1.
Towing
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Towing is coupling two or more objects together so that they may be pulled by a designated power source or sources. The towing source may be a land vehicle, vessel, animal, or human. These may be joined by a chain, rope, bar, hitch, three-point, fifth wheel, coupling, drawbar, integrated platform, Towing may be as simple as a tractor pulling a tree stump. The most familiar form is the transport of disabled or otherwise indisposed vehicles by a tow truck or wrecker, other familiar forms are the tractor-trailer combination, and cargo or leisure vehicles coupled via ball or pintle and gudgeon trailer-hitches to smaller trucks and cars. In the opposite extreme are extremely heavy duty tank recovery vehicles, necessarily, government and industry standards have been developed for carriers, lighting, and coupling to ensure safety and interoperability of towing equipment. Historically, barges were hauled along rivers or canals using tow ropes drawn by men or draught animals walking along towpaths on the banks, today, tug boats are used to maneuver larger vessels and barges. Over thousands of years the industry has refined towing to a science. Troop and cargo carrying gliders are towed behind powered aircraft, which remains a means of getting modern leisure gliders aloft. This section refers to the towing of a cargo-carrying device behind a truck or car, most trailers fit into one of three categories, Small trailers that attach to cars and small trucks, Small enclosed trailers are fully covered by four sides and a roof. These types of trailers are used for carrying livestock since they protect the contents from weather. People also rent these types of trailers for moving boxes, furniture, boat trailers are used specifically for pulling boats. These types of trailers are designed for loading in and out of the water and are purchased based on the specific type. They are open trailers that are shaped to hold and secure boats. Recreational vehicles are utility vehicles or vans that are equipped with living facilities. While some are self-propelled, many are designed as trailers to be attached to a trailer hitch and these trailer hitches are common on the back of many cars and trucks, and RV trailers are commonly used for camping outings or road trips. In the United Kingdom, RV trailers are known as caravans, trailers designed to be hauled in a big rig tractor-trailer configuration, which come in many configurations, Flat bed or open trailers, which are platforms with no sides or stakes. This type of works well for hauling large or unconventional shaped objects. Some are small enough to be towed behind cars, tank trailers, which are trailers designed to contain liquids such as milk, water or motor fuel
2.
Vehicle recovery
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Vehicle recovery is the recovery of any vehicle to another place, generally speaking with a commercial vehicle known as a recovery vehicle, tow truck or spectacle lift. There are many types of organisations that carry out the recovery of disabled vehicles, however, Motoring organisations—or as they are often known, The Clubs—are organisations to which the vehicles driver will belong. They may have made an effort to do this, or they may have got the membership with their new vehicle, through a company scheme. Recovery operators are the people who undertake the recovery and they are known by different names around the world, including patrols, tow men and wrecker drivers. Some are the used by the motoring organisations to rescue their members. A small percentage will be on the payroll of the motoring organisation, examples are the patrols used by the AA, RAC and Mondial in the UK. Most recovery operators, however, work for privately owned companies or are individuals and they can do large volumes of work for some of the motoring organisations, but they will normally also do work for the public. In Europe, the percentage of private work is low due to the high profiles of the motoring organisations. Of course some will never do work for the motoring organisations, in the USA, motoring organisations are still growing. Many are still involved in repairs, but an increasing number, if they cannot repair the vehicle by the roadside. Although there are large organisations operating hundreds of recovery vehicles. Lastly there are operators like Highway Authorities and other government bodies, operators of local recovery schemes, the history of the towing and recovery of motor vehicles has closely followed the history of the automobile itself. In its early days, towing was often achieved by attaching a horse to the disabled vehicle, many of the first automobile repair shops had been bicycle repairers or blacksmiths, and they quickly adapted to recovering their customers disabled vehicles. To achieve this, specialised recovery vehicles were often built, as automobiles have grown more sophisticated it has become much harder for the average vehicle owner to diagnose and repair a fault. Thus, a huge and specialised vehicle recovery industry has evolved to serve, Motoring organisations or clubs have been created to sell breakdown coverage to automobile drivers, particularly popular in Europe. Automobile manufacturers will often purchase bulk membership from the motoring organisations and these are usually badged with the manufacturers name. A large number of these organisations do not operate recovery vehicles of their own. Those clubs that have their own vehicles often also use independent agents to assist with specialist work, police forces also use independent recovery operators to move vehicles, for example after a car accident, when vehicles are illegally parked and when required for examination
3.
Automobile repair shop
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An automobile repair shop is a repair shop where automobiles are repaired by auto mechanics and technicians. Automotive garages and repair shops can be divided into following categories and this is not common in the United Kingdom but more common in the US. Automobile repair workshops that are owned and operated businesses. These may also include regional or national chains and franchises including OEM car dealership sites, in the United States, these sites are commonly certified by their respective manufacturer to perform warranty and recall repairs by that manufacturer or distributor. Independent automobile repair shops in the US may also achieve certification through manufacturer sponsored programs, in the European Union a recent law allows motorists more flexibility in selecting where they can get their car serviced. Also, some repair shops provide additional towning services. There are also automotive repair shops that specialize in vehicle modifications, oftentimes, various specialized auto repair shops will have varied infrastructure and facilities, as well as technicians and mechanics with different qualifications. Such kind of organizations are predominant in US with wide acceptance, automotive repair shops also offer paintwork repairs to scratches, scuffs and dents to vehicle damage as well as damage caused by collisions and major accidents. Many body shops now offer paintless dent repair, which is done by pushing the dents out from inside, OEM Certified Collision Centers have the highest standards. Automotive Service Excellence Breakdown Preventive maintenance Reliability centered maintenance
4.
Car carrier trailer
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Modern car carrier trailers can be open or enclosed. Most commercial trailers have built-in ramps for loading and off-loading cars, as well as power hydraulics to raise, commercial-size car carrying trailers are commonly used to ship new cars from the manufacturer to auto dealerships, in the U. S. Like other semi-trailers, most commercial car carrier trailers attach to the using a fifth wheel coupling. An American commercial car carrier typically fits between 5 and 9 cars, depending on the car size and trailer model, significantly higher-capacity vehicles have been observed around the world, such as a side-by-side loading Chinese model. To load vehicles on the top deck of a double-decker commercial trailer, the top deck is usually loaded first and off-loaded last, since the presence of cars on the lower deck can make it impossible to lower the top deck ramp. Trailer hydraulics are operated using a box mounted on the trailer itself
5.
Chattanooga, Tennessee
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Chattanooga is a city in the U. S. state of Tennessee, with a population of 176,588 in 2015. The fourth-largest Tennessee city, it is the seat of Hamilton County, located in southeastern Tennessee in East Tennessee, on the Tennessee River, served by multiple railroads and Interstate highways, Chattanooga is a transit hub. The city, with elevation of approximately 680 feet, lies at the transition between the ridge-and-valley portion of the Appalachian Mountains and the Cumberland Plateau. Surrounded by mountains and ridges, the nickname for Chattanooga is the Scenic City. Unofficial nicknames include River City, Chatt, Nooga, Chattown, Chattanooga is internationally known for the 1941 song Chattanooga Choo Choo by Glenn Miller and his orchestra. Chattanooga is home to the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga and Chattanooga State Community College, the city has its own typeface, Chatype, which was launched in August 2012. The first inhabitants of the Chattanooga area were Native Americans, sites dating back to the Upper Paleolithic period showed continuous occupation through the Archaic, Woodland, Mississippian/Muskogean/Yuchi, and Cherokee. The Chickamauga Mound near the mouth of the Chickamauga Creek is the oldest remaining visible art in Chattanooga, the Citico town and mound site was the most significant Mississippian/Muscogee landmark in Chattanooga up to 1915. The first part of the name Chattanooga derives from the Muskogean word cvto /chắtȯ/ – rock, the latter may be derived from a regional suffix -nuga meaning dwelling or dwelling place. In 1816 John Ross, who later became Principal Chief, established Rosss Landing, located along what is now Broad Street, it became one of the centers of Cherokee Nation settlement, which also extended into Georgia and Alabama. Their journey west became known as the Trail of Tears for their exile, the US Army used Rosss Landing as the site of one of three large internment camps, or emigration depots, where Native Americans were held prior to the journey on the Trail of Tears. One of the internment camps was located in Fort Payne, Alabama, in 1839, the community of Rosss Landing incorporated as the city of Chattanooga. The city grew quickly, initially benefiting from a location well-suited for river commerce, with the arrival of the railroad in 1850, Chattanooga became a boom town. During the American Civil War, Chattanooga was a center of battle, during the Chickamauga Campaign, Union artillery bombarded Chattanooga as a diversion and occupied it on September 9,1863. Following the Battle of Chickamauga, the defeated Union Army retreated to safety in Chattanooga, the next day, the Battle of Lookout Mountain was fought, driving the Confederates off the mountain. On November 25, Grants army routed the Confederates in the Battle of Missionary Ridge and these battles were followed the next spring by the Atlanta Campaign, beginning just over the nearby state line in Georgia and moving southeastward. After the war ended, the city became a railroad hub and industrial. The largest flood in Chattanoogas history occurred in 1867, before the Tennessee Valley Authority system was created in 1933 by Congress, the flood crested at 58 feet and completely inundated the city
6.
Ditch
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A ditch is a small to moderate depression created to channel water. A ditch can be used for drainage, to water from low-lying areas, alongside roadways or fields. A trench is a narrow ditch. Ditches are commonly seen around farmland, especially in areas that have required drainage, such as The Fens in eastern England and much of the Netherlands. Roadside ditches may provide a hazard to motorists and cyclists, whose vehicles may crash into them and get damaged, flipped over or stuck, especially in weather conditions. In Anglo-Saxon, the word dïc already existed and was pronounced deek in northern England, the origins of the word lie in digging a trench and forming the upcast soil into a bank alongside it. This practice has meant that the name dïc was given to either the excavation or the bank, thus Offas Dyke is a combined structure and Car Dyke is a trench, though it once had raised banks as well. In the midlands and north of England, a dike is what a ditch is in the south, a property boundary marker or small drainage channel. Where it carries a stream, it may be called a dike as in Rippingale Running Dike. The Weir Dike is a dike in Bourne North Fen, near Twenty. Drainage ditches play major roles in agriculture throughout the world, improper drainage systems accelerate water contamination, excessively desiccate soils during seasonal drought, and become a financial burden to maintain. Industrial earth-moving equipment facilitates maintenance of straight drainage trenches, but entrenchment results in increasing environmental, sustainable channel design can result in ditches that are largely self-maintaining due to natural geomorphological equilibrium. Slowed net siltation and erosion result in net reduction in sediment transport, flooding can be a major cause of recurring crop loss—particularly in heavy soils—and can severely disrupt urban economies as well. However, excess drainage results in recurring drought induced crop yield losses, controlled subsurface drainage from sensitive areas to vegetated drainage ditches makes possible a better balance between water drainage and water retention needs. The initial investment allows a community to draw down local water tables when, particularly in Colorado, the term ditch is also applied to open aqueducts that traverse hillsides as part of transbasin diversion projects. Examples include the Grand Ditch over La Poudre Pass, the Berthoud Pass Ditch, black Beach, The Mucklands of Canastota, New York
7.
Shear legs
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Shear legs, also known as sheers, shears, or sheer legs, are a form of two-legged lifting device. Shear legs may be permanent, formed of a solid A-frame and supports, as seen on land. When fixed, they are used for very heavy lifting, as in tank recovery, shipbuilding. At dockyards they hoist masts and other rigging parts on board. They are sometimes temporarily rigged on sailboats for similar tasks, shear legs are a lifting device related to the gin pole, derrick and tripod. Shear legs only need two guys whereas a gin pole needs at least three, the U. S. Army Field Manual FM 5-125 gives detailed instruction on how to rig shears. Fixed shear legs are most commonly found on floating cranes known as sheerlegs, temporary sheers comprise two upright spars, lashed together at their heads and their feet splayed apart. Unlike in a gyn, which has three legs and is thus stable without support, stability in sheers is provided by a guy, the heels of the spars are secured by splay and heel tackles. The point at the top of the sheers where the cross and are lashed together is the crutch, to which a block. Unlike derricks, sheers need no lateral support, and only require either a foreguy and an aftguy or a martingale, being made of two spars rather than one, sheers are stronger than a derrick of the same size and made of equivalent materials. Unlike the apex of a gyn, which is fixed, the crutch of a sheers can be topped up or lowered, via the topping lift, through a limited angle. In the era of sailing vessels, it was common for dockyards to employ a sheer hulk, an old floating ships hull fitted with sheer legs, Manual of siege and garrison artillery exercises
8.
Crane (machine)
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A crane is a type of machine, generally equipped with a hoist rope, wire ropes or chains, and sheaves, that can be used both to lift and lower materials and to move them horizontally. It is mainly used for lifting heavy things and transporting them to other places, the device uses one or more simple machines to create mechanical advantage and thus move loads beyond the normal capability of a human. The first known construction cranes were invented by the Ancient Greeks and were powered by men or beasts of burden and these cranes were used for the construction of tall buildings. Larger cranes were later developed, employing the use of human treadwheels, in the High Middle Ages, harbour cranes were introduced to load and unload ships and assist with their construction – some were built into stone towers for extra strength and stability. The earliest cranes were constructed from wood, but cast iron, iron, for many centuries, power was supplied by the physical exertion of men or animals, although hoists in watermills and windmills could be driven by the harnessed natural power. The first mechanical power was provided by steam engines, the earliest steam crane being introduced in the 18th or 19th century, Cranes exist in an enormous variety of forms – each tailored to a specific use. Sizes range from the smallest jib cranes, used inside workshops, to the tallest tower cranes, mini-cranes are also used for constructing high buildings, in order to facilitate constructions by reaching tight spaces. Finally, we can find larger floating cranes, generally used to oil rigs. Some lifting machines do not strictly fit the definition of a crane. The crane for lifting heavy loads was invented by the Ancient Greeks in the late 6th century BC, the archaeological record shows that no later than c.515 BC distinctive cuttings for both lifting tongs and lewis irons begin to appear on stone blocks of Greek temples. The introduction of the winch and pulley hoist soon lead to a replacement of ramps as the main means of vertical motion. Also, the practice of erecting large monolithic columns was abandoned in favour of using several column drums. The first unequivocal evidence for the existence of the compound pulley system appears in the Mechanical Problems attributed to Aristotle. The heyday of the crane in ancient times came during the Roman Empire, the Romans adopted the Greek crane and developed it further. We are relatively well informed about their techniques, thanks to rather lengthy accounts by the engineers Vitruvius. There are also two surviving reliefs of Roman treadwheel cranes, with the Haterii tombstone from the late first century AD being particularly detailed, the simplest Roman crane, the trispastos, consisted of a single-beam jib, a winch, a rope, and a block containing three pulleys. Heavier crane types featured five pulleys or, in case of the largest one, the polyspastos, when worked by four men at both sides of the winch, could readily lift 3,000 kg. At the temple of Jupiter at Baalbek, for instance, the blocks weigh up to 60 tons each
9.
Chain
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A chain is typically made of metal. A chain may consist of two or more links and they are known as roller chains, though there are also non-roller chains such as block chain. Although cisterns no longer work like that, the pull the chain is still encountered to mean flush the toilet. The prevalent modern symbolism is oppression, due to the use for a restriction of the liberty of a human or animal. Chains can also symbolize interconnectivity or interdependence, unicode, in versions 6. x, contains the U+1F517
10.
Four-wheel drive
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Four-wheel drive, 4×4, and 4WD, is a form of drivetrain capable of providing power to all wheel ends of a two-axled vehicle simultaneously. It may be full-time, or on-demand, and is linked via a transfer case which provides an additional output drive-shaft. When a four-wheeled vehicle has power supplied to axles, this is described as all-wheel drive. However, four-wheel drive typically refers to a set of components and functions, and/or intended offroad application. 4×4/4WD/AWD systems were developed in different markets and used in many different vehicle platforms. There is no universally accepted set of terminology to describe the various architectures, the terms used by various manufactures often reflect marketing rather than engineering considerations or significant technical differences between systems. Four-by-four refers to the class of vehicles. The first figure represents the total wheels, and the second, syntactically, 4×2 means a four-wheel vehicle that transmits engine power to only two axle-ends, the front two in front-wheel drive or the rear two in rear-wheel drive. Alternatively, a 6×4 vehicle has three axles, two of which power to two wheel ends each. Four wheel drive refers to vehicles with two axles providing power to four wheel ends, in the North American market the term generally refers to a system that is optimized for off-road driving conditions. The term 4WD is typically designated for vehicles equipped with a transfercase which switches between 2WD and 4WD operating modes, either manually or automatically. All wheel drive historically was synonymous with four-wheel drive on four-wheeled vehicles, and six-wheel drive on 6×6s, today in North America the term is applied to both heavy vehicles as well as light passenger vehicles. Typical AWD systems work well on all surfaces, but are not intended for more extreme off-road use, some all wheel drive electric vehicles solve this challenge using one motor for each axle, thereby eliminating a mechanical differential between the front and rear axles. An example of this is the dual motor variant of the Tesla Model S, individual-wheel drive was coined to identify those electric vehicles whereby each wheel is driven by its own individual electric motor. This system essentially has inherent characteristics that would be attributed to four-wheel drive systems like the distribution of the available power to the wheels. However, because of the inherent characteristics of electric motors, torque can be negative, as seen in the Rimac Concept One and this can have drastic effects, as in better handling in tight corners. The term IWD can refer to a vehicle with any number of wheels, for example, the Mars rovers are 6-wheel IWD. Two wheels fixed to the same turn at the same speed as a vehicle goes around curves
11.
Moscow
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Moscow is the capital and most populous city of Russia, with 13.2 million residents within the city limits and 17.8 million within the urban area. Moscow has the status of a Russian federal city, Moscow is a major political, economic, cultural, and scientific center of Russia and Eastern Europe, as well as the largest city entirely on the European continent. Moscow is the northernmost and coldest megacity and metropolis on Earth and it is home to the Ostankino Tower, the tallest free standing structure in Europe, the Federation Tower, the tallest skyscraper in Europe, and the Moscow International Business Center. Moscow is situated on the Moskva River in the Central Federal District of European Russia, the city is well known for its architecture, particularly its historic buildings such as Saint Basils Cathedral with its brightly colored domes. Moscow is the seat of power of the Government of Russia, being the site of the Moscow Kremlin, the Moscow Kremlin and Red Square are also one of several World Heritage Sites in the city. Both chambers of the Russian parliament also sit in the city and it is recognized as one of the citys landmarks due to the rich architecture of its 200 stations. In old Russian the word also meant a church administrative district. The demonym for a Moscow resident is москвич for male or москвичка for female, the name of the city is thought to be derived from the name of the Moskva River. There have been proposed several theories of the origin of the name of the river and its cognates include Russian, музга, muzga pool, puddle, Lithuanian, mazgoti and Latvian, mazgāt to wash, Sanskrit, majjati to drown, Latin, mergō to dip, immerse. There exist as well similar place names in Poland like Mozgawa, the original Old Russian form of the name is reconstructed as *Москы, *Mosky, hence it was one of a few Slavic ū-stem nouns. From the latter forms came the modern Russian name Москва, Moskva, in a similar manner the Latin name Moscovia has been formed, later it became a colloquial name for Russia used in Western Europe in the 16th–17th centuries. From it as well came English Muscovy, various other theories, having little or no scientific ground, are now largely rejected by contemporary linguists. The surface similarity of the name Russia with Rosh, an obscure biblical tribe or country, the oldest evidence of humans on the territory of Moscow dates from the Neolithic. Within the modern bounds of the city other late evidence was discovered, on the territory of the Kremlin, Sparrow Hills, Setun River and Kuntsevskiy forest park, etc. The earliest East Slavic tribes recorded as having expanded to the upper Volga in the 9th to 10th centuries are the Vyatichi and Krivichi, the Moskva River was incorporated as part of Rostov-Suzdal into the Kievan Rus in the 11th century. By AD1100, a settlement had appeared on the mouth of the Neglinnaya River. The first known reference to Moscow dates from 1147 as a place of Yuri Dolgoruky. At the time it was a town on the western border of Vladimir-Suzdal Principality
12.
Highway
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A highway is any public road or other public way on land. It is used for roads, but also includes other public roads and public tracks, It is not an equivalent term to controlled-access highway, or a translation for autobahn, autoroute. In North American and Australian English, major such as controlled-access highways or arterial roads are often state highways. Other roads may be designated county highways in the US and Ontario and these classifications refer to the level of government that maintains the roadway. In British English, highway is primarily a legal term, everyday use normally implies roads, while the legal use covers any route or path with a public right of access, including footpaths etc. The term has led to several related derived terms, including highway system, highway code, highway patrol, the term highway exists in distinction to waterway. Major highways are named and numbered by the governments that typically develop. Australias Highway 1 is the longest national highway in the world at over 14,500 km or 9,000 mi, China has the worlds largest network of highways followed closely by the United States of America. Some highways, like the Pan-American Highway or the European routes, some major highway routes include ferry services, such as U. S. Route 10, which crosses Lake Michigan. Traditionally highways were used by people on foot or on horses, later they also accommodated carriages, bicycles and eventually motor cars, facilitated by advancements in road construction. In the 1920s and 1930s, many nations began investing heavily in progressively more modern highway systems to spur commerce and these features are typically present on highways built as motorways. The general legal definition deals with right of use not the form of construction, the status of highway on most older roads has been gained by established public use while newer roads are typically dedicated as highways from the time they are adopted. In England and Wales, a highway is also known as The Queens Highway. The core definition of a highway is modified in various legislation for a number of purposes, scots law is similar to English law with regard to highways but with differing terminology and legislation. What is defined in England as a highway will often in Scotland be what is defined by s, Highways generally have a route number designated by the state and federal departments of transportation. Smaller roads may be termed byways, modern highway systems developed in the 20th century as the automobile gained popularity. The worlds first limited access road was constructed on Long Island New York in the United States known as the Long Island Motor Parkway or the Vanderbilt Motor Parkway, construction of the Bonn–Cologne autobahn began in 1929 and was opened in 1932 by the mayor of Cologne, Konrad Adenauer. In the USA, the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1921 enacted a fund to create a highway system
13.
Toll road
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A toll road, also known as a turnpike or tollway, is a public or private roadway for which a fee is assessed for passage. It is a form of road pricing typically implemented to help recoup the cost of road construction, the amount of the toll usually varies by vehicle type, weight, or number of axles, with freight trucks often charged higher rates than cars. Tolls are collected at points known as toll booths, toll houses, plazas, stations, bars, some toll collection points are unmanned and the user deposits money in a machine which opens the gate once the correct toll has been paid. To cut costs and minimize time delay many tolls today are collected by some form of automatic or electronic toll collection equipment which communicates electronically with a toll payers transponder, Toll booths are usually still required for the occasional users who do not have a transponder. The tolls are often prepaid or collected automatically from a credit card service. Some toll roads have automated toll enforcement systems that take photos of drivers who do not pay the tolls and they typically get the toll bill delivered to them in the mail. Criticisms of toll roads include the time taken to stop and pay the toll, automated toll paying systems help minimize both of these. Others object to paying twice for the road, in fuel taxes. In addition to roads, toll bridges and toll tunnels are also used by public authorities to generate funds to repay the cost of building the structures. Some tolls are set aside to pay for maintenance or enhancement of infrastructure, or are applied as a general fund by local governments. This is sometimes limited or prohibited by government legislation. Also road congestion pricing schemes have been implemented in a number of urban areas as a transportation demand management tool to try to reduce traffic congestion. Toll roads have existed for at least the last 2,700 years, as tolls had to be paid by travellers using the Susa–Babylon highway under the regime of Ashurbanipal, aristotle and Pliny refer to tolls in Arabia and other parts of Asia. In India, before the 4th century BC, the Arthasastra notes the use of tolls, germanic tribes charged tolls to travellers across mountain passes. A 14th-century example is Castle Loevestein in the Netherlands, which was built at a point where two rivers meet. River tolls were charged on boats sailing along the river, in 14th-century England, some of the most heavily used roads were repaired with money raised from tolls by pavage grants. Widespread toll roads sometimes restricted traffic so much, by their high tolls, tolls were used in the Holy Roman Empire in the 14th and 15th centuries. In the 20th century, road tolls were introduced in Europe to finance the construction of motorway networks and specific transport infrastructure such as bridges, Italy was the first European country to charge motorway tolls, on a 50 km motorway section near Milan in 1924
14.
Road authority
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A highway authority is a name given to a body responsible for the administration of public roads. The National Highways Authority of India is the authority for the management of a network of over 60,000 km of national highways in India. The Authority is a part of the Ministry of Shipping, Road Transport, lembaga Lebuhraya Malaysia or Malaysian Highway Authority is a government agency under the Malaysian Ministry of Works. The National Highway Authority is responsible for building and maintaining highways and motorways in Pakistan, in the United Kingdom a highway authority is an organisation that is responsible for the maintenance of public roads. The current role of an authority is defined in the Highways Act 1980. In England, Scotland and Wales, the authorities for trunk roads and trunk motorways are the Highways England, Transport Scotland. For all other roads and public rights of way, the Highway Authority is usually the county council or unitary authority for a particular area, district councils may carry out some of the functions of a highway authority, but these are usually delegated to them by their county council. Transport for London is the authority for all GLA roads. For more information on unitary authorities and county and district councils, provided below is an incomplete list of duties of the highway authorities. To maintain all highways classed as being maintainable at public expense that fall within their area of control, to maintain records of all highways maintainable at public expense within their area of control. To regulate the activities of developers in relation to their highways, in the U. S. a highway authority is now usually called a department of transportation, owing to the expanded responsibility for mass transport like passenger rail and even airports and ferry service. Some U. S. states also have separate highway authorities for toll roads, for example, the Illinois State Toll Highway Authority is an instrumentality and administrative agency of the State of Illinois. The Authority has the power to collect and raise tolls, and is responsible for the maintenance and construction of tollway roads, the Tollway also supervises and manages the seven Illinois Tollway oases. The Illinois DOT manages other state roads
15.
Fleet vehicle
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This page refers to a collection of vehicles with a single owner. For other uses of the fleet, see Fleet. Fleet vehicles are groups of vehicles owned or leased by a business. Typical examples are operated by car rental companies, taxicab companies, public utilities, public bus companies. In addition, many businesses purchase or lease fleet vehicles to deliver goods to customers, in the United States, Federal Vehicle fleets refers to the federal governments vehicles. Fleet leasing in the UK is very much the same as in the USA, Fleet leasing is popular with much larger businesses with the ability to get great deals and discounts on multi leasing vehicles. Carsharing Fleet card Fleet management software Fleet Management System Fleet Special General Services Administration Take-home vehicle Vehicle remarketing
16.
School bus
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A school bus is a type of bus used for student transport, carrying students to and from school, home, and school events. In addition to their paint color, school buses are required to be fitted with warning lights. Every year in the United States and Canada, school buses provide an estimated 10 billion student trips from home, outside North America, purpose-built vehicles for student transport are not as common. In the second half of the 19th century, many areas of the United States. While some kid hacks were essentially repurposed farm wagons, others were purpose-built for transporting people instead of cargo, as these were horse-drawn vehicles, the entrance door was rear-mounted. Later, one of the school bus manufacturers, Wayne Works. Following the transition to horseless carriages, kid hacks switched from horse-drawn wagons to motorized vehicles based on automotive chassis, in terms of design, little changed, as many early school bus bodies essentially remained wagons mounted to truck frames, the rear entry door and perimeter seating remained. Weather protection was nearly non-existent, if provided, it consisted of a tarpaulin stretched above the passenger area, in 1927, Ford dealership owner A. L. Luce produced a bus body for a 1927 Ford Model T. Unlike previous wood-bodied motorized buses, Luce used primarily steel panels with a wood frame, while the bus was constructed with a roof, its only weather protection was afforded by roll-up canvas side curtains. The 1930s marked a transition in school bus design, with the vehicle gaining a distinct, dedicated form in place of the adaptation of wagons. For the ease of loading passengers and to improve forward visibility, the rear door gained a new function, repurposed as an emergency exit. Along with the changes in configuration, the design of school buses underwent major revisions as well. As school bus design paralleled design of light to medium-duty commercial trucks of the time, in an effort to gain extra seating capacity and visibility, Crown Coach built its own cabover school bus design from the ground up. The highest-capacity school bus of the time, the 76-passenger Crown Supercoach was aptly named, as the 1930s progressed, flat-front school buses began to follow motorcoach design in styling as well as engineering, partially the reason the industry adopted transit-style in naming them. In 1940, the first mid-engined transit school bus was produced by Gillig in California, the custom-built nature of school buses created an inherent obstacle to their profitable mass production on a large scale. Although school bus design had moved away from the wagon-style kid hacks of the generation before, there was not yet an agreed on set of standards for school buses. Organized by rural education expert Dr. Frank W. Cyr, funded by a $5000 grant, Dr. Cyr had invited transportation officials, representatives from body and chassis manufacturers, and paint companies. To reduce the complexity of school bus production and increase safety, to allow for large-scale production of school buses among body manufacturers, adoption of theses standards allowed for greater consistency among body manufacturers
17.
Police
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A police force is a constituted body of persons empowered by the state to enforce the law, protect property, and limit civil disorder. Their powers include the use of force. Law enforcement, however, constitutes part of policing activity. Policing has included an array of activities in different situations, in some societies, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, these developed within the context of maintaining the class system and the protection of private property. Many police forces suffer from police corruption to a greater or lesser degree, the police force is usually a public sector service, meaning they are paid through taxes. Alternative names for police force include constabulary, gendarmerie, police department, police service, crime prevention, protective services, law enforcement agency, members may be referred to as police officers, troopers, sheriffs, constables, rangers, peace officers or civic/civil guards. As police are often interacting with individuals, slang terms are numerous, many slang terms for police officers are decades or centuries old with lost etymology. One of the oldest, cop, has largely lost its slang connotations and this is derived from πόλις, city. Law enforcement in ancient China was carried out by prefects for thousands of years since it developed in both the Chu and Jin kingdoms of the Spring and Autumn period, in Jin, dozens of prefects were spread across the state, each having limited authority and employment period. Under each prefect were subprefects who helped collectively with law enforcement in the area, some prefects were responsible for handling investigations, much like modern police detectives. The concept of the system spread to other cultures such as Korea. In ancient Greece, publicly owned slaves were used by magistrates as police, in Athens, a group of 300 Scythian slaves was used to guard public meetings to keep order and for crowd control, and also assisted with dealing with criminals, handling prisoners, and making arrests. Other duties associated with modern policing, such as investigating crimes, were left to the citizens themselves, in the Roman empire, the army, rather than a dedicated police organization, provided security. Local watchmen were hired by cities to some extra security. Magistrates such as fiscal and quaestors investigated crimes. There was no concept of public prosecution, so victims of crime or their families had to organize and their duties included apprehending thieves and robbers and capturing runaway slaves. The vigiles were supported by the Urban Cohorts who acted as a heavy-duty anti-riot force, in medieval Spain, Santa Hermandades, or holy brotherhoods, peacekeeping associations of armed individuals, were a characteristic of municipal life, especially in Castile. These organizations were intended to be temporary, but became a fixture of Spain
18.
Fire department
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Other life safety services, such as technical rescue, hazardous materials, and emergency medical services may also be provided by the agency. In the United States a fire brigade is the private firefighting organization of a company or enterprise, a fire department usually contains one or more fire stations within its boundaries, and may be staffed by career firefighters, volunteer firefighters, or a combination thereof. A fire department may provide fire protection or fire prevention services, whereby firefighters visit homes and give fire safety advice. In many countries fire protection or prevention is seen as an important role for the service, as preventing a fire from occurring in the first place can save lives. Fire departments are organized in a system of administration, services, training, and operations, for example, Administration is responsible for supervision, budgets, policy, Service offers protection, safety, and education to the public. Training prepares skilled people with the knowledge to perform their duties, operations performs the tasks to successfully save the public from harm. Larger departments have branches within themselves to increase efficiency, composed of volunteers, support, volunteers give advantages to the department in a state of emergency. Support organizing the resources within and outside of the department, research is to give advantages in new technologies for the department. A fire departments jurisdiction is organized by the body that controls the department. This comes from a municipality, county, prefecture, state, province, the most common type of government control is at the municipality level. The jurisdiction size and organisation would be set up by a department or the government in charge of these duties and this deals with the placement of fire stations, equipment, and personnel within the area of control. Fire departments periodically survey their areas and use the data for redeploying proper coverage. This data comes from time, range from station, and/or a population survey. This brings equal service to the community and gives the department efficient places to launch operations. The earliest known firefighting service was formed in Ancient Rome by Egnatius Rufus who used his slaves to provide a fire service. These men fought fires using bucket chains and also patrolled the streets with the authority to impose corporal punishment upon those who violated fire-prevention codes, the Emperor Augustus established a public fire department in 24 BCE, composed of 600 slaves distributed amongst seven fire stations in Rome. Fire departments were formed by property insurance companies beginning in the 17th century after the Great Fire of London in 1666. The first insurance brigades were established the following year, each company had its own fire mark, a durable plaque that would be affixed to the building exterior
19.
United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
20.
Heavy Expanded Mobility Tactical Truck
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The Heavy Expanded Mobility Tactical Truck is an eight-wheel drive, diesel-powered, 10-short-ton, tactical truck used by the US military and others. In evolving configurations it has been in production since 1982. The M977 HEMTT entered service with the U. S. Army as a replacement for the M520 Goer, by early 2015 more than 27,000 HEMTTs in various configurations had been produced by Oshkosh Defense through either new-build or re-manufactured. Current variants have the A4 suffix, the 10×10 Oshkosh Logistic Vehicle System Replacement is the U. S. Marines’ equivalent of the U. S. Army’s Oshkosh 8×8 HEMTT, the Marines do not use the HEMTT or PLS, and the Army does not use the LVSR, but both services use a common trailer with all three truck types. The first prototype HEMTT was completed in December 1981, pre-production examples followed during March 1982, over five contract years a total of 2,140 vehicles were to be delivered. Contract options allowed for up to an additional 5,351 HEMTTs to be ordered, the bulk of these options were exercised. The second HEMTT contract was awarded to Oshkosh Truck Corporation in April 1987 and this contract called for a base quantity of 1,403 vehicles, with options for an additional 1,684 vehicles, all contract options were exercised. A supplemental agreement added a further 1,449 vehicles to the second HEMTT contract in April 1989, the third HEMTT production contract was awarded mid-1994 and when deliveries under this concluded over 14,000 HEMTTS had been produced. The fourth HEMTT production contract was awarded in August 1995, this production through September 2001. The Family of Heavy Tactical Vehicles contract was awarded to Oshkosh by the U. S. Army in March 2001. In addition to the HEMTT, the covered the M1070 HET, M1074, and M1075 Palletized Load System trucks. FHTV covered the period from March 2001 until mid-fiscal year 2006. The FHTV contract was extended and renegotiated, and in February 2007, the follow-on FHTV contract covered new production of HEMTTs and PLS vehicles plus PLS trailers. In total,2173 new-build HEMTT A4 and 104 Recap HEMTT A4 were ordered under FHTV2, production of product-improved HEMTT A2s continued until production of the HEMTT A4 began in July 2008. The exception was the M1977 which initially remained at A2 configuration for fleet commonality reasons, Oshkosh Defense announced In October 2008 that it had been awarded the FHTV3 contract by the U. S. Armys TACOM. More than 6,000 vehicles and trailers could be delivered under this three-year contract, FHTV3 covered the HEMTT A4 and A1 models of the PLS and HET, and both new and recapitalized vehicles. The first FHTV3 order was valued at US$1.2 billion, by late-2009 about 11,500 HEMTT A4s had been ordered under the FHTV2 and 3 contracts
21.
Armoured recovery vehicle
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An armoured recovery vehicle is an armoured vehicle used during combat for recovery or repair of battle-damaged and inoperable armoured fighting vehicles. The term Armoured Repair and Recovery Vehicle is also used, some were also purpose-built in factories, using an existing tank chassis with a hull superstructure to accommodate repair and recovery equipment. Many of the type of ARV had an A-frame or crane to allow the vehicles crew to perform heavy lifting tasks. After World War II, most countries MBT models also had corresponding ARV variants, many ARVs are also equipped with a bulldozer blade that can be used as an anchor when winching or as a stabiliser when lifting, a pump to transfer fuel to another vehicle, and more. Some can even carry an engine for field replacement, such as the German Leopard 1 ARV. ARVs are normally built on the chassis of a battle tank. ARVs are usually built on the basis of a vehicle in the class as they are supposed to recover. Some combat engineering vehicles are based on ARVs, the following is a list of ARVs by country, either designer/manufacturer or user. M113A1-B-Rec - recovery vehicle with an internal winch. M113A1-B-MTC - Maintenance vehicle with hydraulic HIAB crane, bergetiger - PzKpfw VI Tiger I chassis Bergepanzer 38 - Jagdpanzer 38 chassis,170 produced. Bergepanzer T-34 - Captured T-34 chassis Modern Bergepanzer M74 - first TRV/ARV of the West German Bundeswehr,300 used 1956-1960. Bergepanzer 1 - M88 Chassis, the first of 125 entered service in 1962, Bergepanzer 2 - Leopard 1 tank chassis. Used by the Canadian Forces since the 1990s as Taurus ARV, Bergepanzer 3 Büffel - Leopard 2 chassis Bergepanzer Wisent - Bergepanzer 2 chassis. Modified and upgraded by Flensburger Fahrzeugbau to support the demands of the future battlefield, optimised to support the Leopard 1 and 2 main battle tanks. Bergepanzer Wisent 2 - Leopard 2 chassis and it could also tow up to 72 tons. Technical and Fitter - ARVs based on the M-113 with crane attached Nemera - modern recovery vehicle based on Merkava tank chassis, several prototypes have been built, but it never fielded in large number in the IDF. The current ARV in IDF use is the American-made M88 Recovery Vehicle, WZT-4 build by Polish Bumar-Łabędy M32 Chenca - In 1998, Napco International of the USA upgraded M32B1 TRV M4 Sherman-chassis armoured recovery vehicles with Detroit Diesel 8V-92-T diesel engines. CW-34 WPT-34 WZT-1 WZT-2 WZT-3 WZT-4 produced for Malaysia WPT-TOPAS WPT-MORS KWZT MAMMOTH Heavy Wheeled Evacuation, vIU-55 Munja The Russian acronym BREM stands for бронированная ремонтно-эвакуационная машина, literally armoured repair and recovery vehicle
22.
Continuous track
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Continuous track, also called tank tread or caterpillar track, is a system of vehicle propulsion in which a continuous band of treads or track plates is driven by two or more wheels. The prominent treads of the plates are both hard-wearing and damage resistant, especially in comparison to rubber tyres. The aggressive treads of the tracks provide good traction in soft surfaces but can damage paved surfaces, in modern times, continuous track propulsion systems can be traced back to a crude continuous track system designed in the 1770s by Richard Lovell Edgeworth. Polish mathematician and inventor Józef Maria Hoene-Wroński conceived of the idea in the 1830s, the British polymath Sir George Cayley patented a continuous track, which he called a universal railway. Although not a track in the form encountered today, a dreadnaught wheel or endless railway wheel was patented by the British Engineer James Boydell in 1846. In Boydells design, a series of feet are attached to the periphery of the wheel. A letter of recommendation was signed by Sir William Codrington, the General commanding the troops at Sebastapol, a number of manufacturers including Richard Bach, Richard Garrett & Sons, Charles Burrell & Sons and Clayton & Shuttleworth applied the Boydell patent under licence. The British military were interested in Boydells invention from an early date, one of the objectives was to transport Mallets Mortar, a giant 36 weapon which was under development but, by the end of the Crimean war, the mortar was not ready for service. In those tests, a Garrett engine was put through its paces on Plumstead Common, the Garrett engine featured in the Lord Mayors show in London, and in the following month that engine was shipped to Australia. Nicholas works in 1856, again, after the close of the Crimean war, between late 1856 and 1862 Burrell manufactured not less than a score of engines fitted with dreadnaught wheels. Steam tractors fitted with wheels had a number of shortcomings and. In August 1858, more than two years after the end of the Crimean War, John Fowler filed British Patent No.1948 on another form of Endless Railway, comprising only eight sections, the track sections are essentially longitudinal, as in Boydells initial design. Further to Fowlers patent of 1858, in 1877, a Russian, Fyodor Blinov and it lacked self-propulsion and was pulled by horses. Blinov received a patent for his wagon in 1878, from 1881 to 1888 he developed a steam-powered caterpillar-tractor. This self-propelled crawler was successfully tested and featured at an exhibition in 1896. Steam traction engines were used at the end of the 19th Century in the Boer Wars, but neither dreadnaught wheels nor continuous tracks were used, rather roll-out wooden plank roads were thrown under the wheels as required. A little-known American inventor, Henery T. Stith, developed a continuous track prototype which was, in forms, patented in 1873,1880. The last was for the application of the track to a prototype off-road bicycle built for his son, the 1900 prototype is retained by his surviving family
23.
Victoria (Australia)
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Victoria is a state in southeast Australia. Victoria is Australias most densely populated state and its second-most populous state overall, most of its population is concentrated in the area surrounding Port Phillip Bay, which includes the metropolitan area of its state capital and largest city, Melbourne, Australias second-largest city. Prior to British European settlement, the area now constituting Victoria was inhabited by a number of Aboriginal peoples. With Great Britain having claimed the entire Australian continent east of the 135th meridian east in 1788, Victoria was included in the wider colony of New South Wales. The first settlement in the area occurred in 1803 at Sullivan Bay, and much of what is now Victoria was included in the Port Phillip District in 1836, Victoria was officially created as a separate colony in 1851, and achieved self-government in 1855. Politically, Victoria has 37 seats in the Australian House of Representatives and 12 seats in the Australian Senate, at state level, the Parliament of Victoria consists of the Legislative Assembly and the Legislative Council. Victoria is currently governed by the Labor Party, with Daniel Andrews the current Premier, the personal representative of the Queen of Australia in the state is the Governor of Victoria, currently Linda Dessau. Local government is concentrated in 79 municipal districts, including 33 cities, although a number of unincorporated areas still exist, Victorias total gross state product is ranked second in Australia, although Victoria is ranked fourth in terms of GSP per capita because of its limited mining activity. Culturally, Melbourne is home to a number of museums, art galleries and theatres and is described as the sporting capital of Australia. The Melbourne Cricket Ground is the largest stadium in Australia, and the host of the 1956 Summer Olympics, Victoria has eight public universities, with the oldest, the University of Melbourne, having been founded in 1853. Victoria, like Queensland, was named after Queen Victoria, who had been on the British throne for 14 years when the colony was established in 1851. The first British settlement in the later known as Victoria was established in October 1803 under Lieutenant-Governor David Collins at Sullivan Bay on Port Phillip. In the year 1826 Colonel Stewart, Captain S. Wright, fly and the brigs Dragon and Amity, took a number of convicts and a small force composed of detachments of the 3rd and 93rd regiments. Victorias next settlement was at Portland, on the south west coast of what is now Victoria, edward Henty settled Portland Bay in 1834. Melbourne was founded in 1835 by John Batman, who set up a base in Indented Head, from settlement the region around Melbourne was known as the Port Phillip District, a separately administered part of New South Wales. Shortly after the now known as Geelong was surveyed by Assistant Surveyor W. H. Smythe. And in 1838 Geelong was officially declared a town, despite earlier white settlements dating back to 1826, days later, still in 1851 gold was discovered near Ballarat, and subsequently at Bendigo. Later discoveries occurred at sites across Victoria
24.
Accident Towing Services Act
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The Accident Towing Services Act 2007 is a law enacted by the Parliament of the State of Victoria, Australia. The Act is the prime statute regulating the vehicle towing industry which provides towing and recovery services for light and it is predominately founded on safety and consumer protection sentiments. The Act continued economic controls over the industry and contains occupational regulation characteristics, the style of the underlying regulatory scheme varies in parts and represents a blend which is prescriptive in some parts and performance and process-based in others. The Accident Towing Services Act was the first dedicated statute regulating Victorias towing industry, the Act generally strengthened the scheme of regulation for accident towing activity in Victoria and, at the same time, deregulated trade towing industry controls. The Accident Towing Services Act was passed by the Victorian Parliament on 17 July 2007, the Act forms part of the transport policy and legislation framework in Victoria headed by the Transport Integration Act. The responsible Victorian Government Minister for the Accident Towing Services Act is the Minister for Roads, the stated objective of the Accident Towing Services Act is twofold. First, the Act seeks to promote the safe, efficient and timely provision of accident towing, second, the Act seeks to ensure that the persons who provide accident towing services are of appropriate character. The Act is also aimed at ensuring that the persons in the industry are technically competent to provide accident towing services, the statute also requires that those persons act with integrity and in a manner that is safe, timely and efficient when providing the services. Emphasis is also placed on the need for regard to be had to vulnerable persons in recognition of the shock, the scheme in the Accident Towing Services Act broadly sets economic, occupational and general consumer protection controls over the accident towing industry in Victoria. Second, the Act sets minimum standards on the character of industry participants, the framework of offences in the Act broadly seeks to give practical effect to the chain of responsibility concept in the accident towing sector. The scheme was broadly prompted by consumer protection sentiment, in particular, Part 4 of the Accident Towing Services Act establishes a licensing scheme for accident tow trucks. The Act makes it an offence for a person to operate a tow truck for accident towing purposes unless the person who provides the service has a regular tow truck licence. In addition, the person must operate the truck from a specified in the licence. The tow truck must be registered and be capable of being used for towing services activity and it is an offence under the Act for a person to drive an unlicensed accident tow truck or a tow truck that is inacapable of being used in accident towing work. Prohibitions exist in the Act against tow trucks attending accident scenes unless the vehicle is licensed, the offence does not apply if the vehicle attends for the purposes of salvage work only and will not therefore be involved in the act of towing the vehicle from the road accident scene. The Act positions VicRoads as the prime agency able to both regular and heavy accident towing licences. The Minister can only make such an authorisation if she or she considers it to be in the public interest having regard to any increase in the need for tow trucks in the relevant area. Alternatively, the authorisation can be if the licences are to replace existing licences or exceptional circumstances justify the issue of new licences
25.
Armored recovery vehicle
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An armoured recovery vehicle is an armoured vehicle used during combat for recovery or repair of battle-damaged and inoperable armoured fighting vehicles. The term Armoured Repair and Recovery Vehicle is also used, some were also purpose-built in factories, using an existing tank chassis with a hull superstructure to accommodate repair and recovery equipment. Many of the type of ARV had an A-frame or crane to allow the vehicles crew to perform heavy lifting tasks. After World War II, most countries MBT models also had corresponding ARV variants, many ARVs are also equipped with a bulldozer blade that can be used as an anchor when winching or as a stabiliser when lifting, a pump to transfer fuel to another vehicle, and more. Some can even carry an engine for field replacement, such as the German Leopard 1 ARV. ARVs are normally built on the chassis of a battle tank. ARVs are usually built on the basis of a vehicle in the class as they are supposed to recover. Some combat engineering vehicles are based on ARVs, the following is a list of ARVs by country, either designer/manufacturer or user. M113A1-B-Rec - recovery vehicle with an internal winch. M113A1-B-MTC - Maintenance vehicle with hydraulic HIAB crane, bergetiger - PzKpfw VI Tiger I chassis Bergepanzer 38 - Jagdpanzer 38 chassis,170 produced. Bergepanzer T-34 - Captured T-34 chassis Modern Bergepanzer M74 - first TRV/ARV of the West German Bundeswehr,300 used 1956-1960. Bergepanzer 1 - M88 Chassis, the first of 125 entered service in 1962, Bergepanzer 2 - Leopard 1 tank chassis. Used by the Canadian Forces since the 1990s as Taurus ARV, Bergepanzer 3 Büffel - Leopard 2 chassis Bergepanzer Wisent - Bergepanzer 2 chassis. Modified and upgraded by Flensburger Fahrzeugbau to support the demands of the future battlefield, optimised to support the Leopard 1 and 2 main battle tanks. Bergepanzer Wisent 2 - Leopard 2 chassis and it could also tow up to 72 tons. Technical and Fitter - ARVs based on the M-113 with crane attached Nemera - modern recovery vehicle based on Merkava tank chassis, several prototypes have been built, but it never fielded in large number in the IDF. The current ARV in IDF use is the American-made M88 Recovery Vehicle, WZT-4 build by Polish Bumar-Łabędy M32 Chenca - In 1998, Napco International of the USA upgraded M32B1 TRV M4 Sherman-chassis armoured recovery vehicles with Detroit Diesel 8V-92-T diesel engines. CW-34 WPT-34 WZT-1 WZT-2 WZT-3 WZT-4 produced for Malaysia WPT-TOPAS WPT-MORS KWZT MAMMOTH Heavy Wheeled Evacuation, vIU-55 Munja The Russian acronym BREM stands for бронированная ремонтно-эвакуационная машина, literally armoured repair and recovery vehicle
26.
Mater (Cars)
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Tow Mater is one of the main characters in Cars and its sequels, Cars 2 and Cars 3 as well as Cars Toons. He is voiced by Larry the Cable Guy and inspired by a 1951 International Harvester tow truck, portrayed as Lightning McQueens best friend and sidekick, he had a breakout role in Cars Toons, Maters Tall Tales and in other media related to Cars. Maters design is based on a 1951 International Harvester boom truck once used to lift equipment from mine shafts in Cherokee County, Kansas. The Route 66 town of Galena is named for the lead ore galena, to which the series of small mining towns around Baxter Springs owe their boom. Mater takes his nickname from construction superintendent and die-hard NASCAR fan Douglas Mater Keever, the RVs vantage point at the race is modelled on a Redneck Hill at Charlotte Motor Speedway favoured by hardcore fans in tents and pop-up campers. Yeah, like tuh-mater, but without the tuh, the character Mater speaks with a hick Southern redneck accent with a dash of hillbilly twang and frequently uses incorrect syntax. The real-life person who was the inspiration for Maters voice is Harley Russell from Erick, harleys natural voice has the same sound and same mannerisms as Mater. Larry the Cable Guy spent time with Harley Russell to learn the voice for the character, a Cars Revd Up DVD released as a 2006 bonus in Target stores describes Mater as inspired by a 1957 Dodge truck. Maters color was originally baby blue as shown in a flashback and he is missing his hood and his left headlight. In the short Mater and the Ghostlight, his right headlight fell out as well, during the first Cars movie credits Mater fished his hood from a cliff up in Tailfin Pass, and his hood showed more of its original color than the rest of Mater. But then Mater sneezed, causing the hood to fall back down the cliff and his license plate number is A113. Mater is also capable of racing, as well as being the worlds best backwards driver and he attributes his skill to his rear-view mirrors and his own philosophy, Dont need to know where Im going, just need to know where Ive been. He teaches Lightning this skill and is proud when he uses it in the Piston Cup race, in Cars 2, Mater displays a vast knowledge of automotive parts and engines. Later, when Shiftwell and her partner Finn McMissile show Mater a photograph of a cars engine, he identifies it on sight. His knowledge helps McMissile and Shiftwell capture Sir Miles Axlerod, the villain of this film. Mater is given a knighthood by the Queen. He runs Tow Mater Towing and Salvage and is the first to befriend, in the end, McQueen asks Tex to give Mater an opportunity to fly in a Dinoco helicopter like he always wanted, saying to Sally that Mater is his best friend. Maters friendship with Lightning McQueen has grown rather than diminished, with a lengthy best-friend handshake to prove it, Mater values every dent made during his adventures with Lightning as symbolic of their friendship
27.
Roadside assistance
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Roadside assistance and breakdown coverage are services that assist motorists, or bicyclists, whose vehicles have suffered a mechanical failure that leaves the operator stranded. Early motorists were often capable of carrying out minor repairs themselves, but as automobiles became more complicated, some early local motoring clubs tried to support their members by encouraging them to help each other. A rota of members who would help other members was kept and in some cases, in the UK, the Royal Automobile Club and The Automobile Association offering repair services to their members on the spot, or a tow to a local garage or the drivers home if nearby. The Allgemeiner Deutscher Automobil-Club in Germany began to offer a service in 1927. The American Automobile Association was formed in 1902 and later merged with its Canadian company, many of these associations are membership-based clubs and provide services to assist members through the use of fleet assistance vehicles. In the case of the UK AA, these were traditionally motorcycle-mounted prior to the introduction of vans, when communication technology and availability made it practical, a network of emergency phone boxes, placed at intervals by the roadside, was introduced in some countries. In recent years, the ownership of mobile phones has, to a large degree. Some automobile manufacturers also offer assistance for their customers, sometimes for free for some period after the purchase of a new vehicle. Many of these patrols work directly with the State Police and Highway Operations departments of their state, breakdown Car safety Motor club Vehicle Recovery
28.
Tow hitch
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A tow hitch is a device attached to the chassis of a vehicle for towing, or a towbar to an aircraft nose gear. Another category is the towing pintle used on military vehicles worldwide, in North America the vehicle attachment is known as the trailer hitch. Trailer hitches come in two configurations, receiver type and fixed-drawbar type. Fixed-drawbar hitches are typically built as one piece, have a hole for the trailer ball. A trailer hitch typically bolts to the chassis of the vehicle, in North America there are a few common classes that are defined by the Society of Automotive Engineers. Some manufacturers market Class V hitches, but there is no such standard according to SAE J684, receiver tubes come in various sizes depending on the load they carry and the country of operation. Receiver-type hitches use removable ball mounts, whereas the fixed drawbar type hitches have integrated ball mounts, the ball mount must match the SAE hitch class. The ballmount for a receiver-type hitch is a bar that fits into a receiver attached to the vehicle. Removable ball mounts are offered with varying rise or drop to accommodate variations in the height of the vehicle, in order to tow safely the correct combination of vehicle and trailer must be combined with correct loading horizontally and vertically on the tow ball. Advice should be taken to avoid problems, outside North America, the vehicle mounting for the tow ball is called the tow bracket. Additionally, many pickup trucks come equipped with one to three mounting holes placed in the area of the rear bumper to accommodate the mounting of trailer tow balls. The ones on the left or right are often used by drivers in rural areas who tow wide farm equipment on two-lane roads. The far side mounting allows for the item being towed to be away from the opposite side of the road. Weight ratings for both bumper-mounted and frame-mounted receiver hitches can be found on bumper of pickup trucks and on the receiver hitch, many pickup trucks without frame-mounted receiver hitches often use the rear bumper, especially if the pickup truck is a light duty pickup truck. For flat deck and pickup trucks towing 10, 000-to-30, 000-pound trailers there are fifth wheel and these are used for agriculture, industry and large recreational trailers. Front trailer hitches are also used on pickup trucks and full size SUVs for multiple purpose. A front-mounted hitch can accommodate additional truck equipment such as front mount bike carriers, fishing / hunting gear, winches, step plates, snow plows and it also allows a driver to temporarily maneuver a trailer with better visibility into any convenient place. Front trailer hitches are mounted directly to the frame of a vehicle to ensure a reliable connection, front hitches are typically equipped with standard size receiver tubes to accommodate a variety of hitch mount equipment
29.
University of Tennessee at Chattanooga
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The University of Tennessee at Chattanooga, is a public university located in Chattanooga, Tennessee, United States. The university is one of three universities and two affiliated institutions in the University of Tennessee System. S. In 1907, the changed its name to University of Chattanooga. In 1964 the university merged with Zion College, which had established in 1949. In 1969 the University of Chattanooga joined the UT system and became the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga, the University of Chattanooga Foundation Inc. is a private corporation, created in 1969, that manages the private endowment of the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga. UTC uses the system, with five optional mini-terms in the summer. The leadership of the campus rests upon the chancellor, who answers to the UT System President, the University is currently headed by Chancellor Dr. Steve Angle. A voice for student leadership on campus, the SGA consists of senators representing districts/the college they belong to, such as the College of Arts and Sciences. Chattanooga is best known for its nationally ranked Business program, Engineering, Nursing, English, Chemistry, Accounting, Psychology, Music, the university offers over 140 undergraduate majors and concentrations, and over 50 undergraduate minors. In an effort to expand the horizons of its student body, UTC recently began a program with Kangnung National University of Kangnung. In November 2005, SimCenter was listed as the 89th most powerful supercomputer by Top500, on November 20,2007, the University announced the center has been named a National Center for Computational Engineering. More recently, The SimCenter provided the research for a new source of alternative energy unveiled by Bloom Energy Corporation in Sunnyvale. The University is served by CARTA bus routes 4,7,10,14,19, route 14 only operates on weekdays during fall and spring terms, when the University is session. The route runs on and off the campus on McCallie, Houston, Vine, Douglas, Fifth, a recent extension serves Third, ONeal, and Central Streets, as well as Erlanger Hospital, and a large parking lot at Engel Stadium. All students showing valid University identification cards ride for free on all CARTA routes, Challenger Center – The widow of Dick Scobee, a Challenger astronaut, donated the building in her husbands memory. This educational simulation includes different space missions with project completed from mission control, Cadek Hall – Home to the Cadek Conservatory, UTC Choral Department, and WUTC radio. Recently, Hooper Hall reopened after a lead and asbestos abatement project Hunter Hall Education Department Lupton Library – see below Metropolitan Hall – Nursing department, formerly housed the Chattanooga Metropolitan Hospital Old Math Building – Demolished in the late 1990s. Presidents House – Development Department Patten House – Located in the Fort Wood National Historic District, Home of the Alumni Affairs Department
30.
HowStuffWorks
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HowStuffWorks is an American commercial educational website founded by Marshall Brain to provide its target audience an insight into the way many things work. The site uses various media to explain concepts, terminology, and mechanisms—including photographs, diagrams, videos, animations. A documentary television series with the name also premiered in November 2008 on the Discovery Channel. In 1998, North Carolina State University professor Marshall Brain started the site as a hobby, in 1999, Brain raised venture capital and formed HowStuffWorks, Inc. In March 2002, HowStuffWorks was sold to the Convex Group, the headquarters moved from Cary, North Carolina to Atlanta, Georgia. HowStuffWorks originally focused on science and machines, ranging from submarines to common household gadgets, after adding a staff of writers, artists, and editors, content expanded to a larger array of topics. In November 2004, HowStuffWorks moved its entertainment section to Stuffo, however, in 2006, the team disbanded and the site now redirects visitors to the sites entertainment channel. The domain HowStuffWorks. com attracted at least 58 million visitors annually by 2008, HowStuffWorks puts out an educational magazine called HowStuffWorks Express for middle school students. The company has released a series of HowStuffWorks trivia LidRock discs – CD-ROMs sold on fountain drink lids at Regal Theaters. Howstuffworks recently acquired Mobil Travel Guide and Consumer Guide, howstuffworks. com spun off its international division when they went public via an acquisition of INTAC, a China-based company. In March 2007, HSW International launched its Portuguese website with headquarters in São Paulo, the Portuguese term for the site is Como Tudo Funciona, which means how everything works. In June 2008, the Chinese site was launched with new headquarters placed in Beijing, the URL roughly translates to Knowledge Information Web. On October 15,2007, Discovery Communications announced it had bought HowStuffWorks for US$250 million, the company later chose to use the name HowStuffWorks as the title of a television series on its Discovery Channel. The series, which focuses on commodities, premiered in November 2008 and is similar in style, other co-founders in Sharecare include Jeff Arnold, Dr. Mehmet Oz, Harpo Productions, Discovery Communications and Sony Pictures Television. On April 21,2014, Discovery Communications announced that they had sold HowStuffWorks to Blucora for $45 million, later in the year, HowStuffWorks moved its headquarters from Buckhead to Ponce City Market, a new mixed-use development in the Old Fourth Ward neighborhood of Atlanta. HowStuffWorks maintains several podcasts, hosted by its writers and editors. Stuff You Should Know, is an audio podcast and video series on topics from all fields of interest, co-hosted by senior staff writers Josh Clark. In older episodes, editors Candace Keener and Chris Pollette co-hosted with Clark before Bryant became the permanent co-host, the podcast falls under the category of Society and Culture
31.
Container crane
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A container crane is a type of large dockside gantry crane found at container terminals for loading and unloading intermodal containers from container ships. Container cranes consist of a framework that can traverse the length of a quay or yard on a rail track. Instead of a hook, they are equipped with a handling tool called a spreader. The spreader can be lowered on top of a container and locks onto the containers four locking points using a twistlock mechanism, Cranes normally transport a single container at once, but some newer cranes have the capability to pick up two to four 20-foot containers at once. Low-profile cranes are used where they may be in the path of aircraft. The type of crane selected in container terminal design process is determined by the design vessel, container cranes are generally classified by their lifting capacity and the size of the container ships they can load and unload. A Panamax crane can load and unload containers from a panamax class container ship capable of passing through the Panama Canal. A post-Panamax crane can load and unload containers from a container ship too large to pass through the Panama Canal, the largest modern container cranes are classified as super-post-Panamax. A modern container crane capable of lifting two 20-foot long containers at once under the telescopic spreader will generally have a lifting capacity of 65 tonnes. Some new cranes have a 120-tonne load capacity, enabling them to lift up to four 20-foot or two 40-foot containers, Cranes capable of lifting six 20-foot containers have also been designed. Post-Panamax cranes weigh approximately 800–900 tonnes, while the newer-generation super-post-Panamax cranes can weigh 1, super Post-Panamax Quay Cranes of Doosan make are equipped to handle safe working load of 41 MTs /65 MTs /85 MTs and has an outreach of 23 rows across the vessel. Both the rolling stock and the trailers may pass under the base, smaller container cranes are also used at break-of-gauge transloading facilities. The crane is driven by an operator who sits in a suspended from the trolley. The trolley runs along rails located on the top or sides of the boom, the operator runs the trolley over the ship to lift the cargo, usually containers. Once the spreader locks onto the container, the container is lifted, moved over the dock, the crane also lifts containers from chassis on the dock to load them onto the ship. Straddle carriers, sidelifts, reach stackers, or container lorries then manoeuvre underneath the base and collect the containers, rapidly moving them away from the dock. Flatcars or well cars may also be loaded directly beneath the crane base, a crane can be powered by two types of power supply, a diesel engine–driven generator located on top of the crane or electric power from the dock. The most common is by electric power from the dock, the voltage required may range from 4,000 to 13,200 volts
32.
Crane vessel
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A crane vessel, crane ship or floating crane is a ship with a crane specialized in lifting heavy loads. The largest crane vessels are used for offshore construction, conventional monohulls are used, but the largest crane vessels are often catamaran or semi-submersible types as they have increased stability. On a sheerleg crane, the crane is fixed and cannot rotate, in medieval Europe, crane vessels which could be flexibly deployed in the whole port basin were introduced as early as the 14th century. During the age of sail, the hulk was used extensively as a floating crane for tasks that required heavy lift. At the time, the heaviest single components of ships were the main masts, and sheer hulks were essential for removing and replacing them, in 1920, the 1898-built battleship USS Kearsarge was converted to a crane ship when a crane with a capacity of 250 tons was installed. Later it was renamed Crane Ship No.1 and it was used, amongst other things, to place guns and other heavy items on other battleships under construction. Another remarkable feat was the raising of the submarine USS Squalus in 1939, in 1942, the crane ships a. k. a. Heavy Lift Ships SS Empire Elgar, SS Empire Bard, and SS Empire Purcell were sent to the Russian Arctic ports of Archangel and their role was to enable the unloading of the Arctic convoys where port installations were either destroyed by German bombers or were non existent. In 1949, J. Ray McDermott had Derrick Barge Four built, the arrival of this type of vessel changed the direction of the offshore construction industry. Instead of constructing oil platforms in parts, jackets and decks could be built onshore as modules, for use in the shallow part of the Gulf of Mexico, the cradle of the offshore industry, these barges sufficed. In 1963, Heerema converted a Norwegian tanker, Sunnaas, into a vessel with a capacity of 300 tons. This type of vessel was better adapted to the harsh environment of the North Sea. In 1978, Heerema had two semi-submersible crane vessels built, Hermod and Balder, each with one 2,000 ton, later both were upgraded to a higher capacity. This type of vessel was much less sensitive to sea swell. The high stability also allowed for heavier lifts than was possible with a monohull, the larger capacity of the cranes reduced the installation time of a platform from a whole season to a few weeks. Inspired by this success similar vessels were built, in 1985 DB-102 was launched for McDermott, with two cranes with a capacity of 6,000 tons each. Micoperi had M7000 built in 1986 with two cranes of 7,000 tons each, however, due to a oil glut in the mid 1980s, the boom in the offshore industry was over, resulting in collaborations. In 1988, a joint venture between Heerema and McDermott was formed, HeereMac, in 1990 Micoperi had to apply for bankruptcy
33.
Gantry crane
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Gantry cranes are a type of crane built atop a gantry, which is a structure used to straddle an object or workspace. Gantry cranes for marine application are imposing, multi-story structures prominent at most container terminals, used to load intermodal containers on and they are also called portal cranes, the portal being the empty space straddled by the gantry. The terms gantry crane and overhead crane are used interchangeably. The usual distinction drawn between the two is that with gantry cranes, the structure is usually wheeled. They operate along two rails spaced based on the size of crane to be used, ship-to-Shore Crane Elements Lateral movement system, A combination of two sets of typically ten rail wheels. The lateral movement is controlled by a cabin along the landside wheel, during any lateral movement, lights and sirens operate to ensure safety of the crew operating adjacent to the crane. The wheels are mounted to the bottom of the vertical frame/bracing system, vertical frame and braces, A structurally designed system of beams assembled to support the boom, cabin, operating machinery, and the cargo being lifted. They display signage describing restrictions, requirements and identifiers, Crane boom, A horizontal beam that runs transversely to the berth. It spans from landside of the rail wheels to a length over the edge of the berth. The waterside span is based on the size of ship that it can successfully load/unload, beams also have the ability to be raised for storage purposes. Hook, Device which moves vertically to raise and lower cargo as well as horizontally along the booms length, for container cranes, a spreader is attached to span the container and lock it safely in place during movement. Operating cabin, Encased setup with glass paneled flooring for operator to view the cargo being moved, elevators which are located along vertical frame members are used to get crew up and down from the cabin. Storage Equipment, For temporary storage options between vessel operations, one pin is inserted into anchorage arm dropped from each wheel set into a stow pin assembly. This setup is designed to prevent lateral movement along the rails, during hurricanes and other emergency shut down situations, tie down assemblies are used. Two angled arms are anchored at each end of set of wheels. This setup prevents longitudinal movement along the rails as well as prevents tipping of the due to uplift from high velocity winds. Ship-to-shore gantry cranes are used in pairs or teams of cranes in order to minimize the time required to load and unload vessels. One example are systems where specialized berths built that accommodate one vessel at a time with ship-to-shore gantry cranes on both sides of the vessel and this allows for more cranes and double the workspace under the cranes to be used for transporting cargo off dock
34.
Level luffing crane
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A level-luffing crane is a crane mechanism where the hook remains at the same level whilst luffing, moving the jib up and down, so as to move the hook inwards and outwards relative to the base. Usually the description is only applied to those with a jib that have some additional mechanism applied to keep the hook level when luffing. Level-luffing is most important when careful movement of a load near ground level is required and this partially explains the popularity of fixed horizontal jibs in these fields. An early form of level-luffing gear was the Toplis design, invented by a Stothert & Pitt engineer in 1914, the crane jibs luffs as for a conventional crane, with the end of the jib rising and falling. The cranes hook is kept level by automatically paying out enough extra cable to compensate for this, the usual mechanism for level-luffing in modern cranes is to add an additional horse head section to the top of the jib. By careful design of the geometry, this keeps level merely by the action of the pivots. As cranes and their control became more sophisticated, it became possible to control the level of luffing directly, by winching the hoist cable in. The first of these systems used mechanical clutches between luffing and hoist drums, giving simplicity and a near level result. Later systems have used modern electronic controls and quickly reversible motors with good slow-speed control to the hoist winch motors, cranes have long been a popular subject for Meccano models, and luffing cranes are no exception
35.
Sidelifter
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A sidelifter is a specialised vehicle or semi-trailer used to hoist and transport ISO standard intermodal containers over longer distances. Sidelifter are known to operate in the countries or regions. Africa, Asia-Pacific, Europe, Middle East and North and South America, the sidelifter loads and unloads containers via a pair of hydraulic powered cranes mounted at each end of the vehicle chassis. The cranes are designed to lift containers from the ground, from other vehicles including rolling stock, from railway wagons, a standard sidelifter is also able to stack a container at a two containers height on the ground. Although these can self load, they are often loaded or unloaded at the port with a straddle carrier or reach stacker. This equipment has been referred to with a myriad of alternate names, the Klaus Sidelifters were heavy and not cost effective for commercial use. Steelbro in New Zealand bought the Klaus Transport business and further developed the Sidelifter, resulting in reduced tare weight and it was also developed by Hammar Maskin AB in Sweden. It has since become a used vehicle in intermodal facilities worldwide. The principal alternative to the machinery of the sidelifter is the use of swap body containers. Sidelifters generally have the attributes, Lifting cranes. The hydraulically powered cranes lift the container on and off the chassis, while typically the cranes are powered by a trailer mounted diesel engine or gasoline engine, the cranes are sometimes powered via a PTO from the truck or tractor. These are fitted with legs which are necessary to permit the lifting fully laden shipping containers without tilting the vehicle. These may be adjustable to assist operation on unlevel ground and facilitate greater safety margins, when lifting containers in confined locations or from rail wagons or trailer decks, tilting and extending legs provide additional capability. Chains, which are attached from the top of the cranes to the corner castings at the base of the container during lifting operations. The tractor/cab, which pulls the trailer, and in some cases supplies power through the PTO. This tractor/cab always supplies the compressed air for the brakes of the sidelifter. The chassis, which bears the weight of the container when loaded, Sidelifter machines were designed to lift a maximum of 45 tonnes. More recent designs lift 47 tonnes though smaller machines are available where a lighter tare weight is important. Some sidelifters have a chassis, sometimes called trombone chassis, allowing the unit to expand
36.
Straddle carrier
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A straddle carrier is a non road going vehicle for use in port terminals and intermodal yards used for stacking and moving ISO standard containers. Straddles pick and carry containers while straddling their load and connecting to the top lifting points via a container spreader and these machines have the ability to stack containers up to 4 high. These are capable of low speeds with a laden container. The workers that use this machinery sit at the very top seated facing the middle as they can see behind them, Straddle carriers can lift up to 60 t which equals up to 2 full containers. Speeding Up the Handling of Lumber with the Straddle Truck, archived from the original on 2010-12-30. Combilift Straddle Carrier Liebherr straddle carrier
37.
Car
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A car is a wheeled, self-powered motor vehicle used for transportation and a product of the automotive industry. The year 1886 is regarded as the year of the modern car. In that year, German inventor Karl Benz built the Benz Patent-Motorwagen, cars did not become widely available until the early 20th century. One of the first cars that was accessible to the masses was the 1908 Model T, an American car manufactured by the Ford Motor Company. Cars were rapidly adopted in the United States of America, where they replaced animal-drawn carriages and carts, cars are equipped with controls used for driving, parking, passenger comfort and safety, and controlling a variety of lights. Over the decades, additional features and controls have been added to vehicles, examples include rear reversing cameras, air conditioning, navigation systems, and in car entertainment. Most cars in use in the 2010s are propelled by a combustion engine. Both fuels cause air pollution and are blamed for contributing to climate change. Vehicles using alternative fuels such as ethanol flexible-fuel vehicles and natural gas vehicles are also gaining popularity in some countries, electric cars, which were invented early in the history of the car, began to become commercially available in 2008. There are costs and benefits to car use, the costs of car usage include the cost of, acquiring the vehicle, interest payments, repairs and auto maintenance, fuel, depreciation, driving time, parking fees, taxes, and insurance. The costs to society of car use include, maintaining roads, land use, road congestion, air pollution, public health, health care, road traffic accidents are the largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide. The benefits may include transportation, mobility, independence. The ability for humans to move flexibly from place to place has far-reaching implications for the nature of societies and it was estimated in 2010 that the number of cars had risen to over 1 billion vehicles, up from the 500 million of 1986. The numbers are increasing rapidly, especially in China, India, the word car is believed to originate from the Latin word carrus or carrum, or the Middle English word carre. In turn, these originated from the Gaulish word karros, the Gaulish language was a branch of the Brythoic language which also used the word Karr, the Brythonig language evolved into Welsh where Car llusg and car rhyfel still survive. It originally referred to any wheeled vehicle, such as a cart, carriage. Motor car is attested from 1895, and is the formal name for cars in British English. Autocar is a variant that is attested from 1895
38.
Car classification
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Governments and private organizations have developed car classification schemes that are used for innumerable purposes including regulation, description and categorization, among others. This article details commonly used classification schemes in use worldwide, vehicles can be categorized in numerous ways. Regulatory agencies may also establish a vehicle classification system for determining a tax amount, in the United Kingdom, a vehicle is taxed according to the vehicles construction, engine, weight, type of fuel and emissions, as well as the purpose for which it is used. Other jurisdictions may determine vehicle tax based upon environmental principles, such as the user pays principle, another standard for road vehicles of all types that is used internationally, is ISO 3833-1977. In the United States, since 2010 the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety uses a scheme it has developed that takes into account a combination of both shadow and weight. The United States Federal Highway Administration has developed a scheme used for automatically calculating road use tolls. There are two categories depending on whether the vehicle carries passengers or commodities. Vehicles that carry commodities are further subdivided by number of axles and number of units, the United States Environmental Protection Agency has developed a classification scheme used to compare fuel economy among similar vehicles. Passenger vehicles are classified based on a total interior passenger. Trucks are classified based upon their gross vehicle weight rating, heavy duty vehicles are not included within the EPA scheme. A similar set of classes is used by the Canadian EPA, in Australia, the Federal Chamber of Automotive Industries publishes its own classifications. This is a table listing several different methods of vehicle classification. Straddling the boundary between car and motorbike, these vehicles have engines under 1.0 litre, typically only two passengers, and are sometimes unorthodox in construction. Some microcars are three-wheelers, while the majority have four wheels, microcars were popular in post-war Europe, where their appearance led them to be called Bubble cars. More recent microcars are often electric powered, the size of ultracompact cars will be less than minicars, but have engine greater than 50cc displacement and able to transport 1 or 2 persons. Ultracompact cars cannot use standard, because of strict safety standards for minicars. The regulation about running capacity and safety performance of cars will be published in early autumn. Today, there are smaller than ultracompact cars, called category-1 motorized vehicles which it has 50cc displacement or less
39.
Microcar
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A microcar is the smallest automobile classification, usually applied to very small cars. Such small cars were referred to as cyclecars until the 1940s. More recent models are called bubble cars due to their bubble-shaped appearance. The definition of a microcar has varied considerably in different countries, since there are usually tax and/or licensing advantages to the classification, multiple restrictions are often imposed, starting with engine size. The Bruce Weiner Microcar Museum says Engine sizes of 700cc and less and 2 doors or less, may have all gears operable in reverse as well as in forward gear such as the Messerschmitt KR200. Fitted with lifting bodywork instead of doors, less than 85 cubic feet/2400 litres interior volume. There are also a variety of trucks, usually of the forward control or van style to provide more cargo room. These might be used for local deliveries on narrow streets where standard small pickup trucks would be inconvenient, a motorised quadricycle is a four-wheeled vehicle that can be registered as a motorcycle. They are analogous to mopeds or light motorcycles rather than cars, consequently, they can be driven by underage drivers or in some cases even without a license, and they are free of car taxes. Their speed is limited to ca.45 km/h either through a speed or power limit. The economy of operating such a car has also often been helped by three-wheeled microcars or cars with very small engines being treated as motorcycles for tax. In some countries, drivers of microcars are exempt from licensing conditions, the microcars may have a special category or may be considered motorcycles and therefore no car driving licence is needed. This assures a certain market among people who do not want to stand for, or who cannot pass an auto drivers licence test. More negatively, at least in Austria, Belgium and France, also, motorized quadricycles may be forbidden from motorways. In some European countries, taxes formerly depended on engine displacement and this has given rise to names of such cars as Citroën 2CV and Renault 4CV. Reduced global warming from carbon dioxide emission has now added to this list. In the UK before October 2000, a person who passed a motorcycle test was automatically granted a full sub-category B1 licence as an additional entitlement with the full Category A licence, since 2000 a provisional car licence has to be requested. Another advantage is the ease of parking, some microcars can be parked perpendicular, where other cars park parallel, or lifted by hand, like a motor scooter, to get into a tight spot
40.
City car
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A city car is a small car designed to be used primarily in urban areas and conurbations. The term is used along with terms for small cars including subcompact in North America. The Euro NCAP calls all small cars superminis, the European Commission refers to A-segment. In Japan, the kei car is a type of small car. The original concept for the city car came about as a result of the market for entry level vehicles in the 1920s and 1930s. The great depression caused the market for large, luxurious vehicles to collapse, as a result, manufactures had no choice but to build small, cheap vehicles that people could afford, similar to early 20th century runabouts. However, these vehicles were not specifically branded as vehicles to use in cities or congested areas and they were purely for use as peoples cars, cars designed to be cheap, sell a large number of units, and put people who had not owned cars on wheels. A number of small, cheap cars were sold before the war, including the 1920s Austin 7, 1930s Fiat 500 Topolino. However, these early microcars werent true city cars, most were designed, built, with the exception of a few examples, these were also not designed for specific use in cities. As the European economy improved, Fiat launched the new 500 in 1957 and in 1959, BMC would introduce its well-known city car, there were other new projects from 1969 through 1972. While many of these cars can be considered city cars today, exceptions are the smaller Fiats, especially the 1957 Fiat 500 and 126. They were in the region of 3.0 metres in length, in the 1970s the Citroën LNA and related three-door Peugeot 104 offered compact city sized cars of around 3.3 m, and the Fiat Panda followed in 1980. In Japan, regulations defining kei cars were established on 8 July 1949, production of compliant vehicles started around 1955–1958 by Daihatsu, Mitsubishi, Subaru, and Suzuki. In the late 1980s, superminis had physically grown so much that many buyers wanted even smaller four-seat cars, combined with an original exterior and interior design, it quickly became a best-seller, although it was not officially imported to right-hand drive markets including the United Kingdom. However, the Fiat Cinquecento, launched towards the end of 1991, was made for right-hand drive markets, in 1996, the Ford Ka was presented with its radical New Edge design. Its egg-shaped body did not leave much room in the rear seats and it was especially popular with British buyers. During the second half of the 1990s, South Korean brands Daewoo and Hyundai introduced their city car entries, both for the Asian and European markets. The Hyundai Atos, launched in 1997, was 3,500 millimetres long and 1,600 millimetres high and its boxy shape provoked mixed reactions
