1672 and this was particularly true of the followers of the Reverend Richard Cameron, soon to be known as the Cameronians. The government increasingly resorted to force in its attempts to out the Cameronians. The reigns of the last three Stuart Kings – Charles I, Charles II and James II and VII – were marked by growing Royal resistance to this developing consensual model of government. In part the Kings were inspired by the development of Royal Absolutism in contemporary Europe, exemplified particularly strongly by their neighbour and contemporary, Louis XIV of France. In part, however, the apologists of royal authority based their claims on a just assessment of the powers claimed by England, in 1685, Charles II was succeeded by his Roman Catholic brother, James II and VII. In addition to sharing his familys absolutist views of government, James attempted to introduce religious toleration of Roman Catholics, in Seventeenth-century Europe, being a religious outsider meant being a political and social outsider as well. James tried to encourage the participation in life of Roman Catholics, Protestant Dissenters. Such attempts to broaden his basis of support succeeded in antagonising members of the Anglican establishment, in England and Scotland, James attempted to impose religious toleration, which helped the Catholic minority but alarmed the religious and political establishment. Then in 1688 Jamess second wife had a boy, bringing the prospect of a Catholic dynasty, on 4 November 1688 William arrived at Torbay, England. When he landed the next day, at Brixham, James fled to France, in February 1689, the Glorious Revolution formally changed Englands monarch, but many Catholics, Episcopalians and Tory royalists still supported James as the constitutionally legitimate monarch. Forces of Cameronians as well as Clan Campbell Highlanders led by the Earl of Argyll had come to bolster Williams support, the convention set out its terms and William and Mary were proclaimed at Edinburgh on 11 April 1689, then had their coronation in London in May
13.
Divine right of kings
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The divine right of kings, divine right, or Gods mandate is a political and religious doctrine of royal and political legitimacy. It asserts that a monarch is subject to no earthly authority, the king is thus not subject to the will of his people, the aristocracy, or any other estate of the realm. It implies that only God can judge an unjust king and that any attempt to depose, dethrone or restrict his powers runs contrary to the will of God and it is only an implication and the Bible states Iron sharpens iron, referring to accountability to each other. It also implies the higher accountability of Monarchs to implement policies in line with Christs commandment to Love one another and it is often expressed in the phrase by the Grace of God, attached to the titles of a reigning monarch. In the pagan world, kings were often seen as ruling with the backing of heavenly powers or perhaps even being divine beings themselves. However, the Christian notion of a right of kings could be traced to the biblical story found in 1 Samuel. And the anointing is to such an effect that the monarch became inviolable, adomnan of Iona is one of the earliest Christian proponents of this concept of kings ruling with divine right. He wrote of the Irish King Diarmait mac Cerbaills assassination and claimed that divine punishment fell on his assassin for the act of violating the monarch, the same angel then visited Columba on three successive nights, and then finally Columba agreed and Aedan came to receive ordination. Adomnans writings most likely influenced other Irish writers, who in turn influenced continental ideas as well, pepin the Shorts coronation may have also come from the same influence. The Carolingian dynasty and the Holy Roman Emperors also influenced all subsequent western ideas of kingship, the immediate author of the theory was Jean Bodin, who based it on the interpretation of Roman law. With the rise of nation-states and the Protestant Reformation, the theory of divine right justified the kings authority in both political and spiritual matters. The theory came to the fore in England under the reign of James I of England, louis XIV of France strongly promoted the theory as well. The Scots textbooks of the right of kings were written in 1597–98 by James VI of Scotland before his accession to the English throne. James I based his theories in part on his understanding of the Bible, the state of monarchy is the supremest thing upon earth, for kings are not only Gods lieutenants upon earth and sit upon Gods throne, but even by God himself they are called gods. There be three principal that illustrate the state of monarchy, one out of the word of God. In the Scriptures kings are called gods, and so their power after a certain relation compared to the Divine power, Kings are also compared to fathers of families, for a king is truly parens patriae, the politic father of his people. And lastly, kings are compared to the head of this microcosm of the body of man, jamess reference to Gods lieutenants is apparently a reference to the controversial text in Romans 13, where Paul refers to Gods ministers. Let every soul be subject unto the higher powers, for there is no power but of God, the powers that be are ordained of God
14.
Family Compact
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It was the Upper Canadian equivalent of the Château Clique in Lower Canada. It was noted for its conservatism and opposition to democracy, the term Family Compact first appeared in a letter written by Marshall Spring Bidwell to William Warren Baldwin in 1828. Family did not mean relations by marriage, but rather a close brotherhood, Lord Durham noted in 1839 There is, in truth, very little of family connection among the persons thus united. The Family Compact emerged from the War of 1812 and collapsed in the aftermath of the Rebellions of 1837 and their resistance to the political principle of responsible government contributed to its short life. At the end of its lifespan, the Compact would be condemned by Lord Durham as a petty corrupt insolent Tory clique. Historians P. J. Cain and A. G. Hopkins have emphasized that the British empire at the mid-nineteenth century represented the extension abroad of the institutions and principles entrenched at home. ”Upper Canada, created in the very “image and transcript” of the British Constitution is but one example. Like the United Kingdom, the constitution of Upper Canada was established on the mixed monarchy model, mixed monarchy is a form of government that integrates elements of democracy, aristocracy, and monarchy. Upper Canada, however, had no aristocracy, the methods pursued to create one were similar to that used in the United Kingdom itself. The result was the Family Compact, Cain and Hopkins point out that new money, the financiers rather than the industrial “barons”, were gradually gentrified through the purchase of land, intermarriage and the acquisition of titles. A similar pattern is seen in colonial empires, such as the Dutch Empire. This same process is seen in Upper Canada and they might even be called ‘entrepreneurs’, most of whose political views may have been highly conservative but whose economic outlook was clearly ‘developmental’. ”The Family Compacts role in the Welland Canal is one example. It is through the pursuit of gentility that the Family Compact was born, Upper Canada did not have a hereditary nobility. In its place, senior members of Upper Canada bureaucracy, the Executive Council of Upper Canada and Legislative Council of Upper Canada and these men sought to solidify their personal positions into family dynasties and acquire all the marks of gentility. They used their government positions to extend their business and speculative interests, the origins of the Family Compact lie with overlapping appointments made to the Executive and Legislative Council of Upper Canada. The Councils were intended to operate independently, section 38 of the Constitutional Act of 1791 referred to the independence of the offices indirectly. Governor Sir Francis Bond Head, the influence of the Family Compact could be limited as well. Members ensured their conservative friends held the important administrative and judicial positions in the colony through political patronage, the centre of the Compact was York, the capital. Its most important member was Bishop John Strachan, many of the members were his former students
15.
Oxford Movement
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The Oxford Movement was a movement of High Church members of the Church of England which eventually developed into Anglo-Catholicism. They thought of Anglicanism as one of three branches of the One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church, the movements philosophy was known as Tractarianism after its series of publications, the Tracts for the Times, published from 1833 to 1841. Tractarians were also referred to as Newmanites and Puseyites after two prominent Tractarians, John Henry Newman and Edward Bouverie Pusey. Other well-known Tractarians included John Keble, Charles Marriott, Richard Froude, Robert Wilberforce, Isaac Williams, in the nineteenth century, in an attempt to broaden its reach, the Church of England assumed a latitudinarian perspective. John Keble criticised these proposals as National Apostasy in his Assize Sermon in Oxford in 1833 and their interest in Christian origins caused some of them to reconsider the relationship of the Church of England with the Roman Catholic Church. The Tractarians postulated the Branch Theory, which states that Anglicanism along with Orthodoxy, Tractarians argued for the inclusion of traditional aspects of liturgy from medieval religious practice, as they believed the church had become too plain. Newmans eventual reception into the Roman Catholic Church in 1845, followed by Henry Edward Manning in 1851, had an effect upon the movement. Apart from the Tracts for the Times, the group began a collection of translations of the Church Fathers, the collection eventually comprised 48 volumes, the last published three years after Puseys death. They were issued through Rivingtons company with the imprint of the Holyrood Press, the main editor for many of these was Charles Marriott. A number of volumes of original Greek and Latin texts was also published, One of the main contributions that resulted from Tractarianism is the hymnbook entitled Hymns Ancient and Modern which was published in 1861. The Oxford Movement was criticised for being a mere Romanising tendency, paradoxically, the Oxford Movement was also criticised for being both secretive and collusive. The Oxford Movement resulted in the establishment of Anglican religious orders and it incorporated ideas and practices related to the practice of liturgy and ceremony to incorporate more powerful emotional symbolism in the church. In particular it brought the insights of the Liturgical Movement into the life of the Church and its effects were so widespread that the Eucharist gradually became more central to worship, vestments became common, and numerous Roman Catholic practices were re-introduced into worship. This led to controversies within churches that resulted in court cases, partly because bishops refused to give livings to Tractarian priests, many of them began working in slums. From their new ministries, they developed a critique of British social policy, the more radical Catholic Crusade was a much smaller organisation than the Oxford Movement. Anglo-Catholicism – as this complex of ideas, styles and organisations became known – had a significant influence on global Anglicanism, concerns that Tractarianism was a disguised Roman Catholic movement were not unfounded, Newman believed that the Roman and Anglican churches were wholly compatible. He was received into the Roman Catholic Church in 1845 and was ordained a priest of the Church the same year. Writing on the end of Tractarianism as a movement, Newman stated, I saw indeed clearly that my place in the Movement was lost, public confidence was at an end, my occupation was gone
16.
Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon
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Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon was an English statesman who served as Lord Chancellor to King Charles II from 1658, two years before the Restoration of the Monarchy, until 1667. He was loyal to the king and built-up the royalist cause and he was one of the most important historians of England, as author of the most influential contemporary history of the Civil War, The History of the Rebellion. He was the grandfather of two monarchs, Queen Mary II and Queen Anne. Hyde was the son of Henry Hyde of Dinton and Purton. Henrys brother was Sir Lawrence Hyde, Attorney General, the family of Hyde was long established at Norbury in Cheshire. Hyde was fond of his mother and idolised his father, whom he called the best father, the best friend, and the wisest man I have known. He was educated at Gillingham School, and in 1622 entered Magdalen Hall, Oxford, having been rejected by Magdalen College, Oxford, and graduated BA in 1626. Intended originally for holy orders in the Church of England, the death of two brothers made him his fathers heir, and in 1625 he entered the Middle Temple to study law. Of the most excellent men in their several kinds that lived in that age and these included Ben Jonson, John Selden, Edmund Waller, John Hales and especially Lord Falkland, who became his best friend. From their influence and the reading in which he indulged, he doubtless drew the solid learning. The diarist Samuel Pepys wrote thirty years later that he never knew anyone who could speak as well as Hyde and he was one of the most prominent members of the famous Great Tew Circle, a group of intellectuals who gathered at Lord Falklands country house Great Tew, Oxfordshire. In 1633 he was called to the bar, and obtained quickly a good position and practice, both his marriages gained him influential friends, and in December 1634 he was made keeper of the writs and rolls of the Court of Common Pleas. In April 1640, Hyde was elected Member of Parliament for both Shaftesbury and Wootton Bassett in the Short Parliament and chose to sit for Wootton Bassett. Hyde opposed legislation restricting the power of the King to appoint his own advisors, viewing it unnecessary and he gradually moved over towards the royalist side, championing the Church of England and opposing the execution of the Earl of Strafford, Charless primary advisor. Following the Grand Remonstrance of 1641, Hyde became an advisor to the King. He left London about 20 May 1642, and rejoined the king at York, in February 1643, Hyde was knighted and was officially appointed to the Privy Council, the following month he was made Chancellor of the Exchequer. Despite his own opposition to the King he found it hard to forgive anyone, even a close friend, who fought for Parliament. His view of the conflict and of his opponents was undoubtedly coloured by the death of his best friend Lord Falkland at the First Battle of Newbury in September 1643
17.
Roger L'Estrange
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For the similarly-named 13th-century nobleman, see Roger Lestrange. Sir Roger LEstrange was an English pamphleteer, author and staunch defender of Royalist claims, LEstrange was involved in political controversy throughout his life. Roger LEstrange was born in Hunstanton, Norfolk, the youngest son of Sir Hamon LEstrange, Sir Hamon served as Sheriff and Deputy Lieutenant of Norfolk, and was allied to the Dukes of Norfolk, serving as a Member of Parliament in a seat under their control. In 1639, both father and son fought in the Bishops Wars against the Scots and they later fought the Royalist side in the English Civil War. In 1643, the two led a failed conspiracy whose purpose was place the town of Lynn under control of the king, Roger LEstranges subsequent activities as a Royalist conspirator lead to him spending time in prison, under sentence of death. He later played a role in the 1648 Royalist uprising in Kent. This was defeated by troops and he fled to the Continent. In 1653, he returned to England, with a pardon by Oliver Cromwell and lived quietly. By 1659, however, he was making his presence as a Royalist known and he printed several pamphlets supporting a return of Charles II and attacked various Commonwealth writers, including John Milton in a pamphlet titled No Blinde Guides. Thereafter, also appointed Licenser of the Press, he retained both positions until the lapse of the Licensing of the Press Act in 1679, the latter was not, however, a continuous appointment. LEstrange excelled at this, hunting down hidden presses and enlisting peace officers and soldiers to suppress their activities and he soon came to be known as the Bloodhound of the Press. His careful monitoring and control of nonconformist ideas and opinions succeeded not only in checking seditious publications, the latter comment was removed from the draft by L’Estrange. In the later years of the reign, he was again involved in writing for the Court. He also sought to calm the popular hysteria arising from the Popish Plot in pamphlets questioning the truthfulness of Titus Oates allegations, at this period too, he helped Thomas Britton found his concert series, playing the viol at the first event in 1678. It was written in the form of a dialogue between a Whig and a Tory, with the bias on the side of the latter, during the six years of its existence, LEstrange wrote with a consistent fierceness, meeting his enemies with personal attacks characterised by sharp wit. One of his targets was Titus Oates, whose increasingly extreme allegations eventually brought about his conviction for perjury in 1685. LEstrange married Anne, daughter of Sir Thomas Dolman of Shaw, only two of their children survived into adulthood, Roger and Margery, an addle-headed and stubborn child. As I was born and brought up in the communion of the church of England, so I have been true to it ever since, in 1685, LEstrange was knighted by King James II and became a member of parliament for Winchester from 1685 to 1689
18.
Laurence Hyde, 1st Earl of Rochester
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Laurence Hyde, 1st Earl of Rochester, KG, PC was an English statesman and writer. He was originally a supporter of James II but later supported the Glorious Revolution in 1688 and he held high office under Queen Anne, who was his sisters daughter, but their frequent disagreements limited his influence. The second son of Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon and his wife, Frances Aylesbury. He was baptized at St Margarets, Westminster on 15 March 1642, following the Restoration, he sat as member of parliament, first for Newport, Cornwall and later for the University of Oxford, from 1660 to 1679. In 1661, he was sent on an embassy to Louis XIV of France. Hyde was an opponent of the Exclusion Bill that would have prevented James and he was created Earl of Rochester, Viscount Hyde of Kenilworth, and Baron Wotton Basset on 29 November 1682. Rochesters enemy Lord Halifax called for an inquiry into Rochesters stewardship of the finances, as a consequence Rochester was, in August 1684, removed from office and given the post Lord President of the Council, a more dignified but less lucrative and important office. Halifax said, I have seen people kicked down stairs but my Lord Rochester is the first person that I ever saw kicked up stairs, but in spite of their family relationship and their long friendship, James and his Treasurer did not agree. The king wished to surround himself with Roman Catholic advisers, the Earl, on the other hand, looked with alarm on his masters leanings to that form of faith. In 1686, James tried to convert Rochester to Catholicism and every audience Rochester had with the king was spent in arguments over the authority of the Church, Rochester had interviews with Catholic divines in order to appear open-minded but he refused to convert. The king agreed to a conference between Catholic and Protestant divines in a formal disputation, James allowed Rochester to choose any Anglican ministers except John Tillotson and Edward Stillingfleet. Rochester chose two chaplains who happened to be in waiting, Simon Patrick and William Jane, the conference was held in secret on 30 November at Whitehall and the divines discussed the real presence, with the Catholics taking on the burden of proof. Patrick and Jane said little, with Rochester defending the Anglican position, at one point Rochester lost his temper and angrily asked whether it was expected that he would convert on so frivolous grounds. He then composed himself, knowing how much he was risking, James knew now that Rochester did not intend to be convinced. News of the conference leaked and Tory churchmen were shocked that Rochester might have wavered in his faith, Rochester requested another conference and James consented. Rochester let it be known to influential Catholics at court that he would do everything they requested so long as he remained in office and he told them that as a Protestant he would prove more useful to them than as a Catholic. However, on 17 December James called Rochester into an audience, James asked him to think again on his refusal to convert but Rochester would not and on 4 January 1687 he was dismissed. However he received a pension of approximately £4000 per annum and £40,000, on 5 November 1688, William, Prince of Orange landed at Torbay
19.
Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke
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Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke was an English politician, government official and political philosopher. He was a leader of the Tories, and supported the Church of England politically despite his antireligious views, in 1715 he supported the Jacobite rebellion of 1715 which sought to overthrow the new king George I. Escaping to France he became minister for the Pretender. He was attainted for treason, but reversed course and was allowed to return to England in 1723 and he is best known as the philosopher of the Country Party. Henry St John was most likely born at Lydiard Tregoze, the seat in Wiltshire. St John was the son of Sir Henry St John, 4th Baronet later 1st Viscount St John and it is possible he was educated at a Dissenting academy. He travelled to France, Switzerland and Italy during 1698 and 1699, oliver Goldsmith reported that he had been seen to run naked through the park in a state of intoxication. Swift, his friend, said that he wanted to be thought the Alcibiades or Petronius of his age. In 1700, he married Frances, daughter of Sir Henry Winchcombe of Bucklebury, Berkshire and he became a Member of Parliament in 1701, representing the family borough of Wootton Bassett in Wiltshire, as a Tory. His seat was Lydiard Park at Lydiard Tregoze, now in the Borough of Swindon, in March 1702, he was chosen commissioner for taking the public accounts. After Queen Annes accession, St John supported the bills in 1702 and 1704 against occasional conformity, and took a leading part in the disputes which arose between the two Houses. In 1704, St John took office with Harley as secretary at war, thus being brought into relations with John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough. He supported the bill for requiring a property qualification for a seat in parliament. In 1712, he was the author of the bill taxing newspapers, because of the diversity of aims among the allies, St John was induced to enter into separate and secret negotiations with France for the security of English interests. In May 1712, he ordered the Duke of Ormonde, who had succeeded Marlborough in command, subsequently, St John received the congratulations of the French foreign minister, de Torcy, on the French victory over Prince Eugene at Denain. In June 1712, St Johns commercial treaty with France, establishing trade with that country, was rejected by the House of Commons. The treaty was presented in the Commons by Arthur Moore as St John had been created Viscount Bolingbroke earlier that year, at least 40 or so from the Tories voted to reject the treaty. In August 1712, Bolingbroke went to France and signed an armistice between England and France for four months, in March 1711, when the Marquis de Guiscard made an attempt on Harleys life, Bolingbroke assumed temporary leadership of the ministrys affairs
20.
John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute
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John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute, KG, PC was a Scottish nobleman who served as Prime Minister of Great Britain under George III. He was arguably the last important favourite in British politics and he was the first Prime Minister from Scotland following the Acts of Union in 1707. A close relative of the Clan Campbell, Bute succeeded to the Earldom of Bute upon the death of his father, James Stuart, 2nd Earl of Bute, in 1723. He was brought up thereafter by his uncles, the 2nd Duke of Argyll and Archibald Campbell, 3rd Duke of Argyll, 1st and only Earl of Ilay, Viscount. Bute studied at Eton College and the University of Leiden, Netherlands, on 24 August 1736, he married Mary Wortley Montagu, bringing the large Wortley estates to his family. In 1737, due to the influence of his uncles, he was elected a Scottish representative peer, for the next several years he retired to his estates in Scotland to manage his affairs and indulge his interest in botany. During the Jacobite Rising of 1745, Bute moved to Westminster, London, upon the Princes death in 1751, the education of his son, Prince George, the new Prince of Wales, became a priority and in 1755 Bute was appointed as his tutor. Bute arranged for the Prince and his brother Prince Edward to follow a course of lectures on natural philosophy by the itinerant lecturer Stephen Demainbray. Furthermore, following the death of the Prince Frederick, Bute became close to his widow, Augusta of Saxe-Gotha and it was rumoured that the couple were having an affair, and indeed soon after John Horne published a scandalous pamphlet alluding to a liaison between Bute and the Princess. Rumours of this affair were almost certainly untrue, as Bute was by all indications happily married, in 1780 Bute was elected as the first President of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland. Because of the influence he had over his pupil, Bute expected to quickly to political power following Georges accession to the throne in 1760. It would first be necessary to both the incumbent Prime Minister and arguably the even more powerful Secretary of State for the Southern Department. Re-elected as a Scottish representative peer in 1760, Bute was indeed appointed the de facto Prime Minister, bute’s premiership was notable for the negotiation of the Treaty of Paris which concluded the Seven Years’ War. They therefore charged the colonists for the increased military levels, thus catalysing the resistance to taxes which led to the American Revolution, king George began to see through Bute, and turned against him after being criticised for an official speech which the press recognised as Butes own work. Bute also proposed a controversial Cider tax which produced enormous hostility in cider-producing areas, the journalist John Wilkes published a newspaper called The North Briton, in which both Bute and the Dowager Princess of Wales were savagely satirised. Bute resigned as prime minister shortly afterwards, though he remained in the House of Lords a Scottish representative peer until 1780 and he remained friendly with the Dowager Princess of Wales, but her attempts to reconcile him with George III proved futile. For the remainder of his life, Bute remained at his estate in Hampshire, from there he continued his pursuit of botany and became a major literary and artistic patron. Among his beneficiaries were Samuel Johnson, Tobias Smollett, Robert Adam, William Robertson and he also gave considerably to the Scottish universities
21.
Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington
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His defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 put him in the top rank of Britains military heroes. Wellesley was born in Dublin, belonging to the Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland and he was commissioned as an ensign in the British Army in 1787, serving in Ireland as aide-de-camp to two successive Lords Lieutenant of Ireland. He was also elected as a Member of Parliament in the Irish House of Commons and he was a colonel by 1796, and saw action in the Netherlands and in India, where he fought in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War at the Battle of Seringapatam. He was appointed governor of Seringapatam and Mysore in 1799 and, as a newly appointed major-general, following Napoleons exile in 1814, he served as the ambassador to France and was granted a dukedom. During the Hundred Days in 1815, he commanded the army which defeated Napoleon at Waterloo. Wellesleys battle record is exemplary, he participated in some 60 battles during the course of his military career. Wellington is famous for his defensive style of warfare, resulting in several victories against numerically superior forces while minimising his own losses. He is regarded as one of the greatest defensive commanders of all time, after ending his active military career, Wellington returned to politics. He was twice British prime minister as part of the Tory party, from 1828 to 1830 and he oversaw the passage of the Catholic Relief Act 1829, but opposed the Reform Act 1832. He continued as one of the figures in the House of Lords until his retirement. As such, he belonged to the Protestant Ascendancy and his biographers mostly follow the contemporary newspaper evidence in saying that he was born 1 May 1769, the day that he was baptised. He was most likely born at his parents townhouse,24 Upper Merrion Street, Dublin, but his mother Anne, Countess of Mornington, recalled in 1815 that he had been born at 6 Merrion Street, Dublin. He spent most of his childhood at his familys two homes, the first a house in Dublin and the second Dangan Castle,3 miles north of Summerhill on the Trim Road in County Meath. In 1781, Arthurs father died and his eldest brother Richard inherited his fathers earldom and he went to the diocesan school in Trim when at Dangan, Mr Whytes Academy when in Dublin, and Browns School in Chelsea when in London. He then enrolled at Eton, where he studied from 1781 to 1784, moreover, Eton had no playing fields at the time. In 1785, a lack of success at Eton, combined with a shortage of funds due to his fathers death, forced the young Wellesley. Until his early twenties, Arthur showed little sign of distinction and his mother grew concerned at his idleness, stating. A year later, Arthur enrolled in the French Royal Academy of Equitation in Angers, where he progressed significantly, becoming a good horseman and learning French, upon returning to England in late 1786, he astonished his mother with his improvement
22.
Walter Scott
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Sir Walter Scott, 1st Baronet, FRSE was a Scottish historical novelist, playwright and poet. Many of his works remain classics of both English-language literature and of Scottish literature, famous titles include Ivanhoe, Rob Roy, Old Mortality, The Lady of the Lake, Waverley, The Heart of Midlothian and The Bride of Lammermoor. A prominent member of the Tory establishment in Edinburgh, Scott was an member of the Highland Society. He survived a bout of polio in 1773 that left him lame. To cure his lameness he was sent in 1773 to live in the rural Scottish Borders at his grandparents farm at Sandyknowe, adjacent to the ruin of Smailholm Tower. Here he was taught to read by his aunt Jenny, and learned from her the speech patterns and many of the tales and legends that characterised much of his work. In January 1775 he returned to Edinburgh, and that went with his aunt Jenny to take spa treatment at Bath in England. In the winter of 1776 he went back to Sandyknowe, with another attempt at a cure at Prestonpans during the following summer. In 1778, Scott returned to Edinburgh for private education to him for school. In October 1779 he began at the Royal High School of Edinburgh and he was now well able to walk and explore the city and the surrounding countryside. His reading included chivalric romances, poems, history and travel books and he was given private tuition by James Mitchell in arithmetic and writing, and learned from him the history of the Church of Scotland with emphasis on the Covenanters. Scott began studying classics at the University of Edinburgh in November 1783, at the age of 12, in March 1786 he began an apprenticeship in his fathers office to become a Writer to the Signet. While at the university Scott had become a friend of Adam Ferguson, Scott met the blind poet Thomas Blacklock, who lent him books and introduced him to James Macphersons Ossian cycle of poems. During the winter of 1786–87 the 15-year-old Scott saw Robert Burns at one of these salons, for what was to be their only meeting. When Burns noticed a print illustrating the poem The Justice of the Peace and asked who had written the poem, only Scott knew that it was by John Langhorne, and was thanked by Burns. When it was decided that he would become a lawyer, he returned to the university to study law, first taking classes in Moral Philosophy, after completing his studies in law, he became a lawyer in Edinburgh. As a lawyers clerk he made his first visit to the Scottish Highlands directing an eviction and he was admitted to the Faculty of Advocates in 1792. He had an unsuccessful love suit with Williamina Belsches of Fettercairn, as a boy, youth and young man, Scott was fascinated by the oral traditions of the Scottish Borders
23.
Stanley Baldwin
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Stanley Baldwin, 1st Earl Baldwin of Bewdley, KG, PC, JP, FRS was a British Conservative politician, who dominated the government in his country between the two world wars. Three times Prime Minister, he is the premier to have served under three monarchs. Baldwin first entered the House of Commons in 1908 as the Member of Parliament for Bewdley and he held government office in the coalition ministry of David Lloyd George. Upon Bonar Laws resignation due to reasons in May 1923, Baldwin became Prime Minister. He called an election on the issue of tariffs and lost the Conservatives majority, after winning the 1924 General Election Baldwin formed his second government, which saw important tenures of office by Sir Austen Chamberlain, Winston Churchill and Neville Chamberlain. The latter two ministers strengthened Conservative appeal by reforms in areas associated with the Liberal Party. They included industrial conciliation, unemployment insurance, a more extensive old-age pension system, slum clearance, more private housing, Baldwin narrowly lost the 1929 General Election and his continued leadership of the party was subject to extensive criticism by the press barons Lord Rothermere and Lord Beaverbrook. In 1931, Labour Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald formed a National Government, most of whose ministers were Conservatives and which won an enormous majority at the 1931 General Election. As Lord President of the Council, and one of four Conservatives among the small ten-member Cabinet and this government saw an Act delivering increased self-government for India, a measure opposed by Churchill and by many rank-and-file Conservatives. The Statute of Westminster 1931 gave Dominion status to Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, as party leader, Baldwin made many striking innovations, such as clever use of radio and film, that made him highly visible to the public and strengthened Conservative appeal. During this time, he oversaw the beginning of the rearmament process of the British military, Baldwin retired in 1937 and was succeeded by Neville Chamberlain. By 2004, however, historians generally painted a positive portrait of his governments. Less equivocal was his rediscovery as a moderate and inclusive Conservative for the modern age, Modern scholars generally rank him in the upper half of British Prime Ministers. The family was prosperous, and owned the eponymous iron and steel making business that in later became part of Richard Thomas. Baldwin then went on to the University of Cambridge, where he studied history at Trinity College. His time at university was blighted by the presence, as Master of Trinity, of Montagu Butler, his former headmaster who had punished him at Harrow for writing a piece of schoolboy smut. He was asked to resign from the Magpie & Stump for never speaking and his father sent him to Mason College for one session of technical training in metallurgy as preparation. As a young man he served briefly as a Second Lieutenant in the Artillery Volunteers at Malvern, Baldwin married Lucy Ridsdale on 12 September 1892
24.
G. K. Chesterton
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Gilbert Keith Chesterton, KC*SG, better known as G. K. Chesterton, was an English writer, poet, philosopher, dramatist, journalist, orator, lay theologian, biographer, and literary and art critic. Chesterton is often referred to as the prince of paradox, Time magazine has observed of his writing style, Whenever possible Chesterton made his points with popular sayings, proverbs, allegories—first carefully turning them inside out. Chesterton is well known for his fictional priest-detective Father Brown, even some of those who disagree with him have recognised the wide appeal of such works as Orthodoxy and The Everlasting Man. Chesterton, as a thinker, cast aspersions on both Progressivism and Conservatism, saying, The whole modern world has divided itself into Conservatives and Progressives. The business of Progressives is to go on making mistakes, the business of the Conservatives is to prevent the mistakes from being corrected. George Bernard Shaw, Chestertons friendly enemy according to Time, said of him, biographers have identified him as a successor to such Victorian authors as Matthew Arnold, Thomas Carlyle, Cardinal John Henry Newman, and John Ruskin. Chesterton was born in Campden Hill in Kensington, London, the son of Marie Louise, née Grosjean and he was baptised at the age of one month into the Church of England, though his family themselves were irregularly practising Unitarians. According to his autobiography, as a young man Chesterton became fascinated with the occult and, along with his brother Cecil, Chesterton was educated at St Pauls School, then attended the Slade School of Art to become an illustrator. The Slade is a department of University College London, where Chesterton also took classes in literature, Chesterton married Frances Blogg in 1901, the marriage lasted the rest of his life. Chesterton credited Frances with leading him back to Anglicanism, though he later considered Anglicanism to be a pale imitation and he entered full communion with the Catholic Church in 1922. In 1896 Chesterton began working for the London publisher Redway, and T. Fisher Unwin, during this period he also undertook his first journalistic work, as a freelance art and literary critic. In 1902 the Daily News gave him a weekly column, followed in 1905 by a weekly column in The Illustrated London News. Early on Chesterton showed a great interest in and talent for art and he had planned to become an artist, and his writing shows a vision that clothed abstract ideas in concrete and memorable images. Even his fiction contained carefully concealed parables, Men may keep a sort of level of good, but no man has ever been able to keep on one level of evil. That road goes down and down, the kind man drinks and turns cruel, the frank man kills and lies about it. Many a man Ive known started like you to be an honest outlaw, a robber of the rich. Chesterton loved to debate, often engaging in public disputes with such men as George Bernard Shaw, H. G. Wells, Bertrand Russell. According to his autobiography, he and Shaw played cowboys in a silent film that was never released, Chesterton was a large man, standing 6 feet 4 inches and weighing around 20 stone 6 pounds
25.
Winston Churchill
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Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill KG OM CH TD PC DL FRS RA was a British statesman who was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1940 to 1945 and again from 1951 to 1955. Churchill was also an officer in the British Army, a historian. He won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1953 for his overall, in 1963, he was the first of only eight people to be made an honorary citizen of the United States. Churchill was born into the family of the Dukes of Marlborough and his father, Lord Randolph Churchill, was a charismatic politician who served as Chancellor of the Exchequer, his mother, Jennie Jerome, was an American socialite. As a young officer, he saw action in British India, the Anglo–Sudan War. He gained fame as a war correspondent and wrote books about his campaigns, at the forefront of politics for fifty years, he held many political and cabinet positions. Before the First World War, he served as President of the Board of Trade, Home Secretary, during the war, he continued as First Lord of the Admiralty until the disastrous Gallipoli Campaign caused his departure from government. He then briefly resumed active service on the Western Front as commander of the 6th Battalion of the Royal Scots Fusiliers. He returned to government under Lloyd George as Minister of Munitions, Secretary of State for War, Secretary of State for Air, at the outbreak of the Second World War, he was again appointed First Lord of the Admiralty. Following the resignation of Neville Chamberlain on 10 May 1940, Churchill became Prime Minister and he led Britain as Prime Minister until victory over Nazi Germany had been secured. After the Conservative Party suffered a defeat in the 1945 general election. He publicly warned of an Iron Curtain of Soviet influence in Europe, after winning the 1951 election, Churchill again became Prime Minister. His second term was preoccupied by foreign affairs, including the Malayan Emergency, Mau Mau Uprising, Korean War, domestically his government laid great emphasis on house-building. Churchill suffered a stroke in 1953 and retired as Prime Minister in 1955. Upon his death aged ninety in 1965, Elizabeth II granted him the honour of a state funeral and his highly complex legacy continues to stimulate intense debate amongst writers and historians. Born into the family of the Dukes of Marlborough, a branch of the noble Spencer family, Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, like his father. His ancestor George Spencer had changed his surname to Spencer-Churchill in 1817 when he became Duke of Marlborough, to highlight his descent from John Churchill, Churchill was born on 30 November 1874, two months prematurely, in a bedroom in Blenheim Palace, Woodstock, Oxfordshire. From age two to six, he lived in Dublin, where his grandfather had been appointed Viceroy, Churchills brother, John Strange Spencer-Churchill, was born during this time in Ireland
26.
Enoch Powell
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John Enoch Powell, MBE was a British politician, classical scholar, philologist and poet. He served as a Conservative Member of Parliament, Ulster Unionist Party MP, before entering politics, Powell was a classical scholar, becoming a full professor of ancient Greek at the age of 25. During the Second World War, he served in staff and intelligence positions, reaching the rank of brigadier in his early thirties. He also wrote poetry, his first works being published in 1937, Powell became a national figure following his 20 April 1968 address to the General Meeting of the West Midlands Area Conservative Political Centre, which became known as the Rivers of Blood speech. It pointedly criticized immigration into Britain from the Commonwealth nations and opposed the legislation being mooted at the time. In response, Conservative party leader Edward Heath sacked Powell from his position as Shadow Defence Secretary in the Tory opposition. He returned to the House of Commons in October 1974 as the Ulster Unionist Party MP for the Northern Irish constituency of South Down until he was defeated in the 1987 general election, John Enoch Powell was born in Stechford, Birmingham, on 16 June 1912. He lived there for the first six years of his life before his parents moved to Kings Norton in 1918 and he was the only child of Albert Enoch Powell, a primary school headmaster, and his wife, Ellen Mary. Ellen was the daughter of Henry Breese, a Liverpool policeman and his wife Eliza and his mother did not like his name, and as a child he was known as Jack. At the age of three, Powell was nicknamed the Professor because he used to stand on a chair and describe the birds his grandfather had shot. The Powells were of Welsh descent and from Radnorshire, having moved to the developing Black Country during the early 19th century and his great-grandfather was a coal miner, and his grandfather had been employed in the iron trade. Powell read avidly from an age, as early as three he could read reasonably well. Despite the Powell family having to budget their income, they always had money for books. Powell was heavily influenced by the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, he initially adopted Nietzsches concept of God is dead but became religious again later on in life. He studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, from 1930 to 1933, during which time he fell under the influence of the poet A. E. Housman and he also began to study German as many of the classic scholars were Germans. He took no part in politics at university, whilst studying at Cambridge, Powell became aware that there was another classicist who signed his name as John U. In deciding how to distinguish his work from his own, Powell decided to use his middle name, while at university, in one Greek prose examination lasting three hours, he was asked to translate a passage into Greek. Powell walked out one and a half hours, having produced translations in the styles of Plato
27.
George Grant (philosopher)
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George Parkin Grant OC FRSC was a Canadian philosopher, professor, and political commentator. He is best known for his Canadian nationalism, political conservatism and he is often seen as one of Canadas most original thinkers. Academically, his writings express a complex meditation on the great books, although he is considered the main theoretician of Red Toryism, he expressed dislike of the term when applied to his deeper philosophical interests, which he saw as his primary work as a thinker. Recent research on Grant uncovers his debt to a neo-Hegelian idealist tradition, Canadian idealism, Grant was born in Toronto, the son of Maude Erskine and William Lawson Grant. He came from a distinguished Canadian family of scholars and educators and his father was the principal of Upper Canada College, and his paternal grandfather George Monro Grant was the dynamic principal of Queens University. His nephew is public scholar and former Leader of the Opposition Michael Ignatieff in the Canadian House of Commons, Grant was educated at Upper Canada College and Queens University from which he graduated with a History degree. He attended Balliol College at the University of Oxford on a Rhodes Scholarship, Grant was a faculty member at Dalhousie twice, York University and McMaster Universitys Religion department, which he founded and led in the 1960s and early 70s. In 1977, he became an Editorial Advisor of the journal Dionysius, which published his essay Nietzsche, in George Grant, A Biography his struggles as a self-taught philosopher are highlighted. Grant was not readily accepted into the academic community of scholars in Canada. Especially angered and upset was Fulton Anderson of the University of Toronto’s Philosophy department, throughout his career Grant was seen as a unique voice within academic institutions, and thus had strong appeal beyond the strict community of scholars. He argued that the effect in current affairs during the period when it was written would see the demise of Canadian cultural nationality. The importance of the text is reflected in its selection in 2005 as one of The Literary Review of Canadas 100 most important Canadian books, Grant articulated a political philosophy which was becoming known as Red Toryism. The subjects of his books, essays, public lectures, and radio addresses quite frequently combined philosophy, religion, Grant strongly critiqued what he believed were the worst facets of modernity, namely unbridled technological advancement and a loss of moral foundations to guide humanity. He defined philosophy as the search for the purpose and meaning, what he proposed in place of the modern spirit was a synthesis of Christian and Platonic thought which embodied contemplation of the good. His first book, Philosophy in the Mass Age, was his most explicitly Hegelian book and he applied a neo-Hegelian concept of history to the modern dilemma of reconciling freedom and order. In 1965, furious that the Liberal government had agreed to accept nuclear weapons, Lament for a Nation created a sensation with its argument that Canada was destined to disappear into a universal and homogeneous state whose centre was the United States. The idea of progress had lost its connection to our development and had been co-opted into a utilitarian mastery of nature to satisfy human appetites. Grants last work was Technology and Justice, which he prepared together with his wife, nevertheless, Grant affirmed his belief that a better civilization could eventually replace it
28.
Conservatism
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Conservatism is a political and social philosophy that promotes retaining traditional social institutions in the context of culture and civilization. The term, historically associated with right-wing politics, has since used to describe a wide range of views. There is no set of policies that are universally regarded as conservative, because the meaning of conservatism depends on what is considered traditional in a given place. Thus conservatives from different parts of the world—each upholding their respective traditions—may disagree on a range of issues. In contrast to the definition of conservatism, political theorists such as Corey Robin define conservatism primarily in terms of a general defense of social. In Great Britain, conservative ideas emerged in the Tory movement during the Restoration period, Toryism supported a hierarchical society with a monarch who ruled by divine right. Tories opposed the idea that sovereignty derived from the people, and rejected the authority of parliament, Robert Filmers Patriarcha, or the Natural Power of Kings, published posthumously in 1680 but written before the English Civil War of 1642–1651, became accepted as the statement of their doctrine. However, the Glorious Revolution of 1688 destroyed this principle to some degree by establishing a government in England. Faced with defeat, the Tories reformed their movement, now holding that sovereignty was vested in the three estates of Crown, Lords, and Commons rather than solely in the Crown, Toryism became marginalized during the long period of Whig ascendancy in the 18th century. Conservatives typically see Richard Hooker as the father of conservatism, along with the Marquess of Halifax, David Hume. Halifax promoted pragmatism in government, whilst Hume argued against political rationalism and utopianism, Burke served as the private secretary to the Marquis of Rockingham and as official pamphleteer to the Rockingham branch of the Whig party. Together with the Tories, they were the conservatives in the late 18th century United Kingdom, Burkes views were a mixture of liberal and conservative. He supported the American Revolution of 1765–1783 but abhorred the violence of the French Revolution and he insisted on standards of honor derived from the medieval aristocratic tradition, and saw the aristocracy as the nations natural leaders. That meant limits on the powers of the Crown, since he found the institutions of Parliament to be better informed than commissions appointed by the executive and he favored an established church, but allowed for a degree of religious toleration. Burke justified the order on the basis of tradition, tradition represented the wisdom of the species and he valued community. Burke was a leading theorist in his day, finding extreme idealism an endangerment to broader liberties, despite their influence on future conservative thought, none of these early contributors were explicitly involved in Tory politics. Hooker lived in the 16th century, long before the advent of toryism, whilst Hume was an apolitical philosopher, Burke described himself as a Whig. Shortly after Burkes death in 1797, conservatism revived as a political force as the Whigs suffered a series of internal divisions
29.
Distributism
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In the early 21st century, some observers speculated on Pope Franciss position on distributism after his denouncement of unfettered capitalism in his apostolic exhortation Evangelii gaudium. Distributism, therefore, advocates a society marked by widespread property ownership, co-operative economist Race Mathews argues that such a system is key to bringing about a just social order. Distributism has often described in opposition to both socialism and capitalism, which distributists see as equally flawed and exploitive. Thomas Storck argues, both socialism and capitalism are products of the European Enlightenment and are thus modernizing and anti-traditional forces, further, some distributists argue that socialism is the logical conclusion of capitalism as capitalisms concentrated powers eventually capture the state, resulting in a form of socialism. In contrast, distributism seeks to subordinate economic activity to human life as a whole, to our life, our intellectual life. Particularly influential in the development of distributist theory were Catholic authors G. K, Chesterton and Hilaire Belloc, the Chesterbelloc, two of distributisms earliest and strongest proponents. The mid-to-late 19th century witnessed an increase in popularity of political Catholicism across Europe, according to historian Michael A. Riff, a common feature of these movements was opposition not only to secularism, but also to both capitalism and socialism. Common and government property ownership was expressly dismissed as a means of helping the poor, around the start of the 20th century, G. K. In the United States in the 1930s, distributism was treated in numerous essays by Chesterton, Belloc and others in The American Review, pivotal among Bellocs and Chestertons other works regarding distributism are The Servile State, and Outline of Sanity. It also influenced the thought behind the Antigonish Movement, which implemented cooperatives and its practical implementation in the form of local cooperatives has recently been documented by Race Mathews in his 1999 book Jobs of Our Own, Building a Stakeholder Society. The position of distributists when compared to other political philosophies is somewhat paradoxical, but there was a rosy time of innocence when I believed in Liberals. While converging with certain elements of traditional Toryism, especially an appreciation of the Middle Ages and organic society, much of Dorothy L. Sayers writings on social and economic matters has affinity with distributism. Under such a system, most people would be able to earn a living without having to rely on the use of the property of others to do so. Examples of people earning a living in this way would be farmers who own their own land and related machinery, plumbers who own their own tools, software developers who own their own computer, etc. The cooperative approach advances beyond this perspective to recognise that such property and equipment may be co-owned by local communities larger than a family, Chesterton in his 1910 book What’s Wrong with the World. Chesterton believes that whilst God has limitless capabilities, man has limited abilities in terms of creation, as such, man therefore is entitled to own property and to treat it as he sees fit. He states “Property is merely the art of the democracy and it means that every man should have something that he can shape in his own image, as he is shaped in the image of heaven. But because he is not God, but only an image of God, his self-expression must deal with limits, properly with limits that are strict and even small. ”Chesterton summed up his distributist views in the phrase Three acres
30.
Miguelist
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In the history of Portugal, a Miguelist was a supporter of the legitimacy of the king Miguel I of Portugal. The name is given to those who supported absolutism as form of government. Miguel was regent for his niece Queen Maria II of Portugal, in the end, Miguel was forced from the throne and lived the last 32 years of his life in exile. King Miguel I was exiled following the Convention of Evora-Monte, which put an end to the Liberal Wars, the throne was retaken by his niece, Queen Maria II, and a liberal regime was installed. In exile, the king married a wealthy Bavarian princess. On the family tree below, the Miguelist branch is identified on the right-hand side. Descendants of Miguel I of Portugal Carlism
31.
Catholic and Royal Army
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The Chouans of the north of the Loire who joined the Vendéens during the Virée de Galerne were named Catholic and Royal Army of Bas-Anjou and of Haute-Bretagne. In reality, those armies were simply groups of fluctuating insurgents led by a chief who had authority over people following his beliefs, the only units with a quasi-permanent existence and organization are the compagnies de paroisse which grouped together members of the rural community who elected their captains. Although two-thirds of the insurgents were peasants, they represented half of the men in these units. The flaws of this army were its few services and its lack of permanent fighters, even considering their reinforcements of republican deserters, gabelous. Their weaponry and provisions were also poor, the cavalry was only composed of noble chiefs, a few game wardens and peasants mounted on farm horses. After the Battle of Savenay, the army was reconstructed on paper but its existence was insignificant. The insurgent territory took the name of military Vendée, the great majority of Vendéen insurgents were peasants, armed with scythes if they didnt have rifles, but there were also a great number of artisans, especially in the Mauges region of Anjou. The mobilisation in the insurgent territories was massive, in Chemillé, the age of the insurgents varied from 11 to 67 years old. The average age was 25 to 30 years old, a few women also fought among the Vendéens, the most famous one was Renée Bordereau. The army of Charette was known to have a few amazons in its ranks and it was only during the Virée de Galerne that the officers started adopting signs to distinguish themselves from the troops. The generals and officers of the counsel took white scarves worn at the belt with knots of different colors, La Rochejaquelein and Donnissan wore a black knot, Stofflet a red one, and Marigny a blue one. Officers of a lower rank started wearing a white scarf attached to their left arm, priests who opposed the revolution didnt have a direct role in the war, a few held a seat in the royalist counsels and mainly took care of correspondences. Priests serving as officers or physically participating in combats was generally not well considered by Vendéens, a few regular troops were formed in the army of Vendée, where they served as elite troops. Charles de Bonchamps organized infantry and cavalry units whom he equipped with his own means and these troops were even given uniforms, grey for the infantry, green for the cavalry. Nonetheless, the Vendéens didnt like leaving their homes for too long, so after a few days of combat they would leave the army and go back to their villages. Hence the Vendéens were incapable of keeping conquered towns like Angers, Saumur, Thouars and Fontenay-le-Comte, to fix this disadvantage, regular troops were recruited among republican deserters and insurgents exterior to Vendée, especially Angevins from northern Maine-et-Loire and Bretons from the. A few future Chouan officers served in troops, including Georges Cadoudal, Pierre-Mathurin Mercier, Scépeaux, Jean Terrien, Joseph-Juste Coquereau. Regular cen troops also included a number of foreigners, including Russians, Germans
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Chouan
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It was used as a nom de guerre by the Chouan brothers, most notably Jean Cottereau, better known as Jean Chouan, who led a major revolt in Bas-Maine against the French Revolution. Members of this came to be known as Chouans. Jean Cottereau and his brothers all inherited the surname Chouan from their father, since that time, the Cottereau family has maintained this surname. It was in turn given to all men who mustered to fight under the command of Jean Chouan, maybe some insurgents had this idea which was suggested to them by their nickname. Although it is some, it is to be noted that the bird formerly dedicated to armed wisdom became a sort of emblem for the bellicose piety of our peasants. One possible reason the name was extended to the royalist troops of Maine, Normandy and Britanny is the riot at Saint-Ouën-des-Toits on 15 August 1792, in which Jean, there, they signalled to the Laval authorities. Another is that the royalist troops mustered at night using the owl call as a signal, the 19th century historians — J. -J. Lequinio the author of Mémoires dun Administrateur des Armées Républicaines dans la Vendée — differed, joseph de Puisaye, the best-informed on the topic after having been the Chouanneries supreme commander, affirmed that the Chouan brothers gave their name to the revolt which they had first organised. A curious shield of the revolt seems to bear a sort of use of owls in representing the Chouannerie. It bore the arms of France, right, supported by two owls, with a motto, IN SAPIENTIA ROBUR at the top, SIC REFLORESCENT at the bottom. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Wood, James. London and New York, Frederick Warne
33.
Legitimists
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The Legitimists are royalists in France who adhere to the rights of dynastic succession of the descendants of the elder branch of the Bourbon dynasty, which was overthrown in the 1830 July Revolution. They reject the claim of the July Monarchy of 1830–1848, whose king was a member of the junior Orléans line of the Bourbon dynasty, the other two right-wing factions are, according to historian René Rémond, the Orléanists and the Bonapartists. Legitimists hold that the king of France must be according to the traditional rules of succession based in the Salic law. The main current legitimist pretender is Louis Alphonse, Duke of Anjou, following the Bourbon Restoration in 1814, a strongly restricted census suffrage sent to the Chamber of Deputies an ultra-royalist majority in 1815–1816 and from 1824 to 1827. By the same token, Ultras opposed all liberal, republican and their importance during the Restoration was in part due to electoral laws which largely favored them. Louis XVIIIs first ministers, who included Talleyrand, the duc de Richelieu, Louis XVIII finally decided to dissolve this chaotic assembly, but the new liberals who replaced them were no easier to govern. The death in 1824 of the moderate Louis XVIII emboldened the Ultra faction, in January 1825, Villèles government passed the Anti-Sacrilege Act, which punished by death the theft of sacred vessels. This anachronistic law was in the end never applied and repealed in the first months of Louis Philippe Is reign, the Ultras also wanted to create courts to punish Radicals, and passed laws restricting freedom of the press. They softened their views and made the restoration of the House of Bourbon their main aim, from 1830 on they became known as Legitimists. Until the deaths of Charles X and his son in 1836 and 1844, respectively, many Legitimists continued to each of them in turn as the rightful king. The fall of King Louis Philippe I in 1848 led to a strengthening of the Legitimist position, although the childlessness of Chambord weakened the hand of the Legitimists, they came back into political prominence during the Second Republic. Legitimists joined with Orleanists to form the Party of Order which dominated parliament from the elections of May 1849 until Bonapartes coup on December 2,1851, through much of this time there was discussion of fusion with the Orleanist Party so that the two could effect a monarchical restoration. This prospect prompted several sons of Louis Philippe to declare their support for Chambord, but fusion was not actually achieved, and after 1850 the two parties again diverged. The period of the Second Empire saw the Legitimists once again cast out of political life. Nevertheless, the Legitimists remained a significant party within elite opinion, after the Siege of Paris in 1870 and the 1871 Paris Commune, the Legitimists returned for one final time to political prominence. This time, the Legitimists were able to agree with the Orleanists on a program of fusion, the liberal Orleanists agreed to recognize Chambord as king, and the Orleanist claimant himself, Louis-Philippe Albert dOrléans, count of Paris, recognized Chambord as head of the French royal house. In return, Legitimists in the Assembly agreed that, should Chambord die childless, the death of Chambord effectively dissolved the parti légitimiste as a political force in France. Those Legitimists who had rallied to the Republic in 1893, after the comte de Chambords death ten years before, but they changed their name in 1899, and entered the 1902 elections under the name Action libérale
34.
Carlism
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Carlism was a traditionalist and legitimist political movement in Spain seeking the establishment of a separate line of the Bourbon dynasty on the Spanish throne. This line descended from Don Carlos, Count of Molina, and was founded due to dispute over the succession laws, the semi-salic law would have allowed this given the fact that Maria Theresa was the last member of the house of Habsburg. Carlism was a significant force in Spanish politics from 1833 until the end of the Francoist regime in 1975, in this capacity, it was the cause of Carlist Wars during the 19th century, and an important factor in the Spanish Civil War in the 1930s. Today, Carlists are considered by some to be an entity, with Carlist claimants supported only by the most reactionary of the Spanish nobility. Traditionally, all but one of the Spanish kingdoms allowed the succession of daughters in the absence of sons, the most elaborate rules of succession formed part of the Siete Partidas of the late 13th century. On 1 November 1700 a French Bourbon prince, Philip V, in the French royal house, Salic law applied, which did not permit female succession. This change was forced by external pressure to avoid any possible personal union of the Crown of Spain with a foreign monarchy like France. He decided in 1830 to promulgate the 1789 decree, securing the crown for the child even if female. The law placed the child, Princess Isabel, ahead of Ferdinands brother Infante Carlos, many contemporaries saw the changed succession as illegal on various counts. They formed the basis for the dynastic Carlist party, which recognized the semi-Salic succession law that gave Infante Carlos precedence over Ferdinands daughter. 1789, During the reign of Charles IV, the Cortes approves a reversion of the system of succession to the traditional Siete Partidas order of succession. However, the law was not promulgated, due in part to protests from the branches of the House of Bourbon. A new Spanish constitution outlines the rules of succession in accordance with the Siete Partidas,10 October 1830, The future Isabella II is born to Ferdinand VII. After several court intrigues, the Pragmatic Sanction is definitively approved in 1832, Ferdinands brother, the Infante Don Carlos, up to that time the heir presumptive, feels robbed of his rights, and leaves for Portugal. Carlism confronted not only the question of who could sit on the Spanish throne. Should it remain Roman Catholic or embrace Enlightenment values, do governments derive their power from God or from human beings. The long war for Spains independence from the Napoleonic Empire left a supply of experienced guerrilla fighters. The reign of Ferdinand VII proved unable to overcome the political divide or to create stable institutions, while in power, both groups had divided themselves into moderate and radical branches
35.
Sanfedismo
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Its full name was the Army of Holy Faith in our Lord Jesus Christ, and its members were called Sanfedisti. Ruffo recruited the Sanfedisti in his native Calabria and his recruiting poster of February 1799 reads, Brave and courageous Calabrians, unite now under the standard of the Holy Cross and of our beloved sovereign. Do not wait for the enemy to come and contaminate our home neighbourhoods, let us march to confront him, to repel him, to hunt him out of our kingdom and out of Italy and to break the barbarous chains of our holy Pontiff. May the banner of the Holy Cross secure you total victory, the Sanfedismo movement nominally acted on behalf of Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies. It took Ruffo a month to amass a force of 17,000, mostly peasants, but also bandits, ecclesiastics, mercenaries, looters, devotees, the Parthenopean Republic collapsed on June 19,1799. Most of the Sanfedisti victories occurred in rugged terrain, which was well-suited to the style of warfare employed by Ruffo. Similar to other anti-French uprisings in Italy, the Sanfedisti were not, as a rule, amiable towards Jews, the name of Sanfedismo itself was a source of criticism, dubbed a word sprung up, by which this new phase of wickedness might be called by a contemporary. Sanfedismo, and Ruffo himself, became synonymous with the recalcitrant, the name Sanfedisti was also used by Bourbonist peasant uprisings against the House of Savoy during Italian unification. The Canto dei Sanfedisti is still remembered by heart among many in the Mezzogiorno and it is a parody of La Carmagnole, a popular French Revolutionary song. Later scholarly views of the Sanfedisti have dubbed them a counter-revolutionary group, veronese Easters Viva Maria Sanfedisti#Canto dei Sanfedisti Vendée Revolt Carlism Brauer, Kinley J. and Wright, William E.1990. Austria in the Age of the French Revolution, 1789-1815, the Politics of Religion in Napoleonic Italy, The War Against God, 1801-1814. Papal Elections in the Age of Transition, 1878-1922, saints and Sinners, a history of the popes. England and France in the Mediterranean, 1660-1830, napoleon Bonaparte and the Legacy of the French Revolution. The Red Shirt and the Cross of Savoy, Enlightenment and Revolution, Naples 1799 in Transactions of the Royal Historical Society
36.
Cristero War
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The rebellion was set off by enactment under President Plutarco Elías Calles of a statute to enforce the anticlerical articles of the Mexican Constitution of 1917. Calles sought to eliminate the power of the Catholic Church and organizations affiliated with it as an institution, the massive, popular rural uprising was tacitly supported by the Church hierarchy and was aided by urban Catholic support. US Ambassador Dwight W. Morrow brokered negotiations between the Calles government and the Church, the government made some concessions, the Church withdrew its support for the Cristero fighters and the conflict ended in 1929. The Mexican Revolution remains the largest conflict in Mexican history, the overthrow of dictator Porfirio Díaz unleashed disorder, with many contending factions and regions. Having a change of leadership or a wholesale overturning of the order was potentially a danger to the Churchs position. In the democratizing wave of activity, the National Catholic Party was formed. Francisco Madero was overthrown and assassinated in a February 1913 military coup led by Gen, the Constitutionalist faction won the revolution and its leader, Venustiano Carranza, had a new revolutionary constitution drawn up. The Constitution of 1917 strengthened the anticlericalism of the previous document, neither President Carranza nor his successor, Gen. Alvaro Obregón, enforced the anticlerical articles. The Calles administration felt its revolutionary initiatives and legal basis to pursue them were being challenged by the Catholic Church, on the opposing side was an armed professional military sponsored by the government. Calles’ Mexico has been characterized as an atheist state, and his program as being one to religion in Mexico. A period of resistance to the enforcement of the anticlerical provisions of the constitution by Mexican Catholics brought no result. Skirmishing broke out in 1926, and violent uprisings began in 1927, the rebels called themselves Cristeros, invoking the name of Jesus Christ under the title of Cristo Rey or Christ the King. The rebellion eventually ended by diplomatic means brokered by the U. S. Ambassador to Mexico Dwight Whitney Morrow, with financial relief, the rebellion attracted the attention of Pope Pius XI, who issued a series of papal encyclicals between 1925–37. On December 11,1925, the pontiff issued Quas primas, on November 18,1926, he issued Iniquis afflictisque, denouncing the violent anti-clerical persecution in Mexico. Despite the governments promises to the contrary, it continued the persecution of the Church, in response, Pius issued Acerba animi on September 29,1932. The Political Constitution of the United Mexican States was drafted by the Constitutional Congress convoked by Venustiano Carranza in September 1916, the new constitution was based in the previous one instituted by Benito Juárez in 1857. Three of its 136 articles—Article 3, Article 27 and Article 130—contain heavily secularizing sections, restricting the power, the first two sections of article 3 state, I. According to the liberties established under article 24, educational services shall be secular and, therefore
37.
Reactionary
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As an adjective, the word reactionary describes points of view and policies meant to restore the status quo ante. The French Revolution gave the English language three politically descriptive words denoting anti-progressive politics, reactionary, conservative and right, Reactionary derives from the French word réactionnaire and conservative from conservateur, identifying monarchist parliamentarians opposed to the revolution. In this French usage, reactionary denotes a movement towards the reversal of a tendency or state. The Oxford English Dictionary cites the first English language usage in 1799 in a translation of Lazare Carnots letter on the Coup of 18 Fructidor, in France, supporters of traditional rule by direct heirs of the House of Bourbon dynasty were labelled the legitimist reaction. In the Third Republic, the monarchists were the reactionary faction, in Protestant Christian societies, reactionary has described those supporting tradition against modernity. Those labelled as reactionary favoured the aristocracy instead of the middle class, the Thermidorian Reaction was a movement within the revolution against perceived excesses of the Jacobins. On 27 July 1794, Maximilien Robespierres Reign of Terror was brought to an end, the overthrow of Robespierre signalled the reassertion of the French National Convention over the Committee of Public Safety. The Jacobins were suppressed, the prisons were emptied and the Committee was shorn of its powers and this instance of reaction was surpassed by a movement that developed in France when, after the second fall of Napoleon, the Bourbon Restoration or reinstatement of the Bourbon dynasty, ensued. This time it was to be a monarchy, with an elected lower house of parliament. The Franchise was restricted to men over the age of forty, nevertheless, King Louis XVIII was worried that he would still suffer an intractable parliament. He was delighted with the ultra-royalists, or Ultras, whom the election returned, declaring that he had found a chambre introuvable, literally and it was the Declaration of Saint-Ouen that prepared the way for the Restoration. Everything new had to be expressed as a revival of something old that had lapsed and had been forgotten. This was also the used for diminished aristocrats to get themselves a bigger piece of the pie. In the 18th century, those gentry whose fortunes and prestige had diminished to the level of peasants would search diligently for every ancient feudal statute that might give them something, the ban, for example, meant that all peasants had to grind their grain in their lords mill. Therefore, these came to the French States-General of 1789 fully prepared to press for the expansion of such practices in all provinces. They were horrified when, for example, the French Revolution permitted common citizens to go hunting and it is this which clearly distinguishes a reactionary from a conservative. The conservative would have accepted many improvements brought about by the revolution, use of the word reactionary in later days as a political slur is thus often rhetorical, since there is nothing directly comparable with the Chambre Introuvable in the history of other countries. In the revolutions aftermath, France was continually wracked with the quarrels between the right-wing legitimists and left-wing revolutionaries, since then, Frances political spectrum has featured similar divisions
38.
High Tory
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High Toryism is a term used in Britain, Canada, and elsewhere to refer to old traditionalist conservatism which is in line with the Toryism originating in the 17th century. High Tories and their worldview were sometimes at odds with the elements of the Conservative Party in these countries at present. Economically, High Tories tend to prefer a paternalistic Tory corporatism over the neo-liberalism which took ahold in the 1980s, the High Tory view in the eighteenth century preferred lowered taxation and deplored Whig support for a standing army, an expanding empire and commerce. On religious issues, the High Tories usually rallied under the banner of Church in Danger and this changed later in the century and many of their privileges were reduced by the Reform Act 1832. In the reign of Queen Victoria High Tories supported the empire and were personified by the Prime Ministers Lord Derby and their focus is on maintaining a traditional, rooted society and way of life, which is often as much threatened by modern capitalism as by state socialism. A High Tory also favours a strong community, in contrast to Whig, liberal, a High Tory bears some resemblance to traditionalist conservatives in the United States. In Canada the term Red Tory used to something like a High Tory. It is difficult and unreliable to make comparisons between High Toryism and other political dispositions internationally, High Tory has been more than just a political term, it is also used to describe a culture and a way of life. A High Tory must have an appreciation of religion and high culture and they have historically been either a high church Anglican or traditional Roman Catholic, as well a gentleman, and often an agrarian. Miguelist Sanfedismo Tories White movement General Hilton, Boyd, A Mad, Bad, and Dangerous People
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