1.
Tractor unit
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A tractor unit is a characteristically heavy-duty towing engine that provides motive power for hauling a towed or trailered load. Tractor units typically have large displacement diesel engines for power, durability, and economy, several axles, the tractor-trailer combination distributes a load across multiple axles while being more maneuverable than an equivalently sized rigid truck. The most common trailer attachment system is a fifth wheel coupling, allowing rapid shift between trailers performing different functions, such as a bulk tipper and box trailer, trailers containing differing cargos can be rapidly swapped between tractors, eliminating downtime while a trailer is unloaded or loaded. Drawbar couplings are found, particularly in dedicated exceptionally heavy-duty ballast tractors. There have been three common cab configurations used in tractors, two are widely used. The conventional has an engine and hood over the front axle in front of the cab and this style is almost universal in North America. The cab over engine or cab forward has a flat nose cab with the sitting in front of the front axle. Widely used in the EU and Japan, this style has the advantages of good vision, maneuverability, in the North America this type of cab can be useful in straight trucks, but now has little advantage in tractors and is rarely used. A North American style cab over engine, now obsolete, had a flat nose cab located higher over the engine. This allowed a sleeper compartment in a tractor, and maximum wheelbase relative overall length. With the loosening of restrictions in 1982 this style had limited applications. In Australia both styles of cab over engine truck as well as conventionals are in common use, a tractor unit can have many axles depending on axle load legislation. The most common varieties are those of 4×2, 6×2 and 6×4 types, however, some manufacturers offer 6×6, 8×6, 8×8, 10×8, and 10×10 axle configurations. A 6×4 has three axles, normally an undriven front steer axle and the two axles driven. 6×4 units are common in long distance haulage in larger countries such as the United States. In Europe, the 4×2 and 6×2 variants are more commonplace, tractors with three axles or more can have more than one steering axle, which can also be driven. Most 6×2 units allow the rear axle to be raised when lightly loaded, or running without a trailer, to save tire wear, save toll road fees. The 8×8 units also have four axles, but with all of them driven, and 10×8 units have five axles with the rear four usually driven, all five axles of 10×10 units are driven
2.
Plough
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A plough or plow is a tool or farm implement used in farming for initial cultivation of soil in preparation for sowing seed or planting to loosen or turn the soil. Ploughs were traditionally drawn by working animals such as horses or cattle, a plough may be made of wood, iron, or steel frame with an attached blade or stick used to cut the earth. It has been an instrument for most of recorded history. The plough represents one of the major agricultural inventions in human history, as the plough is drawn through the soil it creates long trenches of fertile soil called furrows. In modern use, a field is typically left to dry out. Ploughing and cultivating a soil homogenises and modifies the upper 12 to 25 cm of the soil to form a plough layer, in many soils, the majority of fine plant feeder roots can be found in the topsoil or plough layer. Ploughs were initially human-powered, but the process became more efficient once animals were pressed into service. The first animal-powered ploughs were undoubtedly pulled by oxen, and later in areas by horses and mules. In industrialised countries, the first mechanical means of pulling a plough were steam-powered, modern competitions take place for ploughing enthusiasts like the National Ploughing Championships in Ireland. By not ploughing, beneficial fungi and microbial life can develop that will bring air into the soil, retain water. A healthy soil full of active fungi and microbial life, combined with a crop, suppresses weeds and pests naturally. Thus the intensive use of water-, oil- and energy hungry irrigation, fertilisers, cultivated land becomes more fertile and productive over time, while tilled land tends to go down in productivity over time due to erosion and the removal of nutrients with every harvest. Proponents of permaculture claim that it is the way of farming that can be maintained when fossil fuel runs out. The term plough or plow, as used today, was not common until 1700, the modern word plough comes from Old Norse plógr, and therefore Germanic, but it appears relatively late, and is thought to be a loanword from one of the north Italic languages. Words with the same root appeared with related meanings, in Raetic plaumorati wheeled heavy plough, and in Latin plaustrum farm cart, plōstrum, plōstellum cart, and plōxenum, plōximum cart box. The word must have referred to the wheeled heavy plough. Orel tentatively attaches plough to a PIE stem *blōkó-, which gave Armenian peɫem to dig and Welsh bwlch crack, on modern ploughs and some older ploughs, the mouldboard is separate from the share and runner, so these parts can be replaced without replacing the mouldboard. Abrasion eventually destroys all parts of a plough that come into contact with the soil, digging sticks, hoes, and mattocks were not invented in any one place, and hoe-cultivation must have been common everywhere agriculture was practiced
3.
Slovenia
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Slovenia, officially the Republic of Slovenia, is a nation state in southern Central Europe, located at the crossroads of main European cultural and trade routes. It is bordered by Italy to the west, Austria to the north, Hungary to the northeast, Croatia to the south and southeast, and it covers 20,273 square kilometers and has a population of 2.06 million. It is a republic and a member of the United Nations, European Union. The capital and largest city is Ljubljana, additionally, the Dinaric Alps and the Pannonian Plain meet on the territory of Slovenia. The country, marked by a significant biological diversity, is one of the most water-rich in Europe, with a river network, a rich aquifer system. Over half of the territory is covered by forest, the human settlement of Slovenia is dispersed and uneven. Slovenia has historically been the crossroads of South Slavic, Germanic, Romance, although the population is not homogeneous, the majority is Slovene. South Slavic language Slovene is the language throughout the country. Slovenia is a largely secularized country, but its culture and identity have been influenced by Catholicism as well as Lutheranism. The economy of Slovenia is small, open, and export-oriented and has strongly influenced by international conditions. It has been hurt by the Eurozone crisis, started in the late 2000s. The main economic field is services, followed by industry and construction, Historically, the current territory of Slovenia was part of many different state formations, including the Roman Empire and the Holy Roman Empire, followed by the Habsburg Monarchy. In October 1918, the Slovenes exercised self-determination for the first time by co-founding the State of Slovenes, Croats, in December 1918, they merged with the Kingdom of Serbia into the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. During World War II, Slovenia was occupied and annexed by Germany, Italy, and Hungary, with a tiny area transferred to the Independent State of Croatia, in June 1991, after the introduction of multi-party representative democracy, Slovenia split from Yugoslavia and became an independent country. Present-day Slovenia has been inhabited since prehistoric times, and there is evidence of habitation from around 250,000 years ago. A pierced cave bear bone, dating from 43100 ±700 BP, in the 1920s and 1930s, artifacts belonging to the Cro-Magnon such as pierced bones, bone points, and needle were found by archaeologist Srečko Brodar in Potok Cave. It shows that wooden wheels appeared almost simultaneously in Mesopotamia and Europe, in the transition period between the Bronze age to the Iron age, the Urnfield culture flourished. Archaeological remains dating from the Hallstatt period have been found, particularly in southeastern Slovenia, among them a number of situlas in Novo Mesto, in the Iron Age, present-day Slovenia was inhabited by Illyrian and Celtic tribes until the 1st century BC
4.
Mahindra Tractors
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Mahindra Tractors is an international farm equipment manufacturer of Mahindra & Mahindra. In 2010, Mahindra became the largest selling tractor brand name in the world, mahindras largest consumer base is in India, China, North America and a growing base in Australia. The company is the largest manufacturer in India and has the capacity to build 150,000 tractors a year, in 1963, M&M formed a joint venture with International Harvester to manufacture tractors carrying the Mahindra nameplate for the Indian market. M&M developed its first tractor, the B-275, Mahindra Tractors sold about 85,000 units annually making it one of the largest tractor producers in the world. To expand into the tractor market in China, Mahindra acquired majority stake in Jiangling. The car was driven by Robert Richardson Jr. Mahindra USA, Inc. announced a 17-race primary, with this sponsorship, Mahindra was the first Indian company to sponsor a car in NASCAR. In 2008, Mahindra was a sponsor of the McDonald Motorsports team which ran the #81 car in the NASCAR Nationwide Series, Mahindra operates in China, North America and Australia through its subsidiaries, Jiangling, Mahindra USA and Mahindra Australia. It also operates in some Indian states through its subsidiaries Mahindra Gujarat, Mahindra Tractors is number one in sales in India - the largest tractor market in the world - and it has been the market leader since 1983. Its sales are predominantly in the states of Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab, Maharashtra and its sales in Gujarat are under the label Mahindra Gujarat and its sales in Punjab are under the label Swaraj. In 1999, Mahindra purchased 100% of Gujarat Tractors from the Government of Gujarat. Mahindra Tractors started manufacturing 15HP tractor under the brand name Yuvraj in Rajkot in 2011. The plant in Rajkot is set up jointly by Deepak Diesel Pvt Ltd, the plant has a maximum capacity of 30000 tractors per annum. In 1994, the company entered the American market as Mahindra USA, it has a sales, Mahindra USA, a subsidiary of Mahindra Tractors, is responsible for sales in North America. Mahindra has three plants in the US -- one at its North American headquarters in Houston, Texas, another in Red Bluff, California and one in Chattanooga. In August 2012, Mahindra USA opened its fourth assembly and distribution center in Bloomsburg, in 2014, Mahindra USA opened its fifth assembly and distribution center in Lyons, Kansas. In addition to building their own tractors, Mahindra also sources tractors from other manufacturers, for the USA market, Mahindra has purchased their core products from Tong Yang Moolsan, one of the top tractor manufacturers in South Korea, to cover selected product ranges. Based in Brisbane, Mahindra Australia is a branch of Mahindra & Mahindra Ltd, in 2005, the company entered the Australian market with the launch of its assembly & customer support centre in Acacia Ridge, QLD. Currently, the products are sold and serviced by 40 dealers throughout Australia. Mahindra Australia is also responsible for sales in New Zealand and the rest of Australasia, the Companys products are distributed in Fiji by Carpenters Motors
5.
Punjab, India
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Punjab is a state in North India, forming part of the larger Punjab region. The state capital is located in Chandigarh, a Union Territory, after the partition of India in 1947, the Punjab province of British India was divided between India and Pakistan. The Indian Punjab was divided on the basis of language in 1966 and it was divided into 3 parts. Haryanvi speaking areas were carved out as Haryana, Hilly regions, Punjab is the only Sikh majority state in India with Sikhs being 57. 69% of the population. Agriculture is the largest industry in Punjab, Punjab has the largest number of steel rolling mill plants in India, which are located in Steel Town—Mandi Gobindgarh in the Fatehgarh Sahib district. The word Punjab is a compound of the Persian words panj, thus Panjāb roughly means the land of five rivers. The five rivers are the Sutlej, Beas, Ravi, Chenab, traditionally, in English, there used to be a definite article before the name, i. e. The name is sometimes spelled as Panjab. During the period when the epic Mahabharata was written, around 800–400 BCE, Punjab was known as Trigarta, the Indus Valley Civilization spanned much of the Punjab region with cities such as Rupar. The Vedic Civilization spread along the length of the Sarasvati River to cover most of northern India including Punjab and this civilisation shaped subsequent cultures in the Indian subcontinent. The Punjab region was conquered by many ancient empires including the Gandhara, Nandas, Mauryas, Shungas, Kushans, Guptas, Palas, Gurjara-Pratiharas, the furthest eastern extent of Alexander the Greats exploration was along the Indus River. Agriculture flourished and trading cities such as Jalandhar, Sangrur and Ludhiana grew in wealth, due to its location, the Punjab region came under constant attack and influence from both west and east. Punjab faced invasions by the Achaemenids, Greeks, Scythians, Turks and this resulted in the Punjab witnessing centuries of bitter bloodshed. Its culture combines Hindu, Buddhist, Islamic, Sikh and British influences, the regions of Azad Kashmir and Jammu have also been historically associated with the Punjab. The Punjab is the Sapta Sindhu region mentioned in the Rig Veda, among the classic books that were wholly or partly composed in this region are the following. The Brahmins of this region are called Saraswata after the legendary Saraswati river region, Hinduism has been prevalent in Punjab since historical times before the arrival of Islam and birth of Sikhism in Punjab. Some of the influential Sikh figures such as Guru Nanak, Banda Singh Bahadur, Bhai Mati Das, many of Punjabs Hindus converted to Sikhism. Punjabi Hindus can trace their roots from the time of the Vedas, many modern day cities in Indian Punjab and Pakistani Punjab are still named from that period like Lahore, Jalandhar, Chandigarh and so on
6.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
7.
Waterville, Maine
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Waterville is a city in Kennebec County of the U. S. state of Maine, United States, on the west bank of the Kennebec River. Home to Colby College and Thomas College, the population was 15,722 at the 2010 census, Waterville is also the second city which makes up the Augusta-Waterville, ME Micropolitan Statistical Area. Waterville has a Mayor and council-manager form of government, led by a mayor, the city council is the governing board, and the city manager is the chief administrative officer of the City, responsible for the management of all City affairs.3 FM. The film Wet Hot American Summer is set in Waterville, the area now known as Waterville was once inhabited by the Canibas tribe of Abenaki Indians. Called Taconnet after Chief Taconnet, the village was located on the east bank of the Kennebec River at its confluence with the Sebasticook River at what is now Winslow. Known as Ticonic by English settlers, it was burned in 1692 during King Williams War, fort Halifax was built by General John Winslow in 1754, and the last skirmish with Indians occurred on May 18,1757. The township would be organized as Kingfield Plantation, then incorporated as Winslow in 1771, when residents on the west side of the Kennebec found themselves unable to cross the river to attend town meetings, Waterville was set off from Winslow and incorporated on June 23,1802. In 1824 a bridge was built joining the communities, early industries included fishing, lumbering, agriculture and ship building, with larger boats launched in spring during freshets. By the early 1900s, there were five shipyards in the community, Ticonic Falls blocked navigation farther upriver, so Waterville developed as the terminus for trade and shipping. The Kennebec River and Messalonskee Stream provided water power for mills, including sawmills, a gristmill, a sash and blind factory, a furniture factory. There was also a carriage and sleigh factory, boot shop, brickyard, on September 27,1849, the Androscoggin and Kennebec Railroad opened to Waterville. It would become part of the Maine Central Railroad, which in 1870 established locomotive, west Waterville was set off as a town in 1873. Waterville was incorporated as a city on January 12,1888, the Ticonic Water Power & Manufacturing Company was formed in 1866 and soon built a dam across the Kennebec. After a change of ownership in 1873, the company began construction on what would become the Lockwood Manufacturing Company, a second mill was added, and by 1900 the firm dominated the riverfront and employed 1,300 workers. Lockwood Mills survived until the mid-1950s, rebuilt in 1903, it would be called the Two Cent Bridge because of its toll. In 1902, the Beaux-Arts style City Hall and Opera House designed by George Gilman Adams was dedicated, in 2002, the C. F. Waterville also developed as an educational center. In 1813, The Maine Literary and Theological Institution was established and it would be renamed Waterville College in 1821, then Colby College in 1867. Thomas College was established in 1894, the first public high school was built in 1877, while the current Waterville Senior High School was built in 1961
8.
Maine
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Maine is the northernmost state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. Maine is the 39th most extensive and the 41st most populous of the U. S. states and territories and it is bordered by New Hampshire to the west, the Atlantic Ocean to the east, and the Canadian provinces of New Brunswick and Quebec to the north. Maine is the easternmost state in the contiguous United States, and it is known for its jagged, rocky coastline, low, rolling mountains, heavily forested interior, and picturesque waterways, and also its seafood cuisine, especially clams and lobster. There is a continental climate throughout the state, even in areas such as its most populous city of Portland. For thousands of years, indigenous peoples were the inhabitants of the territory that is now Maine. At the time of European arrival in what is now Maine, the first European settlement in the area was by the French in 1604 on Saint Croix Island, by Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons. The first English settlement was the short-lived Popham Colony, established by the Plymouth Company in 1607, as Maine entered the 18th century, only a half dozen European settlements had survived. Loyalist and Patriot forces contended for Maines territory during the American Revolution, Maine was part of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts until 1820, when it voted to secede from Massachusetts to become an independent state. On March 15,1820, it was admitted to the Union as the 23rd state under the Missouri Compromise, there is no definitive explanation for the origin of the name Maine, but the most likely origin is the name given by early explorers after a province in France. Whatever the origin, the name was fixed for English settlers in 1665 when the English Kings Commissioners ordered that the Province of Maine be entered from then on in official records. The state legislature in 2001 adopted a resolution establishing Franco-American Day, other theories mention earlier places with similar names, or claim it is a nautical reference to the mainland. Attempts to uncover the history of the name of Maine began with James Sullivans 1795 History of the District of Maine. He made the allegation that the Province of Maine was a compliment to the queen of Charles I, Henrietta Maria. MAINE appears in the Domesday Book of 1086 in reference to the county of Dorset, the view generally held among British place name scholars is that Mayne in Dorset is Brythonic, corresponding to modern Welsh maen, plural main or meini. Some early spellings are, MAINE1086, MEINE1200, MEINES1204, mason had served with the Royal Navy in the Orkney Islands where the chief island is called Mainland, a possible name derivation for these English sailors. Initially, several tracts along the coast of New England were referred to as Main or Maine, Maine is the only state whose name has exactly one syllable. The original inhabitants of the territory that is now Maine were Algonquian-speaking Wabanaki peoples, including the Abenaki, Passamaquoddy, Maliseet and Penobscot, who had a loose confederacy. European contact with what is now called Maine started around 1200 CE when Norwegians interacted with the native Penobscot in present-day Hancock County, most likely through trade
9.
Augusta, Maine
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Augusta is the capital of the U. S. state of Maine and the county seat of Kennebec County. The citys population was 19,136 at the 2010 census, making it the third-smallest state capital, located on the Kennebec River at the head of tide, Augusta is home to the University of Maine at Augusta. Augusta is also the city in the Augusta-Waterville, ME Micropolitan Statistical Area. The area was first explored by the ill-fated Popham Colony in September 1607 and it was first inhabited by English settlers from the Plymouth Colony in 1629 as a trading post on the Kennebec River. The settlement was known by its Indian name—Cushnoc, meaning head of tide, fur trading was at first profitable, but with Indian uprisings and declining revenues, the Plymouth Colony sold the Kennebec Patent in 1661. Cushnoc would remain unoccupied for the next 75 years and this area was inhabited by the Canibas Indians. During the 17th century they were on terms with the English settlers in the region. A hotbed of Abenaki hostility toward British settlements was located further up the Kennebec at Norridgewock, in 1722, the tribe and its allies attacked Fort Richmond and destroyed Brunswick. In response, Norridgewock was sacked in 1724 during Dummers War, in 1754, a blockhouse named Fort Western, was built at Cushnoc on the eastern bank. It was intended as a depot for Fort Halifax upriver. In 1775, Benedict Arnold and his 1,100 troops would use Fort Western as an area before continuing their journey up the Kennebec to the Battle of Quebec. Cushnoc was incorporated as part of Hallowell in 1771, known as the Fort, it was set off and incorporated by the Massachusetts General Court in February 1797 as Harrington. In August, however, the changed to Augusta after Augusta Dearborn. In 1799, it became county seat for newly created Kennebec County, Maine became a state in 1820 and Augusta was designated its capital in 1827. The Maine State Legislature continued meeting in Portland, however, until completion in 1832 of the new Maine State House designed by Charles Bulfinch, Augusta was chartered as a city in 1849. After being named the capital and the introduction of new industry. In 1840 and 1850, the city ranked among the 100 largest urban populations, the next decade, however, the city was quickly bypassed by rapidly growing metropolises in the Midwest. Excellent soil provided for agriculture, and water power from streams provided for industry, in 1837, a dam was built across the Kennebec where the falls drop 15 feet at the head of tide
10.
Heavy equipment
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Heavy equipment refers to heavy-duty vehicles, specially designed for executing construction tasks, most frequently ones involving earthwork operations. They are also known as machines, heavy trucks, construction equipment, engineering equipment, heavy vehicles. They usually comprise five equipment systems, implement, traction, structure, power train, control, Heavy equipment functions through the mechanical advantage of a simple machine, the ratio between input force applied and force exerted is multiplied. Some equipment uses hydraulic drives as a source of motion. The use of equipment has a long history, the ancient Roman engineer Vitruvius gave descriptions of heavy equipment. The pile driver was invented around 1500, the first tunnelling shield was patented by Isambard Kingdom Brunel in 1818. Until the 19th century and into the early 20th century heavy machines were drawn under human or animal power, with the advent of portable steam-powered engines the drawn machine precursors were reconfigured with the new engines, such as the combine harvester. The design of a core tractor evolved around the new power source into a new machine core traction engine, that can be configured as the steam tractor. During the 20th century, internal-combustion engines became the power source of heavy equipment. Kerosene and ethanol engines were used, but today diesel engines are dominant, mechanical transmission was in many cases replaced by hydraulic machinery. The early 20th century also saw new electric-powered machines such as the forklift, caterpillar Inc. is a present-day brand from these days, starting out as the Holt Manufacturing Company. The first mass-produced heavy machine was the Fordson tractor in 1917, the first commercial continuous track vehicle was the Lombard Steam Log Hauler from 1901. Tracks became extensively used for tanks during World War I, the largest engineering vehicles, and the largest mobile land machines altogether, are bucket-wheel excavators, built from the 1920s. Until almost the twentieth century, one simple tool constituted the primary earthmoving machine, the hand shovel - moved with animal and human powered, sleds, barges, and wagons. This tool was the method by which material was either sidecast or elevated to load a conveyance, usually a wheelbarrow. In antiquity, an equivalent of the shovel or hoe. The two elements required for mechanized earthmoving, then as now, were an independent power source and off-road mobility, container cranes were used from the 1950s and onwards, and made containerization possible. Nowadays such is the importance of this machinery, some companies have developed specific equipment to transport heavy construction equipment to
11.
Tractive force
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In railway engineering, the term tractive effort is often used synonymously with tractive force to describe the pulling or pushing capability of a locomotive. The published tractive force value for any vehicle may be theoretical—that is, the term tractive effort is often qualified as starting tractive effort, continuous tractive effort and maximum tractive effort. The product of μ and m is the factor of adhesion, Starting tractive effort, Starting tractive effort is the tractive force that can be generated at a standstill. This figure is important on railways because it determines the maximum weight that a locomotive can set into motion. Maximum tractive effort, Maximum tractive effort is defined as the highest tractive force that can be generated under any condition that is not injurious to the vehicle or machine. In most cases, maximum tractive effort is developed at low speed, due to the relationship between power, velocity and force, described as, P = vF or P/v = F tractive effort inversely varies with speed at any given level of available power. Continuous tractive effort is often shown in graph form at a range of speeds as part of a tractive effort curve, the period of time for which the maximum continuous tractive effort may be safely generated is usually limited by thermal considerations. Such as temperature rise in a traction motor, specifications of locomotives often include tractive effort curves, showing the relationship between tractive effort and velocity. The shape of the graph is shown at right, the line AB shows operation at the maximum tractive effort, the line BC shows continuous tractive effort that is inversely proportional to speed. Tractive effort curves often have graphs of rolling resistance superimposed on them—the intersection of the rolling resistance graph, once in motion, the train will develop additional drag as it accelerates due to aerodynamic forces, which increase with the square of the speed. Drag may also be produced at speed due to truck hunting, if acceleration continues, the train will eventually attain a speed at which the available tractive force of the locomotive will exactly offset the total drag, causing acceleration to cease. This top speed will be increased on a due to gravity assisting the motive power. Tractive effort can be calculated from a locomotives mechanical characteristics, or by actual testing with drawbar strain sensors. Power at rail is a term for the available power for traction, that is. An estimate for the effort of a single cylinder steam locomotive can be obtained from the cylinder pressure, cylinder area, stroke of the piston. The torque developed by the motion of the piston depends on the angle that the driving rod makes with the tangent of the radius on the driving wheel. For a more useful value an average value over the rotation of the wheel is used, the driving force is the torque divided by the wheel radius. Modern locomotives with roller bearings were probably underestimated, european designers used a constant of 0.6 instead of 0.85, so the two cannot be compared without a conversion factor
12.
Torque
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Torque, moment, or moment of force is rotational force. Just as a force is a push or a pull. Loosely speaking, torque is a measure of the force on an object such as a bolt or a flywheel. For example, pushing or pulling the handle of a wrench connected to a nut or bolt produces a torque that loosens or tightens the nut or bolt, the symbol for torque is typically τ, the lowercase Greek letter tau. When it is called moment of force, it is denoted by M. The SI unit for torque is the newton metre, for more on the units of torque, see Units. This article follows US physics terminology in its use of the word torque, in the UK and in US mechanical engineering, this is called moment of force, usually shortened to moment. In US physics and UK physics terminology these terms are interchangeable, unlike in US mechanical engineering, Torque is defined mathematically as the rate of change of angular momentum of an object. The definition of states that one or both of the angular velocity or the moment of inertia of an object are changing. Moment is the term used for the tendency of one or more applied forces to rotate an object about an axis. For example, a force applied to a shaft causing acceleration, such as a drill bit accelerating from rest. By contrast, a force on a beam produces a moment, but since the angular momentum of the beam is not changing. Similarly with any force couple on an object that has no change to its angular momentum and this article follows the US physics terminology by calling all moments by the term torque, whether or not they cause the angular momentum of an object to change. The concept of torque, also called moment or couple, originated with the studies of Archimedes on levers, the term torque was apparently introduced into English scientific literature by James Thomson, the brother of Lord Kelvin, in 1884. A force applied at an angle to a lever multiplied by its distance from the levers fulcrum is its torque. A force of three newtons applied two metres from the fulcrum, for example, exerts the same torque as a force of one newton applied six metres from the fulcrum. More generally, the torque on a particle can be defined as the product, τ = r × F, where r is the particles position vector relative to the fulcrum. Alternatively, τ = r F ⊥, where F⊥ is the amount of force directed perpendicularly to the position of the particle, any force directed parallel to the particles position vector does not produce a torque
13.
Trailer (vehicle)
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A trailer is generally an unpowered vehicle towed by a powered vehicle. It is commonly used for the transport of goods and materials, sometimes recreational vehicles, travel trailers, or mobile homes with limited living facilities, where people can camp or stay have been referred to as trailers. In earlier days, many vehicles were towable trailers. In the United States, the term is used interchangeably with travel trailer and mobile home, varieties of trailers. Their origins lay in utility trailers built in a fashion to horse-drawn wagons. A trailer park is an area where homes are placed for habitation. In the United States trailers ranging in size from single-axle dollies to 6-axle,13 ft 6 in high,53 ft 0 in long semi-trailers are commonplace. The latter, when towed as part of a tractor-trailer or 18-wheeler, enclosed toy trailers and motorcycle trailers can be towed by commonly accessible pickup truck or van, which generally require no special permit beyond a regular drivers license. Other trailers, such as utility trailers and travel trailers or campers come in single and multiple axle varieties, there also exist highly specialized trailers, such as genset trailers, pusher trailers and their ilk that are also used to power the towing vehicle. Others are custom-built to hold entire kitchens and other specialized equipment used by carnival vendors, there are also trailers for hauling boats. Popular campers use lightweight trailers, aerodynamic trailers that can be towed by a small car and they are built to be lower than the tow vehicle, minimizing drag. Others range from two-axle campers that can be pulled by most mid-sized pickups to trailers that are as long as the host countrys law allows for drivers without special permits. Larger campers tend to be fully integrated recreational vehicles, which often are used to tow single-axle dolly trailers to allow the driver to bring small cars on their travels, a semi-trailer is a trailer without a front axle. A large proportion of its weight is supported either by a tractor or by a detachable front axle assembly known as a dolly. A semi-trailer is normally equipped with legs, called landing gear, which can be lowered to support it when it is uncoupled. In the United States, a single trailer cannot exceed a length of 57 ft 0 in on interstate highways, semi-trailers vary considerably in design, ranging from open-topped grain haulers through Tautliners to normal-looking but refrigerated 13 ft 6 in x 53 ft 0 in enclosures. Many semi-trailers are part of semi-trailer trucks, other types of semi-trailers include dry vans, flatbeds and chassis. A full trailer is a used in the United States for a freight trailer supported by front and rear axles
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Agriculture
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Agriculture is the cultivation and breeding of animals, plants and fungi for food, fiber, biofuel, medicinal plants and other products used to sustain and enhance human life. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of human civilization. The study of agriculture is known as agricultural science, the history of agriculture dates back thousands of years, and its development has been driven and defined by greatly different climates, cultures, and technologies. Industrial agriculture based on large-scale monoculture farming has become the dominant agricultural methodology, genetically modified organisms are an increasing component of agriculture, although they are banned in several countries. Agricultural food production and water management are increasingly becoming global issues that are fostering debate on a number of fronts, the major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods, fibers, fuels, and raw materials. Specific foods include cereals, vegetables, fruits, oils, meats, fibers include cotton, wool, hemp, silk and flax. Raw materials include lumber and bamboo, other useful materials are also produced by plants, such as resins, dyes, drugs, perfumes, biofuels and ornamental products such as cut flowers and nursery plants. The word agriculture is a late Middle English adaptation of Latin agricultūra, from ager, field, Agriculture usually refers to human activities, although it is also observed in certain species of ant, termite and ambrosia beetle. To practice agriculture means to use resources to produce commodities which maintain life, including food, fiber, forest products, horticultural crops. This definition includes arable farming or agronomy, and horticulture, all terms for the growing of plants, even then, it is acknowledged that there is a large amount of knowledge transfer and overlap between silviculture and agriculture. In traditional farming, the two are often combined even on small landholdings, leading to the term agroforestry, Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe, and included a diverse range of taxa. At least 11 separate regions of the Old and New World were involved as independent centers of origin, wild grains were collected and eaten from at least 105,000 years ago. Pigs were domesticated in Mesopotamia around 15,000 years ago, rice was domesticated in China between 13,500 and 8,200 years ago, followed by mung, soy and azuki beans. Sheep were domesticated in Mesopotamia between 13,000 and 11,000 years ago. From around 11,500 years ago, the eight Neolithic founder crops, emmer and einkorn wheat, hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick peas and flax were cultivated in the Levant. Cattle were domesticated from the aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey. In the Andes of South America, the potato was domesticated between 10,000 and 7,000 years ago, along with beans, coca, llamas, alpacas, sugarcane and some root vegetables were domesticated in New Guinea around 9,000 years ago. Sorghum was domesticated in the Sahel region of Africa by 7,000 years ago, cotton was domesticated in Peru by 5,600 years ago, and was independently domesticated in Eurasia at an unknown time
15.
Construction
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Construction is the process of constructing a building or infrastructure. Construction as an industry comprises six to nine percent of the domestic product of developed countries. Construction starts with planning, design, and financing, and continues until the project is built, large-scale construction requires collaboration across multiple disciplines. An architect normally manages the job, and a manager, design engineer. For the successful execution of a project, effective planning is essential, the largest construction projects are referred to as megaprojects. Construction is a term meaning the art and science to form objects, systems, or organizations. Construction is used as a verb, the act of building, and a noun, how a building was built, in general, there are three sectors of construction, buildings, infrastructure and industrial. Building construction is further divided into residential and non-residential. Infrastructure is often called heavy/highway, heavy civil or heavy engineering and it includes large public works, dams, bridges, highways, water/wastewater and utility distribution. Industrial includes refineries, process chemical, power generation, mills, there are other ways to break the industry into sectors or markets. Engineering News-Record is a magazine for the construction industry. Each year, ENR compiles and reports on data about the size of design and they publish a list of the largest companies in the United States and also a list the largest global firms. In 2014, ENR compiled the data in nine market segments and it was divided as transportation, petroleum, buildings, power, industrial, water, manufacturing, sewer/waste, telecom, hazardous waste plus a tenth category for other projects. In their reporting on the Top 400, they used data on transportation, sewer, hazardous waste, the Standard Industrial Classification and the newer North American Industry Classification System have a classification system for companies that perform or otherwise engage in construction. To recognize the differences of companies in this sector, it is divided into three subsectors, building construction, heavy and civil engineering construction, and specialty trade contractors, there are also categories for construction service firms and construction managers. Building construction is the process of adding structure to real property or construction of buildings, the majority of building construction jobs are small renovations, such as addition of a room, or renovation of a bathroom. Often, the owner of the property acts as laborer, paymaster, for this reason, those with experience in the field make detailed plans and maintain careful oversight during the project to ensure a positive outcome. Residential construction practices, technologies, and resources must conform to local building authority regulations, materials readily available in the area generally dictate the construction materials used
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Farm
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A farm is an area of land that is devoted primarily to agricultural processes with the primary objective of producing food and other crops, it is the basic facility in food production. It includes ranches, feedlots, orchards, plantations and estates, smallholdings and hobby farms, in modern times the term has been extended so as to include such industrial operations as wind farms and fish farms, both of which can operate on land or sea. Farming originated independently in different parts of the world, as hunter gatherer societies transitioned to food production rather than, food capture. It may have started about 12,000 years ago with the domestication of livestock in the Fertile Crescent in western Asia, modern farms in developed countries are highly mechanized. In Europe, traditional farms are giving way to larger production units. In Australia, some farms are large because the land is unable to support a high stocking density of livestock because of climatic conditions. In less developed countries, small farms are the norm, the word is from the medieval Latin noun firma, also the source of the French word ferme, meaning a fixed agreement, contract, from the classical Latin adjective firmus meaning strong, stout, firm. Farming has been innovated at multiple different points and places in human history and it was the worlds first historically verifiable revolution in agriculture. Subsequent step-changes in human farming practices were provoked by the British Agricultural Revolution in the 18th century, farming spread from the Middle East to Europe and by 4,000 BC people that lived in the central part of Europe were using oxen to pull plows and wagons. A farm may operate under a system or with a variety of cereal or arable crops. Specialist farms are often denoted as such, thus a dairy farm, fish farm, some farms may not use the word at all, hence vineyard, orchard, market garden or truck farm. Some farms may be denoted by their location, such as a hill farm. Many other terms are used to describe farms to denote their methods of production, as in collective, corporate, intensive, organic or vertical. There are many breeds of cattle that can be milked some of the best producing ones include Holstein, Norwegian Red, Kostroma, Brown Swiss, in most Western countries, a centralized dairy facility processes milk and dairy products, such as cream, butter, and cheese. In the United States, these dairies are usually local companies, dairy farms generally sell male calves for veal meat, as dairy breeds are not normally satisfactory for commercial beef production. Many dairy farms also grow their own feed, typically including corn, alfalfa and this is fed directly to the cows, or stored as silage for use during the winter season. Additional dietary supplements are added to the feed to milk production. Poultry farms are devoted to raising chickens, turkeys, ducks, a pig farm is one that specializes in raising pigs or hogs for bacon, ham and other pork products and may be free range, intensive, or both
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Mechanization
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Mechanization or mechanisation is the process of changing from working largely or exclusively by hand or with animals to doing that work with machinery. Machines, in fact, are interposed between the power and the work, for the purpose of adapting the one to the other, in some fields, mechanization includes the use of hand tools. In modern usage, such as in engineering or economics, mechanization implies machinery more complex than hand tools, after electrification, when most small machinery was no longer hand powered, mechanization was synonymous with motorized machines. Water wheels date to the Roman period and were used to grind grain, water powered bellows were in use on blast furnaces in China in 31 AD. By the 13th century, water powered sawmills and trip hammers, to full cloth and pound flax. Trip hammers are shown crushing ore in De re Metallica, clocks were some of the most complex early mechanical devices. Clock makers were important developers of machine tools including gear and screw cutting machines, clocks were some of the earliest mass-produced items, beginning around 1830. Water powered bellows for blast furnaces, used in China in ancient times, were in use in Europe by the 15th century, De re Metallica contains drawings related to bellows for blast furnaces including a fabrication drawing. Improved gear designs decreased wear and increased efficiency, mathematical gear designs were developed in the mid 17th century. French mathematician and engineer Desargues designed and constructed the first mill with epicycloidal teeth ca, in the 18th century involute gears, another mathematical derived design, came into use. Involute gears are better for meshing gears of different sizes than epicycloidal, gear cutting machines came into use in the 18th century. The Newcomen steam engine was first used, to water from a mine. John Smeaton introduced metal gears and axles to water wheels in the mid to last half of the 18th century, Smeaton also conducted a scientific investigation into the design of water wheels which led to significant efficiency increases. The Industrial Revolution started mainly with textile machinery, such as the spinning jenny, demand for metal parts used in textile machinery led to the invention of many machine tools in the late 1700s until the mid-1800s. After the early decades of the 19th century, iron increasingly replaced wood in gearing, in the 1840s self acting machine tools were developed. Self-acting tools displaced hand dexterity and allowed one unskilled operator to tend several machines, machinery was developed to make nails ca. The Fourdrinier paper machine paper machine for continuous production of paper was patented in 1801, one of the first mechanical devices used in agriculture was the seed drill invented by Jethro Tull around 1700. The seed drill allowed more uniform spacing of seed and planting depth than hand methods, increasing yields, Mechanized agriculture greatly increased in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries with horse drawn reapers and horse powered threshing machines
18.
Tillage
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Tillage is the agricultural preparation of soil by mechanical agitation of various types, such as digging, stirring, and overturning. Examples of human-powered tilling methods using hand tools include shovelling, picking, mattock work, hoeing, examples of draft-animal-powered or mechanized work include ploughing, rototilling, rolling with cultipackers or other rollers, harrowing, and cultivating with cultivator shanks. There is a continuum, however. Any type of gardening or farming, but especially larger-scale commercial types, Tillage is often classified into two types, primary and secondary. There is no boundary between them so much as a loose distinction between tillage that is deeper and more thorough and tillage that is shallower and sometimes more selective of location. Harrowing and rototilling often combine primary and secondary tillage into one operation, Tillage can also mean the land that is tilled. The word cultivation has several senses that overlap substantially with those of tillage, in a general context, both can refer to agriculture. Within agriculture, both can refer to any kind of soil agitation, additionally, cultivation or cultivating may refer to an even narrower sense of shallow, selective secondary tillage of row crop fields that kills weeds while sparing the crop plants. Reduced tillage leaves between 15 and 30% residue cover on the soil or 500 to 1000 pounds per acre of small grain residue during the critical erosion period and this may involve the use of a chisel plow, field cultivators, or other implements. See the general comments below to see how they can affect the amount of residue, intensive tillage leaves less than 15% crop residue cover or less than 500 pounds per acre of small grain residue. Intensive tillage often involves multiple operations with such as a mold board, disk. Then a finisher with a harrow, rolling basket, and cutter can be used to prepare the seed bed. Conservation tillage leaves at least 30% of crop residue on the soil surface and this slows water movement, which reduces the amount of soil erosion. Conservation tillage also benefits farmers by reducing consumption and soil compaction. By reducing the number of times the farmer travels over the field, farmers realize significant savings in fuel, in most years since 1997, conservation tillage was used in US cropland more than intensive or reduced tillage. However, conservation tillage delays warming of the due to the reduction of dark earth exposure to the warmth of the spring sun. No-till - Never use a plow, disk, etc. ever again, strip-Till - Narrow strips are tilled where seeds will be planted, leaving the soil in between the rows untilled. Mulch-till Rotational Tillage - Tilling the soil every two years or less often, ridge-Till Zone tillage Zone tillage is a form of modified deep tillage in which only narrow strips are tilled, leaving soil in between the rows untilled
19.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
20.
Traction engine
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A traction engine is a self-propelled steam engine used to move heavy loads on roads, plough ground or to provide power at a chosen location. The name derives from the Latin tractus, meaning drawn, since the function of any traction engine is to draw a load behind it. They are sometimes called road locomotives to distinguish them from railway locomotives – that is, Traction engines tend to be large, robust and powerful, but heavy, slow, and difficult to manoeuvre. Nevertheless, they revolutionized agriculture and road haulage at a time when the alternative prime mover was the draught horse. They became popular in industrialised countries from around 1850, when the first self-propelled portable steam engines for use were developed. All types of engines have now been superseded, in commercial use. However, several examples have been preserved worldwide, many in working order. Steam fairs are held throughout the year in the United Kingdom, and in other countries, however, where soil conditions permitted, direct hauling of implements was preferred – in America, this led to the divergent development of the steam tractor. Limits of technical knowledge and manufacturing technology meant that practicable road vehicles, powered by steam, the alteration was made by fitting a long driving chain between the crankshaft and the rear axle. The first half of the 1860s was a period of great experimentation but by the end of the decade the standard form of the engine had evolved. Until the quality of roads improved there was demand for faster vehicles and engines were geared accordingly to cope with their use on rough roads. British companies such as Manns and Garrett developed potentially viable direct ploughing engines, however conditions were against them. These market conditions arose in the wake of the First World War when there was a glut of surplus equipment available as a result of British Government policy. Large numbers of Fowler ploughing engines had been constructed in order to increase the land under tillage during the war, road steam disappeared through restrictions and charges that drove up their operating costs. Through 1921, steam tractors had demonstrated clear economic advantages over horse power for heavy hauling, the tax was payable by all road hauliers in proportion to the axle load and was particularly restrictive on steam propulsion, which was heavier than its petrol equivalent. This was at a time of unemployment in the mining industry. The tax was devastating to the businesses of heavy hauliers and showmen, the last new UK-built traction engines were constructed during the 1930s, although many continued in commercial use for many years while there remained experienced enginemen available to drive them. From the 1950s, the movement started to build up as enthusiasts realised that traction engines were in danger of dying out
21.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
22.
Republic of Ireland
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Ireland, also known as the Republic of Ireland, is a sovereign state in north-western Europe occupying about five-sixths of the island of Ireland. The capital and largest city is Dublin, which is located on the part of the island. The state shares its land border with Northern Ireland, a part of the United Kingdom. It is otherwise surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the Celtic Sea to the south, Saint Georges Channel to the south-east, and it is a unitary, parliamentary republic. The head of government is the Taoiseach, who is elected by the Dáil and appointed by the President, the state was created as the Irish Free State in 1922 as a result of the Anglo-Irish Treaty. It was officially declared a republic in 1949, following the Republic of Ireland Act 1948, Ireland became a member of the United Nations in December 1955. It joined the European Economic Community, the predecessor of the European Union, after joining the EEC, Ireland enacted a series of liberal economic policies that resulted in rapid economic growth. The country achieved considerable prosperity between the years of 1995 and 2007, which known as the Celtic Tiger period. This was halted by a financial crisis that began in 2008. However, as the Irish economy was the fastest growing in the EU in 2015, Ireland is again quickly ascending league tables comparing wealth and prosperity internationally. For example, in 2015, Ireland was ranked as the joint sixth most developed country in the world by the United Nations Human Development Index and it also performs well in several national performance metrics, including freedom of the press, economic freedom and civil liberties. Ireland is a member of the European Union and is a member of the Council of Europe. The 1922 state, comprising 26 of the 32 counties of Ireland, was styled, the Constitution of Ireland, adopted in 1937, provides that the name of the State is Éire, or, in the English language, Ireland. Section 2 of the Republic of Ireland Act 1948 states, It is hereby declared that the description of the State shall be the Republic of Ireland. The 1948 Act does not name the state as Republic of Ireland, because to have done so would have put it in conflict with the Constitution. The government of the United Kingdom used the name Eire, and, from 1949, Republic of Ireland, for the state, as well as Ireland, Éire or the Republic of Ireland, the state is also referred to as the Republic, Southern Ireland or the South. In an Irish republican context it is referred to as the Free State or the 26 Counties. From the Act of Union on 1 January 1801, until 6 December 1922, during the Great Famine, from 1845 to 1849, the islands population of over 8 million fell by 30%
23.
Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
24.
Spain
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By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
25.
Argentina
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Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic, is a federal republic in the southern half of South America. With a mainland area of 2,780,400 km2, Argentina is the eighth-largest country in the world, the second largest in Latin America, and the largest Spanish-speaking one. The country is subdivided into provinces and one autonomous city, Buenos Aires. The provinces and the capital have their own constitutions, but exist under a federal system, Argentina claims sovereignty over part of Antarctica, the Falkland Islands, and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. The earliest recorded presence in the area of modern-day Argentina dates back to the Paleolithic period. The country has its roots in Spanish colonization of the region during the 16th century, Argentina rose as the successor state of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, a Spanish overseas viceroyalty founded in 1776. The country thereafter enjoyed relative peace and stability, with waves of European immigration radically reshaping its cultural. The almost-unparalleled increase in prosperity led to Argentina becoming the seventh wealthiest developed nation in the world by the early 20th century, Argentina retains its historic status as a middle power in international affairs, and is a prominent regional power in the Southern Cone and Latin America. Argentina has the second largest economy in South America, the third-largest in Latin America and is a member of the G-15 and it is the country with the second highest Human Development Index in Latin America with a rating of very high. Because of its stability, market size and growing high-tech sector, the description of the country by the word Argentina has to be found on a Venice map in 1536. In English the name Argentina probably comes from the Spanish language, however the naming itself is not Spanish, Argentina means in Italian of silver, silver coloured, probably borrowed from the Old French adjective argentine of silver > silver coloured already mentioned in the 12th century. The French word argentine is the form of argentin and derives of argent silver with the suffix -in. The Italian naming Argentina for the country implies Argentina Terra land of silver or Argentina costa coast of silver, in Italian, the adjective or the proper noun is often used in an autonomous way as a substantive and replaces it and it is said lArgentina. The name Argentina was probably first given by the Venitian and Genoese navigators, in Spanish and Portuguese, the words for silver are respectively plata and prata and of silver is said plateado and prateado. Argentina was first associated with the silver mountains legend, widespread among the first European explorers of the La Plata Basin. The first written use of the name in Spanish can be traced to La Argentina, a 1602 poem by Martín del Barco Centenera describing the region, the 1826 constitution included the first use of the name Argentine Republic in legal documents. The name Argentine Confederation was also used and was formalized in the Argentine Constitution of 1853. In 1860 a presidential decree settled the name as Argentine Republic
26.
Serbia
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Serbia, officially the Republic of Serbia, is a sovereign state situated at the crossroads of Central and Southeast Europe, covering the southern part of the Pannonian Plain and the central Balkans. Relative to its territory, it is a diverse country distinguished by a transitional character, situated along cultural, geographic, climatic. Serbia numbers around 7 million residents, and its capital, Belgrade, following the Slavic migrations to the Balkans from the 6th century onwards, Serbs established several states in the early Middle Ages. The Serbian Kingdom obtained recognition by Rome and the Byzantine Empire in 1217, in the early 19th century, the Serbian Revolution established the nation-state as the regions first constitutional monarchy, which subsequently expanded its territory. During the breakup of Yugoslavia, Serbia formed a union with Montenegro which dissolved peacefully in 2006, in 2008 the parliament of the province of Kosovo unilaterally declared independence, with mixed responses from the international community. Serbia is a member of organizations such as the UN, CoE, OSCE, PfP, BSEC. An EU membership candidate since 2012, Serbia has been negotiating its EU accession since January 2014, the country is acceding to the WTO and is a militarily neutral state. Serbia is an income economy with dominant service sector, followed by the industrial sector. The country ranks high on the Social Progress Index as well as the Global Peace Index, relatively high on the Human Development Index, located at the crossroads between Central and Southern Europe, Serbia is found in the Balkan peninsula and the Pannonian Plain. Serbia lies between latitudes 41° and 47° N, and longitudes 18° and 23° E. The country covers a total of 88,361 km2, which places it at 113th place in the world, with Kosovo excluded, the area is 77,474 km2. Its total border length amounts to 2,027 km, all of Kosovos border with Albania, Macedonia and Montenegro are under control of the Kosovo border police. The Pannonian Plain covers the third of the country while the easternmost tip of Serbia extends into the Wallachian Plain. The terrain of the part of the country, with the region of Šumadija at its heart. Mountains dominate the third of Serbia. Dinaric Alps stretch in the west and the southwest, following the flow of the rivers Drina, the Carpathian Mountains and Balkan Mountains stretch in a north–south direction in eastern Serbia. Ancient mountains in the southeast corner of the country belong to the Rilo-Rhodope Mountain system, elevation ranges from the Midžor peak of the Balkan Mountains at 2,169 metres to the lowest point of just 17 metres near the Danube river at Prahovo. The largest lake is Đerdap Lake and the longest river passing through Serbia is the Danube, the climate of Serbia is under the influences of the landmass of Eurasia and the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea
27.
Croatia
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Croatia, officially the Republic of Croatia, is a sovereign state between Central Europe, Southeast Europe, and the Mediterranean. Its capital city is Zagreb, which one of the countrys primary subdivisions. Croatia covers 56,594 square kilometres and has diverse, mostly continental, Croatias Adriatic Sea coast contains more than a thousand islands. The countrys population is 4.28 million, most of whom are Croats, the Croats arrived in the area of present-day Croatia during the early part of the 7th century AD. They organised the state into two duchies by the 9th century, tomislav became the first king by 925, elevating Croatia to the status of a kingdom. The Kingdom of Croatia retained its sovereignty for nearly two centuries, reaching its peak during the rule of Kings Petar Krešimir IV and Dmitar Zvonimir, Croatia entered a personal union with Hungary in 1102. In 1527, faced with Ottoman conquest, the Croatian Parliament elected Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg to the Croatian throne. In 1918, after World War I, Croatia was included in the unrecognized State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs which seceded from Austria-Hungary, a fascist Croatian puppet state backed by Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany existed during World War II. After the war, Croatia became a member and a federal constituent of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. On 25 June 1991 Croatia declared independence, which came wholly into effect on 8 October of the same year, the Croatian War of Independence was fought successfully during the four years following the declaration. A unitary state, Croatia is a republic governed under a parliamentary system, the International Monetary Fund classified Croatia as an emerging and developing economy, and the World Bank identified it as a high-income economy. Croatia is a member of the European Union, United Nations, the Council of Europe, NATO, the World Trade Organization, the service sector dominates Croatias economy, followed by the industrial sector and agriculture. Tourism is a significant source of revenue during the summer, with Croatia ranked the 18th most popular tourist destination in the world, the state controls a part of the economy, with substantial government expenditure. The European Union is Croatias most important trading partner, since 2000, the Croatian government constantly invests in infrastructure, especially transport routes and facilities along the Pan-European corridors. Internal sources produce a significant portion of energy in Croatia, the rest is imported, the origin of the name is uncertain, but is thought to be a Gothic or Indo-Aryan term assigned to a Slavic tribe. The oldest preserved record of the Croatian ethnonym *xъrvatъ is of variable stem, the first attestation of the Latin term is attributed to a charter of Duke Trpimir from the year 852. The original is lost, and just a 1568 copy is preserved—leading to doubts over the authenticity of the claim, the oldest preserved stone inscription is the 9th-century Branimir Inscription, where Duke Branimir is styled as Dux Cruatorvm. The inscription is not believed to be dated accurately, but is likely to be from during the period of 879–892, the area known as Croatia today was inhabited throughout the prehistoric period
28.
Netherlands
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The Netherlands, also informally known as Holland is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
29.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
30.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
31.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
32.
Semi-trailer truck
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A semi-trailer truck, more commonly called a semi truck, is the combination of a tractor unit and one or more semi-trailers to carry freight. A semi-trailer attaches to the tractor with a fifth wheel hitch, the result is that both tractor and semi-trailer will have a distinctly different design than a rigid truck and trailer. The tractor unit typically has two or three axles, those built for hauling heavy-duty commercial-construction machinery may have as many as five, the most common tractor-cab layout has a forward engine, one steering axle, and two drive axles. The fifth-wheel trailer coupling on most tractor trucks is movable fore and aft, ubiquitous in Europe, but less common in North America since the 1990s, is the cabover engine configuration, where the driver sits next to, or over the engine. With changes in the US to the length of the combined vehicle. Cabovers were difficult to service, as the cab could not be lifted on its hinges to a full 90-degree forward tilt, Trucks average from 4 to 8 miles per US gallon, with fuel economy standards requiring better than 7 miles per US gallon efficiency by 2014. The cargo trailer usually has tandem axles at the rear, each of which has wheels, or eight tires on the trailer. In the US it is common to refer to the number of hubs, rather than the number of tires. The combination of eight tires on the trailer and ten tires on the tractor is what led to the moniker eighteen wheeler, many trailers are equipped with movable tandem axles to allow adjusting the weight distribution. To connect the second of a set of doubles to the first trailer, and to support the front half of the second trailer and this has one or two axles, a fifth-wheel coupling for the rear trailer, and a tongue with a ring-hitch coupling for the forward trailer. Individual states may further allow longer vehicles, known as longer combination vehicles, Long Combination Vehicle types include, Doubles, Two 28.5 ft trailers. Turnpike Doubles, Two 48 ft trailers, Rocky Mountain Doubles, One 40 to 53 ft trailer and one 28.5 ft trailer. In Canada, a Turnpike Double is two 53 ft trailers, and a Rocky Mountain Double is a 50 ft trailer with a 24 ft pup, future Long Combination Vehicles under consideration and study for the U. S. MAP-21 transportation bill are container doubles. The US federal government, which regulates the Interstate Highway System, does not set maximum length requirements. Tractors can pull two or three if the combination is legal in that state. Weight maximums are 20,000 lb on an axle,34,000 lb on a tandem. There is a width of 8.5 ft and no maximum height. Roads other than the Interstates are regulated by the individual states, maximum weight varies between 80,000 lb to 171,000 lb, depending on the combination
33.
Truck
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A truck is a motor vehicle designed to transport cargo. Trucks vary greatly in size, power, and configuration, smaller varieties may be similar to some automobiles. Commercial trucks can be large and powerful, and may be configured to mount specialized equipment, such as in the case of fire trucks and concrete mixers. Modern trucks are powered by diesel engines, although small to medium size trucks with gasoline engines exist in the US. In the European Union, vehicles with a gross mass of up to 3.5 t are known as light commercial vehicles. Trucks and cars have an ancestor, the steam-powered fardier Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot built in 1769. However, steam wagons were not common until the mid-1800s, the roads of the time, built for horse and carriages, limited these vehicles to very short hauls, usually from a factory to the nearest railway station. The first semi-trailer appeared in 1881, towed by a tractor manufactured by De Dion-Bouton. In 1895 Karl Benz designed and built the first truck in history using the internal combustion engine, later that year some of Benzs trucks were modified to become the first bus by the Netphener, the first motorbus company in history. A year later, in 1896, another internal combustion engine truck was built by Gottlieb Daimler, other companies, such as Peugeot, Renault and Büssing, also built their own versions. The first truck in the United States was built by Autocar in 1899 and was available with optional 5 or 8 horsepower motors, trucks of the era mostly used two-cylinder engines and had a carrying capacity of 3,300 to 4,400 lb. In 1904,700 heavy trucks were built in the United States,1000 in 1907,6000 in 1910, after World War I, several advances were made, pneumatic tires replaced the previously common full rubber versions. Electric starters, power brakes,4,6, and 8 cylinder engines, closed cabs, the first modern semi-trailer trucks also appeared. Touring car builders such as Ford and Renault entered the heavy truck market, although it had been invented in 1890, the diesel engine was not common in trucks in Europe until the 1930s. In the United States, it took longer for diesel engines to be accepted. The word truck might come from a back-formation of truckle, meaning small wheel or pulley, from Middle English trokell, another possible source is the Latin trochus, meaning iron hoop. In turn, both sources emanate from the Greek trokhos, meaning wheel, from trekhein, the first known usage of truck was in 1611, when it referred to the small strong wheels on ships cannon carriages. In its extended usage it came to refer to carts for carrying heavy loads and its expanded application to motor-powered load carrier has been in usage since 1930, shortened from motor truck, which dates back to 1901
34.
John Fowler (agricultural engineer)
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John Fowler was an English agricultural engineer who was a pioneer in the use of steam engines for ploughing and digging drainage channels. His inventions significantly reduced the cost of ploughing farmland, and also enabled the drainage of previously uncultivated land in parts of the world. Fowler was born in Melksham, Wiltshire, the third of five brothers and his father, John Fowler senior was a wealthy Quaker merchant, who had married Rebecca Hull. As well as five sons, they also had three daughters, amongst other things, the company was involved in building steam locomotives and colliery winding engines. The company built a number of locomotives for the Stockton and Darlington Railway, Fowler might have remained with the Middlesbrough firm and made his reputation there, had it not been for a chance visit to Ireland in 1849, probably on business. This was at the time of the Irish potato famine, and this affected Fowler and he was convinced that there must be a way of bringing more land into production. The normal way to agricultural land was to use a mole plough to dig a subterranean drainage channel. The mole plough has a blade with a cylindrical “mole” attached to the bottom. The mole is pointed at the front end, and as it moves through the soil, however this required considerable tractive power, so that the size of the plough was limited by the strength of the teams of horses that pulled it. Fowler returned to England and developed a horse-powered ploughing engine that would dig drainage channels, Fowlers ploughing engine dragged itself across the field on rollers, pulling the mole plough as it went. The engine was driven by a team of horses that walked round a capstan, the mole would have a string of drainage pipes attached at the rear end and these would be dragged through the channel created by the mole. On completing each length of drains, the engine would be turned, the rope would be let out and he was able to lay a drain at a depth of 2 ft 6 in in heavy clay. His invention was awarded a medal and was reported as altogether the most important feature of the exhibition. Fowler then decided to change his design so that the engine remained stationary at the corner of the field. The team of horses drove a vertical winch around which a rope was wound, the rope would pass along the edge of the field to a securely anchored pulley and would then pass at right angles across the field to the mole plough. As the horses drove the winch, the rope would drag the plough across the field, digging a drainage channel. The design was a vast improvement on the one, in that the horsepower was not being expended in dragging the machine across the field. Fowler demonstrated his new drainage plough at the Great Exhibition in 1851 and at the Royal Agricultural Society of England meeting at Gloucester in 1853 and he was able to lay drains to a depth of 3 ft 6 in
35.
Steam engine
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A steam engine is a heat engine that performs mechanical work using steam as its working fluid. Steam engines are combustion engines, where the working fluid is separate from the combustion products. Non-combustion heat sources such as power, nuclear power or geothermal energy may be used. The ideal thermodynamic cycle used to analyze this process is called the Rankine cycle, in the cycle, water is heated and transforms into steam within a boiler operating at a high pressure. When expanded through pistons or turbines, mechanical work is done, the reduced-pressure steam is then exhausted to the atmosphere, or condensed and pumped back into the boiler. Specialized devices such as hammers and steam pile drivers are dependent on the steam pressure supplied from a separate boiler. The use of boiling water to mechanical motion goes back over 2000 years. The Spanish inventor Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont obtained the first patent for an engine in 1606. In 1698 Thomas Savery patented a steam pump that used steam in direct contact with the water being pumped, Saverys steam pump used condensing steam to create a vacuum and draw water into a chamber, and then applied pressurized steam to further pump the water. Thomas Newcomens atmospheric engine was the first commercial steam engine using a piston. In 1781 James Watt patented an engine that produced continuous rotary motion. Watts ten-horsepower engines enabled a range of manufacturing machinery to be powered. The engines could be sited anywhere that water and coal or wood fuel could be obtained, by 1883, engines that could provide 10,000 hp had become feasible. The stationary steam engine was a key component of the Industrial Revolution, the aeolipile described by Hero of Alexandria in the 1st century AD is considered to be the first recorded steam engine. Torque was produced by steam jets exiting the turbine, in the Spanish Empire, the great inventor Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont obtained a patent for the first steam engine in history in 1603. Thomas Savery, in 1698, patented the first practical, atmospheric pressure and it had no piston or moving parts, only taps. It was an engine, a kind of thermic syphon, in which steam was admitted to an empty container. The vacuum thus created was used to water from the sump at the bottom of the mine
36.
Drainage
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Drainage is the natural or artificial removal of surface and sub-surface water from an area. The internal drainage of most agricultural soils is good enough to prevent severe waterlogging, all houses in the major cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro had access to water and drainage facilities. Waste water was directed to covered drains, which lined the major streets, the invention of hollow-pipe drainage is credited to Sir Hugh Dalrymple, who died in 1753. New drainage systems incorporate geotextile filters that retain and prevent fine grains of soil from passing into, geotextiles are synthetic textile fabrics specially manufactured for civil and environmental engineering applications. Geotextiles are designed to retain fine soil particles while allowing water to pass through, in a typical drainage system they would be laid along a trench which would then be filled with coarse granular material, gravel, sea shells, stone or rock. The geotextile is then folded over the top of the stone, groundwater seeps through the geotextile and flow within the stone to an outfell. In high groundwater conditions a perforated pipe is laid along the base of the drain to increases the volume of water transported in the drain. Alternatively, the prefabricated plastic drainage system made of HDPE called SmartDitch, often incorporating geotextile, over the past 30 years geotextile and PVC filters have become the most commonly used soil filter media. They are cheap to produce and easy to lay, with factory controlled properties that ensure long term filtration performance even in fine silty soil conditions, seattles Public Utilities created a pilot program called Street Edge Alternatives Project. The project focuses on designing a system to provide drainage that more closely mimics the natural landscape prior to development than traditional piped systems, the streets are characterized by ditches along the side of the roadway, with plantings designed throughout the area. An emphasis on non curbed sidewalks allows water to more freely into the areas of permeable surface on the side of the streets. Because of the plantings the run off water from the area does not all directly go into the ground. Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems are designed to encourage contractors to install drainage system that closely mimic the natural flow of water in nature. Since 2010 local and neighbourhood planning in the UK is required by law to factor SUDS into any development projects that they are responsible for, slot drainage has proved the most breakthrough product of the last twenty years as a drainage option. Both stainless steel and concrete channel slot drainage have become industry standards on construction projects, the civil engineer is responsible for drainage in construction projects. They set out from the all the roads, street gutters, drainage, culverts. During the construction process he/she will set out all the levels for each of the previously mentioned factors. Civil engineers and construction managers work alongside architects and supervisors, planners, quantity surveyors, typically, most jurisdictions have some body of drainage law to govern to what degree a landowner can alter the drainage from his parcel
37.
Portable engine
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Mounted on wheels or skids, it is either towed to the work site or moves there via self-propulsion. Portable engines were in use in industrialised countries from the early 19th through early 20th centuries. In developing countries today, portable engines still have some use, in industrialised countries they are no longer used for commercial purposes, but preserved examples can often be seen at steam fairs driving appropriate equipment for demonstration purposes. They were used to drive machinery, milling machinery, pumps and fans. The next recorded application was in 1812, when Richard Trevithick designed the first semi-portable stationary steam engine for agricultural use and this was a high-pressure, rotative engine with a Cornish boiler, for Sir Christopher Hawkins of Probus, Cornwall. It was used to drive a threshing machine and was much cheaper to run than the horses it replaced. Indeed, it was so successful that it remained in use for nearly 70 years, although termed semi-portable, as they could be transported and installed without being dismantled, these engines were essentially stationary. They were used to drive such barn machinery as pumps and hammer mills, bone-crushers, chaff and turnip cutters and it was not until about 1839 that the truly portable engine appeared, allowing the application of steam power beyond the confines of the farmyard. William Tuxford of Boston, Lincolnshire started manufacture of a built around a locomotive-style boiler with horizontal smoke tubes. A large flywheel was mounted on the crankshaft, and a leather belt was used to transfer the drive to the equipment being driven. The first Clayton & Shuttleworth portable was built in 1845, a two-cylinder engine, in the 1850s, John Fowler used a Clayton & Shuttleworth portable engine to drive apparatus in the first public demonstrations of the application of cable haulage to cultivation. In parallel with the portable engine development, many engineers attempted to make them self-propelled – the fore-runners of the traction engine. In most cases this was achieved by fitting a sprocket on the end of the crankshaft and these experiments met with mixed success. As noted early on by Thomas Aveling, it was absurd to use four horses to pull a steam engine from job-to-job, other builders manufactured engines around the world. Small machine shops could assemble units with an engine and vertical boiler. In North America dozens of builders entered the market—Case, Sawyer Massey, native builders erected engines in France, Italy, Sweden and Germany. However, the engine was never completely replaced by the traction engine. Small numbers of portables continued to be built even after traction engine production ceased, robey and Company of Lincoln were still offering portables for sale into the 1960s
38.
Richard Trevithick
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Richard Trevithick was a British inventor and mining engineer from Cornwall, England. The son of a captain, and born in the mining heartland of Cornwall. He performed poorly in school, but went on to be a pioneer of steam-powered road. His most significant contribution was the development of the first high-pressure steam engine and he also built the first full-scale working railway steam locomotive. Turning his interests abroad, Trevithick also worked as a consultant in Peru. Throughout his professional career, he went through ups and downs. During the prime of his career, he was a well-respected and known figure in mining and engineering, Richard Trevithick was born at Tregajorran, between Camborne and Redruth, in the heart of one of the rich mineral mining areas of Cornwall. He was the child and the only boy in a family of six children. He was very tall for the era at 6 ft 2in, as well as athletic, an exception was arithmetic, for which he had an aptitude, but arrived at the correct answers by unconventional means. Trevithick was the son of mine captain Richard Trevithick and of miners daughter Ann Teague, as a child he would watch steam engines pump water from the deep tin and copper mines in Cornwall. For a time he was a neighbour to William Murdoch, the steam carriage pioneer, Trevithick first went to work at the age of 19 at the East Stray Park Mine. He was enthusiastic and quickly gained the status as a consultant and he was popular with the miners because of the respect they had for his father. In 1797, Trevithick married Jane Harvey of Hayle and his company became famous worldwide for building huge stationary beam engines for pumping water, usually from mines, based on Newcomens and Watts engines. Until this time, such engines were of the condensing or atmospheric type, originally invented by Thomas Newcomen in 1712. Trevithick became engineer at the Ding Dong Mine in 1797, and he worked on building and modifying steam engines to avoid the royalties due to Watt on the separate condenser patent. He also experimented with the pump, a type of pump – with a beam engine – used widely in Cornwalls tin mines. He was not the first to think of so-called strong steam, William Murdoch had developed and demonstrated a model steam carriage, starting in 1784, and demonstrated it to Trevithick at his request in 1794. In fact, Trevithick lived next door to Murdoch in Redruth in 1797 and 1798, Oliver Evans in the U. S. had also concerned himself with the concept, but there is no indication that his ideas had ever come to Trevithicks attention
39.
Stationary steam engine
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Stationary steam engines are fixed steam engines used for pumping or driving mills and factories, and for power generation. Table engines have the crosshead above the cylinder and the crankshaft below. Horizontal engines have a horizontal cylinder, vertical engines have a vertical cylinder. Inclined engines have an inclined cylinder, Stationary engines may be classified by secondary characteristics as well, High-speed engines are distinguished by fast-acting valves. Corliss engines are distinguished by special rotary valve gear, uniflow engines have admission valves at the cylinder heads and exhaust ports at the midpoint. When stationary engines had multiple cylinders, they could be classified as, Simple engines, compound engines which use the exhaust from high-pressure cylinders to power low-pressure cylinders. This could be done with a plate that acted as a heat sink. Stationary engines may also be classified by their application, Pumping engines are found in pumping stations, mill engines to power textile mills Winding engines power various types of hoists. Refrigeration engines are coupled to ammonia compressors. A. and Watkins, George, The Industrial Archaeology of the Stationary Steam Engine, London,1976, ISBN 0-7139-0604-9 Hills, power from Steam, A History of the Stationary Steam Engine. Roberts, A S. Arthur Roberts Engine List
40.
Boston, Lincolnshire
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Boston is a town and small port in Lincolnshire, on the east coast of England. It is the largest town of the wider Borough of Boston local government district, the borough had a total population of 66,900, at the ONS mid 2015 estimates, while the town itself had a population of 35,124 at the 2001 census. It is due north of Greenwich on the Prime Meridian, residents of Boston are known as Bostonians. Emigrants from Boston named several other settlements after the town, most notably Boston, Massachusetts, the name Boston is said to be a contraction of Saint Botolphs town, stone, or tun for a hamlet or farm, hence the Latin villa Sancti Botulfi St. Botulfs village). The towns link to the life is probably apocryphal. The town was held to have been a Roman settlement. The early medieval geography of The Fens was much more fluid than it is today and, at that time, Botolphs establishment is most likely to have been in Suffolk. However, he was a missionary and saint, to whom many churches between Yorkshire and Sussex are dedicated. The 1086 Domesday Book does not mention Boston by name, Skirbeck had two churches and one is likely to have been that dedicated to St Botolph, in what was consequently Botolphs town. Skirbeck is now considered part of Boston, but the remains, as a church parish. The order of importance was the way round, when the Boston quarter of Skirbeck developed at the head of the Haven. At that stage, The Haven was the part of the stream, now represented by the Stone Bridge Drain. The line of the road through Wide Bargate, to A52 and it led, as it does now, to the relatively high ground at Sibsey, and thence to Lindsey. The Sleaford route, into Kesteven, passed via Swineshead, thence following the old course of the River Slea, the Salters Way route into Kesteven, left Holland from Donington. This route was more thoroughly developed, in the later Medieval period. The River Witham seems to have joined The Haven after the flood of September 1014, the Town Bridge still maintains the pre-flood route, along the old Haven bank. After the Norman Conquest, Ralph the Stallers property was taken over by Count Alan and it subsequently came to be attached to the Earldom of Richmond, North Yorkshire, and known as the Richmond Fee. It lay on the bank of The Haven
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Flywheel
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A flywheel is a mechanical device specifically designed to efficiently store rotational energy. Flywheels resist changes in speed by their moment of inertia. The amount of stored in a flywheel is proportional to the square of its rotational speed. For example flywheels are used in reciprocating engines because the torque from the individual pistons is intermittent. Energy storage systems Flywheel energy storage Delivering energy at rates beyond the ability of an energy source and this is achieved by collecting energy in a flywheel over time and then releasing it quickly, at rates that exceed the abilities of the energy source. High energy density flywheels can be made of fiber composites and employ magnetic bearings. Carbon-composite flywheel batteries have recently been manufactured and are proving to be viable in real-world tests on mainstream cars, additionally, their disposal is more eco-friendly. Flywheels are often used to provide power output in systems where the energy source is not continuous. For example, a flywheel is used to smooth fast angular velocity fluctuations of the crankshaft in a reciprocating engine. In this case, a crankshaft flywheel stores energy when torque is exerted on it by a firing piston, another example is the friction motor which powers devices such as toy cars. In unstressed and inexpensive cases to save on cost the bulk of the mass of the flywheel is toward the rim of the wheel, pushing the mass away from the axis of rotation heightens rotational inertia for a given total mass. A flywheel may also be used to supply intermittent pulses of energy at power levels that exceed the abilities of its energy source, for example flywheels are used in power hammers and riveting machines. Flywheels can be used to control direction and oppose unwanted motions, a flywheel is a spinning wheel, or disc, or rotor, rotating around its symmetry axis. The moment of inertia is a measure of resistance to torque applied on a spinning object. When calculating with SI units, the units would be for mass, kilograms, for radius, meters, and for angular velocity, radians per second, increasing amounts of rotation energy can be stored in the flywheel until the rotor shatters. This happens when the stress within the rotor exceeds the ultimate tensile strength of the rotor material. Flywheels are made from different materials, the application determines the choice of material. Small flywheels made of lead are found in children’s toys, cast iron flywheels are used in old steam engines
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Aveling and Porter
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Aveling and Porter was a British agricultural engine and steam roller manufacturer. Thomas Aveling and Richard Thomas Porter entered into partnership in 1862, the company became the largest manufacturer of steam rollers in the world. Thomas Aveling was born 11 September 1824 at Elm, Cambridgeshire and his mother was widowed while Thomas was still young and the family settled in Hoo St Werburgh. His mother remarried to the Rev. John DUrban of Hoo St Werburgh, Thomas stepfather brought him up with a Bible in one hand and a birch rod in the other. Thomas was apprenticed to Edward Lake, a farmer, of Hoo, Thomas married Edwards niece, Sarah Lake and in 1850 took a farm at Ruckinge on Romney Marsh. In 1851 he was recorded as a farmer and grazier employing 16 men and 6 boys, the business also included a drainage tile works. Aveling had a reputation as something of a martinet in business, however he did provide his staff with recreational facilities with a lecture room and mess room. Lectures were delivered on educational, social and political topics with Aveling himself in the chair, following the success of the Aveling and Porter business, Thomas rose to local prominence, first on the council and then between 1869 and 1870 as Mayor of Rochester. Politically he held rather radical views within the Liberal Party, not surprisingly he was a strong advocate of improving the river bank at Strood, which was at that time marsh. As mayor he took an interest in the significant local charity Watts Charity and was appointed to the board of trustees in 1871. He helped lay out the gardens in Rochester Castle, sat on the Rochester School Board and was a governor of the Sir Joseph Williamsons Mathematical School. He was a member of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, serving as councilman 1875–1882 and he secured the building of a chemical laboratory for the society. He was a member of the Institution of Civil Engineers, the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Aveling enjoyed yachting and had his own 28 ton yacht Sally. He was active in the management of several clubs including the Royal Cinque Ports. After contracting a chill on board her in late February 1882 he developed pneumonia, T. L. Aveling was the son of Thomas Aveling and his wife, Sarah. He was born on 25 August 1856 in Ruckinge, Kent, when he left school he worked for his father, taking control of Aveling & Porter in 1881. After conversion to a liability company in 1895 be became its chairman. In 1890 he married Rosita Marion Porter and had two sons, as a prominent local businessman Aveling served on a number of public bodies
43.
Clayton & Shuttleworth
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Clayton & Shuttleworth was an engineering company located at Stamp End Works, Lincoln, Lincolnshire, England. The company was established in 1842 when Nathaniel Clayton formed a partnership with his brother-in-law, in 1845 the company built its first portable steam engine, and in 1849 their first threshing machine. These products became the mainstay of its business, Clayton & Shuttleworth became one of the leading manufacturers in the country at the time. It supplied steam engines and threshing machines to other manufacturers, as well as selling under its own name, in 1851 it sold more than 200 steam engines, boosted by the Great Exhibition. By 1857 it had made a total of 2,400 steam engines, in 1870 the companys workforce in Lincoln was 1,200. The export trade was important to the firm, a branch in Vienna was established early on, and other branches followed at Pest, Prague, Cracow and Lemberg. The firm became a company in 1901, and Alfred Shuttleworth, son of the founder. For a short time in the 20th century Clayton & Shuttleworth made tractors, in 1911 it built a four-cylinder oil engine with car-type radiator, sheet metal bonnet and cab roof. This was followed in 1916 by a four-cylinder gas-kerosene engine crawler tractor and this 40 horsepower machine was made until 1929. The company also built a 100 hp gun tractor similar to a Holt tractor and it was the first British company to make a combine harvester. In March 1917 the company received a contract to build the Sopwith Camel which remained in production at Claytons until 1919 when more than 500 aircraft had been built, in 1916 a new works was built to enable the company to build the large Handley Page O/400 bomber. When completed the aircraft unlike the smaller Sopwith aircraft were out for testing and delivery from a field to the east of the works. After production of the O/400 a contract was placed to build the Vickers Vimy but only one was built before the Armistice, the company issued a souvenir leaflet after the war to celebrate the success. Modern research indicates that Brown may not have fired the fatal shot, the Hungarian branch was acquired by Hofherr-Schrantz Machine Factory in 1912 creating Hofherr-Schrantz-Clayton-Shuttleworth Hungarian Machine Factory. The company survived the Great Depression in Hungary and the Second World War, after the war the Soviet Red Army occupied Hungary, and the newly formed Communist government started nationalising the industry. The factory became state property in 1948 and was renamed to Vörös Csillag Traktorgyár in 1951 and its independent operation ceased in 1973 when it was attached to Rába. The factory was closed in 2010, however many of the hundred-year-old buildings are still in use by smaller companies. Clayton & Shuttleworth and Marshall Aircraft Production, MERL Museum of English Rural Life MERL
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Mann's Patent Steam Cart and Wagon Company
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Manns Patent Steam Cart and Wagon Company manufactured steam powered road vehicles in Leeds, England. The company was founded by James Hutchinson Mann, a native of Leeds, Mann had been apprenticed to J&H McLaren & Co. and also worked for Marshall, Sons & Co. of Gainsborough. In January 1894 he commenced a partnership with Sidney Charlesworth under the title Mann and Charlesworth and this company manufactured traction engines, stationary engines and steam rollers. One of their inventions was the single-eccentric reversing gear. This compact device allowed the sequence of opening of a steam engine to be changed. In 1898 Mann and Charlesworth produced, on behalf of Philip Parmiter of Tisbury, an agricultural steam cart using the front end of a traction engine. This was one of the first practical self-powered load-carrying road vehicles, Mann realised the potential for this machine and went on to develop it into his Patent Steam Cart – to which the company title referred. Charlesworth left the partnership in 1898 and by September 1899 the organisation called Manns Patent Steam Cart, the success of the patent cart was such that Mann decided to construct a new works on Pepper Road, Hunslet, Leeds and the move was complete by December 1901. The large, modern, well-equipped works was a move and was initially very successful. The period up to and including the First World War was the heyday of the company, in addition the company produced a range of tractors for both road and agricultural use. Another popular product for use was their lightweight patching roller. In 1924 the company introduced their superb Mann Express wagon, with drive, high-speed engine. Unfortunately this wagon was not a success and by 1926 Manns Patent Steam Cart. Despite attempts to provide additional finance it was not possible to save the company, in February 1929 the Mann company was purchased by Atkinson Walker Wagons Limited, of Preston, who were also manufacturers of steam wagons. They renamed the company Mann’s Steam & Motor Wagon Company, however Atkinson were in a poor financial position, and as a result they sold the Mann business in 1930 to Scammell and Nephew of Spitalfields, London E1. Scammell produced a few Mann wagons, largely from the spares they acquired
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Richard Garrett & Sons
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Richard Garrett & Sons was a manufacturer of agricultural machinery, steam engines and trolleybuses. Their factory was Leiston Works, in Leiston, Suffolk, England, the company was founded by Richard Garrett in 1778. The company was active under its ownership between 1778 and 1932. In the late 1840s, after cultivating a successful machine and implement business. The company grew to a business employing around 2,500 people. Richard Garrett III, grandson of the founder, visited The Great Exhibition of 1851 in London. Richard Garrett III introduced flow line production – a very early assembly line - and this was known as The Long Shop on account of its length. A machine would start at one end of the Long Shop, there was also an upper level where other parts were made, they would be lowered over a balcony and then fixed onto the machine on the ground level. When the machine reached the end of the shop, it would be complete, in 1914, following a major fire at the works, it was decided to build a new factory on land that had been owned as a demonstration farm next to the station. From then on the sites were known as the Old Works. The company joined the Agricultural & General Engineers combine in 1919, the company was purchased by Beyer Peacock in 1932 after the collapse of AGE. The business continued as Richard Garrett Engineering Works until the works closed in 1981. Today, part of the old works is preserved as the Long Shop Museum, some of the offices are used as flats but the rest of that site has been demolished and the land used for housing. Some of the New Works is still used as industrial units while the offices have been converted to flats and more built on the site, known as Colonial House. The majority of the engines produced by Garrett were portable engines – combined with their fixed steam engines and semi-portables. Garrett produced a range of traction engines and ploughing engines. The construction of steam rollers was generally apportioned to Aveling & Porter by the AGE combine, 90% of the rollers produced by Garrett were exported. Garrett rollers were produced under licence under the name Ansaldo-Garrett by Gio, Richard Garrett and Sons are perhaps best known for their steam tractors, the most popular design of which was the Number 4 compound tractor, commonly referred to as the 4CD
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Steam tractor
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This article refers to the steam-powered agricultural tractor, for other types of steam tractor, see, Traction engine A steam tractor is a vehicle powered by a steam engine which is used for pulling. In North America, the steam tractor usually refers to a type of agricultural tractor powered by a steam engine, used extensively in the late 19th. Although known as steam tractors, these engines are generally just smaller versions of the road locomotive. This article concentrates on the steam-powered agricultural vehicles intended for the direct-pulling of ploughs, owing to differences in soil conditions, the development of steam-powered agricultural machines differed considerably on either side of the Atlantic. In Great Britain, a number of engine builders attempted to produce a design of agricultural engine that could pull a plough directly. However, the heavier and wetter soils found in Britain meant that these designs were not successful — being less economical to use than the team of horses they were intended to replace and these engines were also known as steam tractors. Instead, farmers resorted to cable-hauled ploughing using ploughing engines, a distinctive example of a British-designed steam tractor is the Garrett Suffolk Punch, a 1917 design intended to compete directly with internal combustion-powered alternatives. The first steam tractors that were designed specifically for agricultural uses were portable engines built on skids or on wheels and transported to the work area using horses. Later models used the power of the engine itself to power a drive train to move the machine and were first known as traction drive engines which eventually was shortened to tractor. These drive mechanisms were one of three types, chain, shaft, and open pinion, the open pinion became the most popular design due to its strength. Later improvements included power steering, differentials, compounded engines, the steam engine was gradually phased out by the mid-1920s as the less expensive, lighter, and faster-starting internal combustion tractors fully emerged after World War I. Oats were an item to be threshed, but wheat. On a threshing day, all the neighbors would gather at that days farmstead to complete a job in one day through cooperation. The women and older girls were in charge of cooking the noon meal, the children had various jobs based upon their age and sex. Steam traction engines were too expensive for a single farmer to purchase. In a threshing ring, multiple farmers pooled their resources to purchase a steam engine and they also chose one person among them to go to a steam school, to learn how to run the engine properly. There were also threshing contractors, who owned their own engine and thresher, the immense pulling power of steam tractors allowed them to be used for ploughing as well. Certain steam tractors were better suited for ploughing than others, with the large Minneapolis Threshing machine Co, Case, Reeves & Co and Advance-Rumely engines being prime examples
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Dan Albone
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Daniel Albone was an English inventor, manufacturer and cyclist. He invented the first successful light farm tractor, and the Ivel Safety bicycle, born 12 September 1860 at Biggleswade, Bedfordshire to Edward and Edith Albone. The youngest of eight children, they lived at the Ongley Arms inn, for his ninth birthday he received a Boneshaker bicycle, and so began his long association with cycling. By the age of 13, he had designed and built his own bicycle, complete with suspension, on leaving school, he undertook an apprenticeship with a Biggleswade firm of millwrights and engineers, Thomas Course & Son of Hitchin Street. Albone won over 180 cycling prizes, including winner of the,1885 two mile open at Oundle, Northamptonshire,1885 one mile open handicap at Crystal Palace, London. 1887 one mile open and two-mile open at Oundle, Northamptonshire,1888 International Tricycle scratch race, Scheveningen, Netherlands. In 1885 he was a member of the North Road Cycling Club. It attracted other national cycling champions, such as George Pilkington Mills, at the age of 20 he founded the Ivel Cycle Works in the yard of the Ongley Arms, making bicycles for himself and his fellow sports cyclists. His first products were the Ivel Light Roadster and the Ivel Racer, in 1882 he introduced the Ivel Tricycle, and in 1884, in collaboration with Laurence Huber the Ivel Automatic Steerer tricycle. In 1885 John Kemp Starley exhibited his Rover Safety bicycle at the Stanley show, Albone copied this idea, and combined it with the Hillman, Herbert and Cooper cross frame design to produce the Ivel Safety cycle, in April 1886. This became very popular with sports cyclists, on 5 October 1886 George Pilkington Mills, on an Ivel Safety, achieved a world record 24-hour distance of 294.5 miles. Albone went on to invent a safety bicycle with Arthur James Wilson, cycle pump clamps with Richard Tingey. By 1893 a general downturn in the economy had put many cycle manufacturers out of business, in 1886 Albone applied his knowledge of low friction wheels to produce a strong, light weight pony trap. This had an axle with ball bearings, and bicycle type steel. The result was smooth and fast, and the trap was popular. The axles were also separately, to the Great Northern Railway company. In the 1890s many cycle manufacturers moved into motor manufacture, Albone also developed a motor car, based on a 2.2 kW single cylinder Benz engine. He was driving a prototype around Bedfordshire in 1898, and exhibited it in London in 1900, a five seat version was developed, called the Ivel Landaulette, with a 6 kW twin cylinder engine
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