1.
John, Duke of Berry
–
John of Berry or John the Magnificent was Duke of Berry and Auvergne and Count of Poitiers and Montpensier. He was the son of King John II of France and Bonne of Luxemburg, his brothers were King Charles V of France, Duke Louis I of Anjou. He is primarily remembered as a collector of the important illuminated manuscripts and other works of art commissioned by him and he was born at the castle of Vincennes on 30 November 1340. When Poitiers was ceded to England in 1360, John II granted John the newly raised duchies of Berry, by the terms of the Treaty of Brétigny, signed that May, John became a hostage of the English Crown and remained in England until 1369. Upon his return to France, his brother, now King Charles V, appointed him lieutenant general for Berry, Auvergne, Bourbonnais, Forez, Sologne, Touraine, Anjou, Maine, and Normandy. Upon the death of his older brother Charles V in 1380, his son and heir, Charles VI was a minor, so Berry and his brothers, following the death of Louis of Anjou in 1384, Berry and his brother Burgundy were the dominant figures in the kingdom. John was also stripped of his offices in Languedoc at that time, Berry and Burgundy bided their time, and were soon able to retake power, in 1392, when the King had his first attack of insanity, an affliction which would remain with him throughout his life. The two royal dukes continued to rule until 1402, when the king, in one of his moments of lucidity, took power from them and gave it to his brother Louis, Duke of Orléans. Simon of Cramaud, a canonist and prelate, served the Duke in his efforts to find a way to end the Great Western schism that was not unfavorable to French interests, in his later years, John became a more conciliatory figure in France. It was largely due to his urging that Charles VI and his sons were not present at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415 and he died a few months after the battle, which proved as disastrous as he had feared, on June 151416 in Paris. In 1389 he married his wife, Joan II, Countess of Auvergne. John of Berry was also a patron who commissioned among other works the most famous Book of Hours. His spending on his art collection severely taxed his estates, works created for him include the manuscripts known as the Très Riches Heures, the Belles Heures of Jean de France, Duc de Berry and the Turin-Milan Hours. Goldsmiths work includes the Holy Thorn Reliquary and Royal Gold Cup, among the artists working for him were the Limbourg Brothers, Jacquemart de Hesdin and André Beauneveu. The web site of the Louvre says of him, Emmerson, key Figures in Medieval Europe, An Encyclopedia. In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, new York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–
John, Duke of Berry
–
Image of John, Duke of Berry from the
Très Riches Heures
John, Duke of Berry
–
Joan of Auvergne and Boulogne
John, Duke of Berry
–
John of Berry
John, Duke of Berry
–
A portrait of John kneeling in prayer
2.
Illuminated manuscript
–
An illuminated manuscript is a manuscript in which the text is supplemented with such decoration as initials, borders and miniature illustrations. Comparable Far Eastern and Mesoamerican works are described as painted, islamic manuscripts may be referred to as illuminated, illustrated or painted, though using essentially the same techniques as Western works. This article covers the technical, social and economic history of the subject, for an art-historical account, the earliest surviving substantive illuminated manuscripts are from the period 400 to 600, produced in the Kingdom of the Ostrogoths and the Eastern Roman Empire. The significance of these works lies not only in their inherent artistic and historical value, had it not been for the monastic scribes of Late Antiquity, most literature of Greece and Rome would have perished in Europe. As it was, the patterns of textual survivals were shaped by their usefulness to the severely constricted literate group of Christians, the majority of surviving manuscripts are from the Middle Ages, although many survive from the Renaissance, along with a very limited number from Late Antiquity. The majority of manuscripts are of a religious nature. However, especially from the 13th century onward, a number of secular texts were illuminated. Most illuminated manuscripts were created as codices, which had superseded scrolls, a very few illuminated manuscript fragments survive on papyrus, which does not last nearly as long as vellum or parchment. Most medieval manuscripts, illuminated or not, were written on parchment, beginning in the late Middle Ages manuscripts began to be produced on paper. Illuminated manuscripts continued to be produced in the early 16th century, Manuscripts are among the most common items to survive from the Middle Ages, many thousands survive. They are also the best surviving specimens of medieval painting, indeed, for many areas and time periods, they are the only surviving examples of painting. There are a few examples from later periods, the type of book that was most often heavily and richly illuminated, sometimes known as a display book, varied between periods. In the first millennium, these were most likely to be Gospel Books, such as the Lindisfarne Gospels, the Romanesque period saw the creation of many huge illuminated complete Bibles – one in Sweden requires three librarians to lift it. Many Psalters were also illuminated in both this and the Gothic period. Finally, the Book of Hours, very commonly the personal book of a wealthy layperson, was often richly illuminated in the Gothic period. Other books, both liturgical and not, continued to be illuminated at all periods, the Byzantine world also continued to produce manuscripts in its own style, versions of which spread to other Orthodox and Eastern Christian areas. See Medieval art for other regions, periods and types, reusing parchments by scraping the surface and reusing them was a common practice, the traces often left behind of the original text are known as palimpsests. The Gothic period, which saw an increase in the production of these beautiful artifacts, also saw more secular works such as chronicles
Illuminated manuscript
–
In the strictest definition of illuminated manuscript, only manuscripts with gold or silver, like this
miniature of
Christ in Majesty from the
Aberdeen Bestiary (folio 4v), would be considered illuminated.
Illuminated manuscript
–
The decoration of this page from a French
Book of Hours, ca.1400, includes a miniature, initials and borders
Illuminated manuscript
–
A 13th-century manuscript illumination, the earliest known depiction of
Thomas Becket 's assassination
Illuminated manuscript
–
The 11th century Tyniec Sacramentary was written with gold on purple background.
3.
International Gothic
–
International Gothic is a period of Gothic art which initially developed in Burgundy, France and northern Italy in the late 14th and early 15th century. It then spread widely across Western Europe, hence the name for the period. The main influences were northern France, the Duchy of Burgundy, the Imperial court in Prague, royal marriages such as that between Richard II of England and Anne of Bohemia helped to spread the style. It was initially a style of courtly sophistication, but somewhat more robust versions spread to art commissioned by the mercantile classes. Usage of the terms by art historians varies somewhat, with using the term more restrictively than others. Some art historians feel the term is in many ways, since it tends to skate over both differences and details of transmission. The important Bohemian version of the style developed in the court of Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor in Prague, which for a brief period became a leading force in the development of European art. Charles came from the Luxembourg dynasty, was tutored by the future Pope Clement VI, the Bohemian style initially lacked the elongated figures of other centres, but had a richness and sweetness in female figures that were very influential. Charles had at least one Italian altarpiece, apparently made in Italy and sent to Prague, for St. Vitus Cathedral in Prague, he first used a French architect, and then the German Peter Parler. As the style developed in Northern Europe, Italian artists were in turn influenced by it, from this period come the earliest surviving panel portraits of monarchs, and royal manuscripts show a greatly increased number of realistic portraits of the monarch who commissioned them. In painting and sculpture, the style is known in German as the Schöne Stil or Weicher Stil. Stylistic features are a dignified elegance, which replaces monumentality, along with rich decorative colouring, elongated figures and it also makes a more practised use of perspective, modelling, and setting. Figures begin to be more space in their settings, and interest is taken in realistically depicted plants. In some works, above all the calendar scenes of the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry. Decoration became increasingly ornate as the style developed in Northern Europe, claus Sluter was the leading sculptor in Burgundy, and was one artist able to use the style with a strongly monumental effect. Most sculptors are unknown, and the style tended to survive longer in Northern sculpture than painting, smaller painted wood figures, most often of the Madonna, were significant, and being relatively portable, probably helped to disseminate the style across Europe. In Burgundy Jean Malouel, Melchior Broederlam and Henri Bellechose were succeeded by Robert Campin, master Bertram and Conrad von Soest were leading regional masters in Germany, working largely for city burghers. Surviving panel paintings of the best quality from before 1390 are very rare except from Italy, many of these artists moved between countries or regions during their careers, exposing them to the styles of other centres
International Gothic
–
Bust of the Virgin, Bohemia, c. 1390–95,
terracotta with polychromy
International Gothic
–
Detail of the
Annunciation (1333) by the Sienese
Simone Martini, Uffizi.
International Gothic
–
The
Votive Panel of Jan Očko of Vlašim. Kneeling
Emperor Charles IV and his son
Wenceslaus before the Virgin, Bohemia, 1371. (detail)
International Gothic
–
Jean de Vaudetar, chamberlain of king
Charles V of France, presents his gift of a manuscript to the King, 1372.
4.
Book of hours
–
The book of hours is a Christian devotional book popular in the Middle Ages. It is the most common type of surviving medieval illuminated manuscript, Books of hours were usually written in Latin, although there are many entirely or partially written in vernacular European languages, especially Dutch. The English term primer is usually now reserved for books written in English. Tens of thousands of books of hours have survived to the present day, in libraries, the typical book of hours is an abbreviated form of the breviary which contained the Divine Office recited in monasteries. It was developed for lay people who wished to incorporate elements of monasticism into their devotional life, reciting the hours typically centered upon the reading of a number of psalms and other prayers. The Marian prayers Obsecro te and O Intemerata were frequently added, as were devotions for use at Mass, the book of hours has its ultimate origin in the Psalter, which monks and nuns were required to recite. By the 12th century this had developed into the breviary, with cycles of psalms, prayers, hymns, antiphons. Eventually a selection of texts was produced in much shorter volumes, many books of hours were made for women. There is some evidence that they were given as a wedding present from a husband to his bride. Frequently they were passed down through the family, as recorded in wills, the earliest surviving English example was apparently written for a laywoman living in or near Oxford in about 1240. It is smaller than a modern paperback but heavily illuminated with major initials, by the 15th century, there are also examples of servants owning their own Books of Hours. In a court case from 1500, a woman is accused of stealing a domestic servants prayerbook. Very rarely the books included prayers specifically composed for their owners, some include images depicting their owners, and some their coats of arms. These, together with the choice of saints commemorated in the calendar, eamon Duffy explains how these books reflected the person who commissioned them. He claims that the character of these books was often signaled by the inclusion of prayers specially composed or adapted for their owners. Furthermore, he states that as many as half the surviving manuscript Books of Hours have annotations, such additions might amount to no more than the insertion of some regional or personal patron saint in the standardized calendar, but they often include devotional material added by the owner. By at least the 15th century, the Netherlands and Paris workshops were producing books of hours for stock or distribution and these were sometimes with spaces left for the addition of personalized elements such as local feasts or heraldry. The book’s goal was to help his devout patroness to structure her daily life in accordance with the eight canonical hours, Matins to Compline
Book of hours
–
Book of hours, Paris c. 1410. Miniature of the
Annunciation, with the start of
Matins in the
Little Office, the beginning of the texts after the calendar in the usual arrangement.
Book of hours
–
Opening from the
Hours of Catherine of Cleves, c. 1440, with Catherine kneeling before the Virgin and Child, surrounded by her family heraldry. Opposite is the start of
Matins in the
Little Office, illustrated by the Annunciation to
Joachim, as the start of a long cycle of the
Life of the Virgin.
Book of hours
–
Even this level of decoration was more rich than that of most books, though less than the lavish amounts of illumination in luxury books, which are those most often seen reproduced.
Book of hours
–
A full-page miniature of May, from a calendar cycle by
Simon Bening, early 16th century.
5.
Canonical hours
–
In the practice of Christianity, canonical hours mark the divisions of the day in terms of periods of fixed prayer at regular intervals. A Book of Hours normally contains a version of, or selection from, such prayers. The practice of daily prayers grew from the Jewish practice of reciting prayers at set times of the day, for example, in the Book of Acts, Peter, Psalm 119,164 states, Seven times a day I praise you for your righteous laws. This practice is believed to have passed down through the centuries from the Apostles. As monasticism spread, the practice of specified hours and liturgical formats began to develop, in 525, Benedict of Nursia set out one of the earliest schemes for the recitation of the Psalter at the Office. With the Cluniac reforms of the 11th century there was a new emphasis on liturgy, the current official version of the hours in the Roman rite of the Roman Catholic Church is called the liturgy of the hours in North America or divine office in Ireland and Britain. In the Anglican tradition, they are known as the daily office, to distinguish them from the other offices of the Church, i. e. holy communion, baptism. In the Orthodox Church, the canonical hours may be referred to as the services. The usage among the Oriental Orthodox Churches and the Assyrian Church of the East and of their Eastern Catholic counterparts all differ from each other, building on the recitation of psalms and canticles from scripture, the Church has added hymns, hagiographical readings, and other prayers. As is noted above, the canonical hours stemmed from Jewish prayer, in the Old Testament, God commanded the Israelite priests to offer sacrifices of animals in the morning and evening. Eventually, these sacrifices moved from the Tabernacle to the Temple built by Solomon in Jerusalem, during the Babylonian Exile, when the Temple was no longer in use, the first synagogues were established, and the services of Torah readings, psalms, and hymns began to evolve. This sacrifice of praise began to be substituted for the sacrifices of animals, after the people returned to Judea, the prayer services were incorporated into Temple worship as well. As time passed, the Jews began to be scattered across the Greco-Roman world in what is known as the Diaspora, by the time of the Roman Empire, the Jews began to follow the Roman system of conducting the business day in scheduling their times for prayer. The narrative of Jesus crucifixion and death refers to the sixth and ninth hours, Now when the hour had come. And at the ninth hour Jesus cried out with a loud voice …, the first miracle of the apostles, the healing of the crippled man on the temple steps, occurred because Peter and John went to the Temple to pray. Also, one of the moments of the early Church. As Christianity began to separate from Judaism, the practice of praying at fixed times continued, the early church was known to pray the Psalms, which have remained the principal part of the canonical hours. The prayers could be prayed individually or in groups, by the fourth century, the elements of the canonical hours were more or less established
Canonical hours
–
Benedictine monks singing
Vespers on
Holy Saturday.
Canonical hours
–
Chanters singing on the
kliros at the
Church of St. George,
Patriarchate of Constantinople.
Canonical hours
–
A
sundial showing the four
Tides and five Canonical hours, based on the example on the
Bewcastle Cross.
Canonical hours
–
Roman Rite Book of the Hours with a Rosary
6.
Bibliophile
–
Bibliophilia or bibliophilism is the love of books, and a bibliophile or bookworm is an individual who loves books. The classic bibliophile is one who loves to read, admire and collect books, often amassing a large, Bibliophiles do not necessarily want to possess the books that they love, an alternative would be unusual bindings, autographed copies, etc. The New York Public Library follows the same practice, according to Arthur H. Minters, the private collecting of books was a fashion indulged in by many Romans, including Cicero and Atticus. The term bibliophile entered the English language in 1824, lord Spencer and the Marquess of Blandford were noted bibliophiles. J. P. Morgan was also a noted bibliophile, in 1884, he paid $24,750 for a 1459 edition of the Mainz Psalter. Antiquarian book trade in the United States Book collecting The Book Club of Detroit Caxton Club The Club of Odd Volumes Grolier Club Oxford University Society of Bibliophiles Merriam-Webster, a Gentle Madness, Bibliophiles, Bibliomanes, and the Eternal Passion for Books, Henry Holt and Company, Inc. The love of books, The Philobiblon translated by E. C. Thomas, london, Frances Lincoln ISBN 0-7112-2685-7 Thomas Frognall Dibdin. The Committed Reader, Reading for Utility, Pleasure, and Fulfillment in the Twenty-First Century, forbes article on bibliomania by Finn-Olaf Jones, December 12,2005
Bibliophile
–
The Bookworm, 1850, by
Carl Spitzweg.
Bibliophile
–
"Bookworm" redirects here. For other uses, see
Bookworm (disambiguation).
7.
Limbourg brothers
–
The Limbourg brothers, or in Dutch Gebroeders van Limburg, were famous Dutch miniature painters from the city of Nijmegen. They were active in the early 15th century in France and Burgundy and they created what is certainly the best known late medieval illuminated manuscript, the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry. Around 1398, after their fathers death, the brothers were sent for by their uncle Jean Malouel, Herman and Johan learned the craft of goldsmithing in Paris. At the end of 1399 they were travelling to visit Nijmegen but, owing to a war, since their mother could not pay the ransom of 55 gold escuz, the local goldsmiths guild started to collect the money. Eventually Philip the Bold paid the ransom for the sake of their uncle Malouel, the two boys were released in May 1400. From surviving documents it is known that in February 1402 Paul and this may or may not have been the Bible Moralisée, Ms. fr.166 in the Bibliothèque nationale de France in Paris, which is indisputably an early work by the Limbourg brothers. Philip II died in 1404 before the brothers had completed their work, after Philips death, Herman, Paul, and Johan later in 1405 came to work for his brother John, Duke of Berry, who was an extravagant collector of arts and especially books. Their first assignment was to illuminate a Book of Hours, now known as the Belles Heures du Duc de Berry and this work was finished in 1409 much to the satisfaction of the duke, and he assigned them to an even more ambitious project for a Book of Hours. This became the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry, which is regarded as the peak of late medieval book illumination. It is kept as Ms.65 in the Musée Condé in Chantilly, Paul especially was on good terms with the duke, and received a court position as valet de chambre or personal attendant. The duke gave him jewelry and a house in Bourges. Paul was attracted to a girl, Gillette la Mercière. The duke had the girl confined, and released her only on the kings command, in 1411 Paul and Gillette married anyway, but the marriage remained childless. In the first half of 1416, Jean de Berry and the three Limbourg brothers, all less than 30 years old, died, possibly of the plague, the work of the Limbourg brothers, being mostly inaccessible, became forgotten until the 19th century. Nevertheless, they set an example for the generations of painters. They worked in a Northern European tradition, but display influences from Italian models, rob Dückers and Pieter Roelofs, The brothers van Limburg. The Art of Illumination, The Limbourg Brothers and the Belles Heures of Jean de France, the Metropolitan Museum of Art/Yale University Press,2008
Limbourg brothers
–
Très riches heures du Duc de Berry: Juin (June) (1478-1549) Illumination on vellum, 22,5 x 13,6 cm
Limbourg brothers
–
A medallion by the circle c. 1420 depicting a stylized image of the Roman
Emperor Augustus currently held by the
Walters Museum
8.
Jean Colombe
–
Jean Colombe was a French miniature painter and illuminator of manuscripts. He is best known for his work in Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry and he is the brother of the sculptor Michel Colombe. Both works had been commissioned by Louis de Laval, between 1485 and 1490, Jean Colombe completed the decoration of the Très Riches Heures which had been left unfinished in 1416. He executed the image for the month of November, completed the Limbourg brothers design for September, thierry Delcourt, Fabrice Masanès, Danielle Quéruel, Sebastien Mamerot, Les Passages DOutremer, A Chronicle of the Crusades Taschen 2009 ISBN 978-3-8365-0555-0 Alexander, Labeur and Paresse. Duc de Berry - Folio 11v, LES TRES RICHES HEURES DU DUC DE BERRY. The Book of Hours and Our Lady
Jean Colombe
–
Les Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry, November
9.
Chantilly, Oise
–
Chantilly is a commune in the Oise department in the valley of the Nonette in the Hauts-de-France region of northern France. Surrounded by Chantilly Forest, the town of 11,000 inhabitants falls within the area of Paris. It lies 38.4 km north-northeast from the centre of Paris and it now houses the Musée Condé. Chantilly is also known for its horse racing track, the Chantilly Racecourse, where races are held for the prix du Jockey Club. Chantilly and the communities are home to the largest racehorse-training community in France. Chantilly is also home to the Living Museum of the Horse and it is considered one of the more important tourist destinations in the Paris area. Chantilly gave its name to Chantilly cream and to Chantilly lace, the city was the base for the England National Football Team during the Euro 2016 Championship. Chantilly lies in the Parisian basin, at the end of the region of Hauts-de-France. It belongs to the region of Valois. Chantilly lies 39 km southwest of Beauvais,79 km south of Amiens, Chantilly is the center of an urban area that includes the communes of Avilly-Saint-Léonard, Boran-sur-Oise, Coye-la-Forêt, Gouvieux, Lamorlaye, and Vineuil-Saint-Firmin. Its the third-largest urban area in the Oise and the seventh-largest in Hauts-de-France and it has no large businesses or heavy industry and 40% of the population works in Ile-de-France, in other words Paris or its closer suburbs, which are less than an hour away by train. Chantilly straddles the junction of the Paris Basin and the western Valois, the site of the town was originally a clearing or meadowland, sometimes called a lawn or pelouse, which is mostly occupied today by the racecourse. The remaining open space between the town and the racecourse is always referred to as the little lawn, the highest point in the area,112 meters, is at Bois Lorris, in Lamorlaye. The lowest elevation is 35m, at the Canardière on the banks of the Nonette in Gouvieux, the commune sits on a Lutetian sedimentary limestone plateau covered by Chantilly Forest. Sand created by wind and erosion covers this chalky plateau, although the sand is less than a meter thick it is very useful for training horses in the forest. This stone has also used for building in parts of the region. It was also used for building in Chantilly itself during the 18th century, when a quarry on the current site of the racecourse produced stone for the officials housing. In the following century the quarry was used to grow mushrooms and it now belongs to the Chantilly Estate and is periodically open to the public
Chantilly, Oise
–
Château de Chantilly
Chantilly, Oise
–
The Canardière on the Nonette
Chantilly, Oise
–
Canal of the Machine
Chantilly, Oise
–
The Château de Chantilly seen from the road north of town
10.
Parchment
–
Parchment is a writing material made from specially prepared untanned skins of animals—primarily sheep, calves, and goats. It has been used as a medium for over two millennia. Vellum is a finer quality parchment made from the skins of kids, lambs and it may be called animal membrane by libraries and museums that wish to avoid distinguishing between parchment and the more restricted term vellum. Today the term parchment is often used in non-technical contexts to refer to any animal skin, particularly goat, sheep or cow, that has been scraped or dried under tension. Vellum in theory refers exclusively to calfskin, and is used to denote a quality of material. The term parchment originally referred only to the skin of sheep and, occasionally, the word parchment evolved from the name of the city of Pergamon which was a thriving center of parchment production during the Hellenistic period. This account, originated in the writings of Pliny the Elder, is dubious because parchment had been in use in Anatolia, in the 2nd century BC a great library was set up in Pergamon that rivaled the famous Library of Alexandria. Writing on prepared animal skins had a history, however. H. Ibscher, and preserved in the Cairo Museum, a roll of the Twelfth Dynasty now in Berlin, the text now in the British Museum. Though the Assyrians and the Babylonians impressed their cuneiform on clay tablets, early Islamic texts are also found on parchment. In the later Middle Ages, especially the 15th century, parchment was largely replaced by paper for most uses except luxury manuscripts, new techniques in paper milling allowed it to be much cheaper than parchment, it was still made of textile rags and of very high quality. With the advent of printing in the fifteenth century, the demands of printers far exceeded the supply of animal skins for parchment. Although most copies of the Gutenberg Bible are on paper, some were printed on parchment,12 of the 48 surviving copies, in 1490, Johannes Trithemius preferred the older methods, because handwriting placed on parchment will be able to endure a thousand years. But how long will printing last, which is dependent on paper and it lasts for two hundred years that is a long time. In fact high quality paper from this period has survived 500 years or more very well, the heyday of parchment use was during the medieval period, but there has been a growing revival of its use among artists since the late 20th century. Although parchment never stopped being used it had ceased to be a choice for artists supports by the end of 15th century Renaissance. This was partly due to its expense and partly due to its working properties. When the water in paint media touches parchments surface, the collagen melts slightly, forming a bed for the paint
Parchment
–
Central European (Northern) type of finished parchment made of
goatskin stretched on a wooden frame
Parchment
–
Latin
Grant written on fine parchment or
vellum with
seal dated 1329
Parchment
–
A 1385 copy of the
Sachsenspiegel, a German legal code, written on parchment with straps and clasps on the binding
Parchment
–
A Sefer
Torah, the traditional form of the
Hebrew Bible, is a scroll of parchment.
11.
Miniature (illuminated manuscript)
–
These include Persian miniatures, and their Mughal, Ottoman and other Indian offshoots. This article gives an art historical account of the miniature form, for the techniques involved in production, see illuminated manuscript. The earliest extant miniatures are a series of colored drawings or miniatures cut from the Ambrosian Iliad and they are similar in style and treatment with the pictorial art of the later Roman classical period. Of even greater value from a point of view are the miniatures of the Vatican manuscript of Virgil, known as the Vergilius Vaticanus. They are in a perfect condition and on a larger scale than the Ambrosian fragments. The drawing is quite classical in style, and the idea is conveyed that the miniatures are copies from an older series. The colors are opaque, indeed, in all the miniatures of early manuscripts the employment of body color was universal. The method followed in placing the different scenes on the page is highly instructive of the practice followed, as we may presume, by the artists of the early centuries. Again, for the purpose of securing something like perspective, an arrangement of zones was adopted. It was reserved for the Byzantine school to break away more decidedly from the natural presentment of things, but on comparing the miniatures of the Byzantine school generally with their classical predecessors, one has a sense of having passed from the open air into the cloister. Under the restraint of ecclesiastical domination Byzantine art became more and more stereotyped, the tendency grows to paint the flesh-tints in swarthy hues, to elongate and emaciate the limbs, and to stiffen the gait. Browns, blue-greys and neutral tints are in favor, in the miniatures of Byzantine manuscripts are first seen those backgrounds of bright gold which afterwards appear in such profusion in the productions of every western school of painting. The influence of Byzantine art on that of medieval Italy is obvious, the early mosaics in the churches of Italy, such as those at Ravenna and Venice, also afford examples of the dominating Byzantine influence. In the native schools of illumination of Western Europe, decoration only was the leading motive, the highest qualities of the miniatures of the 10th and 11th century of this school lie in fine outline drawing, which had a lasting influence on the English miniature of the later centuries. But the southern Anglo-Saxon school rather stands apart from the line of development of the western medieval miniature. Under the Carolingian monarchs there developed a school of painting derived from classical models, in this school, which owed its origin to the encouragement of Charlemagne, it is seen that the miniature appears in two forms. Accompanied as it was with profuse decoration in border and initial, on the other hand, there is also the miniature in which there is an attempt at illustration, as, for example, the depicting of scenes from the Bible. Here there is freedom, and we trace the classical style which copies Roman, as distinguished from Byzantine
Miniature (illuminated manuscript)
–
Miniature of the
Trojan Horse, from the
Vergilius Romanus, a manuscript of
Virgil 's
Aeneid, early 5th century.
Miniature (illuminated manuscript)
–
Miniature of
Abraham meeting
angels, from the
Cotton Genesis, 5th–6th century.
Miniature (illuminated manuscript)
–
Miniature of seven physicians from the
Vienna Dioscurides, early 6th century.
Miniature (illuminated manuscript)
–
This lavishly decorated text that opens the
Gospel of John in the
Book of Kells, early 9th century, shows the
Insular style of illumination: decorative and not illustrative.
12.
Low Countries
–
Most of the Low Countries are coastal regions bounded by the North Sea or the English Channel. The countries without access to the sea have linked themselves politically and economically to those with access to one union of port. The Low Countries were the scene of the northern towns, newly built rather than developed from ancient centres. In that period, they rivaled northern Italy for the most densely populated region of Europe, all of the regions mainly depended on trade, manufacturing and the encouragement of the free flow of goods and craftsmen. Germanic languages such as Dutch and Luxembourgish were the predominant languages, secondary languages included French, Romance-speaking Belgium, the Romance Flanders, and Namur. Governor Mary of Hungary used both the expressions les pays de par deça and Pays dEmbas, which evolved to Pays-Bas or Low Countries, today the term is typically fitted to modern political boundaries and used in the same way as the term Benelux, which also includes Luxembourg. The name of the country the Netherlands has the same meaning. The same name of countries can be found in other European languages, for example German Niederlande, French, les Pays-Bas, and so on. In the Dutch language itself no plural is used for the name of the modern country, so Nederland is used for the modern nation and de Nederlanden for the 16th century domains of Charles V. In Dutch, and to an extent in English, the Low Countries colloquially means the Netherlands and Belgium, sometimes the Netherlands. For example, a Derby der Lage Landen, is an event between Belgium and the Netherlands. Belgium was renamed only in 1830, after splitting from the Kingdom of the Netherlands, politically, before the Napoleonic wars, it was referred to as the Southern, Spanish or later Austrian Netherlands. It is still referred to as part of the low countries, the region politically had its origins in Carolingian empire, more precisely, most of it was within the Duchy of Lower Lotharingia. After the disintegration of Lower Lotharingia, the Low Countries were brought under the rule of various lordships until they came to be in the hands of the Valois Dukes of Burgundy. Hence, a part of the low countries came to be referred to as the Burgundian Netherlands also called the Seventeen Provinces up to 1581. Even after the secession of the autonomous Dutch Republic in the north. The Low Countries were part of the Roman provinces of Gallia Belgica, Germania Inferior and they were inhabited by Belgic and Germanic tribes. In the 4th and 5th century, Frankish tribes had entered this Roman region and they came to be ruled by the Merovingian dynasty, under which dynasty the southern part was re-Christianised
Low Countries
–
The Low Countries as seen from space with modern day boundaries drawn in thin blue.
13.
Peasants
–
A peasant is a member of a traditional class of farmers, either laborers or owners of small farms, especially in the Middle Ages under feudalism, or more generally, in any pre-industrial society. In Europe, peasants were divided into three classes according to their status, slave, serf, and free tenant. Peasants either hold title to land in fee simple, or hold land by any of several forms of tenure, among them socage, quit-rent, leasehold. The implication of the term is that the peasant is uneducated, ignorant, the word peasant is also commonly used in a non-pejorative sense as a collective noun for the rural population in the poor and under-developed countries of the world. The word peasant is derived from the 15th century French word païsant, meaning one from the pays, or countryside, ultimately from the Latin pagus, Peasants typically made up the majority of the agricultural labour force in a pre-industrial society. The majority of the people in the Middle Ages were peasants, more generally, the word peasant is sometimes used to refer pejoratively to those considered to be lower class, perhaps defined by poorer education and/or a lower income. The open field system of agriculture dominated most of northern Europe during medieval times, under this system, peasants lived on a manor presided over by a lord or a bishop of the church. Peasants paid rent or labor services to the lord in exchange for their right to cultivate the land, fallowed land, pastures, forests, and wasteland were held in common. The open field system required cooperation among the peasants of the manor and it was gradually replaced by individual ownership and management of land. This process happened in a pronounced and truncated way in Eastern Europe. Lacking any catalysts for change in the 14th century, Eastern European peasants largely continued upon the original medieval path until the 18th and 19th centuries, even before emancipation in 1861, serfdom was on the wane in Russia. The proportion of serfs within the empire had decreased from 45-50 percent at the end of the eighteenth century. In Germany, peasants continued to center their lives in the well into the 19th century. They belonged to a body and helped to manage the community resources. In the East they had the status of serfs bound permanently to parcels of land, a peasant is called a Bauer in German and Bur in Low German. In most of Germany, farming was handled by tenant farmers who paid rents, Peasant leaders supervised the fields and ditches and grazing rights, maintained public order and morals, and supported a village court which handled minor offenses. Inside the family the patriarch made all the decisions, and tried to arrange marriages for his children. Much of the communal life centered on church services and holy days
Peasants
–
Young women offer berries to visitors to their
izba home, 1909. Those who had been
serfs among the Russian peasantry were officially
emancipated in 1861. Photograph by
Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky.
Peasants
–
A farm in 1794
Peasants
–
" Feiernde Bauern " ("Celebrating Peasants"), artist unknown, 18th or 19th century
Peasants
–
Portrait sculpture of 18th-century French peasants by artist
George S. Stuart, in the permanent collection of the Museum of Ventura County,
Ventura,
California
14.
John II of France
–
John II, called John the Good, was a monarch of the House of Valois who ruled as King of France from 1350 until his death. While John was a prisoner in London, his son Charles became regent and faced several rebellions, to liberate his father, he concluded the Treaty of Brétigny, by which France lost many territories and paid an enormous ransom. In an exchange of hostages, which included his second son Louis, Duke of Anjou, when John was informed that Louis had escaped from captivity, he voluntarily returned to England, where he died in 1364. He was succeeded by his son Charles V, John was nine years old when his father had himself crowned as Philip VI of France. Initially a marriage with Eleanor of Woodstock, sister of King Edward III of England, was considered, Bohemia had aspirations to control Lombardy and needed French diplomatic support. The military clauses stipulated that, in the event of war, the political clauses ensured that the Lombard crown would not be disputed if the king of Bohemia managed to obtain it. Philip selected Bonne of Bohemia as a wife for his son, as she was closer to child-bearing age, and the dowry was fixed at 120,000 florins. John reached the age of majority,13 years and one day, on 27 April 1332, the wedding was celebrated on 28 July at the church of Notre-Dame in Melun in the presence of six thousand guests. The festivities were prolonged by a two months when the young groom was finally knighted at the cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris. Upon his accession as Duke of Normandy in 1332, John had to deal with the reality that most of the Norman nobility was already allied with the English camp, effectively, Normandy depended economically more on maritime trade across the English Channel than on river trade on the Seine. The Duchy had not been English for 150 years, but many landowners had holdings across the Channel, consequently, to line up behind one or other sovereign risked confiscation. Therefore, Norman members of the nobility were governed as interdependent clans and it was split into two key camps, the counts of Tancarville and the counts of Harcourt, which had been in conflict for generations. King Philip, worried about the richest area of the breaking into bloodshed, ordered the bailiffs of Bayeux. Geoffroy dHarcourt raised troops against the king, rallying a number of nobles protective of their autonomy, the rebels demanded that Geoffroy be made duke, thus guaranteeing the autonomy granted by the charter. Royal troops took the castle at Saint-Sauveur-le-Vicomte and Geoffroy was exiled to Brabant, three of his companions were decapitated in Paris on 3 April 1344. In 1342, John was in Avignon at the coronation of Pope Clement VI, by 1345, increasing numbers of Norman rebels had begun to pay homage to Edward III, constituting a major threat to the legitimacy of the Valois kings. The defeat at the Battle of Crécy on 26 August 1346, defections by the nobility, whose land fell within the broad economic influence of England, particularly in the north and west, increased. Consequently, King Philip VI decided to seek a truce, Duke John met Geoffroy dHarcourt, to whom the king agreed to return all confiscated goods, even appointing him sovereign captain in Normandy
John II of France
–
Portrait of John painted on wood panel around 1350,
Louvre Museum
John II of France
–
A denier d'Or aux fleurs de lys from John's reign (1351)
John II of France
–
John II ennobling his knights, BNF
John II of France
–
The first
Franc ever minted, the "Franc à cheval", was minted upon Jean le Bon's return from captivity from 5 December 1360, and featured combative imagery. Gold, 24
karat, 3.73g. It conveniently coincided with the account value of one
livre tournois.
15.
Saint Chapelle
–
Begun some time after 1238 and consecrated on 26 April 1248, the Sainte-Chapelle is considered among the highest achievements of the Rayonnant period of Gothic architecture. It was commissioned by King Louis IX of France to house his collection of Passion relics, along with the Conciergerie, the Sainte-Chapelle is one of the earliest surviving buildings of the Capetian royal palace on the Île de la Cité. Although damaged during the French Revolution, and restored in the 19th century, the relics arrived in Paris in August 1239, carried from Venice by two Dominican friars. For the final stage of their journey they were carried by the King himself, barefoot and dressed as a penitent, the relics were stored in a large and elaborate silver chest, the Grand-Chasse, on which Louis spent a further 100,000 livres. The entire chapel, by contrast, cost 40,000 livres to build, until it was completed in 1248, the relics were housed at chapels at the Château de Vincennes and a specially built chapel at the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye. In 1246, fragments of the True Cross and the Holy Lance were added to Louis collection, the chapel was consecrated on 26 April 1248 and Louis relics were moved to their new home with great ceremony. As well as serving as a place of worship, the Sainte-Chapelle played an important role in the political and cultural ambitions of King Louis and his successors. Just as the Emperor could pass privately from his palace into the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, the royal chapel is a prime example of the phase of Gothic architectural style called Rayonnant, marked by its sense of weightlessness and strong vertical emphasis. It stands squarely upon a lower chapel, which served as church for all the inhabitants of the palace. The king was recognized as a saint by the Catholic Church. The internal division into upper and lower chapels is clearly marked on the outside by a string-course, despite its decoration, the exterior is relatively simple and austere, devoid of flying buttresses or major sculpture and giving little hint of the richness within. No designer-builder is named in the archives concerned with the construction, modern scholarship rejects this attribution in favour of Jean de Chelles or Thomas de Cormont, while Robert Branner saw in the design the hand of an unidentified master mason from Amiens. As has often been argued however the influence on its overall design seems to have come from contemporary metalwork. The Parisian palatine chapel, built to house a reliquary, was itself like a precious reliquary turned inside out, although the interior is dominated by the stained glass, every inch of the remaining wall surface and the vault was also richly coloured and decorated. Above the dado level, mounted on the shafts that separate the great windows, are 12 larger-than-life-sized sculpted stone figures representing the 12 Apostles. Each carries a disk marked with the crosses that were traditionally marked on the pillars of a church at its consecration. Niches on the north and south sides of the chapel are the private oratories of the king and of his mother, fifteen huge mid-13th-century windows fill the nave and apse, while a large rose window with Flamboyant tracery dominates the western wall. Despite some damage the windows display a clear iconographical programme, the three windows of the eastern apse illustrate the New Testament, featuring scenes of The Passion with the Infancy of Christ and the Life of John the Evangelist
Saint Chapelle
–
Sainte-Chapelle, upper level interior
Saint Chapelle
–
The Sainte-Chapelle rises above the rooflines of the royal palace. Miniature by the
Limbourg brothers, ca 1400
Saint Chapelle
–
View of the chapel from approximate position of the Palace gateway (lower parts obscured by much later buildings)
Saint Chapelle
–
Stained Glass Interior
16.
Belles Heures of Jean de France, Duc de Berry
–
The Belles Heures is one of the most celebrated manuscripts of the Middle Ages and very few books of hours are as richly decorated as it. Although including all the elements that other books of hours contain, furthermore, the Belles Heures contains a series of story-like cycles that read like picture books. Along with the Très Riches Heures, which was made for Jean. The manuscript is now in The Cloisters in New York, during the time that the Duke of Berry lived, France was an unsettled country, ravaged by the Hundred Years War and the Black Death, and further disrupted by revolts and rebellions. France was divided by a rivalry between the Burgundians and the Armagnacs and also had a king, Charles VI, which left the crown in contention. Despite the unstable situation in France, the Duke of Berry, uncle of Charles VI, built many castles, the Duke was renowned for his acquisition and commission of manuscripts and held one of the largest and most varied collections of his age. He was a patron and a collector of books. Berry employed the young brothers Herman, Paul, and Jean Limbourg as illuminators in 1404 following the death of their patron, his brother Philip the Bold. The Belles Heures is larger than the Très Riches Heures and it is known to have been created for Jean de Berry because it has an inscription by Jean Flamel, the duke’s scribe, stating the commissioner as Prince John. Furthermore, numerous times throughout the Belles Heures, the Duke of Berry’s heraldry, emblem, also, because of the private nature of the book, the artists included many depictions of the Duke of Berry within the manuscript itself. Confirmation of the artists who created the manuscript cannot be found in existing documents, however, the work is attributed to Paul, Herman, and Jean de Limbourg as well as probably a number of assistants. Scholars believe that the relationship in style and illustrations between the Belles Heures and the Très Riches Heures is an indication of who created the work. Further support comes as documentation of a payment received by Paul from the Duke and this coincides with the understanding that Paul de Limbourg was employed by the Duke de Berry around the year 1409. The manuscript remained in the possession of Berry until his death in 1416, afterwards it was purchased by Yolande of Aragon, Duchess of Anjou. In 1954 it was purchased by J. D. Rockefeller Jr. from the Baron Maurice Rothschild with the intention that it be given to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. The Belles Heures remains the only book from the hand of the Limbourgs. It contains 224 folios,94 full-page and 54 column illustrations, as well as calendar vignettes, the illustrations appear as fresh as the artists “left them when they finished their task and cleaned their brushes five hundred and forty-odd years ago”. Berry only wanted the best, thus only the best vellum would have been used, because of the private nature of the Belles Heures, little to no restoration is evident
Belles Heures of Jean de France, Duc de Berry
–
Illuminated manuscript page illustrating the
Annunciation from the Belles Heures du Duc de Berry.
Belles Heures of Jean de France, Duc de Berry
–
Crucifixion
Belles Heures of Jean de France, Duc de Berry
–
Detail of procession of flagellants
Belles Heures of Jean de France, Duc de Berry
–
Folio 1r with the elaborate
ex libris inscription
17.
Petites Heures of Jean de France, Duc de Berry
–
The Petites Heures of Jean de France, Duc de Berry is an illuminated book of hours commissioned by John, Duke of Berry between 1375 and 1385–90. It is known for its ornate miniature leaves and border decorations, several artists were employed in the production. It was completed in two stages, each with a distinctive style. The earlier leaves were painted by artists influenced by Jean Pucelle, because of this, the Petites Heures exemplifies the rupture in style that occurred in French illumination in the final two decades of the fourteenth century. A high-resolution facsimile was published in 1988, with monographs by Avril, Dunlop, Jean de Berry commissioned six books of hours between 1375 and 1416. The first, the Petites Heures, contains 182 miniatures, work started c.1375 but was interrupted in 1380 and the book was not completed until 1385–90. It is now housed at the Bibliothèque nationale de France under the reference ms. lat, the limner Jean Le Noir, a pupil of Jean Pucelle, started work on the illuminations. By the time of his death in 1380, only nine miniatures had been completed, four small miniatures have been attributed to the one whom Meiss designates as the Fifth Master. A single page by the Limbourg brothers, the Duke of Berry Setting off on a Trip, was added to the manuscript around 1412. His characteristics have been described as cool, dusty colours. Jacquemart de Hesdin worked on the Hours of the Virgin, characteristics are a representation of space influenced by Italian painting and a more realistic rendering of reality based on collaboration with Jan Boudolf of Bruges. The styles of Jacquemart de Hesdin and Pseudo-Jacquemart are very similar because they worked together for more than 20 years, the latter has been described as copying the style of others rather than being creative. The duke commissioned the Petites Heures around the time as his older brother Charles V acquired the Savoy Hours. To the Savoy Hours, Charles added a new cover with jeweled clasps, further texts, in the Petites Heures Berry pays homage to his parents, Jean the Good and Bonne of Luxembourg, through instructive prayers and texts copied from their respective books. Duke of Berry Setting off on a Trip is established as by the Limbourg brothers, I was perhaps intended as a talisman, Husband notes that the duke is clearly an older man, the angels guidance may not be entirely bound to the earthly realm. The Tale of the Three Dead and the Three Living is a common form of memento mori. Berry, veritably obsessed with self-display, associates himself with the tale in several of his commissions, the text is copied from his mothers psalter. Prefaced as a moult merueilleuse et horrible histoire it describes an encounter between three men and three dead men in different stages of decomposition
Petites Heures of Jean de France, Duc de Berry
–
Illumination of the Petites Heures
18.
Bedford Master
–
The Bedford Master was an manuscript illuminator active in Paris during the fifteenth century. He is named for the work he did on two books illustrated for John of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Bedford between 1415 and 1435. One is the Bedford Hours, a book of hours in the British Library, the other, another manuscript is in the Royal Collection. The Bedford Master is known to have been the head of a workshop, a Master of the Bedford Trend has also been attributed with some works. For John, Duke of Bedford, Bedford Hours, British Library, MS18850 Salisbury Breviary, BnF, MS Lat.17294 Hours of John Sobieski, Royal Collection, in part Pontifical of Poitiers, now lost Hours and Psalter, British Library, Add
Bedford Master
–
Page from the
Bedford Hours, 1423, illumination on parchment, 41 cm × 28 cm.
British Library.
19.
Charles I of Savoy
–
Charles I, surnamed the Warrior, was the Duke of Savoy from 1482 to 1490 and titular king of Cyprus, Jerusalem, and Armenia from 1485 to 1490. He was son of Amadeus IX, Duke of Savoy and Yolande of Valois, Charles was related in two ways to the childless Queen Charlotte of Cyprus, titular Queen of Armenia and Jerusalem. Charlotte however was without a kingdom, having been exiled in the 1460s from her own kingdom of Cyprus by her illegitimate half-brother. The kingdom itself was held by the republic of Venice, and he married Blanche Palaiologina, daughter of William VIII, Marquess of Montferrat, who after Charless death was the regent of the Duchy of Savoy from 1490 to 1496. Yolande Louise of Savoy, married Philibert II of Savoy
Charles I of Savoy
–
Coat of Arms of the Counts of Savoy
20.
Margaret of Austria, Duchess of Savoy
–
Archduchess Margaret of Austria, Princess of Asturias and Duchess of Savoy by her two marriages, was Governor of the Habsburg Netherlands from 1507 to 1515 and again from 1519 to 1530. Margaret was born on 10 January 1480, as the child and only daughter of Maximilian of Austria and Mary of Burgundy. She was named after her stepgrandmother, Margaret of York, Dowager Duchess of Burgundy, who was especially close to Duchess Mary. In 1482, Margarets mother died and her brother, Philip the Handsome. In 1482, her father and the King Louis XI of France signed the Treaty of Arras, the engagement took place in 1483. Margaret, with Franche-Comté and Artois as her dowry, was transferred to the guardianship of King Louis XI of France and she was educated at the French royal court and prepared for her future role as queen of France. She was raised as a fille de France by Madame de Segré, under the supervision of her fiancés sister and regent, several French noble children had their education overseen by Anne as well, amongst which Louise of Savoy, with whom she would later negotiate peace. Margaret developed genuine affection for Charles, however, in the autumn of 1491, he renounced the treaty and married Margarets stepmother Anne, Duchess of Brittany, for political reasons. The French court had ceased treating Margaret as queen early in 1491, the Duchess of Brittany had been married to Margarets father by proxy but their marriage was annulled. Margaret was not returned to her stepgrandmothers court until June 1493, Margaret was hurt by Charless action and was left with a feeling of enduring resentment towards France. Margaret left the Netherlands for Spain late in 1496, the marriage took place in 1497. John died after six months, on 4 October. Margaret was left pregnant, but on 2 April 1498 she gave birth to a stillborn daughter. The Dowager Princess of Asturias returned to the Netherlands early in 1500, in 1501, Margaret married Philibert II, Duke of Savoy. This marriage was childless as well, and he died three years. A grief-stricken Margaret threw herself out of a window, but was saved, after being persuaded to bury her husband, she had his heart enbalmed so she could keep it with her forever. She vowed never to marry again and her court historian and poet Jean Lemaire de Belges gave her the title Dame de deuil. During a remarkably successful career lasting from 1506 until her death in 1530, after the early death of her brother Philip of Spain, in November 1506 she became the only woman elected as its ruler by the representative assembly of Franche-Comté
Margaret of Austria, Duchess of Savoy
–
Portrait of Margaret as a widow painted by
Bernard van Orley
Margaret of Austria, Duchess of Savoy
–
Portrait of Margaret aged ten by
Jean Hey, c 1490
Margaret of Austria, Duchess of Savoy
–
Pieter van Coninxloo, Philip the Handsome and Margaret of Austria, c 1493-5. Betrothal
diptych, Oil on oak panels, each 23.8cm x 16.5cm.
National Gallery, London.
Margaret of Austria, Duchess of Savoy
–
Engraving of Margaret of Austria
21.
Governor of the Habsburg Netherlands
–
The Governor or Governor-General ruled the Habsburg Netherlands as a representative of the Dukes of Burgundy, the Kings of Castile, and the Archdukes of Austria. Thereafter, the French revolutionaries occupied the Low Countries until 1815, the Emperor formally recognized the loss of these territories by the Treaty of Lunéville of 1801. At the Congress of Vienna, in 1815, the Low Countries were re-united in a union under the House of Orange-Nassau. In 1830, Belgium declared its independence, List of plenipotentiaries of Austrian Netherlands List of rulers of the Netherlands
Governor of the Habsburg Netherlands
–
William de Croÿ (1458-1521)
Governor of the Habsburg Netherlands
–
Margaret of Austria (1480-1530)
Governor of the Habsburg Netherlands
–
Mary of Austria (1505-1558)
Governor of the Habsburg Netherlands
–
Emmanuel Philibert of Savoy (1528-1580)
22.
Bookbinding
–
Bookbinding is the process of physically assembling a book from an ordered stack of paper sheets that are folded together into sections or sometimes left as a stack of individual sheets. The stack is then bound together along one edge by either sewing with thread through the folds or by a layer of flexible adhesive, for protection, the bound stack is either wrapped in a flexible cover or attached to stiff boards. Finally, a cover is adhered to the boards and a label with identifying information is attached to the covers along with additional decoration. Bookbinding is a trade that relies on basic operations of measuring, cutting. A finished book depends on a minimum of two dozen operations to complete but sometimes more than double that according to the specific style. All operations have an order and each one relies on accurate completion of the previous step with little room for back tracking. An extremely durable binding can be achieved by using the best hand techniques, Bookbinding combines skills from other trades such as paper and fabric crafts, leather work, model making, and graphic arts. It requires knowledge about numerous varieties of book structures along with all the internal and external details of assembly, a working knowledge of the materials involved is required. Bookbinding is a craft of great antiquity, and at the same time. The division between craft and industry is not so wide as might at first be imagined and it is interesting to observe that the main problems faced by the mass-production bookbinder are the same as those that confronted the medieval craftsman or the modern hand binder. Before the computer age, the bookbinding trade involved two divisions, second was Letterpress binding which deals with making new books intended to be read from and includes fine binding, library binding, edition binding, and publishers bindings. A result of the new bindings is a third division dealing with the repair, restoration, with the digital age, personal computers have replaced the pen and paper based accounting that used to drive most of the work in the stationery binding industry. There is a grey area between the two divisions. There are cases where the printing and binding jobs are combined in one shop, a step up to the next level of mechanization is determined by economics of scale until you reach production runs of ten thousand copies or more in a factory employing a dozen or more workers. The craft of bookbinding probably originated in India, where religious sutras were copied on to palm leaves with a metal stylus, the leaf was then dried and rubbed with ink, which would form a stain in the wound. The finished leaves were given numbers, and two long twines were threaded through each end through wooden boards, making a palm-leaf book, when the book was closed, the excess twine would be wrapped around the boards to protect the manuscript leaves. Buddhist monks took the idea through Afghanistan to China in the first century BC, similar techniques can also be found in ancient Egypt where priestly texts were compiled on scrolls and books of papyrus. Another version of bookmaking can be seen through the ancient Mayan codex, writers in the Hellenistic-Roman culture wrote longer texts as scrolls, these were stored in boxes or shelving with small cubbyholes, similar to a modern winerack
Bookbinding
–
A traditional bookbinder at work
Bookbinding
–
Bookbinders type holder
Bookbinding
–
The binding of a Chinese bamboo book (
Sun Tzu's The Art of War)
Bookbinding
–
9th Century Qur'an in
Reza Abbasi Museum
23.
Genoa
–
Genoa is the capital of the Italian region of Liguria and the sixth-largest city in Italy. In 2015,594,733 people lived within the administrative limits. As of the 2011 Italian census, the Province of Genoa, over 1.5 million people live in the wider metropolitan area stretching along the Italian Riviera. Genoa has been nicknamed la Superba due to its glorious past, part of the old town of Genoa was inscribed on the World Heritage List in 2006. The citys rich history in notably its art, music. It is the birthplace of Christopher Columbus, Niccolò Paganini, Giuseppe Mazzini, Genoa, which forms the southern corner of the Milan-Turin-Genoa industrial triangle of north-west Italy, is one of the countrys major economic centres. The city has hosted massive shipyards and steelworks since the 19th century, the Bank of Saint George, founded in 1407, is among the oldest in the world and has played an important role in the citys prosperity since the middle of the 15th century. Today a number of leading Italian companies are based in the city, including Fincantieri, Selex ES, Ansaldo Energia, Ansaldo STS, Edoardo Raffinerie Garrone, Piaggio Aerospace, the Genoa area has been inhabited since the fifth or fourth millennium BC. In ancient times this area was frequented and inhabited by Ligures, Phoenicians, Phocaeans, Greeks, and Etruscans. The city cemetery, dating from the 6th and 5th centuries BC, testifies to the occupation of the site by the Greeks, but the fine harbour probably saw use much earlier, perhaps by the Etruscans. In the 5th century BC was founded the first oppidum at the foot of the today called the Castle Hill which now is inside the medieval old town. The ancient Ligurian city was known as Stalia, so referred to by Artemidorus Ephesius and Pomponius Mela, Ligurian Stalia was overshadowed by the powerful Marseille and Vada Sabatia, near modern Savona. Stalia had an alliance with Rome through a foedus aequum in the course of the Second Punic War, the Carthaginians accordingly destroyed it in 209 BC. The town was rebuilt and, after the Carthaginian Wars ended in 146 BC. it received municipal rights, the original castrum thenceforth expanded towards the current areas of Santa Maria di Castello and the San Lorenzo promontory. Trades included skins, wood, and honey, goods were shipped to the mainland, up to major cities like Tortona and Piacenza. Among the archeological remains from the Roman period, an amphitheatre was also found, another theory traces the name to the Etruscan word Kainua which means New City and still another from the Latin word ianua, related to the name of the God Janus, meaning door or passage. The latter is in reference to its position at the centre of the Ligurian coastal arch. The Latin name, oppidum Genua, is recorded by Pliny the Elder as part of the Augustean Regio IX Liguria, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Ostrogoths occupied Genoa
Genoa
–
A collage of Genoa, clockwise from top left:
Torre della Lanterna,
Piazza de Ferrari, Galleria Mazzini, Brigata Liguria Street, view of San Teodoro from
Port of Genoa
Genoa
–
The Polcevera bronze tablet, evidence of the Roman and pre-Roman past of Genoa.
Genoa
–
Portrait of
Christopher Columbus by
Ridolfo Ghirlandaio
Genoa
–
The iconic
Lanterna, renaissance lighthouse of Genoa built in 1543
24.
Turin
–
Turin is a city and an important business and cultural centre in northern Italy, capital of the Piedmont region and was the first capital city of Italy. The city is located mainly on the bank of the Po River, in front of Susa Valley and surrounded by the western Alpine arch. The population of the city proper is 892,649 while the population of the area is estimated by Eurostat to be 1.7 million inhabitants. The Turin metropolitan area is estimated by the OECD to have a population of 2.2 million, in 1997 a part of the historical center of Torino was inscribed in the World Heritage List under the name Residences of the Royal House of Savoy. Turin is well known for its Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo, Neo-classical, many of Turins public squares, castles, gardens and elegant palazzi such as Palazzo Madama, were built between the 16th and 18th centuries. This was after the capital of the Duchy of Savoy was moved to Turin from Chambery as part of the urban expansion, the city used to be a major European political center. Turin was Italys first capital city in 1861 and home to the House of Savoy, from 1563, it was the capital of the Duchy of Savoy, then of the Kingdom of Sardinia ruled by the Royal House of Savoy and finally the first capital of the unified Italy. Turin is sometimes called the cradle of Italian liberty for having been the birthplace and home of notable politicians and people who contributed to the Risorgimento, such as Cavour. The city currently hosts some of Italys best universities, colleges, academies, lycea and gymnasia, such as the University of Turin, founded in the 15th century, in addition, the city is home to museums such as the Museo Egizio and the Mole Antonelliana. Turins attractions make it one of the worlds top 250 tourist destinations, Turin is ranked third in Italy, after Milan and Rome, for economic strength. With a GDP of $58 billion, Turin is the worlds 78th richest city by purchasing power, as of 2010, the city has been ranked by GaWC as a Gamma World city. Turin is also home to much of the Italian automotive industry, the Taurini were an ancient Celto-Ligurian Alpine people, who occupied the upper valley of the Po River, in the center of modern Piedmont. In 218 BC, they were attacked by Hannibal as he was allied with their long-standing enemies, the Taurini chief town was captured by Hannibals forces after a three-day siege. As a people they are mentioned in history. It is believed that a Roman colony was established in 27 BC under the name of Castra Taurinorum, both Livy and Strabo mention the Taurinis country as including one of the passes of the Alps, which points to a wider use of the name in earlier times. In the 1st century BC, the Romans created a military camp, the typical Roman street grid can still be seen in the modern city, especially in the neighborhood known as the Quadrilatero Romano. Via Garibaldi traces the path of the Roman citys decumanus which began at the Porta Decumani. The Porta Palatina, on the side of the current city centre, is still preserved in a park near the Cathedral
Turin
–
From top to bottom, left to right: panorama of the
Mole Antonelliana,
Valentino Park with the medieval village, Piazza Castello with Palazzo Reale and Palazzo Madama, San Carlo Plaza with the Caval ëd Bronz, the Arco Olimpico and the Lingotto, the sarcophagus of Oki at the
Egyptian Museum, a view of the hills, the
Po, the Gran Madre, the Monte of Cappuccini and
Palatine Towers.
Turin
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The Roman
Palatine Towers.
Turin
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Siege of Turin
Turin
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Turin in the 17th century.
25.
Milan
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Milan is a city in Italy, capital of the Lombardy region, and the most populous metropolitan area and the second most populous comune in Italy. The population of the city proper is 1,351,000, Milan has a population of about 8,500,000 people. It is the industrial and financial centre of Italy and one of global significance. In terms of GDP, it has the largest economy among European non-capital cities, Milan is considered part of the Blue Banana and lies at the heart of one of the Four Motors for Europe. Milan is an Alpha leading global city, with strengths in the arts, commerce, design, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, services, research, and tourism. Its business district hosts Italys Stock Exchange and the headquarters of the largest national and international banks, the city is a major world fashion and design capital, well known for several international events and fairs, including Milan Fashion Week and the Milan Furniture Fair. The city hosts numerous cultural institutions, academies and universities, with 11% of the national total enrolled students, Milans museums, theatres and landmarks attract over 9 million visitors annually. Milan – after Naples – is the second Italian city with the highest number of accredited stars from the Michelin Guide, the city hosted the Universal Exposition in 1906 and 2015. Milan is home to two of Europes major football teams, A. C. Milan and F. C. Internazionale, the etymology of Milan is uncertain. One theory holds that the Latin name Mediolanum comes from the Latin words medio, however, some scholars believe lanum comes from the Celtic root lan, meaning an enclosure or demarcated territory in which Celtic communities used to build shrines. Hence, Mediolanum could signify the central town or sanctuary of a Celtic tribe, indeed, the name Mediolanum is borne by about sixty Gallo-Roman sites in France, e. g. Saintes and Évreux. Alciato credits Ambrose for his account, around 400 BC, the Celtic Insubres settled Milan and the surrounding region. In 222 BC, the Romans conquered the settlement, renaming it Mediolanum, Milan was eventually declared the capital of the Western Roman Empire by Emperor Diocletian in 286 AD. Diocletian chose to stay in the Eastern Roman Empire and his colleague Maximianus ruled the Western one, immediately Maximian built several monuments, such as a large circus 470 m ×85 m, the Thermae Herculeae, a large complex of imperial palaces and several other buildings. With the Edict of Milan of 313, Emperor Constantine I guaranteed freedom of religion for Christians, after the city was besieged by the Visigoths in 402, the imperial residence was moved to Ravenna. In 452, the Huns overran the city, in 539, the Ostrogoths conquered and destroyed Milan during the Gothic War against Byzantine Emperor Justinian I. In the summer of 569, a Teutonic tribe, the Lombards, conquered Milan, some Roman structures remained in use in Milan under Lombard rule. Milan surrendered to the Franks in 774 when Charlemagne took the title of King of the Lombards, the Iron Crown of Lombardy dates from this period
Milan
–
Milan Cathedral,
La Scala opera house and
Porta Nuova business district
Milan
Milan
Milan
26.
Twickenham
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Twickenham is a leafy suburban area of south west London, on the River Thames in the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames 10 miles southwest of the centre of London. It has a town centre and is famous as being the home of rugby union, with hundreds of thousands of spectators visiting Twickenham Stadium. The historic riverside area is famous for its network of 18th-century buildings and pleasure grounds and this area has three grand period mansions with public access, York House, Marble Hill and Strawberry Hill House. Another has been lost, that belonging to 18th-century aphoristic poet Alexander Pope, excavations have revealed settlements in the area dating from the Early Neolithic, possibly Mesolithic periods. Occupation seems to have continued through the Bronze Age, the Iron Age, the area was first mentioned in an 8th-century charter to cede the area to Waldhere, Bishop of London, for the salvation of our souls. The charter, dated 13 June 704, is signed with 12 crosses, the signatories included Swaefred of Essex, Cenred of Mercia and Earl Paeogthath. In Norman times Twickenham was part of the Manor of Isleworth – itself part of the Hundred of Hounslow, Middlesex. The manor had belonged to Ælfgār, Earl of Mercia in the time of Edward the Confessor, the area was then farmed for several hundred years, while the river provided opportunities for fishing, boatbuilding and trade. Bubonic plague spread to the town in 1665 and 67 deaths were recorded and it appears that Twickenham had a pest house in the 17th century, although the location is not known. In 1633 construction began on York House and it was occupied by Edward Montagu, 2nd Earl of Manchester in 1656 and later by Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon. 1659 saw the first mention of the Twickenham Ferry, although ferrymen had already operating in the area for many generations. Sometime before 1743 a pirate ferry appears to have started by Twickenham inhabitants. There is speculation that it operated to serve The Folly, a floating hostelry of some kind, several residents wrote to the Lord Mayor of the City of London. In 1713 the nave of the ancient St Marys Church collapsed, the process generates an extremely unpleasant smell, which caused objections from local residents. The area was soon home to the worlds first industrial production facility for gunpowder. There were frequent explosions and loss of life, on 11 March 1758, one of two explosions was felt in Reading, Berkshire, and in April 1774 another explosion terrified people at church in Isleworth. In 1772 three mills blew up, shattering glass and buildings in the neighbourhood, the powder mills remained in operation until 1927 when they were closed. Much of the site is now occupied by Crane Park, in which the old Shot Tower, mill sluices, much of the area along the river next to the Shot Tower is now a nature reserve
Twickenham
–
Aerial view of
Twickenham Stadium (centre) and
Stoop Stadium (background) from the north in August 2015
Twickenham
–
The Thames at Twickenham c 1700, depicted by
Peter Tillemans
Twickenham
–
Alexander Pope 's villa
Twickenham
–
All Hallows Twickenham, as seen from the
A316
27.
Institut de France
–
The Institut de France is a French learned society, grouping five académies, the most famous of which is the Académie française. The Institute, located in Paris, manages approximately 1,000 foundations, as well as museums and it also awards prizes and subsidies, which amounted to a total of €5,028,190.55 for 2002. Most of these prizes are awarded by the Institute on the recommendation of the académies, the Institut de France was established on 25 October 1795, by the French government. Académie française – initiated 1635, suppressed 1793, restored 1803 as a division of the institute, Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres – initiated 1663. Académie des sciences – initiated 1666, the Royal Society of Canada, initiated 1882, was modeled after the Institut de France and the Royal Society of London
Institut de France
–
Institut de France, from the
pont des Arts
Institut de France
–
Cupola of the Institut de France
Institut de France
–
Henri Grégoire was a founding member of the Institut de France.
Institut de France
–
Esplanade in front of the Institut, 1898.
28.
Louis Philippe I
–
Louis Philippe I was King of the French from 1830 to 1848 as the leader of the Orléanist party. He spent 21 years in exile after he left France in 1793 and he was proclaimed king in 1830 after his cousin Charles X was forced to abdicate in the wake of the events of the July Revolution of that year. His government, known as the July Monarchy, was dominated by members of a wealthy French elite and he followed conservative policies, especially under the influence of the French statesman François Guizot during the period 1840–48. He also promoted friendship with Britain and sponsored colonial expansion, notably the conquest of Algeria and his popularity faded as economic conditions in France deteriorated in 1847, and he was forced to abdicate after the outbreak of the French Revolution of 1848. He lived out his life in exile in Great Britain, Louis Philippe was born in the Palais Royal, the residence of the Orléans family in Paris, to Louis Philippe, Duke of Chartres, and Louise Marie Adélaïde de Bourbon. As a member of the reigning House of Bourbon, he was a Prince of the Blood and his mother was an extremely wealthy heiress who was descended from Louis XIV of France through a legitimized line. Louis Philippe was the eldest of three sons and a daughter, a family that was to have erratic fortunes from the beginning of the French Revolution to the Bourbon Restoration. Louis Philippes father was exiled from the court, and the Orléans confined themselves to studies of the literature. Louis Philippe was tutored by the Countess of Genlis, beginning in 1782 and she instilled in him a fondness for liberal thought, it is probably during this period that Louis Philippe picked up his slightly Voltairean brand of Catholicism. When Louis Philippes grandfather died in 1785, his father succeeded him as Duke of Orléans, from October 1788 to October 1789, the Palais Royal was a meeting-place for the revolutionaries. Louis Philippe grew up in a period that changed Europe as a whole and, following his fathers support for the Revolution. In his diary, he reports that he took the initiative to join the Jacobin Club. In June 1791, Louis Philippe got his first opportunity to become involved in the affairs of France, in 1785, he had been given the hereditary appointment of Colonel of the 14th Regiment of Dragoons. With war on the horizon in 1791, all proprietary colonels were ordered to join their regiments, Louis Philippe showed himself to be a model officer, and he demonstrated his personal bravery in two famous instances. The young colonel broke through the crowd and extricated the two priests, who then fled, at a river crossing on the same day, another crowd threatened to harm the priests. Louis Philippe put himself between a peasant armed with a carbine and the priests, saving their lives, the next day, Louis Philippe dove into a river to save a drowning local engineer. For this action, he received a crown from the local municipality. His regiment was moved north to Flanders at the end of 1791 after the Declaration of Pillnitz, Louis Philippe served under his fathers crony, the Duke of Biron, along with several officers who later gained distinction in Napoleons empire and afterwards
Louis Philippe I
–
Louis Philippe I; Painting by
Franz Xaver Winterhalter
Louis Philippe I
–
The duke of Chartres (dismounted) and his brother, the
Duke of Montpensier (on horseback), in
dragoon uniform at the
battle of Valmy (1792).
Louis Philippe I
–
Ferdinand, Duke of Orléans
Louis Philippe I
–
Louise d'Orléans
.jpg)
