1.
Gothic architecture
–
Gothic architecture is a style of architecture that flourished in Europe during the high and late medieval period. It evolved from Romanesque architecture and was succeeded by Renaissance architecture and its characteristics include the pointed arch, the ribbed vault and the flying buttress. Gothic architecture is most familiar as the architecture of many of the cathedrals, abbeys. It is also the architecture of many castles, palaces, town halls, guild halls, universities and to a less prominent extent, private dwellings, for this reason a study of Gothic architecture is largely a study of cathedrals and churches. A series of Gothic revivals began in mid-18th-century England, spread through 19th-century Europe and continued, largely for ecclesiastical and university structures, the term Gothic architecture originated as a pejorative description. Hence, François Rabelais, also of the 16th century, imagines an inscription over the door of his utopian Abbey of Thélème, Here enter no hypocrites, slipping in a slighting reference to Gotz and Ostrogotz. Authorities such as Christopher Wren lent their aid in deprecating the old medieval style, the Company disapproved of several of these new manners, which are defective and which belong for the most part to the Gothic. Gothic architecture is the architecture of the medieval period, characterised by use of the pointed arch. As an architectural style, Gothic developed primarily in ecclesiastical architecture, the greatest number of surviving Gothic buildings are churches. The Gothic style is most particularly associated with the cathedrals of Northern France. At the end of the 12th century, Europe was divided into a multitude of city states, norway came under the influence of England, while the other Scandinavian countries and Poland were influenced by trading contacts with the Hanseatic League. Angevin kings brought the Gothic tradition from France to Southern Italy, throughout Europe at this time there was a rapid growth in trade and an associated growth in towns. Germany and the Lowlands had large flourishing towns that grew in comparative peace, in trade and competition with other, or united for mutual weal. Civic building was of importance to these towns as a sign of wealth. England and France remained largely feudal and produced grand domestic architecture for their kings, dukes and bishops, the Catholic Church prevailed across Europe at this time, influencing not only faith but also wealth and power. Bishops were appointed by the lords and they often ruled as virtual princes over large estates. The early Medieval periods had seen a growth in monasticism, with several different orders being prevalent. Foremost were the Benedictines whose great abbey churches vastly outnumbered any others in France, a part of their influence was that towns developed around them and they became centers of culture, learning and commerce
2.
Commercial Street, London
–
Commercial Street is an arterial road in Tower Hamlets, east London that runs north to south from Shoreditch High Street to Whitechapel High Street through the East End district of Spitalfields. The road is a section of the A1202 London Inner Ring Road, as the name implies, Commercial Street has historically been dominated by industrial and commercial activity, which it maintains to this day. It is on the City fringes, and much industry that was seen as too noisome for the City was once exiled to such areas as this, however, since the early 1990s the street has grown increasingly fashionable, while maintaining its busy commercial feel. The southern section of Commercial Street was created in 1843–5 as part of a clearance programme. The extension north from the market, to the Eastern Counties Railways Bishopsgate terminus, in both phases of development there was some initial difficulty in finding tenants for the building plots, and much of the street was not built up until the 1860s and 1870s. Until the late century, the street was heavily dominated by the activities of Spitalfields wholesale fruit and vegetable market. Since the mid-1970s, however, the area has been subject to a process of gradual gentrification. Many of the units in the street are now occupied by fashionable clothing shops or restaurants. Both the market buildings and Christ Church are lucky survivors, as demolition has loomed for both of them at one point or another. The northern end of the street is dominated on its side by the sprawling Exchange Building. On the western side stands the former Commercial Street Police Station, just to its south, with a wing extending into Folgate Street, is the first tenement block of model dwellings to be erected by the Peabody Donation Fund for Londons industrious poor. The red-brick Jacobethan block was designed by H. A. Darbishire and opened in 1864, many Ripper tours start out nearby. Although the pub has long been refurbished, it retains some fine original tilework. Prostitution remained a feature of Commercial Street until recently, dorset Street, which ran off Commercial Street to the west immediately south of Spitalfields Market, was dubbed the worst street in London. Much of the section of the street is occupied by warehouse buildings of the 1860s. Wentworth Street runs off Commercial Street to the west, the estate is now managed by Eastend Homes, and in 2012 was undergoing a major programme of regeneration that would see the demolition and replacement of several of the blocks. To the south again is the 11-storey Ibis London City budget hotel, and beyond that, at the junction with Whitechapel High Street, One Commercial Street, on the eastern side of Commercial Street stands Toynbee Hall, the university settlement founded in 1884. The nearest London Underground station is Aldgate East, at Commercial Streets southern end, Shoreditch High Street London Overground station is close to the northern end, by the former Bishopsgate Goods Yard
3.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
4.
London Borough of Tower Hamlets
–
The London Borough of Tower Hamlets is a London borough to the east of the City of London and north of the River Thames. It is in the part of London and covers much of the traditional East End. It also includes much of the redeveloped Docklands region of London, including West India Docks, many of the tallest buildings in London occupy the centre of the Isle of Dogs in the south of the borough. A part of the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park is in Tower Hamlets, the borough has a population of 272,890, which includes one of the highest ethnic minority populations in the country and has an established British Bangladeshi business and residential community. Brick Lanes restaurants, neighbouring street market and shops provide the largest range of Bengali cuisine, woodwork, carpets, the local authority is Tower Hamlets London Borough Council. The council, as of 2017 comprises 23 Labour Councillors,5 Conservative councillors,18 independent councillors of various affiliation, Tower Hamlets is located to east of the City of London and north of the River Thames in East London. The London Borough of Hackney lies to the north of the borough while the River Lea forms the boundary with the London Borough of Newham in the east. On the other side of the Thames is The London Borough of Southwark to the southwest, The London Borough of Lewisham to the South, the River Lea also forms the boundary between those parts of London historically in Middlesex, with those formerly in Essex. The Regents Canal enters the borough from Hackney to meet the River Thames at Limehouse Basin, a stretch of the Hertford Union Canal leads from the Regents canal, at a basin in the north of Mile End to join the River Lea at Old Ford. A further canal, Limehouse Cut, Londons oldest, leads from locks at Bromley-by-Bow to Limehouse Basin, most of the canal tow-paths are open to both pedestrians and cyclists. Victoria Park was formed by Act of Parliament, and administered by the LCC, since the latter authoritys abolition, the park has been administered by Tower Hamlets. Part of the borough is within the boundary of the Thames Gateway development area, the Hamlets of the Tower paid taxes for the militia in 1646. The London Borough of Tower Hamlets forms the core of the East End and it lies east of the ancient walled City of London and north of the River Thames. Over the course of a century, the East End became synonymous with poverty, overcrowding, disease, the East End developed rapidly during the 19th century. The area attracted large numbers of people looking for employment. Successive waves of immigration began with Huguenot refugees creating a new extramural suburb in Spitalfields in the 17th century. They were followed by Irish weavers, Ashkenazi Jews and, in the 20th century, many of these immigrants worked in the clothing industry. The abundance of semi- and unskilled labour led to low wages and this brought the attentions of social reformers during the mid-18th century and led to the formation of unions and workers associations at the end of the century
5.
East End of London
–
The East End of London, also known simply as the East End, is an area of Central and East London, England, east of the Roman and medieval walls of the City of London, and north of the River Thames. The relevance of Strypes reference to the Tower was more than geographical, the East End was the major part of an area called the Tower Division, which owed military service to the Tower of London. Later, as the East End grew and the Tower Division contracted, the area was notorious for its deep poverty, overcrowding and associated social problems. This has led to the East End’s history of political activism. Another major theme of East End history has been that of migration, Irish weavers, Ashkenazi Jews and, in the 20th century, Bangladeshis. The East End lies east of the Roman and medieval walls of the City of London, Aldgate Pump on the edge of the City is the symbolic start of the East End and, on the river, Tower Bridge is also sometimes also described in these terms. Beyond these references though, the East End has no official or popularly accepted boundaries, a common preference is to include the modern borough of Tower Hamlets, together with the former parish and borough of Shoreditch. This version makes the East End conterminous with the Tower Division of Middlesex under the borders that area had in the 19th century when the East End completed the process of urbanisation, an alternative definition is based solely on the modern borough of Tower Hamlets. Parts of the old parish and borough of Hackney are sometimes included, while others include areas east of the Lea such as West Ham, East Ham, Leyton, knew not the way to the East End. The East End began with the growth of London beyond the walls, along the Roman Roads leading from Bishopsgate and Aldgate. Building accelerated in the 16th century, and the area that would become known East End began to take shape. The relevance of Strypes reference to the Tower was more than geographical, the East End was the major part of an area called the Tower Division, which had its roots in the Bishop of Londons historic Manor of Stepney and owed military service to the Tower of London. Later, as the East End grew and the Tower Division contracted, for a very long time the East End was physically separated from the Londons western growth by the open spaces known as Moorfields. Shoreditchs boundary with the parish of St Lukes ran through the Moorfields countryside becoming, on urbanisation and that line, with very slight modifications, has also become the boundary of the modern London Boroughs of Hackney and Islington. From the beginning, the East End has always contained some of the poorest areas of London, the main reasons for this include the following, the medieval system of copyhold, which prevailed throughout the East End, into the 19th century. Essentially, there was little point in developing land that was held on short leases, the siting of noxious industries, such as tanning and fulling downwind outside the boundaries of the City, and therefore beyond complaints and official controls. Historically, the East End is arguably conterminous with the Manor of Stepney and this manor was held by the Bishop of London, in compensation for his duties in maintaining and garrisoning the Tower of London. Further ecclesiastic holdings came about from the need to enclose the marshes, Edward VI passed the land to the Wentworth family, and thence to their descendants, the Earls of Cleveland
6.
Settlement movement
–
For the organizations for kibbutzim and moshavim, see Settlement movement. The settlement houses provided services such as daycare, education, the movement started in London in 1884 with the founding of Toynbee Hall. Victorian England, increasingly concerned with poverty, gave rise to the movement whereby those connected to universities settled students in areas to live. Through their efforts settlement houses were established for education, savings, sports, such institutions were often praised by religious representatives concerned with the lives of the poor, and criticized as normative or moralistic by radical social movements. There were basic commonalities in the movement, the settlement movement believed that social reform was best pursued and pushed for by private charities. The British Association of Settlements and Social Action Centres is a network of organizations in the United Kingdom. Birmingham University has produced a history of the settlement movement in the UK. During the social Christian movement, Samuel and Henrietta Barnett founded Toynbee Hall, Other early examples include Browning Hall, formed in Walworth in 1895 by Francis Herbert Stead, and Mansfield House Settlement, also in east London. There is also a network, the International Federation of Settlements. The movement gave rise to social policy initiatives and innovative ways of working to improve the conditions of the most excluded members of society. The Poor Mans Lawyer service came about because a barrister volunteered his time, in general, the settlement movement, and settlement houses in particular, have been a foundation for social work practice in this country. Between 1890 and 1910, more than 12 million European people immigrated to the United States and they came from Ireland, Russia, Italy and other European countries and provided cheap factory labor, a demand that was created with the countrys expansion into the west following the Civil War. Many immigrants lived in crowded and disease-ridden tenements, worked long hours, children often worked to help support the family. Jacob Riis wrote How the Other Half Lives about the lives of immigrants on New York Citys Lower East Side to bring awareness of the immigrants living conditions. The most famous settlement house in the United States is Chicagos Hull House, founded by Jane Addams, Hull House, though, was not a religious based organization. It focused on providing education and recreational facilities for European immigrant women and children, United Neighborhood Houses of New York is the federation of 38 settlement houses in New York City. These and other settlement houses inspired the establishment of settlement schools to serve isolated rural communities in Appalachia, by 1913, there were 413 settlements in 32 states. By the 1920s, there were almost 500 settlement houses in the country, the settlement house concept was continued by Dorothy Days Catholic Worker hospitality houses in the 1930s
7.
Samuel Barnett (reformer)
–
Samuel Augustus Barnett was an Anglican cleric and social reformer who was particularly associated with the establishment of the first university settlement, Toynbee Hall, in east London in 1884. He is often referred to as Canon Barnett, having served as Canon of Westminster Abbey from 1906 until death, Samuel Augustus Barnett was born in Bristol, the elder son of Francis Augustus Barnett, an iron manufacturer. After a private education by tutors he entered Wadham College, Oxford, in 1862, leaving in 1866, in the following year he was ordained as a deacon and became the curate of St Marys, Bryanston Square before being ordained as a priest in 1868. In 1873, he married Henrietta Octavia Weston Rowland, heiress, social reformer and author, later Dame Henrietta Barnett, DBE, both were social reformers and philanthropists with broad cultural interests. Later that year, the Barnetts moved to the impoverished Whitechapel parish of St. Judes intent on improving conditions in one of Londons worst slums. The East End area was notorious for its squalor and overcrowded housing conditions, as well as prostitution, Barnett discouraged outdoor relief believing it fostered the pauperisation of the neighbourhood. In 1875 Balliol historian Arnold Toynbee paid the first of many visits to Whitechapel, in 1877, Barnett, who kept in constant touch with Oxford, formed a small committee, over which he presided, to consider the organisation of university extension in London. His chief assistants were Leonard Montefiore, a young Oxford man, and Frederick Rogers, the committee received influential support, and in October four courses of lectures, one by Dr Samuel Rawson Gardiner on English history, were given in Whitechapel. This resulted in the formation of the University Settlements Association, Toynbee Hall, named after the recently deceased historian Arnold Toynbee, was built shortly afterwards, and Barnett became its first Warden. In 1888 American reformer Jane Addams visited the settlement, and was inspired to create similar facilities in the United States—the first Hull House opening in Chicago a year later, Barnett was a select preacher at Oxford, and at Cambridge in 1900. In 1893 he received a canonry in Bristol Cathedral, but retained his wardenship of Toynbee Hall, while relinquishing the living of St. Judes. In June 1906 he was given a canonry at Westminster, the Barnetts also became known for their involvement in the Hampstead Garden Suburb. This arose after the activist couple acquired a home at Spaniards End in the Hampstead area of north-west London. Henrietta Barnett broke ground for the development on her 56th birthday, in 1906 Barnett moved from Canon of Bristol Cathedral to Canon of Westminster Abbey. At the coronation of King George V in 1911, Barnetts role was to carry the royal orb, in 1913 he was elevated to Sub-Dean. His health had begun to fail, suffering several heart attacks prior to the coronation, in his final days he suffered greatly from insomnia. A memorial to his memory lies on the aisle of the Choir. Samuel Barnett died in 1913 at 69 Kings Esplanade in Hove, as a memorial, his friend Sir Alfred Yarrow dedicated a charitable building in Hampstead Garden Suburb in his name in 1916, the Barnett Homestead
8.
Henrietta Barnett
–
Dame Henrietta Octavia Weston Barnett, DBE was a notable English social reformer, educationist, and author. She and her husband, Samuel Augustus Barnett, founded the first University Settlement at Toynbee Hall in 1884 and they also worked to establish the model Hampstead Garden Suburb in the early 20th century. Born in Clapham, London, Henrietta Octavia Weston Rowland lost her mother at an early age, at age 16, Henrietta was sent to a boarding school in Devon run by the Haddon sisters, who, influenced by James Hinton, were committed to social altruism. When her father died in 1869, Henrietta moved with two sisters to Bayswater, where she met and helped social activist and housing reformer Octavia Hill. Hill introduced Henrietta to the writings of John Ruskin, as well as influential people similarly interested in improving the condition of Londons poor. Through Hill, Henrietta met Canon Samuel Barnett, then the curate of St Marys, the newlyweds soon moved to the impoverished Whitechapel parish of St Judes, intent on improving social conditions. Henrietta continued her parish visiting activities, with a focus on women and children, in 1875, Henrietta became a woman guardian for the parish, and the following year was named a school manager for the Poor Law district schools in Forest Gate. The Barnetts experiment in sending slum children for country holidays grew into the Childrens Fresh Air Mission, established in 1877, Henrietta Barnett promoted Homes for Workhouse Girls starting in 1880, and founded the London Pupil Teachers Association in 1891. She also served as vice-president of the National Association for the Welfare of the Feeble-Minded, in 1897 annual loan exhibitions of fine art began at the nearby Whitechapel Gallery through the Barnetts efforts. In 1903 Richard Tawney began working with them, the Childrens Country Holiday Fund, william Beveridge and Clement Attlee also worked with the Barnetts as they started their own careers. A visit to Toynbee Hall inspired Jane Addams to found Hull House in Chicago, in 1889 the activist couple acquired a weekend home at Spaniards End in the Hampstead area of north-west London. The Barnetts became inspired by Ebenezer Howard and the housing development movement. In 1904, they established trusts which bought 243 acres of land along the newly opened Northern line extension to Golders Green, in 1909, an adult education institute opened in the middle of the new Hampstead Garden Suburb, with cultural programmes and discussion groups. Soon a school for girls was established and named the Henrietta Barnett School, the Barnetts never had children of their own. They adopted Dorothy Woods, and Henrietta also served as guardian for her brain-damaged elder sister. After Samuel died in 1913, Henrietta founded Barnett House at Oxford in his memory and she helped it become the universitys centre for social work and social policy education. Barnett wrote several books, alone and with her husband and their Christian Socialist beliefs are set out in Practicable Socialism and Toward Social Reform. Her early books concerned domestic issues, The Making of the Home, How to Mind the Baby, with Kathleen Mallam, Henrietta Barnett also edited a collection of essays entitled Destitute, Neglected, and Delinquent Children
9.
Arnold Toynbee
–
Arnold Toynbee was a British economic historian also noted for his social commitment and desire to improve the living conditions of the working classes. Toynbee was born in London, the son of the physician Joseph Toynbee, Toynbee was the uncle, via his brother Harry Valpy Toynbee, of universal historian Arnold Joseph Toynbee. The two are often confused for each other due to the similarity of their names, Toynbee attended public schools in Blackheath and Woolwich. In 1873 he began to study economy at Oxford University, first at Pembroke College and from 1875 at Balliol College. He married Charlotte Atwood,12 years his senior and a cousin of Harold Davidson, Toynbee died in 1883, at age 30. His health had deteriorated, probably due to exhaustion by excessive work. Of weak physique, but full of a passionate spiritual enthusiasm and he died for truth as he knew it, and those who knew him felt that his death was a national loss. For example, he argued that, despite commonly held beliefs, free trade was not generally advantageous in itself, but only certain circumstances. Toynbee considered few laws as universally true, such as the law of diminishing returns, therefore, there were no universal rules as to how strongly the state should interfere in the marketplace, all depended on the situation and varying degrees of regulation could be appropriate. Toynbee did not equate a struggle for existence and a struggle for a particular kind of existence. From the very beginning of history, he argued, all human civilisation was essentially designed to interfere with this brute struggle and we intend to modify the violence of the fight, and to prevent the weak being trampled under foot. This kind of competition has to be checked, there is no instance of its having lasted long without being modified either by combination or legislation. In England both remedies are in operation, the former through Trades Unions, the latter through factory legislation, however, in the early phase of industrial capitalism it came to be believed in as a gospel, from which it was regarded as little long of immoral to depart. He read for workers in industrial centres and encouraged the creation of trade unions. A focal point of his commitment was the slum of Whitechapel, in East London, Toynbee also encouraged his students to offer free courses for working-class audiences in their own neighbourhoods. Inspired by his ideas, Samuel Augustus Barnett and Henrietta Barnett founded the first university settlement in 1884, shortly after Toynbees death, a centre for social reform, Toynbee Hall was on Commercial Street, Whitechapel. The concept was to bring upper and middle class students into lower-class neighbourhoods, not only to education and social aid. This soon inspired a movement of university settlements
10.
Listed building
–
A listed building or listed structure, in the United Kingdom, is one that has been placed on the Statutory List of Buildings of Special Architectural or Historic Interest. The statutory bodies maintaining the list are Historic England in England, Cadw in Wales, Historic Scotland in Scotland, however, the preferred term in Ireland is protected structure. In England and Wales, an amenity society must be notified of any work to a listed building which involves any element of demolition. Owners of listed buildings are, in circumstances, compelled to repair and maintain them. When alterations are permitted, or when listed buildings are repaired or maintained, slightly different systems operate in each area of the United Kingdom, though the basic principles of the listing remain the same. It was the damage to caused by German bombing during World War II that prompted the first listing of buildings that were deemed to be of particular architectural merit. The listings were used as a means of determining whether a building should be rebuilt if it was damaged by bombing. Listing was first introduced into Northern Ireland under the Planning Order 1972, the listing process has since developed slightly differently in each part of the UK. In the UK, the process of protecting the historic environment is called ‘designation’. A heritage asset is a part of the environment that is valued because of its historic. Only some of these are judged to be important enough to have legal protection through designation. However, buildings that are not formally listed but still judged as being of heritage interest are still regarded as being a consideration in the planning process. Almost anything can be listed – it does not have to be a building, Buildings and structures of special historic interest come in a wide variety of forms and types, ranging from telephone boxes and road signs, to castles. Historic England has created twenty broad categories of structures, and published selection guides for each one to aid with assessing buildings and these include historical overviews and describe the special considerations for listing each category. Both Historic Scotland and Cadw produce guidance for owners, in England, to have a building considered for listing or delisting, the process is to apply to the secretary of state, this can be done by submitting an application form online to Historic England. The applicant does not need to be the owner of the building to apply for it to be listed, full information including application form guidance notes are on the Historic England website. Historic England assesses buildings put forward for listing or delisting and provides advice to the Secretary of State on the architectural, the Secretary of State, who may seek additional advice from others, then decides whether or not to list or delist the building. In England and Wales the authority for listing is granted to the Secretary of State by the Planning Act 1990, Listed buildings in danger of decay are listed on the Historic England Heritage at Risk Register
