1.
Absorption (chemistry)
–
In chemistry, absorption is a physical or chemical phenomenon or a process in which atoms, molecules or ions enter some bulk phase – gas, liquid or solid material. This is a different process from adsorption, since molecules undergoing absorption are taken up by the volume, a more general term is sorption, which covers absorption, adsorption, and ion exchange. Absorption is a condition in which something takes in another substance, for some examples of this effect, see liquid-liquid extraction. It is possible to extract from one phase to another a solute without a chemical reaction. Examples of such solutes are noble gases and osmium tetroxide, the process of absorption means that a substance captures and transforms energy. The absorbent distributes the material it captures throughout whole and adsorbent only distributes it through the surface and this equation is valid if concentrations are not too large and if the species x does not change its form in any of the two phases 1 or 2. In the case of gas absorption, one may calculate its concentration by using, e. g. the Ideal gas law, in alternative fashion, one may use partial pressures instead of concentrations. Absorption is a process that may be chemical or physical, chemical absorption or reactive absorption is a chemical reaction between the absorbed and the absorbing substances. Sometimes it combines with physical absorption and this type of absorption depends upon the stoichiometry of the reaction and the concentration of its reactants
Absorption (chemistry)
–
Laboratory absorber. 1a): CO 2 inlet; 1b): H 2 O inlet; 2): outlet; 3): absorption column; 4): packing.
2.
Cloth
–
A textile or cloth is a flexible material consisting of a network of natural or artificial fibres. Yarn is produced by spinning raw fibres of wool, flax, cotton, hemp, Textiles are formed by weaving, knitting, crocheting, knotting, or felting. The words fabric and cloth are used in textile assembly trades as synonyms for textile, however, there are subtle differences in these terms in specialized usage. Textile refers to any material made of interlacing fibres, a fabric is a material made through weaving, knitting, spreading, crocheting, or bonding that may be used in production of further goods. Cloth may be used synonymously with fabric but is often a piece of fabric used for a specific purpose. The word textile is from Latin, from the adjective textilis, meaning woven, from textus, the word cloth derives from the Old English clað, meaning a cloth, woven or felted material to wrap around one, from Proto-Germanic kalithaz. The discovery of dyed flax fibres in a cave in the Republic of Georgia dated to 34,000 BCE suggests textile-like materials were made even in prehistoric times. The production of textiles is a craft whose speed and scale of production has been altered almost beyond recognition by industrialization, however, for the main types of textiles, plain weave, twill, or satin weave, there is little difference between the ancient and modern methods. Textiles have an assortment of uses, the most common of which are for clothing and for such as bags. In the household they are used in carpeting, upholstered furnishings, window shades, towels, coverings for tables, beds, and other flat surfaces, in the workplace they are used in industrial and scientific processes such as filtering. Textiles are used in traditional crafts such as sewing, quilting. Textiles for industrial purposes, and chosen for other than their appearance, are commonly referred to as technical textiles. Technical textiles include textile structures for applications, medical textiles, geotextiles, agrotextiles. In all these applications stringent performance requirements must be met, woven of threads coated with zinc oxide nanowires, laboratory fabric has been shown capable of self-powering nanosystems using vibrations created by everyday actions like wind or body movements. Fashion designers commonly rely on textile designs to set their fashion collections apart from others, armani, the late Gianni Versace, and Emilio Pucci can be easily recognized by their signature print driven designs. Textiles can be made from many materials and these materials come from four main sources, animal, plant, mineral, and synthetic. In the past, all textiles were made from natural fibres, including plant, animal, in the 20th century, these were supplemented by artificial fibres made from petroleum. Textiles are made in various strengths and degrees of durability, from the finest gossamer to the sturdiest canvas, microfibre refers to fibres made of strands thinner than one denier
Cloth
–
Sunday textile market on the sidewalks of
Karachi, Pakistan
Cloth
–
Simple textile (magnified)
Cloth
–
A small fabric shop in
Al-Mukalla, Yemen
Cloth
–
Late antique textile,
Egyptian, now in the
Dumbarton Oaks collection
3.
Paper
–
Paper is a thin material produced by pressing together moist fibres of cellulose pulp derived from wood, rags or grasses, and drying them into flexible sheets. It is a material with many uses, including writing, printing, packaging, cleaning. The modern pulp and paper industry is global, with China leading its production, the oldest known archaeological fragments of the immediate precursor to modern paper, date to the 2nd century BC in China. The pulp papermaking process is ascribed to Cai Lun, a 2nd-century AD Han court eunuch, with paper as an effective substitute for silk in many applications, China could export silk in greater quantity, contributing to a Golden Age. Because of papers introduction to the West through the city of Baghdad, in the 19th century, industrial manufacture greatly lowered its cost, enabling mass exchange of information and contributing to significant cultural shifts. In 1844, the Canadian inventor Charles Fenerty and the German F. G. Keller independently developed processes for pulping wood fibres, before the industrialisation of the paper production the most common fibre source was recycled fibres from used textiles, called rags. The rags were from hemp, linen and cotton, a process for removing printing inks from recycled paper was invented by German jurist Justus Claproth in 1774. Today this method is called deinking and it was not until the introduction of wood pulp in 1843 that paper production was not dependent on recycled materials from ragpickers. The word paper is etymologically derived from Latin papyrus, which comes from the Greek πάπυρος, although the word paper is etymologically derived from papyrus, the two are produced very differently and the development of the first is distinct from the development of the second. Papyrus is a lamination of natural plant fibres, while paper is manufactured from fibres whose properties have changed by maceration. To make pulp from wood, a chemical pulping process separates lignin from cellulose fibres and this is accomplished by dissolving lignin in a cooking liquor, so that it may be washed from the cellulose, this preserves the length of the cellulose fibres. Paper made from chemical pulps are also known as wood-free papers–not to be confused with paper, this is because they do not contain lignin. The pulp can also be bleached to produce paper, but this consumes 5% of the fibres, chemical pulping processes are not used to make paper made from cotton. There are three main chemical pulping processes, the process dates back to the 1840s and it was the dominant method extent before the second world war. Most pulping operations using the process are net contributors to the electricity grid or use the electricity to run an adjacent paper mill. Another advantage is that this process recovers and reuses all inorganic chemical reagents, soda pulping is another specialty process used to pulp straws, bagasse and hardwoods with high silicate content. There are two major mechanical pulps, thermomechanical pulp and groundwood pulp, in the TMP process, wood is chipped and then fed into steam heated refiners, where the chips are squeezed and converted to fibres between two steel discs. In the groundwood process, debarked logs are fed into grinders where they are pressed against rotating stones to be made into fibres
Paper
–
Different types of paper:
carton,
tissue paper
Paper
–
Hemp wrapping paper, China, circa 100 BC.
Paper
–
The microscopic structure of paper:
Micrograph of paper
autofluorescing under
ultraviolet illumination. The individual fibres in this sample are around 10
µm in diameter.
Paper
–
Card and paper stock for
crafts use comes in a wide variety of textures and colors.
4.
Moisture
–
Moisture refers to the presence of a liquid, especially water, often in trace amounts. Small amounts of water may be found, for example, in the air, in foods, moisture also refers to the amount of water vapour present in the air. Control of moisture in products can be a part of the process of the product. There is an amount of moisture in what seems to be dry matter. Ranging in products from cornflake cereals to washing powders, moisture can play an important role in the quality of the product. There are two aspects of concern in moisture control in products, allowing too much moisture or too little of it. Water content of foods is also manipulated to reduce the number of calories. Moisture has different effects on different products, influencing the quality of the product. Wood pellets, for instance, are made by taking remainders of wood and grinding them to make compact pellets and they need to have a relatively low water content for combustion efficiency. The more moisture that is allowed in the pellet, the smoke that will be released when the pellet is burned. The need to water content of products has given rise to a new area of science. There are many ways to measure moisture in products, such as different wave measurement, electromagnetic fields, capacitive methods, damp Liquid Dry matter Meteorology EMF measurements Microbiology Water content Electromagnetic Mixing Theory
Moisture
–
Dew on a spider web
5.
Middle Ages
–
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance, the Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history, classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is subdivided into the Early, High. Population decline, counterurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, the large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the seventh century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power, the empires law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or Code of Justinian, was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions, monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th, the Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the conflict, civil strife. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages, the Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history, classical civilisation, or Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the Six Ages or the Four Empires, when referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being modern. In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People. Bruni and later argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarchs time. The Middle Ages first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or middle season, in early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or middle age, first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or middle ages, first recorded in 1625. The alternative term medieval derives from medium aevum, tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th-century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods, Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, for Europe as a whole,1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period
Middle Ages
–
The
Cross of Mathilde, a
crux gemmata made for
Mathilde, Abbess of Essen (973–1011), who is shown kneeling before the Virgin and Child in the
enamel plaque. The body of Christ is slightly later. Probably made in
Cologne or
Essen, the cross demonstrates several medieval techniques:
cast figurative sculpture,
filigree, enamelling, gem polishing and setting, and the reuse of Classical
cameos and
engraved gems.
Middle Ages
–
A late Roman statue
depicting the four Tetrarchs, now in
Venice
Middle Ages
–
Coin of
Theodoric
Middle Ages
–
Mosaic showing
Justinian with
the bishop of
Ravenna, bodyguards, and courtiers
6.
Bursa
–
Bursa is a large city in Turkey, located in northwestern Anatolia, within the Marmara Region. It is the fourth most populous city in Turkey and one of the most industrialized metropolitan centres in the country, the city is also the administrative centre of Bursa Province. Bursa was the first major and second overall capital of the Ottoman State between 1335 and 1363, the ski resort of Mount Uludağ towers over it. The mountain was called the Mysian Olympus by the Romans who lived there before, Bursa has rather orderly urban growth and borders a fertile plain. The mausoleums of the early Ottoman sultans are located in Bursa, Bursa also has thermal baths and several museums, including a museum of archaeology. The shadow play characters Karagöz and Hacivat are based on historic personalities who lived and died in Bursa, Bursa is also home to some of the most famous Turkish dishes such as İskender kebap, specially candied marron glacés, peaches and Turkish Delight. Bursa houses the Uludağ University, and its population can claim one of the highest overall levels of education in Turkey, the historic towns of İznik, Mudanya and Zeytinbağı are all situated in Bursa Province. In 2015, Bursa had a population of 2,340,000, the earliest known human settlement near Bursas current location was at Ilıpınar Höyüğü around 5200 BC. It was followed by the ancient Greek city of Cius, which Philip V of Macedon granted to Prusias I, Prusias rebuilt the city and renamed it Prusa. After 128 years of Bithynian rule, Nicomedes IV, the last King of Bithynia, an early Roman Treasure was found in the vicinity of Bursa in the early 20th century. Composed of a womans silver toilet articles, it is now in the British Museum, Bursa became the first major capital city of the early Ottoman Empire following its capture from the Byzantines in 1326. As a result, the city witnessed a considerable amount of growth throughout the 14th century. After conquering Edirne in East Thrace, the Ottomans turned it into the new city in 1363. The Ottoman sultan Bayezid I built the Bayezid Külliyesi in Bursa between 1390 and 1395 and the Ulu Cami between 1396 and 1400, Bursa remained to be the most important administrative and commercial centre in the empire until Mehmed II conquered Constantinople in 1453. The population of Bursa was 45,000 in 1487, during the Ottoman period, Bursa continued to be the source of most royal silk products. Following the foundation of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, Bursa became one of the centres of the country. The economic development of the city was followed by population growth, the most recent arrival of Balkan Turks took place in the 1940s until the 1990s, when the communist regime in Bulgaria expelled approximately 150,000 Bulgarian Turks to Turkey. About one-third of these 150,000 Bulgarian Turkish refugees eventually settled in Bursa, Bursa is settled on the northwestern slopes of Mount Uludağ in the southern Marmara Region
Bursa
–
Top left: City center, Top right: Zafer Plaza AVM; Middle left: Irgandı Bridge, Middle: Statue of
Atatürk, Middle right: Bursa Clock Tower; Bottom left: Bursa Botanical Park, Bottom right: City center
Bursa
–
A view of Bursa in the 1890s
Bursa
–
A view of Bursa in 2013
Bursa
–
Kent Meydanı AVM shopping center
7.
Turkey
–
Turkey, officially the Republic of Turkey, is a transcontinental country in Eurasia, mainly in Anatolia in Western Asia, with a smaller portion on the Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe. Turkey is a democratic, secular, unitary, parliamentary republic with a cultural heritage. The country is encircled by seas on three sides, the Aegean Sea is to the west, the Black Sea to the north, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. The Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles, Ankara is the capital while Istanbul is the countrys largest city and main cultural and commercial centre. Approximately 70-80% of the countrys citizens identify themselves as ethnic Turks, other ethnic groups include legally recognised and unrecognised minorities. Kurds are the largest ethnic minority group, making up approximately 20% of the population, the area of Turkey has been inhabited since the Paleolithic by various ancient Anatolian civilisations, as well as Assyrians, Greeks, Thracians, Phrygians, Urartians and Armenians. After Alexander the Greats conquest, the area was Hellenized, a process continued under the Roman Empire. The Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm ruled Anatolia until the Mongol invasion in 1243, the empire reached the peak of its power in the 16th century, especially during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. During the war, the Ottoman government committed genocides against its Armenian, Assyrian, following the war, the conglomeration of territories and peoples that formerly comprised the Ottoman Empire was partitioned into several new states. Turkey is a member of the UN, an early member of NATO. Turkeys growing economy and diplomatic initiatives have led to its recognition as a regional power while her location has given it geopolitical, the name of Turkey is based on the ethnonym Türk. The first recorded use of the term Türk or Türük as an autonym is contained in the Old Turkic inscriptions of the Göktürks of Central Asia, the English name Turkey first appeared in the late 14th century and is derived from Medieval Latin Turchia. Similarly, the medieval Khazar Empire, a Turkic state on the shores of the Black. The medieval Arabs referred to the Mamluk Sultanate as al-Dawla al-Turkiyya, the Ottoman Empire was sometimes referred to as Turkey or the Turkish Empire among its European contemporaries. The Anatolian peninsula, comprising most of modern Turkey, is one of the oldest permanently settled regions in the world, various ancient Anatolian populations have lived in Anatolia, from at least the Neolithic period until the Hellenistic period. Many of these peoples spoke the Anatolian languages, a branch of the larger Indo-European language family, in fact, given the antiquity of the Indo-European Hittite and Luwian languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical centre from which the Indo-European languages radiated. The European part of Turkey, called Eastern Thrace, has also been inhabited since at least forty years ago. It is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date, the settlement of Troy started in the Neolithic Age and continued into the Iron Age
Turkey
–
Some
henges at
Göbekli Tepe were erected as far back as 12,000 BC, predating those of
Stonehenge,
England by almost ten millennia.
Turkey
–
Flag
Turkey
–
The Lion Gate in
Hattusa, capital of the
Hittite Empire. The city's history dates back to the 6th millennium BC.
Turkey
–
The
Library of Celsus in
Ephesus was built by the
Romans in 135 AD. The
Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, built by king
Croesus of
Lydia in the 6th century BC, was one of the
Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
8.
Turkish baths
–
A Turkish bath is the Islamic variant of the Roman bath, steambath, sauna, or Russian banya, distinguished by a focus on water, as distinct from ambient steam. In Western Europe, the Turkish bath as a method of cleansing, the process involved in taking a Turkish bath is similar to that of a sauna, but is more closely related to ancient Greek and ancient Roman bathing practices. The Turkish bath starts with relaxation in a room that is heated by a flow of hot, dry air. Bathers may then move to an even hotter room before they wash in cold water, after performing a full body wash and receiving a massage, bathers finally retire to the cooling-room for a period of relaxation. The difference between the Islamic hammam and the Victorian Turkish bath is the air, the hot air in the Victorian Turkish bath is dry, in the Islamic hammam the air is often steamy. The bather in a Victorian Turkish bath will often take a plunge in a pool after the hot rooms. In the Islamic hammams the bathers splash themselves with cold water and it is not wet air, nor moist air, nor vapoury air, it is not vapour in any shape or form whatever. It is an immersion of the body in hot common air. One of the Five Pillars of Islam is prayer and it is customary before praying for Muslims to perform ablutions. The two Islamic forms of ablution are ghusl, a cleansing, and wudu, a cleansing of the face, hands. In the most extreme of cases, cleansing with pure soil or sand is also permissible, often, hammams are located close to mosques and other places for prayer for those who wish to perform deeper cleansing. Islamic hammams, particularly in the Moroccan case, evolved from their Roman roots to adapt to the needs of ritual purification according to Islam, for example, in most Roman-style hammams, one finds a cold pool for full submergence of the body. The style of bathing is less preferable in the Islamic faith, for al-Ghazali, the hammam is a primarily male experience, and he cautions that women are to enter the hammam only after childbirth or illness. Even then al-Gazali finds it admissible for men to prohibit their wives or sisters from using the hammam, the major point of contention surrounding hammams in al-Ghazalis estimation is nakedness. In his work he warns that overt nakedness is to be avoided, … he should shield it from the sight of others and second, guard against the touch of others. He focuses extensively in his writing on the avoidance of touching the penis during bathing and he writes that nakedness is decent only when the area between the knees and the lower stomach of a man are hidden. For women, exposure of only the face and palms is appropriate, according to al-Gazali, the prevalence of nakedness in the hammam could incite indecent thoughts or behaviours and so it is a controversial space. Ritual ablution is also required before or after sexual intercourse, during those centuries of war, peace, alliance, trade and competition, the two cultures had tremendous influence on each other
Turkish baths
–
A Turkish bath in
Valencia,
Spain
Turkish baths
–
Sultan Amir Ahmad Bathhouse, constructed in the 16th century,
Iran. Part of the bathouse is being used as a
tea house
Turkish baths
–
Hamam of the
Sultan at the
Topkapı Palace in
Istanbul.
Turkish baths
–
Example of a hamam interior, showing water
buckets and tilted floor
9.
Ottoman Empire
–
After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe, and with the conquest of the Balkans the Ottoman Beylik was transformed into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the 1453 conquest of Constantinople by Mehmed the Conqueror, at the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states. Some of these were later absorbed into the Ottoman Empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries. With Constantinople as its capital and control of lands around the Mediterranean basin, while the empire was once thought to have entered a period of decline following the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, this view is no longer supported by the majority of academic historians. The empire continued to maintain a flexible and strong economy, society, however, during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768, the Ottoman military system fell behind that of their European rivals, the Habsburg and Russian Empires. While the Empire was able to hold its own during the conflict, it was struggling with internal dissent. Starting before World War I, but growing increasingly common and violent during it, major atrocities were committed by the Ottoman government against the Armenians, Assyrians and Pontic Greeks. The word Ottoman is an anglicisation of the name of Osman I. Osmans name in turn was the Turkish form of the Arabic name ʿUthmān, in Ottoman Turkish, the empire was referred to as Devlet-i ʿAlīye-yi ʿOsmānīye, or alternatively ʿOsmānlı Devleti. In Modern Turkish, it is known as Osmanlı İmparatorluğu or Osmanlı Devleti, the Turkish word for Ottoman originally referred to the tribal followers of Osman in the fourteenth century, and subsequently came to be used to refer to the empires military-administrative elite. In contrast, the term Turk was used to refer to the Anatolian peasant and tribal population, the term Rūmī was also used to refer to Turkish-speakers by the other Muslim peoples of the empire and beyond. In Western Europe, the two names Ottoman Empire and Turkey were often used interchangeably, with Turkey being increasingly favored both in formal and informal situations and this dichotomy was officially ended in 1920–23, when the newly established Ankara-based Turkish government chose Turkey as the sole official name. Most scholarly historians avoid the terms Turkey, Turks, and Turkish when referring to the Ottomans, as the power of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum declined in the 13th century, Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent Turkish principalities known as the Anatolian Beyliks. One of these beyliks, in the region of Bithynia on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire, was led by the Turkish tribal leader Osman, osmans early followers consisted both of Turkish tribal groups and Byzantine renegades, many but not all converts to Islam. Osman extended the control of his principality by conquering Byzantine towns along the Sakarya River and it is not well understood how the early Ottomans came to dominate their neighbours, due to the scarcity of the sources which survive from this period. One school of thought which was popular during the twentieth century argued that the Ottomans achieved success by rallying religious warriors to fight for them in the name of Islam, in the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over Anatolia and the Balkans. Osmans son, Orhan, captured the northwestern Anatolian city of Bursa in 1326 and this conquest meant the loss of Byzantine control over northwestern Anatolia. The important city of Thessaloniki was captured from the Venetians in 1387, the Ottoman victory at Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe
Ottoman Empire
–
Battle of Nicopolis in 1396. Painting from 1523.
Ottoman Empire
–
Flag (1844–1923)
Ottoman Empire
–
Battle of Mohács in 1526
Ottoman Empire
–
Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha defeats the
Holy League of
Charles V under the command of
Andrea Doria at the
Battle of Preveza in 1538.
10.
RFID
–
Radio-frequency identification uses electromagnetic fields to automatically identify and track tags attached to objects. The tags contain electronically stored information, Passive tags collect energy from a nearby RFID readers interrogating radio waves. Active tags have a power source such as a battery. Unlike a barcode, the tag need not be within the line of sight of the reader, RFID is one method for Automatic Identification and Data Capture. These concerns resulted in standard specifications development addressing privacy and security issues, ISO/IEC18000 and ISO/IEC29167 use on-chip cryptography methods for untraceability, tag and reader authentication, and over-the-air privacy. ISO/IEC20248 specifies a digital data structure for RFID and barcodes providing data, source. This work is done within ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC31 Automatic identification, in 2014, the world RFID market is worth US$8.89 billion, up from US$7.77 billion in 2013 and US$6.96 billion in 2012. This includes tags, readers, and software/services for RFID cards, labels, fobs, the market value is expected to rise to US$18.68 billion by 2026. In 1945, Léon Theremin invented a tool for the Soviet Union which retransmitted incident radio waves with the audio information. Sound waves vibrated a diaphragm which slightly altered the shape of the resonator, similar technology, such as the IFF transponder, was routinely used by the allies and Germany in World War II to identify aircraft as friend or foe. Transponders are still used by most powered aircraft to this day, another early work exploring RFID is the landmark 1948 paper by Harry Stockman. Considerable research and development work has to be done before the basic problems in reflected-power communication are solved. Mario Cardullos device, patented on January 23,1973, was the first true ancestor of modern RFID, the basic Cardullo patent covers the use of RF, sound and light as transmission media. The original business plan presented to investors in 1969 showed uses in transportation, banking, security and medical. An early demonstration of reflected power RFID tags, both passive and semi-passive, was performed by Steven Depp, Alfred Koelle, and Robert Frayman at the Los Alamos National Laboratory in 1973, the portable system operated at 915 MHz and used 12-bit tags. This technique is used by the majority of todays UHFID and microwave RFID tags, the first patent to be associated with the abbreviation RFID was granted to Charles Walton in 1983. A radio-frequency identification system uses tags, or labels attached to the objects to be identified, two-way radio transmitter-receivers called interrogators or readers send a signal to the tag and read its response. RFID tags can be passive, active or battery-assisted passive
RFID
–
Small RFID chips, here compared to a grain of rice, are incorporated in consumer products, and
implanted in pets, for identification purposes
RFID
–
FasTrak, an RFID tag used for
electronic toll collection in California
RFID
–
Electronic Lock with RFID Card System, ANSI
RFID
–
Electronic key for RFID based lock system
11.
Terrycloth
–
Terrycloth, terry cloth, terry towelling, terry, or simply towelling is a fabric with loops that can absorb large amounts of water. It can be manufactured by weaving or knitting, towelling is woven on special looms that have two beams of longitudinal warp through which the filler or weft is fired laterally. The first industrial production of terrycloth towels was by the English manufacturer Christy, there are two types of terry fabrics, Towell Terry is a fabric with long loops that can absorb large amounts of water. Its content is usually 100% cotton, but may sometimes contain polyester, French Terry is a fabric, used in mens, womens and childrens clothes. One of its sides is flat, while the side is with cross loops. It is either 100% cotton or contains polyester with elastaine and it is often warp knitted, and the term French Terry is colloquially used for all warp knitted Terry. It is the length of loops that determines how much fluid is absorbed by the cloth as longer loops provide more area to absorb. Items that may be made from terrycloth include reusable babies’ nappies or diapers, towels, bathrobes, bedlinen, terrycloth is also sometimes used to make sweat jackets. Terry towelling hats with a shallow brim were once popular with cricketers, an alternative fabric used for towels is waffle fabric. A modern synthetic alternative is microfiber, media related to Terry cloth at Wikimedia Commons
Terrycloth
–
Terry cloth.
Terrycloth
12.
Bathtub
–
A bathtub, bath, or tub is a large or small container for holding water in which a person or a persons pet may bathe. Most modern bathtubs are made of thermoformed acrylic, porcelain enameled steel, fiberglass-reinforced polyester, a bathtub is usually placed in a bathroom either as a stand-alone fixture or in conjunction with a shower. Modern bathtubs have overflow and waste drains and may have taps mounted on them and they are usually built-in, but may be free-standing or sometimes sunken. Until recently, most bathtubs were roughly rectangular in shape but with the advent of acrylic thermoformed baths, bathtubs are commonly white in colour although many other colours can be found. The process for enamelling cast iron bathtubs was invented by the Scottish-born American David Dunbar Buick, two main styles of bathtub are common, Western style bathtubs in which the bather lies down. These baths are typically shallow and long, eastern style bathtubs in which the bather sits up. These are known as ofuro in Japan and are typically short, evidence of the earliest surviving personal sized bath tub was found on the Isle of Crete where a 1. 5-metre long pedestal tub was found built from hardened pottery. The design spread to England where it found much popularity among the aristocracy, early bathtubs in England tended to be made of cast iron, or even tin and copper with a face of paint applied that tended to peel with time. The Scottish-born inventor David Buick invented a process for bonding porcelain enamel to cast iron in the 1880s while working for the Alexander Manufacturing Company in Detroit. Far from the feet and luxury most associated with clawfoot tubs, an early Kohler example was advertised as a horse trough/hog scalder. The items use as hog scalder was considered an important marketing point than its ability to function as a bathtub. In the latter half of the 20th century, the once popular clawfoot tub morphed into a tub with a small apron front. This enclosed style afforded easier maintenance and, with the emergence of colored sanitary ware, more options for the homeowner. The Crane Company introduced colored bathroom fixtures to the US market in 1928, the clawfoot tub or claw-foot tub was considered a luxury item in the late 19th century, originally made from cast iron and lined with porcelain. Modern technology has contributed to a drop in the price of clawfoot tubs, clawfoot tubs usually require more water than a standard bathtub, because generally they are larger. Clawfoot tubs come in 4 major styles, Classic roll rim tubs, slipper tubs - where one end is raised and sloped creating a more comfortable lounging position. Double slipper tubs - where both ends are raised and sloped, double ended tubs - where both ends of the tub are rounded. Notice how one end of the tub is rounded and one is fairly flat
Bathtub
–
Private cast iron bathtubs with
porcelain interiors on
"claw foot" pedestals rose to popularity in the 19th century
Bathtub
–
Traditional bathtub (19th century) from Italy
Bathtub
–
Slipper tub
Bathtub
–
Wooden bathtubs for children and infants in
Haikou, Hainan, China
13.
Foot towel
–
A foot towel is a small, rectangular towel which, in the absence of a rug, carpet or bathroom mat, is placed onto the bathroom floor to dry the feet on emerging from the shower or bath. The use of the towel is not widespread. A reason for this may be the fact that it tends to slip and slide around on tiled floors and does not have the grip or friction of a rug. However, some of the recently produced foot towels include a specially designed under-surface. There are two types of foot towel, A large foot towel with space for both feet can be employed Two separate and smaller foot towels can be placed side by side to serve the same purpose. This allows one to widen the distance between both towels, the disadvantage being potential separation of the towels which could result in injury to the user. Both varieties of foot towel are widely available, as with regular bath towels, foot towels come in a variety of colours. Decorative foot towels can be purchased, albeit at a higher price, some foot towel manufacturers feature landscapes and cartoon characters on their products. The Integrated Convertible Foot Towel, enables an individual to dry his or her feet without stooping or bending over, and without putting a towel or rug on the floor
Foot towel
–
Foot Towel with a fish stamp
14.
Hand towel
–
A towel is a piece of absorbent fabric or paper used for drying or wiping a body or a surface. It draws moisture through direct contact, often using a blotting or a rubbing motion, in households, several types of fabric towels are used, including hand towels, bath towels and kitchen towels, which are used for drying dishes. In warm climates, people may also use beach towels, which are large towels used for drying off after swimming, common household textile towels are made from cotton, rayon, bamboo, non-woven fibers, and a few other materials. Paper towels are provided in commercial or office bathrooms for users to dry their hands, paper towels are also used in households for a range of wiping, cleaning and drying tasks. According to Middle Ages archaeological studies, closely held personal items included the ever present knife and a towel. However, the invention of the towel is commonly associated with the city of Bursa, Turkey and these Turkish towels began as a flat, woven piece of cotton or linen called a pestamel, often hand-embroidered. Long enough to wrap around the body, pestamel were originally fairly narrow, pestamel were used in Turkish baths as they stayed light when wet and were very absorbent. As the Ottoman Empire grew, so did the use of the towel, weavers were asked to embroider more elaborate designs, aided by their knowledge of carpet-weaving. By the 18th century, towels began to feature loops sticking up from the pile of the material and these looped towels became known as havly, over time, this word has changed to havlu, the Turkish word for towel, and means ‘with loops’. Towels didnt become affordable until the 19th century, with the cotton trade, with mechanization, cotton terry-towelling became available by the yard as well as being stocked in shops as pre-made towels. Now, towels are available in a variety of sizes, materials, some hotels which provide towel and bath robes embed washable RFID tags into their linens to deter theft. A bath towel is used for drying the body when it is wet and it is typically rectangular, with a typical size around 30 in ×60 in. A beach towel is usually a bit larger than a bath towel. Although it is used for drying off after being in the water. They are also worn for privacy while changing clothes in a public area, beach towels often have colorful patterns. A foot towel is a small, rectangular towel which, in the absence of a rug, a hand towel is significantly smaller than a bath towel, and is used for drying the hands after washing them. An oven towel or confectioners mitten is a multipurpose household towel used for a kitchen or shop applications, the term came into use within Irish communities after a textile mogul, Owen Valley, created the line based on his own towel experiences. A paper towel is a piece of paper that can be used once as a towel, paper towels can also be found packaged like facial tissues, as individual folded sheets
Hand towel
–
A pile of colourful towels.
Hand towel
–
Close-up photo of a bath towel, made of
terrycloth, showing the absorbing fibres, along with a decorative pattern
Hand towel
–
A beach towel at Sant Pol De Mar
Hand towel
–
Fibres in a tea towel
15.
Paper towel
–
A paper towel is an absorbent towel made from tissue paper instead of cloth. Unlike cloth towels, paper towels are disposable and intended to be used only once, Paper towels soak up water because they are loosely woven which enables water to travel between them, even against gravity. Paper towels can be packed or come in rolls. Paper towels have similar purposes to conventional towels, such as drying hands, wiping windows and other surfaces, dusting, in 1907, the Scott Paper Company of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, introduced paper tissues to help prevent the spread of colds from cloth towels in restrooms. Popular belief is that this was accidental and was the solution to a railroad car full of long paper rolls meant for toilet paper that were unsuitable to cut into rolls of toilet paper. In 1919, William E. Corbin, Henry Chase, and Harold Titus began experimenting with paper towels in the Research and Development building of the Brown Company in Berlin, by 1922, Corbin perfected their product and began mass-producing it at the Cascade Mill on the Berlin/Gorham line. This product was called Nibroc Paper Towels, in 1931, the Scott Paper Company of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, introduced their paper towel rolls for kitchens, they are now the leading manufacturer of paper towels. Paper is made from virgin or recycled paper pulp which is extracted from wood or fiber crops. They are sometimes bleached during the process to lighten the papers coloration. It is not uncommon for rolls of paper towels to include intricate colored images on each square, resin size is used to improve the wet strength. Paper towels are packed individually and sold as stacks, or are held on a continuous roll, many companies produce paper towels some of which include, but are not limited to, Charmin, Bounty, Seventh Generation, Scott, and Viva among many others. Commercial usage, or otherwise any use outside of the North American household, the growth in commercial use of paper towels can be attributed to the migration from folded towels to roll towel dispensers, which reduces the amount of paper towels used by each patron. Within the forest products industry, paper towels are a part of the tissue market. Paper towels are a product with rising production and consumption. Better alternatives are still conventional towels or - for hand drying - hand dryers, though paper towels are more efficient, after only ten seconds, paper towels achieve 90% dryness. Hot air dryers, on the hand, take 40 seconds to achieve a similar dryness. Dirt can almost as well be wiped up using old newspapers, handle-o-Meter Is tissue becoming a safe haven for the global pulp and paper industry. Global paper and board industry is in transition, media related to paper towels at Wikimedia Commons
Paper towel
–
Early paper towels
Paper towel
–
Made out of Paper Towels
16.
Facial tissue
–
Facial tissue and paper handkerchief refers to a class of soft, absorbent, disposable papers that are suitable for use on the face. They are disposable alternatives for cloth handkerchiefs, facial tissue is often referred to as a tissue, or by the genericized trademark Kleenex which popularized the invention and its use. Facial tissue and paper handkerchiefs are made from the lowest basis weights tissue paper, the surface is often made smoother by light calendering. These paper types consist usually of 2–3 plies, because of high quality requirements the base tissue is normally made entirely from pure chemical pulp, but might contain added selected recycled fiber. The tissue paper might be treated with softeners, lotions or added perfume to get the right properties or feeling, the finished facial tissues or handkerchiefs are folded and put in pocket-size packages or a box dispenser. In 1924, facial tissues as they are today were first introduced by Kimberly-Clark as Kleenex. It was invented as a means to remove cold cream, early advertisements linked Kleenex to Hollywood makeup departments and sometimes included endorsements from movie stars who used Kleenex to remove their theatrical makeup with cold cream. The other 40% used it for reasons, including napkins. Kimberly-Clark also introduced pop-up, colored, printed, pocket, and 3-ply facial tissues
Facial tissue
–
A box of tissues
17.
Chamois leather
–
Chamois leather — is a type of porous leather, traditionally the skin of the chamois, a type of European mountain goat but today it is made almost exclusively from the flesh split of a sheepskin. The leather is favored for its gentle, non-abrasive composition and absorption properties, in the United States, the term chamois without any qualification is restricted to the flesh split of the sheep or lambskin tanned solely with oils. Chamois leather is often counterfeited with goat or pig skin, the practice of which is a particular profession called by the French chamoiser and it was discovered that when tanned in the local cod oil of nearby Biarritz, the result was a material of unprecedented absorbency. This leather was fashioned into soft white gloves designed for carriage footmen and this industry usage later transferred to the chauffeurs of the horseless carriages invented in the early 1900s. Genuine chamois leather has almost no abrasive properties, and can be used as a very absorbent drying material for any automobile surface and this has made it a popular product for car cleaning and drying. The elasticity of the pores, which are very close. Its water absorbency makes it good for other uses, such as in cycling shorts and it was also used in purifying mercury, which is done by passing it through the pores of the skin. When soaked with gasoline, chamois will not allow water to pass through its surface fibers. This property is used to fuel that has been stored in drums prone to ingress of water. The technique is to provide a large-mouthed funnel with a wide outlet surface that supports a woven wire base, the lower part of the funnel is tapered to fit the receptacle or tank-filler aperture. A suitably sized chamois skin is soaked in fuel and placed over the grid in the funnel and brought up the sides, forming a bowl. Fuel can then be pumped into the top of the funnel by the fuel dispenser, the process can be stopped to lift out the assembly from the tank and the trapped water removed so that the job can be continued. Chamois leather is used thus as a filter by boaters, auto detailers—and aircraft refuellers. Widely used for drying and buffing vehicles, such as cars and vans, small pieces of chamois leather are commonly used as blending tools by artists drawing with charcoal. The leather blends the charcoal more softly and cleanly than the artists fingers, the chamois is also used to lighten the drawing by removing some charcoal in a more subtle and nuanced way than most erasers could. The charcoal can be washed from the leather using soap and water, divers use towels made of chamois leather to dry themselves between jumps, as they can be quickly dried by squeezing them
Chamois leather
–
Chamois leather cloth
Chamois leather
–
Synthetic
microfiber "Shammy" cloth
Chamois leather
–
Types
18.
Viscose
–
Viscose is both a semi-synthetic fiber, formerly called viscose rayon, or rayon and a solution of cellulose xanthate. The latter is produced by treating dissolving pulp with aqueous sodium hydroxide, byproducts of the production process include sodium thiocarbonate, sodium carbonate, and sodium sulfide. Viscose rayon fiber is a soft fiber commonly used in dresses, linings, shirts, shorts, coats, jackets and it is also used in industrial yarns, upholstery and carpets, and in the casting of Cellophane. When Viscose is made, the cellulose is made of wood pulp, Viscose rayon is a fiber of regenerated cellulose, it is structurally similar to cotton but may be produced from a variety of plants such as soy, bamboo, and sugar cane. Cellulose is a polymer of β-D-glucose units with the empirical formula n. To prepare viscose, dissolving pulp is treated with sodium hydroxide to form alkali cellulose. The alkali cellulose is then treated with carbon disulfide to form sodium cellulose xanthate, N + nCS2 → n The higher the ratio of cellulose to combined sulfur, the lower the solubility of the cellulose xanthate. The xanthate is dissolved in aqueous sodium hydroxide and allowed to depolymerize to a desired extent, the rate of depolymerization depends on temperature and is affected by the presence of various inorganic and organic additives, such as metal oxides and hydroxides. Air also affects the process since oxygen causes depolymerization. Rayon fiber is produced from the solutions by treatment with a mineral acid. The thread made from the cellulose is washed to remove residual acid. The sulfur is removed by the addition of sodium sulfide solution. The use of viscose is declining, in part because of the costs of its production. Carbon disulphide is a neurotoxic to humans, instead, rayon may be manufactured using the Lyocell process, which uses N-Methylmorpholine N-oxide as the solvent and produces little waste product, making it relatively eco-friendly. French scientist and industrialist Hilaire de Chardonnet — who invented the first artificial textile fiber, British scientists Charles Frederick Cross and Edward John Bevan took out British patent no. 8,700, Improvements in Dissolving Cellulose and Allied Compounds in May,1892, in 1893 they formed the Viscose Syndicate to grant licences, and in 1896 formed the British Viscoid Co. Ltd. to exploit the process. Art silk Cellophane Rayon Sausage casings Synthetic velvet Viscose, archived from the original on 2008-06-25
Viscose
–
Cellulose is treated with alkali and carbon disulfide to yield viscose.
19.
Polyvinyl alcohol
–
Poly is a water-soluble synthetic polymer. It has the formula n. It is used in papermaking, textiles, and a variety of coatings and it is sometimes supplied as beads or as solutions in water. Polyvinyl acetals, Polyvinyl acetals are prepared by reacting aldehydes with polyvinyl alcohol, Polyvinyl butyral and polyvinyl formal are examples of this family of polymers. They are prepared from polyvinyl alcohol by reaction with butyraldehyde and formaldehyde, preparation of polyvinyl butyral is the largest use for polyvinyl alcohol in the U. S. and Western Europe. Polyvinyl alcohol is used as a polymerization aid, as protective colloid. This is the largest market application in China, in Japan its major use is vinylon fiber production. An example is the envelope containing laundry detergent in liqui-tabs, feminine hygiene and adult incontinence products as a biodegradable plastic backing sheet. PVA is widely used in sport fishing. Small bags made from PVA are filled with dry or oil based bait and attached to the hook, or the hook is placed inside the bag. When the bag lands on the lake or river bottom it dissolves in water, leaving the hook bait surrounded by ground bait and this method helps attract fish to the hook bait. Anglers also use string made of PVA for the purpose of making temporary attachments, for example, holding a length of line in a coil, that might otherwise tangle while the cast is made. Unlike most vinyl polymers, PVA is not prepared by polymerization of the corresponding monomer, the monomer, vinyl alcohol, is unstable with respect to acetaldehyde. PVA instead is prepared by first polymerizing vinyl acetate, and the resulting polyvinylacetate is converted to the PVA, other precursor polymers are sometimes used, with formate, chloroacetate groups instead of acetate. Worldwide consumption of alcohol was over one million metric tons in 2006. The North Korean-manufacture fiber Vinalon is produced from polyvinyl alcohol, despite its inferior properties as a clothing fiber, it is produced for self-sufficiency reasons, because no oil is required to produce it. PVA is a material that exhibits crystallinity. In terms of microstructure, it is composed mainly of 1, 3-diol linkages but a few percent of 1, 2-diols occur, Polyvinyl alcohol has excellent film forming, emulsifying and adhesive properties
Polyvinyl alcohol
Polyvinyl alcohol
–
Polyvinyl alcohol
20.
Microfiber
–
Microfiber or microfibre is synthetic fiber finer than one denier or decitex/thread. This is smaller than the diameter of a strand of silk, the most common types of microfibers are made from polyesters, polyamides, or a conjugation of polyester, polyamide, and polypropylene. Microfiber is used to make mats, knits, and weaves for apparel, upholstery, industrial filters, production of ultra-fine fibers dates back to the late 1950s, using melt-blown spinning and flash spinning techniques. However, only fine staples of random length could be manufactured, okamotos discoveries, together with those of Dr. Toyohiko Hikota, resulted in many industrial applications. Among these was Ultrasuede, one of the first successful synthetic microfibers, microfibers use in the textile industry then expanded. Microfibers were first publicized in the early 1990s in Sweden and saw success as a product in Europe over the course of the decade. Microfiber fabric is used for athletic wear, such as cycling jerseys, because the microfiber material wicks moisture away from the body, keeping the wearer cool. Microfiber is also very elastic, making it suitable for undergarments and they released a fit for duty version authorized earlier that same year. Microfiber is also used to make tough, very soft-to-the-touch materials for general clothing use, microfiber can be made into Ultrasuede, an animal-free imitation suede leather-like product that is cheaper and easier to clean and sew than natural suede leather. Microfiber fabric can be used for making bathrobes, jackets, swim trunks, microfiber is used to make many accessories that traditionally have been made from leather, wallets, handbags, backpacks, book covers, shoes, cell phone cases, and coin purses. Microfiber fabric is lightweight, durable, and somewhat water repellent, another advantage of fabric is that fabric can be coated with various finishes or can be treated with antibacterial chemicals. Fabric can also be printed with various designs, embroidered with colored thread, in cleaning products, microfiber can be 100% polyester, or a blend of polyester and polyamide. It can be both a product or a non woven product, the latter most often used in limited use or disposable cloths. In the highest-quality fabrics for cleaning applications, the fiber is split during the process to produce multi-stranded fibres. A cross section of the split microfiber fabric under high magnification would look like an asterisk, the split fibres and the size of the individual filaments make the cloths more effective than other fabrics for cleaning purposes. The structure traps and retains the dirt and also absorbs liquids, unlike cotton, microfiber leaves no lint, the exception being some micro suede blends, where the surface is mechanically processed to produce a soft plush feel. For microfiber to be most effective as a product, especially for water-soluble soils and waxes. Non-split microfiber is little more than a soft cloth
Microfiber
–
Microfiber cloth suitable for cleaning sensitive surfaces
Microfiber
–
Microfiber cloth for cleaning screens and lenses
Microfiber
–
Microfiber mop with velcro back for fastening on handle
21.
Polyester
–
Polyester is a category of polymers that contain the ester functional group in their main chain. As a specific material, it most commonly refers to a type called polyethylene terephthalate, polyesters include naturally occurring chemicals, such as in the cutin of plant cuticles, as well as synthetics through step-growth polymerization such as polybutyrate. Natural polyesters and a few synthetic ones are biodegradable, but most synthetic polyesters are not and this material is used very widely in clothing. Depending on the structure, polyester can be a thermoplastic or thermoset. There are also polyester resins cured by hardeners, however, the most common polyesters are thermoplastics, industrial polyester fibers, yarns and ropes are used in car tire reinforcements, fabrics for conveyor belts, safety belts, coated fabrics and plastic reinforcements with high-energy absorption. Polyester fiber is used as cushioning and insulating material in pillows, comforters, Polyester fabrics are highly stain-resistant— in fact, the only class of dyes which can be used to alter the color of polyester fabric are what are known as disperse dyes. Polyester fibers are spun together with natural fibers to produce a cloth with blended properties. Cotton-polyester blends can be strong, wrinkle and tear-resistant, and reduce shrinking, synthetic fibers in polyester also create materials with water, wind and environmental resistance compared to plant-derived fibers. Disadvantages of cotton and polyester blends include being less breathable than cotton and they are also less fire resistant and can melt when ignited. Polyester blends have been renamed so as to suggest their similarity or even superiority to natural fibers. Polyesters are also used to make bottles, films, tarpaulin, canoes, liquid crystal displays, holograms, filters, dielectric film for capacitors, film insulation for wire, polyesters are widely used as a finish on high-quality wood products such as guitars, pianos and vehicle/yacht interiors. Thixotropic properties of spray-applicable polyesters make them ideal for use on open-grain timbers, as they can quickly fill wood grain, cured polyesters can be sanded and polished to a high-gloss, durable finish. Liquid crystalline polyesters are among the first industrially used liquid crystal polymers and they are used for their mechanical properties and heat-resistance. These traits are important in their application as an abradable seal in jet engines. Polyesters as thermoplastics may change shape after the application of heat, while combustible at high temperatures, polyesters tend to shrink away from flames and self-extinguish upon ignition. Polyester fibers have high tenacity and E-modulus as well as low water absorption and they are used in the liquid state as casting materials, in sheet molding compounds, as fiberglass laminating resins and in non-metallic auto-body fillers. They are also used as the polymer matrix in pre-pregs. Fiberglass-reinforced unsaturated polyesters find wide application in bodies of yachts and as parts of cars
Polyester
–
SEM picture of a bend in a high-surface area polyester
fiber with a seven-lobed cross section
Polyester
–
Close-up of a polyester shirt
Polyester
–
Stretching polyester fabric
Polyester
22.
Kitchen towel
–
A paper towel is an absorbent towel made from tissue paper instead of cloth. Unlike cloth towels, paper towels are disposable and intended to be used only once, Paper towels soak up water because they are loosely woven which enables water to travel between them, even against gravity. Paper towels can be packed or come in rolls. Paper towels have similar purposes to conventional towels, such as drying hands, wiping windows and other surfaces, dusting, in 1907, the Scott Paper Company of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, introduced paper tissues to help prevent the spread of colds from cloth towels in restrooms. Popular belief is that this was accidental and was the solution to a railroad car full of long paper rolls meant for toilet paper that were unsuitable to cut into rolls of toilet paper. In 1919, William E. Corbin, Henry Chase, and Harold Titus began experimenting with paper towels in the Research and Development building of the Brown Company in Berlin, by 1922, Corbin perfected their product and began mass-producing it at the Cascade Mill on the Berlin/Gorham line. This product was called Nibroc Paper Towels, in 1931, the Scott Paper Company of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, introduced their paper towel rolls for kitchens, they are now the leading manufacturer of paper towels. Paper is made from virgin or recycled paper pulp which is extracted from wood or fiber crops. They are sometimes bleached during the process to lighten the papers coloration. It is not uncommon for rolls of paper towels to include intricate colored images on each square, resin size is used to improve the wet strength. Paper towels are packed individually and sold as stacks, or are held on a continuous roll, many companies produce paper towels some of which include, but are not limited to, Charmin, Bounty, Seventh Generation, Scott, and Viva among many others. Commercial usage, or otherwise any use outside of the North American household, the growth in commercial use of paper towels can be attributed to the migration from folded towels to roll towel dispensers, which reduces the amount of paper towels used by each patron. Within the forest products industry, paper towels are a part of the tissue market. Paper towels are a product with rising production and consumption. Better alternatives are still conventional towels or - for hand drying - hand dryers, though paper towels are more efficient, after only ten seconds, paper towels achieve 90% dryness. Hot air dryers, on the hand, take 40 seconds to achieve a similar dryness. Dirt can almost as well be wiped up using old newspapers, handle-o-Meter Is tissue becoming a safe haven for the global pulp and paper industry. Global paper and board industry is in transition, media related to paper towels at Wikimedia Commons
Kitchen towel
–
Early paper towels
Kitchen towel
–
A roll of paper towels on a rock hard rod
Kitchen towel
–
Made out of Paper Towels
23.
Industrial Revolution
–
The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and most of the important technological innovations were British, aided by these legal and cultural foundations, an entrepreneurial spirit and consumer revolution drove industrialisation in Britain, which would be emulated in countries around the world. A change in marrying patterns to getting married later made able to accumulate more human capital during their youth. The Industrial Revolution marks a turning point in history, almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. In particular, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth, mechanised textile production spread from Great Britain to continental Europe in the early 19th century, with important centres of textiles, iron and coal emerging in Belgium, and later in France. Since then industrialisation has spread throughout much of the world, the precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution is still debated among historians, as is the pace of economic and social changes. Economic historians are in agreement that the onset of the Industrial Revolution is the most important event in the history of humanity since the domestication of animals and plants. The term Industrial Revolution applied to change was becoming more common by the late 1830s. Friedrich Engels in The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 spoke of an industrial revolution, however, although Engels wrote in the 1840s, his book was not translated into English until the late 1800s, and his expression did not enter everyday language until then. Credit for popularising the term may be given to Arnold Toynbee, some historians, such as John Clapham and Nicholas Crafts, have argued that the economic and social changes occurred gradually and the term revolution is a misnomer. This is still a subject of debate among some historians, the commencement of the Industrial Revolution is closely linked to a small number of innovations, beginning in the second half of the 18th century. By the 1830s the following gains had been made in important technologies, Textiles – mechanised cotton spinning powered by steam or water greatly increased the output of a worker, the power loom increased the output of a worker by a factor of over 40. The cotton gin increased productivity of removing seed from cotton by a factor of 50, large gains in productivity also occurred in spinning and weaving of wool and linen, but they were not as great as in cotton. Steam power – the efficiency of steam engines increased so that they used between one-fifth and one-tenth as much fuel, the adaptation of stationary steam engines to rotary motion made them suitable for industrial uses. The high pressure engine had a power to weight ratio. Steam power underwent an expansion after 1800. Iron making – the substitution of coke for charcoal greatly lowered the fuel cost for pig iron, using coke also allowed larger blast furnaces, resulting in economies of scale. The cast iron blowing cylinder was first used in 1760 and it was later improved by making it double acting, which allowed higher furnace temperatures
Industrial Revolution
–
A
Watt steam engine. The
steam engine, made of iron and fueled primarily by
coal, became widely used in the
United Kingdom during the Industrial Revolution.
Industrial Revolution
–
Iron and Coal, 1855–60, by
William Bell Scott illustrates the rise of coal and iron working in the Industrial Revolution and the heavy engineering projects they made possible.
Industrial Revolution
–
Model of the
spinning jenny in a museum in
Wuppertal. Invented by
James Hargreaves in 1764, the spinning jenny was one of the innovations that started the revolution.
Industrial Revolution
–
The only surviving example of a
spinning mule built by the inventor
Samuel Crompton.
24.
Washing mitt
–
A washing mitt is a piece of terry cloth, shaped like a pouch that the hand fits in. It is being used as an aid in washing the body, for example, to apply soap to the body and it can also be used to freshen up the face. Usually, a towel is used to dry off the body afterwards, a washing mitt is especially useful for people that like to wash themselves at a sink, and do not wish to spill or waste much water. The washing mitt is also a tool for nurses and caregivers. An expansion on the washing mitt is the showercloth, with also the back can be washed. There are also special sponges which can be used in the shower, or in the bathtub, in the case of bruises or injuries, a washing mitt can be filled with ice, so that it can be used as an ice bag. Washing mitts are used in Belgium, France, Germany, Iran, Korea. Wash cloths are used in Korea both at home and within their public bathhouses. Interstingly these are famous for being used in public baths in iran and being the nickname of second football team in there, Esteghlal. In the rest of the world, wash cloths are in wider use, an alternative name for the washing mitt is washglove
Washing mitt
–
A washing mitt
25.
Oshibori
–
An oshibori or hot towel in English is a wet hand towel offered to customers in places such as restaurants or bars in China and Japan and in some Chinese and many Japanese restaurants worldwide. Oshibori are used to clean ones hands before eating, and have long been a sight in China. Cold oshibori are used in summer, and hot oshibori in winter, in mājan parlors, the words atsushibo and tsumeshibo, from the Japanese words atsui, hot, and tsumetai, cold, are sometimes used to refer to hot and cold o-shibori respectively. In Japanese script, the word oshibori is normally written in hiragana, oshibori are also known as o-tefuki, tefuki refers to ordinary handkerchiefs, and these derive from the Japanese te and fuku, to wipe. A typical o-shibori, made of cloth, is dampened with water and it is then placed on the dining table for customers to wipe their hands before or during the meal. The o-shibori is often rolled or folded and given to the customer on some kind of tray. Even if a tray is not used, it is rolled up into a long, thin shape, although this is not necessarily the case with o-shibori provided with, say. Many establishments also give out towels made of cloth or paper. Paper ones sometimes contain a sterilizing agent such as alcohol or stabilized chlorine dioxide, paper o-shibori, unlike cloth o-shibori, can be folded and put into a very thin plastic wrapping, for inclusion with packaged products such as bentō lunch boxes in convenience stores. An oshibori can be moistened with hot water at a temperature or steam to make a hot oshibori. Sometimes in Europe it is commonly known as Hot Towel. Restaurants usually use an electric appliance such as a cabinet or refrigerator for this. The heated towel used in shops to moisturize the skin or beard. These rental service companies services frequently wrap each oshibori individually in a clear, lightweight plastic seal, now some beauty salons and dental clinics prefer to use a standalone o-shibori dispenser, with which a freshly made towel is manufactured at the clients request. In this case, the towels are made of a non-woven fiber. O-shibori is called hot towel in the United States, most airlines distribute hot towels to international first and business class passengers prior to the first meal on long haul flights. Hand washing Towels Handkerchiefs Much of this article was translated from the equivalent article in the Japanese Wikipedia, as retrieved on November 26,2006
Oshibori
–
O-shibori presented on a small bamboo stand
Oshibori
–
Hot towels are often distributed to airline
business class passengers. Disposable towels seen here prior to preparation
26.
Izakaya
–
An izakaya is a type of informal Japanese gastropub. They are casual places for after-work drinking and they have been compared to Irish pubs and early American saloons and taverns. The word izakaya entered the English language by 1987 and it is a compound word consisting of i and sakaya, indicating that izakaya originated from sake shops that allowed customers to sit on the premises to drink. Izakaya are sometimes called akachōchin in daily conversation, as paper lanterns are traditionally found in front of them. Before the Meiji period, people drank alcohol in sake shops standing, some stores started using sake barrels as stools. An izakaya in Tokyo made international news in 1962, when Robert F. Kennedy ate there during a meeting with Japanese labor leaders, izakayas are often likened to taverns or pubs, but there are a number of differences. Depending on the izakaya, customers sit on tatami mats and dine from low tables, as in the traditional Japanese style, or sit on chairs. Many izakaya offer a choice of both as well as seating by the bar, some izakaya restaurants are also tachi-nomi style, literally translated as drinking while standing. Usually, customers are given an oshibori to clean their hands, next, a tiny snack/an appetizer, called an otōshi in the Tokyo area or tsukidashi in the Osaka-Kobe area, will be served. It is local custom and usually charged onto the bill in lieu of an entry fee, the menu may be on the table, displayed on walls, or both. Picture menus are common in larger izakaya, Food and drink are ordered throughout the course of the session as desired. They are brought to the table, and the bill is added up at the end of the session, unlike other Japanese styles of eating, food items are usually shared by everyone at the table, similar to Spanish tapas. Common formats for izakaya dining in Japan are known as nomi-hōdai and tabe-hōdai, for a set price per person, customers can continue ordering as much food and/or drink as they wish, usually with a time limit of two or three hours. Izakaya dining can be intimidating to non-Japanese because of the variety of menu items. Food is normally ordered slowly over several courses rather than all at once, the kitchen will serve the food when it is ready rather than in the formal courses of Western restaurants. Typically a beer is ordered when one is sitting down before perusing the menu, there are a wide variety of izakaya offering all sorts of dishes. Items typically available are, Sake is a Japanese rice wine that is made through the fermentation of rice that has been polished to remove the bran, unlike wine, the alcohol in sake is produced by the starch being converted into sugars. Izakaya food is more substantial than tapas or mezze
Izakaya
–
An izakaya in
Gotanda,
Tokyo
27.
Hand dryers
–
Hand dryers are electric devices found in public washrooms. They may either operate with a button or automatically using an infrared sensor, hand washing is an important part of hygiene, and so an effective method of drying the hands is necessary. Hand dryers have been popular with industries for their apparent economies, according to manufacturers, hand dryers can cut costs by as much as 99. 5%. They require very little compared to paper towels, which must be replaced. An added benefit is the removal of the paper waste, hand dryers represent a larger initial investment, so those responsible for facility management must do a careful cost analysis to determine whether they are cost effective in their building. Costs are always relative to the kWh cost that the facility is charged by its provider, the worlds lowest energy hand dryer uses just 1 watt-hour per dry and is rated at 0.24 kW. Due to the reduction in litter and waste in comparison with paper towels and it is estimated that hand dryers use 5% less energy than paper towels in the first year, and 20% less over five years. In 2005, in a study conducted by TÜV Produkt und Umwelt, another study found that hot air dryers had the capacity to increase the bacterial count on the skin, and that paper towel drying decreased skin bacterial count. This is corroborated by another study found that the mechanical action of paper towel drying removed bacteria. The European Tissue Symposium, a body, has produced a position statement on the hygiene standards of different hand drying systems. This summarises some of the research undertaken. Dyson have countered the claims presented, suggesting that the results were intentionally falsified, many people object to the noise created by the modern hand dryers. Research conducted in 2008 indicated that European consumers much prefer hand towels over hand dryers in public washrooms, 63% of respondents said paper towels were their preferred drying method, while just 28% preferred a hand dryer. Respondents overwhelmingly considered paper towels to offer faster hand drying than electric hand dryers, on the whole they also considered paper towels to be the most hygienic form of hand drying in public washrooms. The earliest hand dryer was patented in 1921 by R. B. Hibbard, D. J. Watrous, bassett for the Airdry Corporation of Groton New York. This machine was sold as a built in model or freestanding floor unit that consisted of an inverted blower that was controlled by a floor pedal, known as Airdry The Electric Towel, these units were used in restrooms, barbershops and factories. Airdry Corporation moved to Chicago and San Francisco in 1924 to centralize their distribution, the hand dryer was later popularized in 1948 by George Clemens. In 1993, Mitsubishi Electric introduced a new type of hand dryer that blows jets of air on both sides of the hand, pushing the water off rather than evaporating it
Hand dryers
–
A push-button hand dryer.
Hand dryers
–
Newer models of hand dryer are faster, quieter and more efficient.
28.
Washroom
–
A public toilet is a room or small building containing one or more toilets which is available for use by the general public, or by customers or employees of certain businesses. Public toilets are commonly separated into male and female facilities, although some can be unisex, increasingly, public toilets are accessible to people with disabilities. Public toilets may either be used free of charge or the user may be charged a fee, in the latter case they are also called pay toilets and sometimes have of a coin-operated turnstile. Public toilets may be provided by the authority or by a commercial business. They may be unattended or be staffed by a janitor or attendant, in many cultures, it is customary to tip the attendant, especially if they provide a grooming service, such as at upscale nightclubs or restaurants. Portable toilets are provided at large outdoor events. In many Asian, African and Muslim countries, public toilets are of the squat type, Public toilets are known by many names in different varieties of English. One of the more formal circumlocutions is public convenience, as in the Guilford Place public conveniences, in American English, restroom usually denotes a toilet facility designed for use by the public. However, bathroom is also commonly used, comfort station sometimes refers to a visitor welcome center such as those found in national parks. In Canadian English, public facilities are always called washrooms, the word toilet generally denotes the fixture itself rather than the room. The word washroom is never used to mean utility room or mud room as it is in parts the United States. Bathroom is generally used to refer to the room in the home contains a bath or shower. In Britain, Australia, Hong Kong, Singapore, and New Zealand, the terms in use are public toilet, public lavatory and more informally, public loo. A bathroom is a room containing a bath, a washroom is a room for washing hands, as public toilets were traditionally signed as Gentlemen or Ladies, the colloquial terms the Gents and the Ladies indicates the facility itself. The British Toilet Association, sponsor of the Loo of the Year Award, in Philippine English, comfort room, or C. R. is the most common term in use. In continental Europe, both toilet, a translation of the French les toilettes, and WC are common, mosques, madrassas and other places Muslims gather, have public sex-segregated wash rooms since Islam requires specific procedures for cleansing parts of the body before prayer. These rooms normally adjoin the toilets, which are subject to Muslim hygienical jurisprudence. Many public toilets are permanent small buildings visible to passersby on the street, others are underground, including older facilities in Britain and Canada
Washroom
–
A restroom on the
Boise Greenbelt featuring
public art.
Washroom
–
Portable potty on top of a mountain in China
Washroom
–
A public "washroom" in Canada
Washroom
–
An automatic toilet in
Picton, New Zealand, with a loiter alarm designed to deter drug use
29.
Sanitary napkin
–
These pads are not to be confused with generally higher absorbency incontinence pads, which are worn by men or women who have urinary incontinence problems or experience stress incontinence. Menstrual pads may be used by people for this purpose. Through the ages women have used different forms of menstrual protection, women often used strips of folded old cloth to catch their menstrual flow, which is why the term on the rag is used to refer to menstruation. The first commercially available American disposable napkins were Listers Towels created by Johnson & Johnson in 1888, kotexs first advertisement for products made with this wood pulp appeared in 1888. Several of the first disposable pad manufacturers were also manufacturers of bandages, until disposable sanitary pads were created, cloth or reusable pads were widely used to collect menstrual blood. Women often used a variety of home-made menstrual pads which they crafted from various fabrics, or other absorbent materials, even after disposable pads were commercially available, for several years they were too expensive for many women to afford. When they could be afforded, women were allowed to place money in a box so that they would not have to speak to the clerk and it took several years for disposable menstrual pads to become commonplace. However, they are now used exclusively in most of the industrialized world. The first of the pads were generally in the form of a cotton wool or similar fibrous rectangle covered with an absorbent liner. The liner ends were extended front and back so as to fit through loops in a special girdle or belt worn beneath undergarments and this design was notorious for slipping either forward or back of the intended position. Later an adhesive strip was placed on the bottom of the pad for attachment to the saddle of the panties, the belted sanitary napkin quickly disappeared during the early 1980s. The ergonomic design and materials used to make pads also changed through the 1980s to today, with earlier materials not being as absorbent and effective, and early pads being up to two centimetres thick, leaks were a major problem. The materials used to manufacture most pads are derived from the industry and forestry. The remaining materials are derived from the petroleum industry, the cover stock used is polypropylene non woven. Cloth menstrual pads made a comeback around the 1970s, with their popularity increasing in the late 80s, reasons women choose to switch to cloth menstrual pads include comfort, savings over time, environmental impact and health reasons. There are many styles of cloth menstrual pads available today, cloth menstrual pads can have waterproof lining, which provides more leak protection but may also be less breathable. In underdeveloped countries, reusable or makeshift pads are used to collect menstrual blood. Rags, soil, and mud are also used for collecting menstrual flow
Sanitary napkin
–
Wingless type (left) and winged type (right) of disposable sanitary napkin.
Sanitary napkin
–
An advertisement poster for Hartmann's pads, dated circa 1900
Sanitary napkin
–
Bag for napkins
Sanitary napkin
–
Reusable cloth menstrual pad with
Kokopelli motif.
30.
Bar (establishment)
–
Some types of bars, such as pubs, may also serve food from a restaurant menu. The term bar also refers to the countertop and area where drinks are served, bars provide stools or chairs that are placed at tables or counters for their patrons. Bars that offer entertainment or live music are often referred to as music bars, live venues, types of bars range from inexpensive dive bars to elegant places of entertainment often accompanying restaurants for dining. Many bars have a discount period, designated a happy hour to encourage off-peak-time patronage, bars that fill to capacity sometimes implement a cover charge or a minimum drink purchase requirement during their peak hours. Bars may have bouncers to ensure patrons are of age, to eject drunk or belligerent patrons. Such bars often feature entertainment, which may be a band, vocalist, comedian. The term bar is derived from the counter on which drinks are served. Patrons may sit or stand at the bar and be served by the bartender, depending on the size of a bar and its approach, alcohol may be served at the bar by bartenders, at tables by servers, or by a combination of the two. The back bar is a set of shelves of glasses and bottles behind that counter, in some establishments, the back bar is elaborately decorated with woodwork, etched glass, mirrors, and lights. There have been different names for public drinking spaces throughout history. In the colonial era of the United States taverns were an important meeting place, during the 19th century saloons were very important to the leisure time of the working class. Today, even when an establishment uses a different name, such as tavern or saloon, the sale and/or consumption of alcoholic beverages was prohibited in the first half of the 20th century in several countries, including Finland, Iceland, Norway, and the United States. In the United States, illegal bars during Prohibition were called speakeasies, blind pigs, laws in many jurisdictions prohibit minors from entering a bar. If those under legal drinking age are allowed to enter, as is the case with pubs that serve food, in some jurisdictions, bars cannot serve a patron who is already intoxicated. Cities and towns usually have restrictions on where bars may be located. Some bars may have a license to serve beer and wine, in some jurisdictions, patrons buying alcohol must also order food. In some jurisdictions, bar owners have a liability for the conduct of patrons who they serve. A bars owners and managers choose the name, décor, drink menu, lighting
Bar (establishment)
–
A bar in Switzerland.
Bar (establishment)
–
A
Depression-era bar in
Melrose, Louisiana.
Bar (establishment)
–
Liquor and wine bottles behind a bar in Baden, Austria
Bar (establishment)
–
The bar in the coach terminal at
Udine, Italy.
