1.
Tower Bridge (California)
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It was previously a part of U. S. Route 40 until that highway was truncated to east of Salt Lake City. In 1982, the Tower Bridge was added to the National Register of Historic Places, the Tower Bridge replaced the 1911 M Street Bridge in Sacramento, which was originally a swing through-truss railroad bridge. Later, 9-foot roadway sections were added as cantilevered sections on both sides of the rail bridge. Sacramentos population more than doubled between 1910 and 1935, rendering the existing bridge inadequate to handle heavy traffic, in 1933, the city realized that it needed a better crossing over the Sacramento River in case of war. On December 22,1933, the State of California, Sacramento County, Construction commenced on July 20,1934. Road traffic was diverted to the I Street Bridge, and rail traffic was diverted to a temporary timber-and-steel shoofly bridge approximately 75 ft of the existing M Street Bridge. Tower Bridge was initially designed with a 52 ft wide roadway with sidewalks, with the draw up, there is 100 feet of vertical clearance above high water with a 172-foot wide navigation channel between the timber pier fenders. Although the lift span weighs 1,150 short tons, the use of an amount of counterweights means the span is operated with two relatively small 100-horsepower electric motors. The lift span towers were sheathed in steel to streamline its appearance, the American Institute of Steel Construction gave the Tower Bridge an honorable mention for its Class B prize bridge award in 1935. On December 15,1935, then-governor Frank Merriam dedicated the bridge,1000 homing pigeons were released to carry the news throughout California. The first train had crossed the bridge on November 7,1935, the Tower Bridge was the first vertical lift bridge in the California Highway System after it was formally accepted by the state on January 11,1936. The railroad tracks were removed in 1963, with the removal of the tracks, the roadway was restriped for four automobile lanes. When the bridges warning siren sounds, the crossing activates to block traffic until the bridge is safe to cross again, for years, the bridge was painted with a silver aluminum paint under a special work order, but people complained about glare off the bridge. The concrete pylons were initially painted a sky-blue color, in June 1976 as part of Bicentennial projects, it was painted a yellow-ochre color to match the gold leafed cupola on the nearby State Capitol. In 2001, as the old paint job could hardly be distinguished and their choices were all-gold, green, gold and silver, or burgundy, silver and gold. The winning choice was all gold, and it was repainted in 2002, however, that did not lessen the bridges color controversy. Some people complained that the new paint was not as gilded as advertised, others have suggested that copper would have been a far better color choice, especially in the context of nearby buildings. The new coat is expected to last 30 years, currently, the bridge is used for pedestrian and vehicle traffic only
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
London Inner Ring Road
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The London Inner Ring Road is a 12-mile route formed from a number of major roads that encircle Central London. The ring road forms the boundary of the London congestion charge zone, the route is described as the Inner Ring Road because there are two further sets of roads that have been described as London ring roads. The North and South Circular Roads together form the ring road around London. The M25 motorway is the outermost road encircling the metropolis, at a diameter of 40–50 miles. Plans for an Inner Ring Road were put forward by Patrick Abercrombie in the 1940s, the route is signed as Ring Road and is made up of the following roads, A100 A1202 A1210/A1211 A201 A202 A302 A3204 A4202 A5 A501. It formed part of the historical New Road, construction of the New Road from Paddington to Islington began in 1756 to relieve congestion in the built-up area of London. At that time the districts of Marylebone, Fitzrovia and Bloomsbury were on the edge of the city. The New Road ran through the fields to the north of three neighbourhoods. The road is now one of the busiest main roads in the city and it runs from Edgware Road in the west to Angel, in the east. City Road was constructed in 1761 to continue the route eastwards to the edge of the City of London. Pentonville Road runs west to east from Kings Cross to City Road and it acquired its present name in 1857. There are several halls of residence located on Pentonville Road, these being Dinwiddy House, Paul Robeson House, there are two green spaces along the road – Joseph Grimaldi Park and Claremont Square, the latter however is not open to the public. This street is distinguished by the set back housing lines originally intended to provide an atmosphere of spaciousness along the thoroughfare and it is one of the locations on the UK version of the Monopoly board game, which features areas native to London. Pentonville Road is one of the many London placenames mentioned the song Transmetropolitan by The Pogues and it runs from Aldgate southwards to the Tower of London. The northern part, north of the junction with Goodmans Yard and Prescot Street, has one way northbound traffic and it also links to Long Lane. The road has an abundance of shops along part of its length. There is also Bermondsey Square which holds a market every Friday morning, usually known as Bermondsey Market. Towards its southern end are a collection of shops, pubs, Kennington Lane is an A-road running between the Elephant & Castle to the east and Vauxhall to the west
4.
River Thames
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The River Thames is a river that flows through southern England, most notably through London. At 215 miles, it is the longest river entirely in England and it also flows through Oxford, Reading, Henley-on-Thames and Windsor. The lower reaches of the river are called the Tideway, derived from its tidal reach up to Teddington Lock. It rises at Thames Head in Gloucestershire, and flows into the North Sea via the Thames Estuary, the Thames drains the whole of Greater London. Its tidal section, reaching up to Teddington Lock, includes most of its London stretch and has a rise, in Scotland, the Tay achieves more than double the average discharge from a drainage basin that is 60% smaller. Along its course are 45 navigation locks with accompanying weirs and its catchment area covers a large part of South Eastern and a small part of Western England and the river is fed by 38 named tributaries. The river contains over 80 islands, in 2010, the Thames won the largest environmental award in the world – the $350,000 International Riverprize. The Thames, from Middle English Temese, is derived from the Brittonic Celtic name for the river, Tamesas, recorded in Latin as Tamesis and yielding modern Welsh Tafwys Thames. It has also suggested that it is not of Celtic origin. A place by the river, rather than the river itself, indirect evidence for the antiquity of the name Thames is provided by a Roman potsherd found at Oxford, bearing the inscription Tamesubugus fecit. It is believed that Tamesubugus name was derived from that of the river, tamese was referred to as a place, not a river in the Ravenna Cosmography. The rivers name has always pronounced with a simple t /t/, the Middle English spelling was typically Temese. A similar spelling from 1210, Tamisiam, is found in the Magna Carta, the Thames through Oxford is sometimes called the Isis. Ordnance Survey maps still label the Thames as River Thames or Isis down to Dorchester, richard Coates suggests that while the river was as a whole called the Thames, part of it, where it was too wide to ford, was called *lowonida. An alternative, and simpler proposal, is that London may also be a Germanic word, for merchant seamen, the Thames has long been just the London River. Londoners often refer to it simply as the river in such as south of the river. Thames Valley Police is a body that takes its name from the river. The marks of human activity, in cases dating back to Pre-Roman Britain, are visible at various points along the river
5.
London Borough of Tower Hamlets
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The London Borough of Tower Hamlets is a London borough to the east of the City of London and north of the River Thames. It is in the part of London and covers much of the traditional East End. It also includes much of the redeveloped Docklands region of London, including West India Docks, many of the tallest buildings in London occupy the centre of the Isle of Dogs in the south of the borough. A part of the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park is in Tower Hamlets, the borough has a population of 272,890, which includes one of the highest ethnic minority populations in the country and has an established British Bangladeshi business and residential community. Brick Lanes restaurants, neighbouring street market and shops provide the largest range of Bengali cuisine, woodwork, carpets, the local authority is Tower Hamlets London Borough Council. The council, as of 2017 comprises 23 Labour Councillors,5 Conservative councillors,18 independent councillors of various affiliation, Tower Hamlets is located to east of the City of London and north of the River Thames in East London. The London Borough of Hackney lies to the north of the borough while the River Lea forms the boundary with the London Borough of Newham in the east. On the other side of the Thames is The London Borough of Southwark to the southwest, The London Borough of Lewisham to the South, the River Lea also forms the boundary between those parts of London historically in Middlesex, with those formerly in Essex. The Regents Canal enters the borough from Hackney to meet the River Thames at Limehouse Basin, a stretch of the Hertford Union Canal leads from the Regents canal, at a basin in the north of Mile End to join the River Lea at Old Ford. A further canal, Limehouse Cut, Londons oldest, leads from locks at Bromley-by-Bow to Limehouse Basin, most of the canal tow-paths are open to both pedestrians and cyclists. Victoria Park was formed by Act of Parliament, and administered by the LCC, since the latter authoritys abolition, the park has been administered by Tower Hamlets. Part of the borough is within the boundary of the Thames Gateway development area, the Hamlets of the Tower paid taxes for the militia in 1646. The London Borough of Tower Hamlets forms the core of the East End and it lies east of the ancient walled City of London and north of the River Thames. Over the course of a century, the East End became synonymous with poverty, overcrowding, disease, the East End developed rapidly during the 19th century. The area attracted large numbers of people looking for employment. Successive waves of immigration began with Huguenot refugees creating a new extramural suburb in Spitalfields in the 17th century. They were followed by Irish weavers, Ashkenazi Jews and, in the 20th century, many of these immigrants worked in the clothing industry. The abundance of semi- and unskilled labour led to low wages and this brought the attentions of social reformers during the mid-18th century and led to the formation of unions and workers associations at the end of the century
6.
London Borough of Southwark
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The London Borough of Southwark /ˈsʌðərk/ in south London, England forms part of Inner London and is connected by bridges across the River Thames to the City of London. It was created in 1965 when three smaller council areas amalgamated under the London Government Act 1963, all districts of the area are within the London postal district. It is governed by Southwark London Borough Council, Dulwich is home to the Dulwich Picture Gallery and the Imperial War Museum is in Elephant and Castle. The area was first settled in the Roman period but the name Southwark dates from the 9th century, the London Borough of Southwark was formed in 1965 from the former area of the Metropolitan Borough of Southwark, the Metropolitan Borough of Camberwell, and the Metropolitan Borough of Bermondsey. The borough borders the City of London and the London Borough of Tower Hamlets to the north, the London Borough of Lambeth to the west, to the south are the London Borough of Bromley and the London Borough of Croydon. At the 2001 census Southwark had a population of 244,866, Southwark is ethnically 63% white, 16% black African and 8% black Caribbean. The area is the home of many Nigerian, Jamaican, South African, Polish, Tower Bridge, the Millennium Bridge, Blackfriars Bridge, Southwark Bridge and London Bridge all connect the City of London to the borough. The skyscraper Shard London Bridge is currently the tallest building in the EU, the Tate Modern art gallery, Shakespeares Globe Theatre, the Imperial War Museum and Borough Market are also within the borough. At one mile wide, Burgess Park is Southwarks largest green space, Southwark has many notable places of Christian worship, Anglican, Roman Catholic and independent non-conformist. These include Charles Spurgeons Metropolitan Tabernacle, Southwark Cathedral, St Georges Cathedral, Londons Norwegian Church and Finnish Church and the Swedish Seamens Church are all in Rotherhithe. St George the Martyr is the oldest church in Greater London dedicated to Englands Patron Saint, the other redundant church is Francis Bedfords in Trinity Church Square, now a recording studio, Henry Wood Hall. Whilst Christianity is the dominant religion of the borough, several religious minorities are also active, according to the 2001 Census, approximately 28% of Southwark identified as non-religious, or chose not to state their faith. Charles Dickens set several of his novels in the old borough where he lived as a young man, the site of The Tabard inn, the White Hart inn and the George Inn which survives. The rebuilt Globe Theatre and its exhibition on the Bankside remind us of the areas being the birthplace of classical theatre, there is also the remains of the Rose Theatre. In 2007 the Unicorn Theatre for Children was opened on Tooley Street with both the Southwark Playhouse and the Union Theatre having premises in Bermondsey Street, the Menier Chocolate Factory combines a theatre and exhibition space. The Bankside Gallery is the headquarters of the Royal Watercolour Society, the Golden Hinde replica is at St Mary Overie Dock and nearby are the remains of the medieval Winchester Palace which is a scheduled ancient monument. Peckham Library, designed by Will Alsop won the Stirling Prize for modern architecture, the museum was closed by Southwark council in 2008. MOCA, London, as curated by the artist Michael Petry, is a museum located in Peckham Rye dedicated to exposing and showcasing new cutting-edge artists
7.
Bridge House Estates
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The Bridge House Estates is a charitable trust, established in 1282 by the City of London Corporation in London, England. It was originally established to maintain London Bridge and, subsequently, funded by bridge tolls and charitable donations, the trust acquired an extensive property portfolio which made it more than self-sufficient. As well as maintaining the bridges, the estates also makes other charitable grants through the City Bridge Trust, since it was established, the trust has maintained, and on several occasions replaced, London Bridge. The trust also built Blackfriars Bridge and Tower Bridge, and purchased Southwark Bridge from the private company that built it. Most recently it took ownership and maintenance of the new pedestrian-only Millennium Bridge. Until 1995, the trust was only permitted to use its income for expenditure on its bridges, however, with a surplus of income over expenditure, a cy-près scheme was adopted in that year to allow any surplus income to be used for other charitable purposes benefiting Greater London. These grants are made though the City Bridge Trust, the Trust took its name from Bridge House, which was the administrative and maintenance centre of Old London Bridge located on the south bank of the River Thames, near the site of St Olaves Church. The site, now covered by the London Bridge Hospital and the Cottons Centre, was constituted of at least two properties in Southwark, the first was that of Peter de Colechurch the warden of the bridge from 1163 and probably a monastic dwelling. The second property was the left by will of Henry Fitz Ailwyn, first named Mayor of London. Known as the Bridge Mark, the logo of Bridge House Estates was one of the earliest logos ever in continuous use and it has been the identifying emblem of the Bridge House Estates for many centuries. But it now uses the City of London arms as an emblem, the City Bridge Trust uses the mark as a logo It was thought likely that the mark as we know it today was designed by a famous 17th century surveyor, William Leybourn. It appears drawn on a plan of 1680 which it is thought he adapted from a similar mark drawn against plots owned by Bridge House Estates on a plan of St Georges Fields in Southwark. The City sword rest from the church of St Olave, Southwark has the Bridge Mark carved onto it to balance the Citys shield, the trust was established by Royal Charter in 1282, and the sole trustee is the City of London Corporation. The trustee does not own the property of the trust — it may only be used for the purposes for which the fund was created. The Bridge House Estates are run by a committee of the City of London Corporation the chairman of which holds the title of Chief Commoner. The chairmanship is held for one year as the responsibilities are so onerous. In addition to its Royal Charter of 1282, the Bridge House Estates operates with respect to legislative powers e. g. The Fund administered by the Bridge House Estates is solely responsible for the five City Bridges, there is no financial support from the Government or any other fund
8.
Listed building
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A listed building or listed structure, in the United Kingdom, is one that has been placed on the Statutory List of Buildings of Special Architectural or Historic Interest. The statutory bodies maintaining the list are Historic England in England, Cadw in Wales, Historic Scotland in Scotland, however, the preferred term in Ireland is protected structure. In England and Wales, an amenity society must be notified of any work to a listed building which involves any element of demolition. Owners of listed buildings are, in circumstances, compelled to repair and maintain them. When alterations are permitted, or when listed buildings are repaired or maintained, slightly different systems operate in each area of the United Kingdom, though the basic principles of the listing remain the same. It was the damage to caused by German bombing during World War II that prompted the first listing of buildings that were deemed to be of particular architectural merit. The listings were used as a means of determining whether a building should be rebuilt if it was damaged by bombing. Listing was first introduced into Northern Ireland under the Planning Order 1972, the listing process has since developed slightly differently in each part of the UK. In the UK, the process of protecting the historic environment is called ‘designation’. A heritage asset is a part of the environment that is valued because of its historic. Only some of these are judged to be important enough to have legal protection through designation. However, buildings that are not formally listed but still judged as being of heritage interest are still regarded as being a consideration in the planning process. Almost anything can be listed – it does not have to be a building, Buildings and structures of special historic interest come in a wide variety of forms and types, ranging from telephone boxes and road signs, to castles. Historic England has created twenty broad categories of structures, and published selection guides for each one to aid with assessing buildings and these include historical overviews and describe the special considerations for listing each category. Both Historic Scotland and Cadw produce guidance for owners, in England, to have a building considered for listing or delisting, the process is to apply to the secretary of state, this can be done by submitting an application form online to Historic England. The applicant does not need to be the owner of the building to apply for it to be listed, full information including application form guidance notes are on the Historic England website. Historic England assesses buildings put forward for listing or delisting and provides advice to the Secretary of State on the architectural, the Secretary of State, who may seek additional advice from others, then decides whether or not to list or delist the building. In England and Wales the authority for listing is granted to the Secretary of State by the Planning Act 1990, Listed buildings in danger of decay are listed on the Historic England Heritage at Risk Register
9.
London Bridge
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London Bridge refers to several historical bridges that have spanned the River Thames between the City of London and Southwark, in central London. The current crossing, which opened to traffic in 1973, is a box girder bridge built from concrete and this replaced a 19th-century stone-arched bridge, which in turn superseded a 600-year-old medieval structure. This was preceded by a succession of bridges, the first built by the Roman founders of London. The current bridge stands at the end of the Pool of London but is positioned 30 metres upstream from previous alignments. The traditional ends of the bridge were marked by St Magnus-the-Martyr on the northern bank. Until Putney Bridge opened in 1729, London Bridge was the only road-crossing of the Thames downstream of Kingston-upon-Thames and its importance has been the subject of popular culture throughout the ages such as in the nursery rhyme London Bridge Is Falling Down and its inclusion within art and literature. The modern bridge is owned and maintained by Bridge House Estates and it carries the A3 road, which is maintained by the Greater London Authority. The crossing also delineates an area along the bank of the River Thames. The abutments of modern London Bridge rest several metres above natural embankments of gravel, sand, between the embankments, the River Thames could have been crossed by ford when the tide was low, or ferry when it was high. There is archaeological evidence for scattered Neolithic, Bronze Age and Iron Age settlement nearby, two ancient fords were in use a few miles upstream, beyond the rivers upper tidal reach. They were aligned with the course of Watling Street and led into the heartlands of the Catuvellauni, some time before Claudius conquest of AD43, power shifted to the Trinovantes, who held the region northeast of the Thames estuary from a capital at Camulodunum. Claudius imposed a major colonia on Camulodunum, and made it the city of the new Roman province of Britannia. The first London Bridge was built by the Roman military as part of their road-building programme, around AD55, the temporary bridge over the Thames was replaced by a permanent timber piled bridge, maintained and guarded by a small garrison. On the relatively high, dry ground at the end of the bridge, a small, opportunistic trading and shipping settlement took root. A smaller settlement developed at the end of the bridge. The bridge was destroyed along with the town in the Boudican revolt. Just downstream of the bridge were substantial quays and depots, convenient to seagoing trade between Britain and the rest of the Roman Empire, with the end of Roman rule in Britain in the early 5th century, Londinium was gradually abandoned and the bridge fell into disrepair. In the Saxon period, the became a boundary between the emergent, mutually hostile kingdoms of Mercia and Wessex
10.
Dartford Crossing
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It consists of two bored tunnels and the cable-stayed Queen Elizabeth II Bridge. The only fixed crossing of the Thames east of Greater London, it is the busiest estuarial crossing in the United Kingdom. It opened in stages, the west tunnel in 1963, the east tunnel in 1980, the crossing, despite not being under motorway restrictions, is considered part of the M25 motorways route, using the tunnels northbound and bridge southbound. Described as one of the most important road crossings in Britain, it suffers from heavy traffic, the crossings development started in the late 1930s, but was interrupted due to the Second World War and resumed in the 1950s. The original tunnel catered for a lane of traffic in each direction. The M25 connected to the tunnels at both ends when completed in 1986, and this increased traffic put pressure on the tunnels capacity, a Private Finance Initiative scheme was started in 1988 to build the bridge. The combined crossing now handles four lanes of traffic in each direction, the crossing had always been tolled, and from 1 April 2003 this became a charge, though since 2008 it has been free from 10 pm to 6 am. An electronic charging scheme began in November 2014, as a result, the charge can no longer be paid in cash and the old toll booths have been removed. A residents scheme is available, offering discounts for people living near the crossing. The crossing spans the River Thames between Dartford, Kent, to the south and Thurrock, Essex, to the north and it is about 20 miles east of the centre of London, outside the Greater London boundary. The two tunnels are 1,430 metres long, while the bridge is 137 metres high with a main span of 450 metres. A50 miles per hour speed limit is in place in both directions, the design capacity is 135,000 vehicles per day, but in practice the crossing carries around 160,000. It is signed as a destination on Londons orbital route. Southbound traffic crosses the bridge, while northbound traffic uses both of the two-lane road tunnels. The bridge can be closed due to winds or maintenance. On these occasions, traffic uses the tunnels in both directions, the next nearest vehicle crossings to the west of Dartford are the Woolwich Ferry and the Blackwall Tunnel, both well within East London. There is no official diversion route through London for high vehicles, when the bridge is closed, vehicles over 5.03 metres are diverted around the M25 in the opposite direction. A number of new crossings have been proposed as relief for the Dartford Crossing, the proposed Thames Gateway Bridge to the west was given planning permission by Transport for London in December 2004, but was cancelled in November 2008 when Boris Johnson became Mayor of London
11.
Suspended-deck suspension bridge
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A suspension bridge is a type of bridge in which the deck is hung below suspension cables on vertical suspenders. The first modern examples of type of bridge were built in the early 19th century. Simple suspension bridges, which lack vertical suspenders, have a history in many mountainous parts of the world. This type of bridge has cables suspended between towers, plus vertical suspender cables carry the weight of the deck below, upon which traffic crosses. This arrangement allows the deck to be level or to arc upward for additional clearance, like other suspension bridge types, this type often is constructed without falsework. The suspension cables must be anchored at each end of the bridge, the main cables continue beyond the pillars to deck-level supports, and further continue to connections with anchors in the ground. The roadway is supported by vertical suspender cables or rods, called hangers, in the latter case there will be very little arc in the outboard main cables. The earliest suspension bridges were ropes slung across a chasm, with a deck possibly at the level or hung below the ropes such that the rope had a catenary shape. The Tibetan saint and bridge-builder Thangtong Gyalpo originated the use of chains in his version of simple suspension bridges. In 1433, Gyalpo built eight bridges in eastern Bhutan, the last surviving chain-linked bridge of Gyalpos was the Thangtong Gyalpo Bridge in Duksum en route to Trashi Yangtse, which was finally washed away in 2004. Gyalpos iron chain bridges did not include a deck bridge which is the standard on all modern suspension bridges today. Instead, both the railing and the layer of Gyalpos bridges used wires. The stress points that carried the screed were reinforced by the iron chains, before the use of iron chains it is thought that Gyalpo used ropes from twisted willows or yak skins. He may have also used tightly bound cloth, the first American iron chain suspension bridge was the Jacobs Creek Bridge in Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania, designed by inventor James Finley. Finleys bridge was the first to all of the necessary components of a modern suspension bridge. Finley patented his design in 1808, and published it in the Philadelphia journal, The Port Folio, in 1810. Early British chain bridges included the Dryburgh Abbey Bridge and 137 m Union Bridge, with rapidly increasing to 176 m with the Menai Bridge. The first chain bridge on the European continent was the Chain Bridge in Nuremberg, the Clifton Suspension Bridge is one of the longest of the parabolic arc chain type
12.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
13.
Tower of London
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The Tower of London, officially Her Majestys Royal Palace and Fortress of the Tower of London, is a historic castle located on the north bank of the River Thames in central London. It lies within the London Borough of Tower Hamlets, separated from the edge of the square mile of the City of London by the open space known as Tower Hill. It was founded towards the end of 1066 as part of the Norman Conquest of England. The White Tower, which gives the castle its name, was built by William the Conqueror in 1078 and was a resented symbol of oppression. The castle was used as a prison from 1100 until 1952, a grand palace early in its history, it served as a royal residence. As a whole, the Tower is a complex of buildings set within two concentric rings of defensive walls and a moat. There were several phases of expansion, mainly under Kings Richard the Lionheart, Henry III, the general layout established by the late 13th century remains despite later activity on the site. The Tower of London has played a prominent role in English history and it was besieged several times, and controlling it has been important to controlling the country. The Tower has served variously as an armoury, a treasury, a menagerie, the home of the Royal Mint, a record office. From the early 14th century until the reign of Charles II, in the absence of the monarch, the Constable of the Tower is in charge of the castle. This was a powerful and trusted position in the medieval period, in the late 15th century, the castle was the prison of the Princes in the Tower. Under the Tudors, the Tower became used less as a royal residence and this use has led to the phrase sent to the Tower. Executions were more commonly held on the notorious Tower Hill to the north of the castle, in the latter half of the 19th century, institutions such as the Royal Mint moved out of the castle to other locations, leaving many buildings empty. Anthony Salvin and John Taylor took the opportunity to restore the Tower to what was felt to be its medieval appearance, in the First and Second World Wars, the Tower was again used as a prison and witnessed the executions of 12 men for espionage. After the Second World War, damage caused during the Blitz was repaired, today, the Tower of London is one of the countrys most popular tourist attractions. Under the ceremonial charge of the Constable of the Tower, it is cared for by the charity Historic Royal Palaces and is protected as a World Heritage Site. The Tower was orientated with its strongest and most impressive defences overlooking Saxon London and it would have visually dominated the surrounding area and stood out to traffic on the River Thames. The castle is made up of three wards, or enclosures, the innermost ward contains the White Tower and is the earliest phase of the castle
14.
City of London Corporation
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In 2006 the name was changed from Corporation of London to avoid confusion with the wider London local government, the Greater London Authority. The Corporation is probably the worlds oldest continuously-elected local government authority, the corporations structure includes the Lord Mayor, the Court of Aldermen, the Court of Common Council, and the Freemen and Livery of the City. In Anglo-Saxon times, consultation between the Citys rulers and its citizens took place at the Folkmoot, administration and judicial processes were conducted at the Court of Husting and the non-legal part of the courts work evolved into the Court of Aldermen. Numerous subsequent Royal Charters over the centuries confirmed and extended the citizens rights, around 1189, the City gained the right to have its own mayor, later being advanced to the degree and style of Lord Mayor of London. The individual commissioners were nominated by the Corporation, but it was a separate body. Local government legislation often makes special provision for the City to be treated as a London borough, the Chief Executive of the administrative side of the Corporation holds the ancient office of Town Clerk of London. The Chamberlain, the City Treasurer and Finance Officer, the City Remembrancer, who is responsible for protocol, ceremonial, security issues as well as legislative matters that may affect the Corporation and is legally qualified. The Comptroller and City Solicitor, legal officer. e, former Lord Mayors, and the junior Aldermen. The Common Serjeant, the senior judge at the Central Criminal Court Old Bailey. C) The Ward Beadles, responsible to a specific Ward from which they are elected, largely ceremonial support to their respective Aldermen, and also perform a formal role at Ward Motes. In 1801, the City had a population of about 130,000 and it has risen slightly to around 9,000 since, largely due to the development of the Barbican Estate. As it has not been affected by other municipal legislation over the period of time since then, therefore, the non-residential vote, abolished in the rest of the country in 1969, became an increasingly large part of the electorate. The non-residential vote system used disfavoured incorporated companies, the City of London Act 2002 greatly increased the business franchise, allowing many more businesses to be represented. In 2009, the vote was about 24,000. Each body or organisation, whether unincorporated or incorporated, whose premises are within the City of London may appoint a number of based on the number of workers it employs. Limited liability partnerships fall into this category, though workers count as part of a workforce regardless of nationality, only certain individuals may be appointed as voters. The City of London is divided into twenty-five Wards, each of which is a division, electing one Alderman. The numbers below reflect the changes caused by the City of London Act, there are over one hundred livery companies in London
15.
Bridge tower
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A bridge tower was a type of fortified tower built on a bridge. They were typically built in the period up to modern times as part of a city or town wall or castle. There is usually a tower at both ends of the bridge and these towers were built in pre-medieval and medieval times to guard access to the bridge and to enable the charging of tolls on important roads crossing rivers, usually near towns and cities. The rivers were part of the defences of these settlements. As a result, it was important from a perspective that the bridges did not allow attacking enemies to break in. The bridges acted as a bulwark and often had a small drawbridge, in addition to their genuine protective and defensive functions they also played a symbolic and architectural role. Often these towers were the first public buildings that the travellers saw when approaching the city, the high cost of such towers was usually paid for by charging tolls. The gates of bridge towers were closed at night, so that no-one could cross the bridge during silent hours, le Pont Vieux at Orthez, France. The Wasserturm, part of the Kapellbrücke complex in Lucerne, Switzerland, the Monnow Gate on the Monnow Bridge at Monmouth, Wales The bridge tower at Warkworth Bridge in Warkworth, Northumberland, England Tower Bridge in London, England. The actual function of these towers is to support a high-level walkway, description of the bridge towers of Regensburg at baufachinformation. de Bridge chapel Gate tower Gatehouse
16.
Tension (physics)
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Tension is the opposite of compression. At the atomic level, when atoms or molecules are pulled apart each other and gain potential energy with a restoring force still existing. Each end of a string or rod under such tension will pull on the object it is attached to, to restore the string/rod to its relaxed length. In physics, tension, as a force, as an action-reaction pair of forces. The ends of a string or other object transmitting tension will exert forces on the objects to which the string or rod is connected and these forces due to tension are also called passive forces. Tension in a string is a scalar quantity. A string or rope is often idealized as one dimension, having length but being massless with zero cross section. If there are no bends in the string, as occur with vibrations or pulleys, then tension is a constant along the string, by Newtons Third Law, these are the same forces exerted on the ends of the string by the objects to which the ends are attached. If the string curves around one or more pulleys, it still have constant tension along its length in the idealized situation that the pulleys are massless and frictionless. A vibrating string vibrates with a set of frequencies that depend on the strings tension and these frequencies can be derived from Newtons laws of motion. Each microscopic segment of the string pulls on and is pulled upon by its neighboring segments, tension = τ where x is the position along the string. If the string has curvature, then the two pulls on a segment by its two neighbors will not add to zero, and there will be a net force on that segment of the string, causing an acceleration. With solutions that include the various harmonics on a stringed instrument, tension is also used to describe the force exerted by the ends of a three-dimensional, continuous material such as a rod or truss member. Such a rod elongates under tension, a system is in equilibrium when the sum of all forces is zero. ∑ F → =0 For example, consider a system consisting of an object that is being lowered vertically by a string with tension, T, at a constant velocity. ∑ F → = T → + m g → =0 A system has a net force when a force is exerted on it. Acceleration and net force always exist together, ∑ F → ≠0 For example, consider the same system as above but suppose the object is now being lowered with an increasing velocity downwards therefore there exists a net force somewhere in the system. In this case, negative acceleration would indicate that | m g | > | T |
17.
Elizabeth II
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Elizabeth II has been Queen of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand since 6 February 1952. Elizabeth was born in London as the eldest child of the Duke and Duchess of York, later King George VI and Queen Elizabeth and her father acceded to the throne on the abdication of his brother Edward VIII in 1936, from which time she was the heir presumptive. She began to undertake duties during the Second World War. Elizabeths many historic visits and meetings include a visit to the Republic of Ireland. She has seen major changes, such as devolution in the United Kingdom, Canadian patriation. She has reigned through various wars and conflicts involving many of her realms and she is the worlds oldest reigning monarch as well as Britains longest-lived. In October 2016, she became the longest currently reigning monarch, in 2017 she became the first British monarch to commemorate a Sapphire Jubilee. Elizabeth has occasionally faced republican sentiments and press criticism of the family, however, support for the monarchy remains high. Elizabeth was born at 02,40 on 21 April 1926, during the reign of her paternal grandfather and her father, Prince Albert, Duke of York, was the second son of the King. Her mother, Elizabeth, Duchess of York, was the youngest daughter of Scottish aristocrat Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and she was delivered by Caesarean section at her maternal grandfathers London house,17 Bruton Street, Mayfair. Elizabeths only sibling, Princess Margaret, was born in 1930, the two princesses were educated at home under the supervision of their mother and their governess, Marion Crawford, who was casually known as Crawfie. Lessons concentrated on history, language, literature and music, Crawford published a biography of Elizabeth and Margarets childhood years entitled The Little Princesses in 1950, much to the dismay of the royal family. The book describes Elizabeths love of horses and dogs, her orderliness, others echoed such observations, Winston Churchill described Elizabeth when she was two as a character. She has an air of authority and reflectiveness astonishing in an infant and her cousin Margaret Rhodes described her as a jolly little girl, but fundamentally sensible and well-behaved. During her grandfathers reign, Elizabeth was third in the line of succession to the throne, behind her uncle Edward, Prince of Wales, and her father, the Duke of York. Although her birth generated public interest, she was not expected to become queen, many people believed that he would marry and have children of his own. When her grandfather died in 1936 and her uncle succeeded as Edward VIII, she became second-in-line to the throne, later that year, Edward abdicated, after his proposed marriage to divorced socialite Wallis Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis. Consequently, Elizabeths father became king, and she became heir presumptive, if her parents had had a later son, she would have lost her position as first-in-line, as her brother would have been heir apparent and above her in the line of succession
18.
Silver Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II
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The Silver Jubilee of Elizabeth II marked the 25th anniversary of Queen Elizabeth IIs accession to the thrones of the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth realms. The anniversary date itself was commemorated in church services across the land on 6 February 1977, in March, preparations started for large parties in every major city of the United Kingdom, as well as for smaller ones for countless individual streets throughout the country. No monarch before Queen Elizabeth II had visited more of the United Kingdom in such a span of time. All in all, the Queen and her husband Prince Philip visited a total of 36 counties, the trip started with record crowds gathering to see the Queen and Prince Philip in Glasgow, Scotland, on 17 May. After moving to England and Wales, the Queen and Prince Philip wrapped up the first of their trips with a visit to Northern Ireland, among the places visited during the national trips were numerous schools, which were the subject of a television special hosted by presenter Valerie Singleton. The final stop on the tour was a trip to Canada. On 6 June, the Queen lit a bonfire beacon at Windsor Castle, the service was followed by lunch in the Guildhall, hosted by the Lord Mayor of the City of London Peter Vanneck. A further 500 million people around the Commonwealth watched the events on live television. On 7 June, streets and villages threw elaborate parties for all their residents, in addition to parties, many streets decorated motor vehicles as historical events from Britains past, and drove them about town, organising their very own parades. In London alone there were over 4000 organised parties for individual streets, throughout the entire day, onlookers were greeted by the Queen many times as she made several appearances for pictures from the balcony of Buckingham Palace. On 9 June, the Queen made a Royal Progress trip via boat down the River Thames from Greenwich to Lambeth, on the trip, the Queen officially opened the Silver Jubilee Walkway and the South Bank Jubilee Gardens, two of numerous places named after the festivities. In the evening, she presided over a display and was taken subsequently by a procession of lighted carriages to Buckingham Palace. Before, during, and after the events of Jubilee, the event was addressed in many media of popular culture throughout the Commonwealth, the most infamous event marking the Jubilee was the Sex Pistols release of the vehement anti-monarchy song God Save the Queen. The event, a mockery of the Queens river procession planned for two later, ended in chaos. Police launches forced the boat to dock, and constabulary surrounded the gangplanks at the pier, while the band members and their equipment were hustled down a side stairwell, McLaren, Vivenne Westwood, and many of the bands entourage were arrested. With the official UK record chart for Jubilee week about to be released, as it turned out, the record placed second, behind a Rod Stewart single in its fourth week at the top. Many believed that the record had actually qualified for the top spot, McLaren later claimed that CBS Records, which was distributing both singles, told him that the Sex Pistols were actually outselling Stewart two to one. The soap opera Coronation Street wrote an elaborate Jubilee parade into the storyline, ken Barlow and Uncle Albert played Sir Edmund Hillary and Sherpa Tenzing respectively
19.
London Underground
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The London Underground is a public rapid transit system serving London and some parts of the adjacent counties of Buckinghamshire, Essex and Hertfordshire in the United Kingdom. The network has expanded to 11 lines, and in 2015–16 carried 1.34 billion passengers, the 11 lines collectively handle approximately 4.8 million passengers a day. The system has 270 stations and 250 miles of track, despite its name, only 45% of the system is actually underground in tunnels, with much of the network in the outer environs of London being on the surface. In addition, the Underground does not cover most southern parts of Greater London, the current operator, London Underground Limited, is a wholly owned subsidiary of Transport for London, the statutory corporation responsible for the transport network in Greater London. As of 2015, 92% of operational expenditure is covered by passenger fares, the Travelcard ticket was introduced in 1983 and Oyster, a contactless ticketing system, in 2003. Contactless card payments were introduced in 2014, the LPTB was a prominent patron of art and design, commissioning many new station buildings, posters and public artworks in a modernist style. Other famous London Underground branding includes the roundel and Johnston typeface, to prepare construction, a short test tunnel was built in 1855 in Kibblesworth, a small town with geological properties similar to London. This test tunnel was used for two years in the development of the first underground train, and was later, in 1861, the worlds first underground railway, it opened in January 1863 between Paddington and Farringdon using gas-lit wooden carriages hauled by steam locomotives. It was hailed as a success, carrying 38,000 passengers on the opening day, the Metropolitan District Railway opened in December 1868 from South Kensington to Westminster as part of a plan for an underground inner circle connecting Londons main-line termini. The Metropolitan and District railways completed the Circle line in 1884, built using the cut and this opened in 1890 with electric locomotives that hauled carriages with small opaque windows, nicknamed padded cells. The Waterloo and City Railway opened in 1898, followed by the Central London Railway in 1900, the Metropolitan Railway protested about the change of plan, but after arbitration by the Board of Trade, the DC system was adopted. When the Bakerloo was so named in July 1906, The Railway Magazine called it an undignified gutter title, by 1907 the District and Metropolitan Railways had electrified the underground sections of their lines. In January 1913, the UERL acquired the Central London Railway, the Bakerloo line was extended north to Queens Park to join a new electric line from Euston to Watford, but World War I delayed construction and trains reached Watford Junction in 1917. During air raids in 1915 people used the stations as shelters. An extension of the Central line west to Ealing was also delayed by the war, the Metropolitan promoted housing estates near the railway with the Metro-land brand and nine housing estates were built near stations on the line. Electrification was extended north from Harrow to Rickmansworth, and branches opened from Rickmansworth to Watford in 1925, the Piccadilly line was extended north to Cockfosters and took over District line branches to Harrow and Hounslow. In 1933, most of Londons underground railways, tramway and bus services were merged to form the London Passenger Transport Board, the Waterloo & City Railway, which was by then in the ownership of the main line Southern Railway, remained with its existing owners. In the same year that the London Passenger Transport Board was formed, in the following years, the outlying lines of the former Metropolitan Railway closed, the Brill Tramway in 1935, and the line from Quainton Road to Verney Junction in 1936
20.
Tower Hill tube station
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Tower Hill is a London Underground station located on Tower Hill in Greater London, England. The station is situated in the East End of London and Central London which is on the Circle line between Monument and Aldgate stations, and on the District line between Monument and Aldgate East. The entrance to Tower Hill station is a few metres from one of the largest remaining segments of the Roman London Wall which once surrounded the historic City of London, the station was built on the site of the former Tower of London tube station that closed in 1884. The present Tower Hill station opened in 1967 and replaced a station with the same name but which was originally called Mark Lane. Train frequencies vary throughout the day, but the typical service pattern is, District line. 3 tph to Barking Westbound,6 tph to Ealing Broadway,6 tph to Richmond,6 tph to Wimbledon, Circle line, Anti-clockwise,6 tph to Hammersmith via Aldgate. Clockwise,6 tph to Edgware Road via Embankment, London Buses route 15 and heritage route 15H and night route N15 serve the station
21.
Circle line (London Underground)
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The Circle line is a London Underground service in a spiralling shape, running from Hammersmith to Edgware Road and then looping once around central London back to Edgware Road. Coloured yellow on the map, the 17-mile line serves 36 stations. Most of the route and all of the stations are shared with the other three lines, District, Hammersmith & City and Metropolitan lines. On the Circle line and the Hammersmith & City line combined,21 of the 36 stations are below ground. The first section opened in 1863 when the Metropolitan Railway opened the worlds first underground line between Paddington and Farringdon with wooden carriages and steam locomotives, due to conflict between the two companies it was October 1884 before the inner circle was completed. The line was electrified in 1905, and in July 1933 the two companies were amalgamated into the London Passenger Transport Board, in 1949 the Circle line appeared as a separate line for the first time on the Tube map. In December 2009 the closed loop around the centre of London on the side of the River Thames was broken at Edgware Road. The signalling system is being upgraded and the C Stock trains have recently replaced by new 7-car S Stock trains. In the same year a committee report recommended an inner circle of railway lines connecting the London termini that had been built or under construction. In the next year the Metropolitan District Railway was formed to build, the Metropolitan western extension opened in 1868 from a new station at Paddington to South Kensington. By May 1870 the District railway had opened its line from West Brompton to Blackfriars via Gloucester Road and South Kensington, the Metropolitan provided the clockwise or outer rail trains, the District the inner rail or anti-clockwise. As well as the circle, other routes circumnavigated London. Both of these routes were cut back to Earls Court in 1900 for the circle and 1909 for the outer circle. The GWR service survived as a service from the Hammersmith & City line to Addison Road until 1940. The Midland Railway briefly ran a super outer circle from St Pancras to Earls Court from 1878–1880, today London Overground runs services between Clapham Junction, Willesden Junction and Dalston Junction and between Dalston Junction and Clapham Junction. The use of steam led to smoke-filled stations and carriages, which was unpopular with passengers. Experiments were carried out on the Earls Court to High Street Kensington section, following this an AC system was suggested, and this was accepted by both parties. However, the District was looking for a way to raise the finance needed and in 1901 found an investor, after arbitration by the Board of Trade the DC system was taken up, and the railways began electrifying the routes, using multiple-unit stock
22.
District line
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The District line is a London Underground service that crosses Greater London from east to west. From Upminster, the terminus, the line runs through Central London to Earls Court before dividing into three western branches, to Ealing Broadway, Wimbledon and Richmond. There is a branch that goes from Earls Court to Kensington. A branch also runs north from Earls Court to Edgware Road via Paddington, the track and stations between Barking and Aldgate East are shared with the Hammersmith & City line, and between Tower Hill and Gloucester Road and on the Edgware Road branch with the Circle line. Some of the stations are shared with the Piccadilly line, unlike Londons deep-level tube railways, the railway tunnels are just below the surface, and the trains are of a similar size to those on British main lines. The District line is the busiest of the lines as well the fifth busiest line overall on the London Underground with over 208 million passengers in the year 2011/12. The original Metropolitan District Railway opened in December 1868 from South Kensington to Westminster as part of a plan for an inner circle connecting Londons main-line termini. Services were operated at first using wooden carriages hauled by steam locomotives, electrification was financed by the American Charles Yerkes, and electric services began in 1905. In 1933 the railway was absorbed by the London Passenger Transport Board, in the first half of the 1930s the Piccadilly line took over the Uxbridge and Hounslow branches, although a peak-hour District line service ran on the Hounslow branch until 1964. Kensington has been served by the District line since 1946, the trains carried guards until one-person operation was introduced in 1985. The signalling system is being upgraded, and the current D Stock trains are to be replaced by new 7-car S Stock trains by spring 2017, the Metropolitan District Railway was formed to build and operate part an underground inner circle connecting Londons railway termini. The first line opened in December 1868 from South Kensington to Westminster, by 1871 when the District began operating its own trains, the railway had extended to West Brompton and a terminus at Mansion House. Hammersmith was reached from Earls Court, services were extended to Richmond over the tracks of the London and South Western Railway and branches reached Ealing Broadway, Hounslow, as part of the project that completed the Circle line in October 1884, the District began to serve Whitechapel. Services began running to Upminster in 1902, after a link to the London, electric multiple-units were introduced on other services in 1905, and East Ham became the eastern terminus. Hounslow and Uxbridge were served by 2 or 3-car shuttles from Mill Hill Park, some also served South Acton. Services were extended again to Barking in 1908 and Upminster in 1932, in 1933 Piccadilly trains reached to Hounslow West, the District continuing to run services with an off-peak shuttle from South Acton to Hounslow. Most of the cars on the District line were the 1904–05 B Stock type with wooden bodies. The off-peak District line services on the Hounslow branch were withdrawn on 29 April 1935, following bombing of the West London Line in 1940 the LMS and the Metropolitan line services over the West London Line were both suspended
23.
London Bridge station
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The main line station is the oldest railway station in London fare zone 1 and one of the oldest in the world having opened in 1836. It is one of two main line termini in London to the south of the River Thames, the other being Waterloo. Historically, trains from Cannon Street and Thameslink services from Bedford to Brighton also called at the station, in terms of passenger arrivals and departures it is the fourth-busiest station in London as well as the United Kingdom as a whole, handling over 54 million customers a year. The main line station is one of 19 UK stations managed by Network Rail, the Underground station is served by the Jubilee line and the Bank branch of the Northern line. It consists of a hall and entrance area with its main frontage on Tooley Street, along with entrances on Borough High Street. London Bridge station was opened as the London station on 14 December 1836 south of the River Thames in Tooley Street, making it the first and oldest of the current London railway termini. It was not the earliest station in the present London metropolitan area, as the London and Greenwich Railway opened stations first at Spa Road, delays in the completion of a bridge at Bermondsey Street postponed the opening of the line into London Bridge station until December. This meant that from 10 October 1836 trains were able to operate as far as the east end of Bermondsey Street bridge, since then the station has had a most complex history, involving frequent rebuilding and changes of ownership. The original station was 60 ft wide and 400 ft long and it was later covered with a wooden trussed pitched roof,56 ft by 212 ft, shortly after opening. Sixteen columns and fourteen beams from this structure were retrieved in 2013, thus these two railways were required to share the route of the London and Croydon Railway from near Norwood. As a result, in 1838 the London and Croydon Railway obtained powers to enlarge the station it was constructing at London Bridge. The directors of the companies involved therefore decided to exchange the station sites, plans for a large new station were drawn up, designed jointly by Lewis Cubitt, John Urpeth Rastrick and Henry Roberts. Drawings were published in the Illustrated London News and George Bradshaws Guide to the London and Brighton Railway 1844 and they show a quasi-Italianate building with a picturesque campanile. This line opened in 1844 and most of the services from two companies were withdrawn from London Bridge, leaving only the Greenwich and Brighton companies using London Bridge station. The following year the Croydon and Brighton companies merged with others to form the London Brighton, as a result of these amalgamations, there were now only two companies wishing to use the two adjoining stations at London Bridge. As a result, the LB&SCR used the joint station until 1849. The SER took over the second London and Greenwich station and sought to develop that site rather than continue to invest in the joint station. The SER station was rebuilt and enlarged between 1847 and 1850, to a design by Samuel Beazley
24.
Jubilee line
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The Jubilee line is a London Underground line. Opened in 1979, it is the newest line on the network, although sections of track date back to 1932. The later stations are larger and have special safety features, both aspects being attempts to future-proof the line, the Jubilee line is coloured silver/grey on the Tube map, to mark the Silver Jubilee of Elizabeth II after which the line was named. Between Finchley Road and Wembley Park, the Jubilee line shares its route with the Metropolitan line, between Canning Town and Stratford, the line runs parallel to the Stratford International branch of the Docklands Light Railway. In 1932, the Metropolitan Railway built a branch from its line at Wembley Park to Stanmore. The line, as many others in the northwest London area, was designed to absorb commuter traffic from the new. At first, the Metropolitan had advocated a new line roughly following the line of the Edgware Road between the tube station and a point near Willesden Green. Indeed, construction advanced as far as the rebuilding of Edgware Road station to accommodate 4 platforms of 8-car length, things changed, though, with the formation of the London Passenger Transport Board and the subsequent absorption of the Metropolitan. The solution was now a new branch of the Bakerloo line from Baker Street to serve new stations at St, the new line rose between the Metropolitan tracks at Finchley Road, providing cross-platform interchange with the Metropolitan line. At Wembley Park, the new Bakerloo would run on to serve Kingsbury, Queensbury, Canons Park and Stanmore, the Bakerloo extension, built as above, opened in 1939. The planning for the Tube network immediately before and after World War II considered several new routes, Line C opened as the Victoria line, in stages, from 1968 to 1972. Work on the northeast–southwest route continued, the new line was to have been called the Fleet line after the River Fleet. In 1971, construction began on the new Fleet line, economic pressure and doubt over the final destination of the line had led to a staged approach. Under the first stage, the Baker Street-to-Stanmore branch of the Bakerloo line was joined at Baker Street to a new 2, the new tube was to offer cross-platform interchange between the Bakerloo and Fleet at Baker Street, as pioneered on the Victoria line. The work was completed in 1979, as part of the works, Trafalgar Square and Strand stations were combined into a single station complex, Charing Cross. The existing Charing Cross station on the sub-surface District and Circle lines was renamed Embankment, another part of the works included a section of test tunnel, built near New Cross. When the planned route was altered, this section was abandoned as it was effectively useless. However, this idea was rejected because of the costs involved
25.
Northern line
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The Northern line is a London Underground line, coloured black on the Tube map. The section between Stockwell and Borough opened in 1890, and is the oldest section of deep-level tube line on the network, for most of its length it is a deep-level tube line. There were about 252,310,000 passenger journeys in 2011/12 on the Northern line, making it the second-busiest line on the Underground. Despite its name, it does not serve the northernmost stations on the network, though it does serve the southernmost station, there are 50 stations on the line, of which 36 have platforms below ground. An extension in the 1920s used a route planned by a fourth company. Abandoned plans from the 1920s to extend the line further southwards, from the 1930s to the 1970s, the tracks of a seventh company were also managed as a branch of the Northern line. The C&SLR, Londons first deep-level tube railway, was built under the supervision of James Henry Greathead and it was the first of the Undergrounds lines to be constructed by boring deep below the surface and the first to be operated by electric traction. The railway opened in November 1890 from Stockwell to a station at King William Street. This was inconveniently placed and unable to cope with the traffic so, in 1900. By 1907 the C&SLR had been extended at both ends to run from Clapham Common to Euston. The CCE&HR was opened in 1907 and ran from Charing Cross via Euston and Camden Town to Golders Green and it was extended south by one stop to Embankment in 1914 to form an interchange with the Bakerloo and District lines. In 1913 the Underground Electric Railways Company of London, owner of the CCE&HR, took over the C&SLR, during the early 1920s, a series of works was carried out to connect the C&SLR and CCE&HR tunnels to enable an integrated service to be operated. The first of new tunnels, between the C&SLRs Euston station and the CCE&HRs station at Camden Town, had originally been planned in 1912 but had been delayed by World War I. The second connection linked the CCE&HRs Embankment and C&SLRs Kennington stations and provided a new station at Waterloo to connect to the main line station there. The smaller-diameter tunnels of the C&SLR were expanded to match the diameter of the CCE&HR. In conjunction with the works to integrate the two lines, two extensions were undertaken, northwards to Edgware in Middlesex and southwards to Morden in Surrey. The Edgware extension used plans dating back to 1901 for the Edgware and it extended the CCE&HR line from its terminus at Golders Green to Edgware in two stages, to Hendon Central in 1923 and to Edgware in 1924. The line crossed open countryside and ran on the surface, apart from a tunnel north of Hendon Central
26.
Bermondsey tube station
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Bermondsey is a London Underground station. It is situated in the part of Bermondsey in the London Borough of Southwark. The station itself was designed by Ian Ritchie Architects and was intended to have a multi-storey office building sitting on top. London Underground have yet to realise this second phase of the scheme and it is on the Jubilee line, having been built as part of the Jubilee Line Extension between London Bridge and Canada Water stations. It is notable for its use of natural light. The main station entrance is situated on the side of Jamaica Road. The station is in Travelcard Zone 2, the station was opened on 17 September 1999. Like its extension counterparts, Bermondsey station was designed with a style in mind by Ian Ritchie Architects. Extensively using natural light, it is built in both a cut-and-cover and tube design, the cut-and-cover section is supported by latticed concrete beams allowing light to penetrate to the platform level. The escalators down to this area are lined by concrete with a high ceiling to give a feeling of spaciousness. The bored section is encased with metal to keep in line the futuristic and metallic theme of the extension, as with all other deep level stations on the Jubilee Line Extension, Bermondsey station has platform screen doors for passenger safety and comfort. London Buses routes 47,188,381 and C10 and night routes N199 and N381 serve the station
27.
Tower Gateway DLR station
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Tower Gateway is a Docklands Light Railway station near Tower Hill and the Tower of London. It is situated within the Tower ward of the City of London and it adjoins the tracks to Fenchurch Street station and is located on the site of a former station called Minories. Tower Gateway is within London fare zone 1 and it is a short walk from both Tower Hill tube station and Fenchurch Street. Access at street level from the Minories is via escalator, stairs or lift at the end of the station. A pedestrian crossing connects the station with Tower Hill station, its closest London Underground connection, a narrow secondary staircase entrance at the eastern end of the platform, improved considerably in the early 2000s, descends to Mansell Street. It serves the eastern edge of the City of London financial district and it was opened in 1987 as the western terminus of the initial DLR system and the station closest to central London. The underground extension to Bank, which opened in 1991, diverges from the route between Tower Gateway and Shadwell, the next station to the east. It dives down a steep ramp not far from the end of the platforms. Tower Gateway is the terminus for the less busy service to Beckton, journeys to other branches of the DLR normally require a change. In keeping with the DLRs original basic lightweight philosophy, Tower Gateway is an elevated terminus. As built it had two tracks and a cross-over, when the extension to Bank opened, its importance was substantially reduced. Before reconstruction it had a narrow central platform, and a single track leading from the main route to a set of points immediately prior to the platforms. Further major alterations began on 30 June 2008, London Buses routes 42,78,100 and RV1 and night route N551 serve the station. Docklands Light Railway website - Tower Gateway station page More photographs of this station
28.
National Rail
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The name and the accompanying double arrow symbol are the intellectual property of the Secretary of State for Transport. The National Rail logo was introduced by ATOC in 1999, and was used on the Great Britain public timetable for the first time in the edition valid from 26 September in that year. Rules for its use are set out in the Corporate Identity Style Guidelines published by the Rail Delivery Group, the NR title is sometimes described as a brand. As it was used by British Rail, the operator before franchising, its use also maintains continuity and public familiarity. National Rail should not be confused with Network Rail, the two networks are generally coincident where passenger services are run. Most major Network Rail lines carry traffic and some lines are freight only. About twenty privately owned operating companies, each franchised for a defined term by government. The Rail Delivery Group is the association representing the TOCs and provides core services. It also runs Rail Settlement Plan, which allocates ticket revenue to the various TOCs, and Rail Staff Travel and it does not compile the national timetable, which is the joint responsibility of the Office of Rail Regulation and Network Rail. Since the privatisation of British Rail there is no longer a single approach to design on railways in Great Britain, the look and feel of signage, liveries and marketing material is largely the preserve of the individual TOCs. However, National Rail continues to use BRs famous double-arrow symbol and it has been incorporated in the National Rail logotype and is displayed on tickets, the National Rail website and other publicity. The trademark rights to the arrow symbol remain state-owned, being vested in the Secretary of State for Transport. The double arrow was already prescribed for indicating a railway station, the lettering used in the National Rail logotype is a modified form of the typeface Sassoon Bold. It is a misconception that Rail Alphabet was also used for printed material. The British Rail typefaces of choice from 1965 were Helvetica and Univers, TOCs may use what they like, examples include Futura, Helvetica, Frutiger, Bliss, and a modified version of Precious by London Midland. Several conurbations have their own metro or tram systems, most of which are not part of National Rail, LO now also possesses some infrastructure in its own right, following the reopening of the former East London line of London Underground as the East London Railway of LO. Heathrow Express and Eurostar are also not part of the National Rail network despite sharing of stations, northern Ireland Railways were never part of British Rail, which was always confined to Great Britain, and therefore are not part of the National Rail network. National Rail services have a common ticketing structure inherited from British Rail, through tickets are available between any pair of stations on the network, and can be bought from any station ticket office
29.
Fenchurch Street railway station
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Fenchurch Street railway station, also known as London Fenchurch Street, is a central London railway terminus in the southeastern corner of the City of London. It takes its name from its proximity to Fenchurch Street, a key thoroughfare in the City, the station and all trains are operated by c2c. The station opened in 1841 to serve the L&BR and was rebuilt in 1854 when the LTSR, the ECR also operated trains out of Fenchurch Street to relieve congestion at its other London terminus at Bishopsgate. The line from the station was electrified in 1961, and controversially closed for seven weeks in 1994, Fenchurch Street is one of the smallest railway termini in London in terms of platforms, but one of the most intensively operated. It has no interchange with the London Underground. The station frontage is on Fenchurch Place, adjacent to Fenchurch Street in the City of London, the station has two entrances, one on Fenchurch Place and another on Coopers Row, near Tower Hill. It has four platforms arranged on two islands elevated on a viaduct, the station has been Grade II listed since 1972 and the conference venue One America Square is built adjacent to it. Following privatisation in 1994, the station was run by Network Rail, since 1996, the station has been served by the National Express Groups c2c who have a franchise to run services until 2029. Fenchurch Street is in the central London Travelcard zone 1 like other stations in the city. The nearest is Tower Hill about 0.2 miles to the southeast, London Buses route 40 passes the station. Services from Fenchurch Street run towards East London and south Essex, including Barking, Upminster, Chafford Hundred Lakeside, Tilbury Town Basildon, Southend Central, the typical off-peak service consists of eight trains per hour, During peak periods services are increased up to 20 tph. Most peak services have 12 cars, although the stations capacity is small compared to other London terminals, it has a high footfall, averaging around 16 million passengers annually. The area around Fenchurch Street is one of the oldest inhabited parts of London, the station was the first to be granted permission by the Corporation of London to be constructed inside the City of London, following several refusals against other railway companies. The original building, designed by William Tite opened on 20 July 1841, serving the London and Blackwall Railway and it had two platforms connected via a stairway to the booking hall. Steam locomotives did not use the station until 1849 because before this time trains were dragged uphill from Blackwall to Minories, the reverse journey eastwards required a manual push from railway staff. William Marshalls railway bookstall established at the station in 1841 was the first to be opened in the City of London, following the opening of the London and Blackwall Extension Railway on 2 April 1849, services operated from Fenchurch Street to Bow & Bromley. Some were extended to Victoria Park & Bow where an interchange existed with the Eastern Counties Railway from Bishopsgate, the station had two heavily used platforms and a double track line from Stepney onwards. Following a reduced income at Blackwall, LBR shareholders voted to align with the ECR and jointly construct the London, Tilbury, services would split at Stratford, one service to Bishopsgate and the other to Fenchurch Street along the reopened line via Bow & Bromley
30.
East End of London
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The East End of London, also known simply as the East End, is an area of Central and East London, England, east of the Roman and medieval walls of the City of London, and north of the River Thames. The relevance of Strypes reference to the Tower was more than geographical, the East End was the major part of an area called the Tower Division, which owed military service to the Tower of London. Later, as the East End grew and the Tower Division contracted, the area was notorious for its deep poverty, overcrowding and associated social problems. This has led to the East End’s history of political activism. Another major theme of East End history has been that of migration, Irish weavers, Ashkenazi Jews and, in the 20th century, Bangladeshis. The East End lies east of the Roman and medieval walls of the City of London, Aldgate Pump on the edge of the City is the symbolic start of the East End and, on the river, Tower Bridge is also sometimes also described in these terms. Beyond these references though, the East End has no official or popularly accepted boundaries, a common preference is to include the modern borough of Tower Hamlets, together with the former parish and borough of Shoreditch. This version makes the East End conterminous with the Tower Division of Middlesex under the borders that area had in the 19th century when the East End completed the process of urbanisation, an alternative definition is based solely on the modern borough of Tower Hamlets. Parts of the old parish and borough of Hackney are sometimes included, while others include areas east of the Lea such as West Ham, East Ham, Leyton, knew not the way to the East End. The East End began with the growth of London beyond the walls, along the Roman Roads leading from Bishopsgate and Aldgate. Building accelerated in the 16th century, and the area that would become known East End began to take shape. The relevance of Strypes reference to the Tower was more than geographical, the East End was the major part of an area called the Tower Division, which had its roots in the Bishop of Londons historic Manor of Stepney and owed military service to the Tower of London. Later, as the East End grew and the Tower Division contracted, for a very long time the East End was physically separated from the Londons western growth by the open spaces known as Moorfields. Shoreditchs boundary with the parish of St Lukes ran through the Moorfields countryside becoming, on urbanisation and that line, with very slight modifications, has also become the boundary of the modern London Boroughs of Hackney and Islington. From the beginning, the East End has always contained some of the poorest areas of London, the main reasons for this include the following, the medieval system of copyhold, which prevailed throughout the East End, into the 19th century. Essentially, there was little point in developing land that was held on short leases, the siting of noxious industries, such as tanning and fulling downwind outside the boundaries of the City, and therefore beyond complaints and official controls. Historically, the East End is arguably conterminous with the Manor of Stepney and this manor was held by the Bishop of London, in compensation for his duties in maintaining and garrisoning the Tower of London. Further ecclesiastic holdings came about from the need to enclose the marshes, Edward VI passed the land to the Wentworth family, and thence to their descendants, the Earls of Cleveland
31.
Sailing ship
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A modern sailing ship or sailship is any large wind-powered vessel. Traditionally a sailing ship is a vessel that carries three or more masts with square sails on each. Large sailing vessels that are not ship-rigged may be more referred to by their sail rig, such as schooner, barque, brig. There are many different types of sailing ships, but they all have certain basic things in common, every sailing ship has a hull, rigging and at least one mast to hold up the sails that use the wind to power the ship. The crew who sail a ship are called sailors or hands and they take turns to take the watch, the active managers of the ship and her performance for a period. Watches are traditionally four hours long, some sailing ships use traditional ships bells to tell the time and regulate the watch system, with the bell being rung once for every half hour into the watch and rung eight times at watch end. A severe storm could lead to shipwreck, and the loss of all hands, Sailing ships are limited in their maximum size compared to ships with heat engines, so economies of scale are also limited. The heaviest sailing ships never exceeded 14,000 tons displacement, there are many types of sailing ships, mostly distinguished by their rigging, hull, keel, or number and configuration of masts. There are also types of smaller sailboats not listed here. The steam power was used to drive the winches, hoists, a similar ship Kruzenshtern, a very large sailing vessel without mechanical assists, had a crew of 257 men, compared to the Preussen, which required only 48 men. In 2006, automated control had been taken to the point where sails could be operated by one using a central control unit. The DynaRig technology was first developed in the 1960s in Germany by W. Prolls as an alternative for commercial ships to prepare for a possible future energy crisis. The technology is a version of the same type of sail used by the Preussen. The main difference is that the yards do not swing around a fixed mast but are attached to a rotating mast. DynaRig along with extensive computerization was used in the proof-of-concept Maltese Falcon to enable it to be sailed with no crew aloft, as of 2013, with increasing restrictions on use of bunker fuel, attempts were underway to develop hybrid sailing ships using automated sail and alternative fuels. Tall ship Rigging Sail-plan List of large sailing vessels Cruising Shipbuilding, the History of a Ship from Her Cradle to Her Grave, With a Short Account of Modern Steamships and Torpedoes. The sailing-ship, six years of history. Media related to Sailing ships at Wikimedia Commons
32.
Pool of London
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The Pool of London is a stretch of the River Thames from London Bridge to below Limehouse. Part of the Tideway of the Thames, the Pool was navigable by tall-masted vessels bringing coastal, the Pool of London is divided into two parts, the Upper Pool and Lower Pool. The Upper Pool consists of the section between London Bridge and the Cherry Garden Pier in Bermondsey, the Lower Pool runs from the Cherry Garden Pier to Limekiln Creek. Smuggling, theft and pilferage of cargoes were rife on both the busy open wharves and in the crowded warehouses. By this time the river was lined with nearly continuous walls of wharves running for miles along both banks, and hundreds of ships moored in the river or alongside the quays. The Pool saw an increase in both overseas and coastal trade in the second half of the eighteenth century. Two thirds of coastal vessels using the Pool were colliers meeting an increase in the demand for coal as the population of London rose, coastal trade virtually doubled between 1750 and 1796 reaching 11,964 vessels in 1795. In overseas trade, in 1751 the pool handled 1,682 ships and 234,639 tons of goods, by 1794 this had risen to 3,663 ships and 620,845 tons. The congestion was so extreme that it was said to be possible to walk across the Thames simply by stepping from ship to ship, londons Docklands had their origins in the lack of capacity in the Pool of London which particularly affected the West India trade. Even after the construction of docks, the Pool of London remained an important part of the Port of London. Shipping needed unrestricted access to the Pool of London which imposed constraints on the crossings that became necessary with the commercial development on both sides of the river. The Thames Tunnel from Rotherhithe to Wapping was constructed between 1825 and 1843, tower Bridge opened in 1894 as a bascule bridge. In 1909 the Pool came under the jurisdiction of the Port of London Authority, the docks thrived up until the 1950s, despite suffering extremely severe bomb damage during the Second World War. The area was redeveloped in the 1980s and 1990s to create new residential and commercial neighbourhoods. In 1996, an organisation - the Pool of London Partnership - was established to promote urban renewal of the areas north and south of the river. It also extended its remit slightly further eastwards to include the docks and wharves of St Katharine Docks, andré Derain painted four works on the Thames, and his Pool of London painted in 1906 is on display at the Tate Gallery. Derain was a leading Fauvist and had sent to London by his dealer to produce Thames views in the Fauvist style. A British film, Pool of London, is a drama set within the Pool
33.
Joseph Bazalgette
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Sir Joseph William Bazalgette, CB was a 19th-century English civil engineer. By the time he married his wife, Maria Kough, in 1845, Bazalgette was deeply involved in the expansion of the railway network, working so hard that he suffered a nervous breakdown two years later. While he was recovering, Londons short-lived Metropolitan Commission of Sewers ordered that all cesspits should be closed, as a result, a cholera epidemic killed 14,137 Londoners. Bazalgette was appointed assistant surveyor to the Commission in 1849, taking over as Engineer in 1852, soon after, another cholera epidemic struck, in 1853, killing 10,738. Medical opinion at the time held that cholera was caused by foul air, physician Dr John Snow had earlier advanced a different explanation, which is now known to be correct, cholera was spread by contaminated water. His view was not then generally accepted, championed by fellow engineer Isambard Kingdom Brunel, Bazalgette was appointed chief engineer of the Commissions successor, the Metropolitan Board of Works, in 1856. The expectation was that enclosed sewers would eliminate the stink, at the time, the Thames was little more than an open sewer, devoid of any fish or other wildlife, and an obvious health hazard to Londoners. The outflows were diverted downstream where they were dumped, untreated, extensive sewage treatment facilities were built in 1900. The plan involved major pumping stations at Deptford and at Crossness on the Erith marshes, both on the side of the Thames, and at Abbey Mills and on the Chelsea Embankment. The system was opened by Edward, Prince of Wales in 1865, bazalgettes foresight may be seen in the diameter of the sewers. When planning the network he took the densest population, gave every person the most generous allowance of sewage production and he then said Well, were only going to do this once and theres always the unforeseen and doubled the diameter to be used. The unintended consequence of the new system was to eliminate cholera everywhere in the water system. The basic premise of this project, that miasma spread cholera infection, was wrong. However, instead of causing the project to fail, the new sewers succeeded in eliminating the disease by removing the contamination. Bazalgettes sewers also decreased the incidence of typhus and typhoid epidemics and it is perhaps not surprising that his health suffered as a result. The records are held by Thames Water in large blue binders gold-blocked reading Metropolitan Board of Works and then dated, Bazalgette lived in 17 Hamilton Terrace, St Johns Wood, north London for some years. Before 1851, he moved to Morden, then in 1873 to Arthur Road, Wimbledon, where he died in 1891, in 1845 at Westminster, he married Maria Kough. Lady Bazalgette died at her residence in Wimbledon on 3 March 1902, dulwich College has a scholarship in his name either for design and technology or for mathematics and science
34.
John Wolfe Barry
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Sir John Wolfe Barry KCB FRS, the youngest son of famous architect Sir Charles Barry, was an English civil engineer of the late 19th and early 20th century. His most famous project is Tower Bridge over the River Thames in London which was constructed 1886–1894, after receiving a knighthood in 1897, he added Wolfe to his inherited name in 1898 to become Sir John Wolfe Barry. Wolfe Barry was educated at Glenalmond and Kings College London, where he was a pupil of civil engineer Sir John Hawkshaw, as was Henry Marc Brunel, Barry and Hawkshaw worked on railway bridge crossings across the Thames, among other projects. Barry began his own practice in 1867, and carried out work for the railways. However, it was Tower Bridge that made Wolfe Barrys name, in 1878, architect Horace Jones first proposed a bascule bridge. An Act of Parliament allowing the Corporation of the City of London to build it was passed in 1885, Jones was appointed architect, and developed an initial scheme for which he was knighted in 1886. Wolfe Barry, already well-established with experience of bridges across the Thames, was introduced as the engineer for the project, within a month of construction starting Sir Horace Jones died, leaving Wolfe Barry to oversee the works and specialists. The bridge was completed in 1894. )Two members each from the ICE, the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, the Institution of Naval Architects and the Iron and Steel Institute first met on 26 April 1901. With the Institution of Electrical Engineers who joining the following year and he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1895 and knighted KCB in 1897. He was elected President of the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1898 and he was also a member of the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers. He was chairman of Cable and Wireless from 1900 to 1917, in 1902 he joined the consulting firm of Robert White & Partners, which was renamed Wolfe Barry, Robert White & Partners. He had married Rosalind Grace, the daughter of Rev Evan Edward Rowsell of Hambledon and they had four sons and three daughters. In 1922 a memorial designed by Sir John Ninian Comper was dedicated to his memory in the nave of Westminster Abbey. He after receiving an inheritance from his godfather, the architect John Lewis Wolfe, Wolfe Barry died in January 1918 and was buried in Brookwood Cemetery near Woking in Surrey. McWilliam, Barry, Sir John Wolfe, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography,2004 John Wolfe Barry at Find a Grave Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Barry and this article on his father contains a paragraph describing John Wolfe Barrys career. Sir John Wolfe Barry, biography at the Tower Bridge Restoration website
35.
Horace Jones (architect)
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Sir Horace Jones was an English architect particularly noted for his work as Architect and Surveyor to the City of London from 1864 until his death. He served as president of the Royal Institute of British Architects from 1882 until 1884 and his most recognised work, Tower Bridge, was completed posthumously. The son of David Jones, attorney, by Sarah Lydia Shephard, Jones was born at 15 Size Lane, Bucklersbury and he was articled to John Wallen, architect and surveyor, of 16 Aldermanbury, and subsequently in 1841-42 travelled to Italy and Greece studying ancient architecture. In 1843 he commenced practice as an architect at 16 Furnivals Inn, beginning with Cardiff Town Hall and Caversham Park, he designed and carried out many buildings of importance, soon concentrating on London. He was surveyor for the Duke of Buckinghams Tufnell Park estate, for the Barnard estate, on 26 February 1864 he was elected architect and surveyor to the City of London, succeeding James Bunstone Bunning. Jones completed projects begun by his predecessor, such as the City Lunatic Asylum at Dartford and he designed and built some of Londons most famous markets, in particular Smithfield, Billingsgate and Leadenhall. He also designed the memorial at Temple Bar, replacing Wrens arch which was a traffic obstacle. Jones final legacy is one of the most recognised buildings in the world and it was designed in collaboration with the civil engineer John Wolfe Barry, who was brought in as an expert to devise the mechanism for the bascule bridge. Following Jones death during the stages of construction, the execution lay in the hands of Barry. Jones became an associate of the Royal Institute of British Architects in 1842 and he was knighted on On 30 July 1886. He wasa freemason, and from 1882 until his death was Grand Superintendent of Works, Jones married Ann Elizabeth Patch, the daughter of John Patch, a barrister, on 15 April 1875. He died at 30 Devonshire Place, Portland Place, London, on 21 May 1887, a portrait of Jones by Walter William Ouless RA was exhibited at the Royal Academy Exhibition in 1887. All in London unless otherwise stated, marshall & Snelgroves department store, Oxford Street, 1850s. British and Irish Magnetic Telegraph Companys office, Threadneedle Street,1859, a contemporary account refers to the buildings rather fanciful, and very ornate French Renaiassance facade, crowned by a lofty clock-tower. Built in three stages, Central Meat Market, 1866–67, Poultry and Provision Market, 1873–5, Fruit and Vegetable Market, former Guildhall School of Music and Drama, John Carpenter Street, completed in 1886. Tower Bridge, approved design 1884, construction by John Wolfe Barry 1886-94, Jones stonework in the Baronial Style, supposed to be in harmony with the nearby Tower of London, is pure facade which disguises the thoroughly modern metal structure underneath. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Jones. Valerie Scott, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography,2004 Sir Horace Jones, biography at the Tower Bridge Restoration website
36.
Gothic architecture
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Gothic architecture is a style of architecture that flourished in Europe during the high and late medieval period. It evolved from Romanesque architecture and was succeeded by Renaissance architecture and its characteristics include the pointed arch, the ribbed vault and the flying buttress. Gothic architecture is most familiar as the architecture of many of the cathedrals, abbeys. It is also the architecture of many castles, palaces, town halls, guild halls, universities and to a less prominent extent, private dwellings, for this reason a study of Gothic architecture is largely a study of cathedrals and churches. A series of Gothic revivals began in mid-18th-century England, spread through 19th-century Europe and continued, largely for ecclesiastical and university structures, the term Gothic architecture originated as a pejorative description. Hence, François Rabelais, also of the 16th century, imagines an inscription over the door of his utopian Abbey of Thélème, Here enter no hypocrites, slipping in a slighting reference to Gotz and Ostrogotz. Authorities such as Christopher Wren lent their aid in deprecating the old medieval style, the Company disapproved of several of these new manners, which are defective and which belong for the most part to the Gothic. Gothic architecture is the architecture of the medieval period, characterised by use of the pointed arch. As an architectural style, Gothic developed primarily in ecclesiastical architecture, the greatest number of surviving Gothic buildings are churches. The Gothic style is most particularly associated with the cathedrals of Northern France. At the end of the 12th century, Europe was divided into a multitude of city states, norway came under the influence of England, while the other Scandinavian countries and Poland were influenced by trading contacts with the Hanseatic League. Angevin kings brought the Gothic tradition from France to Southern Italy, throughout Europe at this time there was a rapid growth in trade and an associated growth in towns. Germany and the Lowlands had large flourishing towns that grew in comparative peace, in trade and competition with other, or united for mutual weal. Civic building was of importance to these towns as a sign of wealth. England and France remained largely feudal and produced grand domestic architecture for their kings, dukes and bishops, the Catholic Church prevailed across Europe at this time, influencing not only faith but also wealth and power. Bishops were appointed by the lords and they often ruled as virtual princes over large estates. The early Medieval periods had seen a growth in monasticism, with several different orders being prevalent. Foremost were the Benedictines whose great abbey churches vastly outnumbered any others in France, a part of their influence was that towns developed around them and they became centers of culture, learning and commerce
37.
John Jackson (engineer)
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He was proprietor of the major British engineering firm of John Jackson Ltd asnd the shipping company Westminster Shipping Co Ltd. Born at 15 Coney Street in York, the youngest son of Edward Jackson and his father was very elderly when he was born and died when he was only eight, leaving him to be raised by his mother, Elizabeth daughter of David Ruddock of Horbury. He was educated at Holgate Seminary and he was apprenticed to William Boyd, engineer in Newcastle from 1866 to 1868 before studying engineering at Edinburgh University under Peter Guthrie Tait. On Taits death in 1901, Jackson endowed a research named after him. On graduation from Edinburgh he returned to Newcastle to work with his brother, William Edwin Jackson and his first major contract was Stobcross Docks in 1876. His greatest engineering work in Britain from 1896-1907 was the extension of the Keyham Yard at Devonport Royal Dockyard at a cost of neary £4 million, during this period Jackson was a member of The Plymouth Institution from 1897-1899. In 1894 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh for his services to engineering and his proposers were Sir John Murray, Peter Guthrie Tait, Alexander Crum Brown, and Alexander Buchan. His main work 1894/1895 was the Manchester Ship Canal and it was for work which he was knighted by Queen Victoria in 1895. His company was renamed from John Jackson Ltd to Sir John Jackson Ltd. In later life he moved to 48 Belgrave Square in London and he first stood for office as the Conservative candidate in the 1904 Devonport by-election, losing to Liberal candidate John Benn. He stood for the seat again in the 1906 general election and he was finally victorious in the January 1910 general election, winning the seat again in the December 1910 general election and standing down at the 1918 general election. In 1909 he built a railway from Arica in Chile to La Paz in Bolivia crossing the Andes en route and he died of a heart attack whilst visiting his mistress, Mrs Mabel Lydia Henderson at Hascombe Grange in Hambledon on 14 December 1919. He is buried in Norwood Cemetery, in 1876 Jackson married Ellen Julia Myers, daughter of George Myers of Lambeth. They had three sons and six daughters but only five daughters survived
38.
William Armstrong, 1st Baron Armstrong
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William George Armstrong, 1st Baron Armstrong CB FRS was an English industrialist who founded the Armstrong Whitworth manufacturing concern on Tyneside. He was also an eminent scientist, inventor and philanthropist, in collaboration with the architect Richard Norman Shaw, he built Cragside in Northumberland, the first house in the world to be lit by hydroelectricity. He is regarded as the inventor of modern artillery, Armstrong was knighted in 1859 after giving his gun patents to the government. Armstrong was born in Newcastle upon Tyne, at 9 Pleasant Row, Shieldfield, although the house in which he was born no longer exists, an inscribed granite tablet marks the spot on which it once stood. At that time the area, next to the Pandon Dene, was rural and his father, also called William, was a corn merchant on the Newcastle quayside, who rose through the ranks of Newcastle society to become mayor of the town in 1850. An elder sister, Anne, born in 1802, was named after his mother, Armstrong was educated at private schools in Newcastle and Whickham, near Gateshead, until he was sixteen, when he was sent to Bishop Auckland Grammar School. While there, he visited the nearby engineering works of William Ramshaw. During his visits he met his wife, Ramshaw’s daughter Margaret. Armstrong’s father was set on him following a career in the law, and so he was articled to Armorer Donkin and he spent five years in London studying law and returned to Newcastle in 1833. In 1835 he became a partner in Donkin’s business and the firm became Donkin, Stable, Armstrong married Margaret Ramshaw in 1835, and they built a house in Jesmond Dene, on the eastern edge of Newcastle. Armstrong worked for years as a solicitor, but during his spare time he showed great interest in engineering. Armstrong was a keen angler, and while fishing on the River Dee at Dentdale in the Pennines, he saw a waterwheel in action. It struck Armstrong that much of the power was being wasted. When he returned to Newcastle, he designed an engine powered by water. Unfortunately, little interest was shown in the engine, Armstrong subsequently developed a piston engine instead of a rotary one and decided that it might be suitable for driving a hydraulic crane. In 1846 his work as an amateur scientist was recognized when he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, in 1845 a scheme was set in motion to provide piped water from distant reservoirs to the households of Newcastle. He claimed that his hydraulic crane could unload ships faster and more cheaply than conventional cranes, the Corporation agreed to his suggestion, and the experiment proved so successful that three more hydraulic cranes were installed on the Quayside. The success of his hydraulic crane led Armstrong to consider setting up a business to manufacture cranes and he therefore resigned from his legal practice
39.
Herbert Bartlett
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Sir Herbert Henry Bartlett, 1st Baronet was a civil engineer and contractor responsible for many landmark buildings in London. Born at Hardington Mandeville, he was chairman and managing director of Perry & Company and he was made a Baronet in 1913. He married Ada Charlotte Barr, and had several children and he lived from 1900 at Cornwall Gardens in west London. He is buried in the grave, which lies in the western half of Highgate Cemetery in north London on one of the main central paths. On his death his baronetcy passed to his grandson, Basil, the Bartlett, the Faculty of the Built Environment at University College London is named after him, as is the Bartlett Building at University College London. It was opened on 4 June 1920 to house Karl Pearsons Galton Eugenics Laboratory, the Times Obituary 4 Jul 1921 The Peerage, Sir Herbert Henry Bartlett, 1st Bt. Retrieved 2012-11-08 Leigh Rayments list of baronets
40.
Sir William Arrol & Co.
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Sir William Arrol & Co. was a leading Scottish civil engineering business founded by William Arrol and based in Glasgow. It built some of the most famous bridges in the United Kingdom including the Forth Bridge, the company was founded by William Arrol at Dunn Street in Dalmarnock in Glasgow in 1873. It later expanded to incorporate the Parkhead Crane Works in Nuneaton Street, like the ships themselves, the gantry crane was one of the largest built at the time, comparing with transporter bridges in length, height and capability. The company also built the crane for the Hikitia in 1926, the company was acquired by Clarke Chapman in 1969 and the Dalmarnock Works were closed in 1986. Sir William Arrol & Co. in the Structurae database
41.
Cornwall
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Cornwall is a ceremonial county and unitary authority area of England within the United Kingdom. It is bordered to the north and west by the Celtic Sea, to the south by the English Channel, Cornwall has a population of 551,700 and covers an area of 3,563 km2. Cornwall forms the westernmost part of the south-west peninsula of the island of Great Britain, and this area was first inhabited in the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods. It continued to be occupied by Neolithic and then Bronze Age peoples, there is little evidence that Roman rule was effective west of Exeter and few Roman remains have been found. In the mid-19th century, however, the tin and copper mines entered a period of decline, subsequently, china clay extraction became more important and metal mining had virtually ended by the 1990s. Traditionally, fishing and agriculture were the important sectors of the economy. Railways led to a growth of tourism in the 20th century, however, the area is noted for its wild moorland landscapes, its long and varied coastline, its attractive villages, its many place-names derived from the Cornish language, and its very mild climate. Extensive stretches of Cornwalls coastline, and Bodmin Moor, are protected as an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, Cornwall is the homeland of the Cornish people and is recognised as one of the Celtic nations, retaining a distinct cultural identity that reflects its history. Some people question the present constitutional status of Cornwall, and a nationalist movement seeks greater autonomy within the United Kingdom in the form of a devolved legislative Cornish Assembly. On 24 April 2014 it was announced that Cornish people will be granted minority status under the European Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities. The modern English name Cornwall derives from the concatenation of two ancient demonyms from different linguistic traditions, Corn- records the native Brythonic tribe, the Cornovii. The Celtic word kernou is cognate with the English word horn. -wall derives from the Old English exonym walh, the Ravenna Cosmography first mentions a city named Purocoronavis in the locality. This is thought to be a rendering of Duro-cornov-ium, meaning fort of the Cornovii. The exact location of Durocornovium is disputed, with Tintagel and Carn Brea suggested as possible sites, in later times, Cornwall was known to the Anglo-Saxons as West Wales to distinguish it from North Wales. The name appears in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 891 as On Corn walum, in the Domesday Book it was referred to as Cornualia and in c.1198 as Cornwal. Other names for the county include a latinisation of the name as Cornubia, the present human history of Cornwall begins with the reoccupation of Britain after the last Ice Age. The area now known as Cornwall was first inhabited in the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods and it continued to be occupied by Neolithic and then Bronze Age people. The Common Brittonic spoken at the time developed into several distinct tongues
42.
Granite
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Granite is a common type of felsic intrusive igneous rock that is granular and phaneritic in texture. Granites can be white, pink, or gray in color. The word granite comes from the Latin granum, a grain, in reference to the structure of such a holocrystalline rock. By definition, granite is a rock with at least 20% quartz. The term granitic means granite-like and is applied to granite and a group of igneous rocks with similar textures and slight variations in composition. Occasionally some individual crystals are larger than the groundmass, in case the texture is known as porphyritic. A granitic rock with a texture is known as a granite porphyry. Granitoid is a general, descriptive field term for lighter-colored, coarse-grained igneous rocks, petrographic examination is required for identification of specific types of granitoids. The extrusive igneous rock equivalent of granite is rhyolite, Granite is nearly always massive, hard and tough, and therefore it has gained widespread use throughout human history, and more recently as a construction stone. The average density of granite is between 2.65 and 2.75 g/cm3, its compressive strength usually lies above 200 MPa, and its viscosity near STP is 3–6 •1019 Pa·s. The melting temperature of dry granite at ambient pressure is 1215–1260 °C, it is reduced in the presence of water. Granite has poor primary permeability, but strong secondary permeability, true granite according to modern petrologic convention contains both plagioclase and alkali feldspars. When a granitoid is devoid or nearly devoid of plagioclase, the rock is referred to as alkali feldspar granite, when a granitoid contains less than 10% orthoclase, it is called tonalite, pyroxene and amphibole are common in tonalite. A granite containing both muscovite and biotite micas is called a binary or two-mica granite, two-mica granites are typically high in potassium and low in plagioclase, and are usually S-type granites or A-type granites. A worldwide average of the composition of granite, by weight percent, based on 2485 analyses. Much of it was intruded during the Precambrian age, it is the most abundant basement rock that underlies the relatively thin veneer of the continents. Outcrops of granite tend to form tors and rounded massifs, granites sometimes occur in circular depressions surrounded by a range of hills, formed by the metamorphic aureole or hornfels. Granite often occurs as small, less than 100 km² stock masses
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Portland stone
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Portland stone is a limestone from the Tithonian stage of the Jurassic period quarried on the Isle of Portland, Dorset. The quarries consist of beds of white-grey limestone separated by chert beds and it has been used extensively as a building stone throughout the British Isles, notably in major public buildings in London such as St Pauls Cathedral and Buckingham Palace. It is also exported to many countries—Portland stone is used in the United Nations headquarters building in New York City, Portland stone formed in a marine environment, on the floor of a shallow, warm, sub-tropical sea probably near land. When seawater is warmed by the sun, its capacity to hold dissolved gas is reduced, calcium and bicarbonate ions within the water are then able to combine, to form calcium carbonate as a precipitate. The process of lime scale build up in a kettle in hard water areas is similar, calcium carbonate is the principal constituent of most limestones. Billions of minute crystals of precipitated calcium carbonate accumulated forming lime mud which covered the sea floor, small particles of sand or organic detritus, such as shell fragments, formed a nucleus, which became coated with layers of calcite as they were rolled around in the muddy micrite. The calcite gradually accumulated around the fragments of shell in concentric layers and this process is similar to the way in which a snowball grows in size as it is rolled around in the snow. Over time, countless billions of these balls, known as ooids or ooliths, became partially cemented together by more calcite and this is one of the reasons why Portland stone is so favoured as a monumental and architectural stone. Dr Geoff Townson conducted three years research on the Portlandian, being the first to describe the patch-reef facies. Stone has been quarried on Portland since Roman times and was being shipped to London in the 14th century, Extraction as an industry began in the early 17th century, with shipments to London for Inigo Jones Banqueting House. Wrens choice of Portland for the new St Pauls Cathedral was a great boost for the quarries, the island was connected by railway to the rest of the country from 1865. Albion Stone PLC has been quarrying and mining Portland stone since 1984, Portland Stone Firms Ltd have been quarrying Portland stone since 1994. Jordans is part of the Inmosthay Quarry in the centre of the Island, the quarry has been worked since the late 19th century. Albion Stone leases the section from The Crown Estate and purchased the northern part of the site in 2006. The majority of the southern reserves lie under the grounds of the cricket club. To avoid disturbing the site at surface level, the company has applied and received permission to extract the stone using mining rather than quarrying techniques, the reserves to the north will be quarried using the diamond bladed cutting machines, hydro bags and wire saws to shape the blocks. Albion Stone PLC now extract all their stone through mining which dramatically reduces the impact on the environment, jordans Mine is currently the biggest mine on Portland. Bowers Quarry has been operational since the late 18th century and it has been leased from The Crown Estate since 1979 and in 2002 it became the site of the first Portland stone mine by Albion Stone PLC
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Victorian era
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The Victorian era was the period of Queen Victorias reign, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. It was a period of peace, prosperity, refined sensibilities. Some scholars date the beginning of the period in terms of sensibilities, the era followed the Georgian period and preceded the Edwardian period. The later half of the Victorian age roughly coincided with the first part of the Belle Époque era of continental Europe, culturally there was a transition away from the rationalism of the Georgian period and toward romanticism and mysticism with regard to religion, social values, and arts. The end of the saw the Boer War. Domestically, the agenda was increasingly liberal with a number of shifts in the direction of political reform, industrial reform. Two especially important figures in period of British history are the prime ministers Benjamin Disraeli and William Gladstone. Disraeli, favoured by the queen, was a gregarious Conservative and his rival Gladstone, a Liberal distrusted by the Queen, served more terms and oversaw much of the overall legislative development of the era. The population of England and Wales almost doubled from 16.8 million in 1851 to 30.5 million in 1901, Scotlands population also rose rapidly, from 2.8 million in 1851 to 4.4 million in 1901. However, Irelands population decreased sharply, from 8.2 million in 1841 to less than 4.5 million in 1901, mostly due to the Great Famine. Between 1837 and 1901 about 15 million emigrants departed the UK permanently, in search of a life in the United States, Canada, South Africa, New Zealand, Australia. During the early part of the era, politics in the House of Commons involved battles between the two parties, the Whigs/Liberals and the Conservatives. These parties were led by such prominent statesmen as Lord Melbourne, Sir Robert Peel, Lord Derby, Lord Palmerston, Gladstone, Disraeli, Victoria became queen in 1837 at age 18. Her long reign until 1901 was mainly a time of peace, Britain reached the zenith of its economic, political, diplomatic and cultural power. The era saw the expansion of the second British Empire, Historians have characterised the mid-Victorian era as Britains Golden Years. There was prosperity, as the income per person grew by half. There was peace abroad, and social peace at home, opposition to the new order melted away, says Porter. The Chartist movement peaked as a movement among the working class in 1848, its leaders moved to other pursuits, such as trade unions
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