1.
National Park Service
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It was created on August 25,1916, by Congress through the National Park Service Organic Act and is an agency of the United States Department of the Interior. As of 2014, the NPS employs 21,651 employees who oversee 417 units, the National Park Service celebrated its centennial in 2016. National parks and national monuments in the United States were originally individually managed under the auspices of the Department of the Interior, the movement for an independent agency to oversee these federal lands was spearheaded by business magnate and conservationist Stephen Mather, as well as J. Horace McFarland. With the help of journalist Robert Sterling Yard, Mather ran a publicity campaign for the Department of the Interior and they wrote numerous articles that praised the scenic and historic qualities of the parks and their possibilities for educational, inspirational, and recreational benefits. This campaign resulted in the creation of a National Park Service, Mather became the first director of the newly formed NPS. On March 3,1933, President Herbert Hoover signed the Reorganization Act of 1933, the act would allow the President to reorganize the executive branch of the United States government. It wasnt until later that summer when the new President, Franklin D. Roosevelt, President Roosevelt agreed and issued two Executive orders to make it happen. In 1951, Conrad Wirth became director of the National Park Service, the demand for parks after the end of the World War II had left the parks overburdened with demands that could not be met. In 1952, with the support of President Dwight D. Eisenhower, he began Mission 66, New parks were added to preserve unique resources and existing park facilities were upgraded and expanded. In 1966, as the Park Service turned 50 years old, emphasis began to turn from just saving great and wonderful scenery, Director George Hartzog began the process with the creation of the National Lakeshores and then National Recreation Areas. Since its inception in 1916, the National Park Service has managed each of the United States national parks, Yellowstone National Park was the first national park in the United States. In 1872, there was no government to manage it. Yosemite National Park began as a park, the land for the park was donated by the federal government to the state of California in 1864 for perpetual conservation. Yosemite was later returned to federal ownership, at first, each national park was managed independently, with varying degrees of success. In Yellowstone, the staff was replaced by the U. S. Army in 1886. Due to the irregularities in managing these national treasures, Stephen Mather petitioned the government to improve the situation. In response, Secretary of the Interior Franklin K. Lane challenged him to lobby for creating a new agency, Mather was successful with the ratification of the National Park Service Organic Act in 1916. Later, the agency was given authority over other protected areas, the National Park System includes all properties managed by the National Park Service
National Park Service
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In 1916, a portfolio of nine major parks was published to generate interest. Printed on each brochure was a map showing the parks and principal railroad connections.
National Park Service
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National Park Service Arrowhead
National Park Service
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In 1934, a series of ten postage stamps were issued to commemorate the reorganization and expansion of the National Park Service.
National Park Service
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Grand Canyon National Park, south rim of canyon.
2.
Grand Lake, Colorado
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Grand Lake is a statutory town in Grand County, Colorado, United States. The population was 471 at the 2010 census, established in 1881, Grand Lake sits at an elevation of 8,369 feet and derives its name from the lake on whose shores it is situated, Grand Lake, the largest natural body of water in Colorado. Grand Lake was the Grand County seat of government from 1882-1888 and it was incorporated on June 23,1944. Grand Lake is located in northeastern Grand County at 40°15′2″N 105°49′28″W, U. S. Route 34 runs through the western side of the town, entering Rocky Mountain National Park just north of town and leading 45 miles across the mountains to Estes Park. To the southwest, US34 leads 15 miles to Granby, according to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 1.0 square mile, all of it land. Due to its elevation, Grand Lake has a climate with a short growing season. Temperatures are chilly at night even through the months. Grand Lake is Colorados largest and deepest natural lake, and is part of the headwaters of the Colorado River, the lake became a component in the Colorado-Big Thompson Project in 1937, when it was recruited as a conduit for C-BT project water. The C-BT project diverts water from the Colorado River Basin east via the Alva B, adams Tunnel under the Continental Divide and Rocky Mountain National Park to the Big Thompson River watershed, thence the South Platte River and ultimately the Mississippi River basin. Grand Lake Yacht Club is a club that hosts sailing races on the lake, and there are also publicly and privately operated marinas, a public boat ramp. As of the census of 2000, there were 447 people,219 households, the population density was 472.5 people per square mile. There were 748 housing units at a density of 790.7 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 96. 20% White,0. 67% African American,0. 89% Native American,0. 67% Asian,0. 22% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 2. 68% of the population. 35. 2% of all households were made up of individuals and 5. 5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.02 and the average family size was 2.60. In the town, the population was out with 16. 8% under the age of 18,6. 3% from 18 to 24,29. 3% from 25 to 44,35. 6% from 45 to 64. The median age was 44 years, for every 100 females there were 124.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 122.8 males, the median income for a household in the town was $45,096, and the median income for a family was $55,750. Males had an income of $30,833 versus $26,250 for females
Grand Lake, Colorado
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Grand Lake village in winter
Grand Lake, Colorado
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Downtown Grand Lake in summer
Grand Lake, Colorado
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Tourists and customers mingle outside Grand Mountain Trading Company in Grand Lake
Grand Lake, Colorado
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Trinity Church of the Pines at 604 Lake Avenue in Grand Lake
3.
Estes Park, Colorado
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The Town of Estes Park /ˈɛstɪs/ is a statutory town in Larimer County, Colorado, United States. A popular summer resort and the location of the headquarters for Rocky Mountain National Park, Estes Park had a population of 5,858 at the 2010 census. The town overlooks Lake Estes and Olympus Dam, before Europeans came to the Estes Park valley, the Arapaho Indians lived there in the summertime and called the valley the Circle. When three elderly Arapahoes visited Estes Park in 1914, they pointed out sites they remembered from their younger days, toll, recorder, and David Robert Hawkins, a Princeton student. In the 1850s, the Arapaho had spent summers camped around Marys Lake, where their rock fireplaces, tipi sites and they also recalled building eagle traps atop Longs Peak to get the war feathers coveted by all tribes. They remembered their routes to and from the valley in detail, naming trails and they pointed out the site of their buffalo trap, and described the use of dogs to pack meat out of the valley. Their recollections included a battle with Apaches in the 1850s, and fights with Utes who came to the area to hunt bighorn sheep, whites probably came into the Estes Park valley before the 1850s as trappers, but did not stay long. The town is named after Missouri native Joel Estes, who founded the community in 1859, Estes moved his family there in 1863. One of Estes early visitors was William Byers, an editor who wrote of his ascent of Longs Peak in 1864. Griff Evans and his came to Estes Park in 1867 to act as caretakers for the former Estes ranch. Recognizing the potential for tourism, he began building cabins to accommodate travelers, soon it was known as the first dude ranch in Estes Park, with guides for hunting, fishing, and mountaineering. Lord Dunravens land grab didnt work, but he controlled 6,000 acres before he changed tactics and opened the areas first resort, the Estes Park Hotel, in 1873, Englishwoman Isabella Bird, the daughter of an Anglican minister, came to the United States. Landing at San Francisco, she came overland to Colorado, where she borrowed a horse and set out to explore the Rocky Mountains with a guide, the notorious James Nugent, aka Rocky Mountain Jim. She wrote a memoir of their travels, including the ascent of Longs Peak. On June 19th 1874 Rocky Mountain Jim and neighbor Griff Evans had an argument, having had bitter history with each other, Nugent and Evans hated each other and were deep personal rivals when it came to tour guiding tourists. The argument escalated until Evans blasted Jim in the head with his rifle shotgun, Evans then traveled to Fort Collins to file an assault charge against Nugent, but he was arrested and tried for first degree murder when Jim Nugent died on September 9th 1874 of the bullet wound. Evans was put on trial, but the case was dismissed due to the lack of witnesses to the shooting. On August 9th 1875, the Loveland court-house acquitted Evans of any charges in the case, William Henry Jackson photographed Estes Park in 1873
Estes Park, Colorado
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Panorama of Estes Park as seen from
Lumpy Ridge
Estes Park, Colorado
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Lord Dunraven (1841-1926), the famous
Irish nobleman, politician and journalist, in later life. His
ancestral seat was
Adare Manor.
Estes Park, Colorado
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Main Street in 1912.
USGS photo.
Estes Park, Colorado
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Estes Park entrance sign
4.
Grand County, Colorado
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Grand County is one of the 64 counties in the U. S. state of Colorado. As of the 2010 census, the population was 14,843, the county seat is Hot Sulphur Springs. It was named after Grand Lake and the Grand River, an old name for the upper Colorado River, on January 29,1877 Routt County was created and Grand County shrunk down to its current western boundary. When valuable minerals were found in North Park, Grand County claimed the area as part of its county and it took a decision by the Colorado Supreme Court in 1886 to declare North Park part of Larimer County, setting Grand Countys northern boundary. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 1,870 square miles. The population density was 7 people per square mile, there were 10,894 housing units at an average density of 6 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 95. 15% White,0. 48% Black or African American,0. 43% Native American,0. 68% Asian,0. 10% Pacific Islander,2. 00% from other races, and 1. 15% from two or more races. 4. 36% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,23. 8% were of German,12. 6% Irish,10. 0% English and 7. 3% American ancestry. 24. 80% of all households were made up of individuals and 4. 80% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.37 and the average family size was 2.85. In the county, the population was out with 21. 80% under the age of 18,9. 00% from 18 to 24,34. 70% from 25 to 44,26. 80% from 45 to 64. The median age was 37 years, for every 100 females there were 112.70 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 115.70 males, the median income for a household in the county was $47,759, and the median income for a family was $55,217. Males had an income of $34,861 versus $26,445 for females. The per capita income for the county was $25,198, about 5. 40% of families and 7. 30% of the population were below the poverty line, including 7. 90% of those under age 18 and 6. 10% of those age 65 or over
Grand County, Colorado
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Scenic vehicle entrance to Grand Lake Lodge (established 1919), included on the
National Register of Historic Places
Grand County, Colorado
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Location in the state of
Colorado
Grand County, Colorado
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The Fraser Valley in eastern Grand County is a key tourist area.
5.
Larimer County, Colorado
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Larimer County is one of the 64 counties in the U. S. state of Colorado. As of the 2010 census, the population was 299,630, the county seat and most populous city is Fort Collins. The county was named for William Larimer, Jr. the founder of Denver, Larimer County comprises the Fort Collins, CO Metropolitan Statistical Area. The county is located at the end of the Front Range. Larimer County was created in 1861 as one of seventeen counties in the Colorado Territory, however. Controversy existed as to whether Larimer County ended at the Medicine Bow Range or at the Continental Divide thirty miles farther west. An 1886 Colorado Supreme Court decision set the boundary at the Continental Divide, the mining boom almost entirely passed the county by. It would take the introduction of irrigation to the region in the 1860s to bring the first widespread settlement to the area, in 1828 William H. Ashley ascended the Cache la Poudre River on his way to the Green River in present-day Utah. The river itself received its name in the middle 1830s from an incident in which French-speaking trappers hid gunpowder along its banks. In 1848 a group of Cherokee crossed through the county following the North Fork of the Poudre to the Laramie Plains on their way to California along a route that became known as the Cherokee Trail. The first U. S. settlers arrived that year in a party led by Antoine Janis from Fort Laramie. Nearly simultaneously, Mariano Medina established Fort Namaqua along the Big Thompson River just west of present-day Loveland, the first irrigation canals were established along the Poudre in the 1860s. In 1861, Laporte was designated as the first county seat after the organization of the Colorado Territory, in 1862, the United States Army established an outpost near Laporte that was designated as Camp Collins. A devastating flood in June 1864 wiped out the outpost, forcing the Army to seek a better location, at the urging of Joseph Mason, who had settled along the Poudre in 1860, the Army relocated its post downstream adjacent to Masons land along the Overland stage route. The site of the new post became the nucleus of the town of Fort Collins, by that time, Mason and others had convinced the Colorado Territorial Legislature to designate the new town as the county seat. Cameron and other members of the Greeley Colony established the Fort Collins Agricultural Colony, one of the primary goals of the early citizens of the county was the courting of railroads. County residents were disappointed when the Denver Pacific Railroad bypassed the county in 1870 in favor of Greeley, the first railroad finally arrived in the county in 1877 when the Colorado Central Railroad extended a line north from Golden via Longmont to Cheyenne. The town council of Fort Collins designated right-of-way through the center of town for the line, along the new railroad sprung up the new platted towns of Loveland and Berthoud, named respectively after the president and chief surveyor of the Colorado Central
Larimer County, Colorado
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Wagon trail pass near
Fort Collins, Colorado, from a 7 June 1859 sketch
Larimer County, Colorado
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Location in the state of
Colorado
Larimer County, Colorado
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Fall colors, Poudre Canyon
Larimer County, Colorado
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Greyrock Mountain trail
6.
United States Numbered Highway System
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The United States Numbered Highway System is an integrated network of roads and highways numbered within a nationwide grid in the contiguous United States. The route numbers and locations are coordinated by the American Association of State Highway, the only federal involvement in AASHTO is a nonvoting seat for the United States Department of Transportation. Generally, north-to-south highways are odd-numbered, with lowest numbers in the east, the area of the thirteen states of the United States. Similarly, east-to-west highways are typically even-numbered, with the lowest numbers in the north, where roads were first improved most intensively, major north–south routes have numbers ending in 1 while major east–west routes have numbers ending in 0. Three-digit numbered highways are spur routes of parent highways but are not necessarily connected to their parents, some divided routes exist to provide two alignments for one route, even though many splits have been eliminated. Special routes, usually posted with a banner, can provide various routes, such as an alternate, bypass or business route, Routes were designated, auto trails designated by auto trail associations were the main means of marking roads through the United States. In 1925, the Joint Board on Interstate Highways, recommended by the American Association of State Highway Officials, after several meetings, a final report was approved by the U. S. Department of Agriculture in November 1925. They received complaints from across the country about the assignment of routes, so the Board made several modifications, as a result of compromises made to get the U. S. Highway System approved, many routes were divided, with alignments to serve different towns. In subsequent years, AASHTO called for such splits in U. S, expansion of the system continued until 1956, when the Interstate Highway System was formed. After construction was completed, many U. S, Routes were replaced by Interstate Highways for through traffic. Highways still form many important regional connections, and new routes are still being added, Routes do not have a minimum design standard, unlike the later Interstate Highways, and are not usually built to freeway standards. Many are designated using the streets of the cities and towns through which they run. New additions to the system, however, must substantially meet the current AASHTO design standards, as of 1989, the United States Numbered Highways system has a total length of 157,724 miles. Except for toll bridges and tunnels, very few U. S. AASHTO policy says that a road may only be included as a special route. U. S. Route 3 meets this obligation, in New Hampshire, but US Routes in the system do use parts of four toll roads, US51 uses part of the Jane Addams Memorial Tollway in Illinois, the old road is Illinois Route 251. US278 uses the tolled Cross Island Parkway in South Carolina, US412 uses the Cimarron Turnpike in Oklahoma, the old road is US64. US412 also uses the Cherokee Turnpike in Oklahoma, the old road is Alternate US412, Routes follow a simple grid in the contiguous United States, in which odd-numbered routes run generally north to south and even-numbered routes run generally east to west
United States Numbered Highway System
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The "final" U.S. Highway plan as approved November 11, 1926
United States Numbered Highway System
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Design changes of U.S. Highway shield
United States Numbered Highway System
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This sign, photographed in 1941 on US 99 between
Seattle, Washington, and
Portland, Oregon, illustrates one rationale for a federal highway system: national defense.
7.
List of United States Numbered Highways
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The following is a list of United States numbered highways. Numbered Highways both past and present, with the former shaded in gray, three-digit subsidiaries are grouped with their one- or two-digit parent. The list is based on American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials definitions, with details on extensions and truncations. Discrepancies with state specifications are noted, Highways that exist entirely within one state. Since the current policy on numbering and designating US Highways was written in 1991, AASHTO has been in the process of eliminating all intrastate U. S. Roads portal Endpoints of US Highways, from Dale Sanderson US Highway Endings, from Adam Froehlig U. S. Highways, from US1 to at the Wayback Machine, from Robert V. Droz
List of United States Numbered Highways
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Map of the present U.S. Highway network
8.
List of divided U.S. Routes
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Not to be confused with divided highway portions of the U. S. Highway system. These splits were in the U. S. Highway system from the beginning and this policy was adopted by 1996, however, many of these routes still exist, mostly in Tennessee. US Highways, Divided Routes AASHTO – Establishment and Development of United States Numbered Highways
List of divided U.S. Routes
–
Map of the present U.S. Highway network
9.
List of highways bypassed by Interstate Highways
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This is a list of highways, mostly U. S. Routes, bypassed by Interstate Highways. Unless otherwise specified, designations are as of ca,1960, at the time the final Interstate plan was adopted. Interstates marked as later addition were added after the early 1960s
List of highways bypassed by Interstate Highways
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The Interstate Highway System and its numbering as approved June 27, 1958; several of these numbers were modified by 1960
10.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
National Register of Historic Places
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Logo used for the NRHP.
National Register of Historic Places
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Old Slater Mill, a historic district in
Pawtucket, Rhode Island, was the first property listed in the National Register on November 13, 1966.
National Register of Historic Places
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The
Loren Andrus Octagon House in
Washington, Michigan has been on the NRHP since September 3, 1971.
National Register of Historic Places
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Built in 1800 by
Samuel McIntire in
Salem, the
Stephen Phillips House is operated as a
historic house museum by
Historic New England and open for public tours.
11.
U.S. Highway 34 (Colorado)
–
U. S. Route 34 in Colorado is a segment of U. S. Route 34. Its west end is at U. S. Highway 40 in Granby and its east end is at the Nebraska border east of Laird, the route begins in Granby at US40. It then follows the Colorado River Valley near Granby Lake and enters Arapaho National Recreational Area, after entering Rocky Mountain National Park in Colorados Front Range, US34 follows the North Fork Colorado River through Kawuneeche Valley. It passes over Milner Pass and reaches the Alpine Visitor Center, then it continues east, passing its highest point at 12,183 feet near the Gore Range. It exits the park at US36 at Deer Ridge Junction, US34 here is the highest continuous highway in the United States. This section of US34 requires a $30 national park entrance fee, from here, it passes by Estes Park as Eisenhower Boulevard, has a business route and enters Loveland, becoming a four-lane expressway. Here, it intersects I-25 and U. S. Highway 287, at Greeley, it passes by U. S. Highway 85 in a complex interchange and U. S.34 Business, and crosses the South Platte River. It also has an interchange with SH257, from here, it is no longer an expressway. It intersects SH144 and SH39, then joins I-76 at Wiggins. It leaves, and follows the North Fork Republican River east into Nebraska, where it intersects SH71, SH52, SH63, SH61, SH59, parts of the route were originally designated as US38. US34 was extended into Colorado in 1939, U. S. Highway 34 Business serves Estes Park, Colorado. Both of its termini are at US34, the business route splits from the main route east of the Rocky Mountain National Park Fall River Entrance Station, in the western city limits of Estes Park and enters town on West Elkhorn Avenue. The main route continues around the edge of Estes park on Wonderview Avenue. At Moraine Avenue, It joins US36 in downtown Estes Park and it returns to US34 after about 1.7 miles at an intersection with Wonderview Avenue, Big Thompson Avenue, and North St. Vrain Avenue. The business route was established in 1964, the entire route is in Estes Park, Larimer County
U.S. Highway 34 (Colorado)
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View of US 34 in Rocky Mountain National Park, at an altitude above 11,000 feet
U.S. Highway 34 (Colorado)
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U.S. Route 34
U.S. Highway 34 (Colorado)
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Entrance sign for Estes Park
12.
Rocky Mountain National Park
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The park is situated between the towns of Estes Park to the east and Grand Lake to the west. The eastern and westerns slopes of the Continental Divide run directly through the center of the park with the headwaters of the Colorado River located in the northwestern region. The main features of the park include mountains, alpine lakes, the Rocky Mountain National Park Act was signed by then–President Woodrow Wilson on January 26,1915, establishing the park boundaries and protecting the area for future generations. The Civilian Conservation Corps built the main route, named Trail Ridge Road. In 1976, UNESCO designated the park as one of the first World Biosphere Reserves, in 2016, more than four and a half million recreational visitors entered the park, which is an increase of about nine percent from the prior year. The history of Rocky Mountain National Park began when Paleo-Indians traveled along what is now Trail Ridge Road to hunt, Ute and Arapaho people subsequently hunted and camped in the area. In 1820, the Long Expedition, led by Stephen H. Long for whom Longs Peak was named, approached the Rockies via the Platte River. Settlers began arriving in the mid-1800s, displacing the Native Americans who mostly left the area voluntarily by 1860, lulu City, Dutchtown, and Gaskill in the Never Summer Mountains were established in the 1870s when prospectors came in search of gold and silver. The boom ended by 1883 with miners deserting their claims, the railroad reached Lyons, Colorado in 1881 and the Big Thompson Canyon Road—a section of U. S. Route 34 from Loveland to Estes Park—was completed in 1904. The 1920s saw a boom in building lodges and roads in the park, prominent individuals in the effort to create a national park included Enos Mills from the Estes Park area, James Grafton Rogers from Denver, and J. Horace McFarland of Pennsylvania. The national park was established on January 26,1915, Precambrian metamorphic rock formed the core of the North American continent during the Precambrian eon 4. 5–1 billion years ago. During the Paleozoic era, western North America was submerged beneath a sea, with a seabed composed of limestone. Concurrently, in the period from 500–300 million years ago, the region began to sink while lime, eroded granite produced sand particles that formed strata—layers of sediment—in the sinking basin. About 300 million years ago, the land was uplifted creating the ancestral Rocky Mountains, fountain Formation was deposited during the Pennsylvanian period of the Paleozoic era, 290–296 million years ago. Over the next 150 million years, the uplifted, continued to erode. Wind, gravity, rainwater, snow, and glacial ice eroded the mountains over geologic time scales. The Ancestral Rockies were eventually buried under subsequent strata, the Pierre Shale formation was deposited during the Paleogene and Cretaceous periods about 70 million years ago. The region was covered by a deep sea—the Cretaceous Western Interior Seaway—which deposited massive amounts of shale on the seabed
Rocky Mountain National Park
–
View from
Bear Lake in Rocky Mountain National Park
Rocky Mountain National Park
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A view of a
tundra landscape in Rocky Mountain National Park.
Rocky Mountain National Park
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Longs Peak seen from
Dream Lake trail
Rocky Mountain National Park
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Lord Dunraven (1841-1926), the
Irish nobleman, in later life.
13.
Colorado River
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The Colorado River is one of the principal rivers of the Southwestern United States and northern Mexico. The 1, 450-mile-long Colorado River drains an expansive, arid watershed that encompasses parts of seven U. S. starting in the central Rocky Mountains in the U. S. After entering Mexico, the Colorado approaches the mostly dry Colorado River Delta at the tip of the Gulf of California between Baja California and Sonora. Known for its dramatic canyons, whitewater rapids, and eleven U. S. National Parks, the Colorados large flow and steep gradient are used for generating hydroelectric power, and its major dams regulate peaking power demands in much of the Intermountain West. Intensive water consumption has dried up the lower 100 miles of the river, beginning with small bands of nomadic hunter-gatherers, Native Americans have inhabited the Colorado River basin for at least 8,000 years. Most native peoples that inhabit the basin today are descended from groups that settled in the region beginning about 1,000 years ago. Europeans first entered the Colorado Basin in the 16th century, when explorers from Spain began mapping and claiming the area, early contact between Europeans and Native Americans was generally limited to the fur trade in the headwaters and sporadic trade interactions along the lower river. After most of the Colorado River basin became part of the U. S. in 1846, several expeditions charted the Colorado in the mid-19th century – one of which, led by John Wesley Powell, was the first to run the rapids of the Grand Canyon. American explorers collected valuable information that would later be used to develop the river for navigation, lesser numbers settled in the upper basin, which was the scene of major gold strikes in the 1860s and 1870s. Large engineering works began around the start of the 20th century, with guidelines established in a series of international. The U. S. federal government was the driving force behind the construction of dams and aqueducts in the river system, although many state. Most of the dams in the river basin were built between 1910 and 1970, the system keystone, Hoover Dam, was completed in 1935. The Colorado is now considered among the most controlled and litigated rivers in the world, as demands for Colorado River water continue to rise, the level of human development and control of the river continues to generate controversy. The Colorado begins at La Poudre Pass in the Southern Rocky Mountains of Colorado, after a short run south, the river turns west below Grand Lake, the largest natural lake in the state. As it flows southwest, it gains strength from many tributaries, as well as larger ones including the Blue, Eagle. In a few areas, such as the marshy Kawuneeche Valley near the headwaters, arcing northwest, the Colorado begins to cut across the eponymous Colorado Plateau, a vast area of high desert centered at the Four Corners of the southwestern United States. In Utah, the Colorado flows primarily through the slickrock country and this is one of the most inaccessible regions of the continental United States. Here, the San Juan River, carrying runoff from the slope of Colorados San Juan Mountains, joins the Colorado from the east. S
Colorado River
–
The Colorado River at
Horseshoe Bend,
Arizona, a few miles below
Glen Canyon Dam
Colorado River
–
Map of the Colorado River basin
Colorado River
–
The
Kawuneeche Valley, near the headwaters of the Colorado River in
Rocky Mountain National Park
Colorado River
–
Colorado River in the Grand Canyon seen from Pima Point, near
Hermit's Rest
14.
Kawuneeche Valley
–
Kawuneeche Valley, also known as Kawuneeche or Coyote Valley, is a marshy valley of the Colorado River near its beginning. It is located on the west side of Rocky Mountain National Park in Colorado, the axis of the valley runs almost directly north to south. Kawuneeche means valley of the coyote in Arapaho language and there is a Coyote Valley Trail head by US Route 34 in the half of the park. Coyotes still live here, as do wapiti, mule deer, moose, along the main part of valley runs the lower section of the Trail Ridge Road - the highest continuous paved road in the United States. The construction of the a water diversion canal called Grand Ditch between the 1890s and 1930s reduced the water table and limited the frequency and magnitude of the floods in the Kawuneeche Valley. In addition, Grand Ditch breached its bank on May 30,2003, the Grand Ditch owner - the Water Supply and Storage Company was ordered to pay $9 million settlement to the Rocky Mountain National Park. It was the largest natural resource damages payment in the history of the Park System Resource Protection Act, Grand Ditch exerts also negative aesthetic impact on the Kawuneeche. Elk was reintroduced to its old stomping grounds in the Colorado River Valley in the mid-1910s and this solitary species wanders alone moving south from Wyoming or east from Utah. And such moose probably account for sightings and kills in Colorado between the 1860s and 1960s and this is an ecological innovation driven largely by state game officials to attract sportsmen and tourists. However, moose are known to undergo dramatic population cycles, which, in combination with European settlement, populations were known in southern Wyomings Medicine Bow Mountains. In 1978 and 1979,4 bulls,13 cows,4 yearlings, all radio collared,12 each year. And today Kawuneeche Valley is a prime habitat, although sightings frequently occur even further, east of the Continental Divide. Large herbivores have become so numerous in the Kawuneeche Valley, that cause significant harm to the willow thickets and other plants. Elk is overpopulated, but rarer moose more specialized -91. 3% of its summer diets consist of six willow species and this is accompanied by drought and the proliferation of a native fungus spread by a bird called the sapsucker. The primary fungus species is Grosmannia clavigera, but Ophiostoma is also present, the fungi kill the stems above the wells drilled by sapsuckers. All these factors weaken the ability of the valley’s willows to generate new growth, their communities have declined, the most important bark beetle species in the Kawuneeche Valley are mountain pine beetle and spruce beetle. In recent years, these species have devastated forests on the side of Rocky Mountain National Park. They were abandoned after a few years of the mining boom
Kawuneeche Valley
–
Kawuneeche Valley from
U.S. Highway 34.
Kawuneeche Valley
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Wapiti (elk) in Kawuneeche Valley at dawn
Kawuneeche Valley
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Colorado River at the Coyote Valley Trail head, Kawuneeche Valley
Kawuneeche Valley
15.
Continental Divide
–
The endpoints where a continental divide meets the coast are not always definite, because the exact border between adjacent bodies of water is usually not clearly defined. The International Hydrographic Organizations publication Limits of Oceans and Seas defines exact boundaries of oceans, where a continental divide meets an endorheic basin, such as the Great Divide Basin of Wyoming, the continental divide splits and encircles the basin. In Africa, the most significant continental divide is the Congo-Nile Divide between the watersheds of the Nile and the Congo, passing through the area of the African Great Lakes. Between the Congo and the Sahara, a vast area drains into the endorheic Lake Chad, the interior of Antarctica receives very little precipitation, and that in the form of snow, and the continent is surrounded by the Southern Ocean. Therefore, Antarctica is not generally considered to have a continental divide, however, Australia has fewer distinct ocean boundaries and fewer prominent mountain ranges, which makes it hard to clearly and precisely define any one divide. Much of the interior of the continent drains into the endorheic Lake Eyre Basin, eurasia has various divides, depending on the definition of ocean. It was of significance in Canadian history because it marked the boundary of Ruperts Land. The Continental Divide of the Americas, also called the Great Divide, from there, it follows the crest of Mexicos Sierra Madre Occidental and extends to the tip of South America. It is crossed by the Panama Canal and by the two outlets of Isa Lake in Yellowstone National Park, the Eastern Continental Divide separates the watershed of the Gulf of Mexico from the Atlantic Ocean. It runs from the Twin Tiers of New York and Pennsylvania along the Appalachian Mountains to the tip of Florida, the city of Atlanta sits atop this divide. The Northern Divide, or Laurentian Divide, separates the watershed of the Atlantic Ocean from that of Hudson Bay, the divide traverses very flat terrain, especially in North Dakota, causing many travelers to believe the sign marking the divide is a joke. The Saint Lawrence River Divide separates the Great Lakes Basin from the rest of the Atlantic Ocean watershed, two canals cross the divide, The Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal crosses the Chicago Portage and connects Lake Michigan to the Mississippi River watershed. The Erie Canal connects Lake Erie to the Hudson River watershed, historically there were additional canals, e. g. the Ohio and Erie Canal, but most of these are no longer in operation. These lakes in Patagonia are moraine-dammed streams that used to drain to the Atlantic rather than the Pacific before the Pleistocene glaciations, borders of the continents Boundary Treaty of 1881 between Chile and Argentina nationalatlas. gov Continental Divides in North Dakota and North America by Mark A. Gonzalez. Excellent article on Americas other continental divides, map of drainage basins in Canada
Continental Divide
–
Principal
hydrological divides of
North America.
16.
Milner Pass
–
Milner Pass, elevation 10,759 ft is a mountain pass in the Rocky Mountains of northern Colorado in the United States. It is located on the divide in the Front Range, within Rocky Mountain National Park. The pass provides the passage over the continental divide for US34, the pass is not, however, the high point on Trail Ridge Road, which crests at 12,183 ft east of the pass within Rocky Mountain National Park. Along with the rest of Trail Ridge Road, the pass is closed in winter from the first heavy snow fall until the opening of the road around Memorial Day. The gentle pass divides the headwaters of the Cache la Poudre River, the road near the pass provides a panoramic view of the Never Summer Mountains to the west
Milner Pass
–
Milner Pass
17.
Fall River Pass
–
Fall River Pass is a mountain pass in the Rocky Mountains of northern Colorado in the United States. It is located in the Front Range, within Rocky Mountain National Park, the pass is traversed by U. S. Highway 34 on Trail Ridge Road between Granby and Estes Park. On the other hand, the old, largely unpaved, and one-way-uphill Fall River Road does have its summit at Fall River Pass, the Alpine Visitor Center, one of five visitor centers for Rocky Mountain National Park, is located at Fall River Pass. The highway has a moderately steep 6% grade on either side of this point, USGS TopoZone listing Tours of Fall River Pass National Geographic Article Official Site
Fall River Pass
–
Trail Ridge Store at Fall River Pass
Fall River Pass
–
Map By USGS
Fall River Pass
–
2.3 Miles High
Fall River Pass
–
Creek At Fall RIver Pass
18.
Big Thompson River
–
The Big Thompson River is a tributary of the South Platte River, approximately 78 miles long, in the U. S. state of Colorado. The headwaters of the Big Thompson River begin in Forest Canyon within Rocky Mountain National Park in Larimer County, the river flows east through Moraine Park to the town of Estes Park. There it is held in Lake Estes by Olympus Dam before being released into the Big Thompson Canyon, the North Fork Big Thompson River also begins in Rocky Mountain National Park, on the northern slopes of the Mummy Range. This tributary flows east, through the town of Glen Haven, from Lake Estes, the river descends 1/2 mile in elevation through the mountains in the spectacular 25 mi Big Thompson Canyon, emerging from the foothills west of Loveland. It flows eastward, south of Loveland across the plains into Weld County and it receives the Little Thompson River approximately four mi upstream from its mouth. Water resources in the Big Thompson River are managed by the Northern Colorado Water Conservancy District as part of the Colorado-Big Thompson Project and this flood was triggered by a nearly stationary thunderstorm near the upper section of the canyon that dumped 300 millimeters of rain in less than 4 hours. Little rain fell over the section of the canyon, where many of the victims were. Around 9 p. m. a wall of more than 6 meters high raced down the canyon at about 6 m/s, destroying 400 cars,418 houses and 52 businesses. This flood was more than 4 times as strong as any in the 112-year record available in 1976, in 2008, a man who was thought to have died in the flood was found to be alive and living in Oklahoma. Daryle Johnson and his family had rented a cabin east of Estes Park, a woman who was researching the floods victims discovered he was still alive
Big Thompson River
–
The headwaters of the Big Thompson River are in Rocky Mountain National Park.
Big Thompson River
–
Big Thompson River in Moraine Park in the Rocky Mountain National Park
Big Thompson River
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Sign in the Viestenz-Smith Park, demonstrating the maximum height of the flood
Big Thompson River
–
This natural-colour image of the lower reaches of Big Thompson Canyon illustrates two of the three natural factors that contributed to the flood’s severity: steep terrain and sparse
vegetation
19.
Google Maps
–
Google Maps is a web mapping service developed by Google. It offers satellite imagery, street maps, 360° panoramic views of streets, real-time traffic conditions, Google maps began as a C++ desktop program designed by Lars and Jens Eilstrup Rasmussen at Where 2 Technologies. In October 2004, the company was acquired by Google, which converted it into a web application, after additional acquisitions of a geospatial data visualization company and a realtime traffic analyzer, Google Maps was launched in February 2005. The services front end utilizes JavaScript, XML, and Ajax, Google Maps offers an API that allows maps to be embedded on third-party websites, and offers a locator for urban businesses and other organizations in numerous countries around the world. Google Map Maker allows users to expand and update the services mapping worldwide. Much of the satellite imagery is no more than three years old and is updated on a regular basis. Google Maps uses a variant of the Mercator projection. The current redesigned version of the application was made available in 2013. Google Maps for mobile was released in September 2008 and features GPS turn-by-turn navigation, in August 2013, it was determined to be the worlds most popular app for smartphones, with over 54% of global smartphone owners using it at least once. In 2012, Google reported having over 7,100 employees, Google Maps provides a route planner under Get Directions. Up to four modes of transportation are available depending on the area, driving, public transit, walking, in combination with Google Street View, issues such as parking, turning lanes, and one-way streets can be viewed before traveling. China mainland, Hong Kong, Macau, Jordan, Lebanon, only public transit directions are provided for South Korea. All countries of mainland North and Central America are covered contiguously, all countries of mainland South America are covered. All countries including Trinidad and Tobago* are treated contiguously, all inhabited countries and territories in the Caribbean are covered, though in general there are no connections between islands. Like many other Google web applications, Google Maps uses JavaScript extensively, as the user drags the map, the grid squares are downloaded from the server and inserted into the page. When a user searches for a business, the results are downloaded in the background for insertion into the panel and map. Locations are drawn dynamically by positioning a red pin on top of the map images, a hidden IFrame with form submission is used because it preserves browser history. The site also uses JSON for data rather than XML
Google Maps
–
Google Maps car at
Via Laietana,
Barcelona.
Google Maps
–
Google Maps
20.
Fall River Road
–
The Old Fall River Road, sometimes referred to as The Old Road by park staff in Rocky Mountain National Park was the first automobile road to penetrate the interior of the park. The road linked the east side of the park near Estes Park with Grand Lake on the west side, work began in 1913 but was interrupted in 1914 by World War I with final work being completed between 1918 and 1920. The narrow road was replaced by Trail Ridge Road in 1932. A rockslide closed the road in 1953 and it was not re-opened until 1968 when the National Park Service cleared the rocks, the one-way road is open only in the summer, weather permitting, and runs westward from Sheep Lakes to the Alpine Visitor Center. National Register of Historic Places listings in Larimer County, Colorado Historic American Engineering Record No. CO-73, Fall River Road, Between Estes Park & Fall River Pass, Estes Park vicinity, Larimer County, CO,14 photos,1 color transparency,40 data pages,2 photo caption pages Road Status Report
Fall River Road
–
Old Fall River Road
21.
Arapaho
–
The Arapaho are a tribe of Native Americans historically living on the plains of Colorado and Wyoming. They were close allies of the Cheyenne tribe and loosely aligned with the Lakota and Dakota, the Arapaho language, Heenetiit, is an Algonquian language closely related to Gros Ventre, whose people are seen as an early offshoot of the Arapaho. Blackfeet and Cheyenne are the other Algonquian-speakers on the Plains, by the 1850s, Arapaho bands formed two tribes, the Northern Arapaho and Southern Arapaho. Since 1878, the Northern Arapaho have lived with the Eastern Shoshone on the Wind River Reservation in Wyoming and are recognized as the Arapahoe Tribe of the Wind River Reservation. The Southern Arapaho live with the Southern Cheyenne in Oklahoma, together, their members are enrolled as the federally recognized Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes. It is uncertain where the word Arapaho came from and it may have come from the Pawnee word for trader, iriiraraapuhu, or it may have been a corruption of a Crow word for tattoo. The Arapaho autonym is Hinonoeino or Inun-ina, when referring to the tribe they use Hinonoeiteen and they were also known as Hitanwoiv or Hetanevoeo/Hetanevoeoo by their Cheyenne allies or Mahpíyato by Dakota, Maȟpíya thó by Lakota and Assiniboine. The Caddo called them Detsekayaa, the Wichita Niarharis-kûrikiwaahûski, and the Comanche Saria Tʉhka / Säretika, to Pawnee, Ute and other tribes they were also known as “dog-eaters”. The Northern Arapaho were also known as BSakuunena, the Cheyenne adapted the Arapaho terms and referred to the Northern Arapaho as Vanohetan or Vanohetaneo/ Vánoétaneoo and to the Southern Arapaho as Nomsennat or Nomseneo. The Arapaho recognize among themselves five main divisions, each speaking a different dialect and apparently representing as many originally distinct, through much of Arapaho history, each tribal-nation maintained a separate ethnic identity, although they occasionally came together and acted as political allies. Each also spoke mutually intelligible dialects, but there existed a degree of difference from Arapaho proper, dialectically, the Haaninin, Beesowuunenno, and Hinonoeino were closely related. Arapaho elders claimed that the Hánahawuuena dialect was the most difficult to comprehend of all the dialects, Hánahawuuena, Hananaxawuunenan or Aanûnhawa, occupying territory adjacent to, but further north of the Nanwacinahaana, spoke the now extinct Haanahawunena dialect. Hinonoeino or Hinanaeinan, they spoke the Arapaho language Beesowuunenno, Baasanwuunenan or Bäsawunena and their war parties used temporary brush shelters like the dome-shaped shade or Sweat lodge of the Great Lakes Algonquian peoples. They are said to have left their old homes more recently than the other Arapaho tribes, before their historic geo-political ethnogensis, each tribal-nation had a principal headman. The exact date of the fusion or fission of each social division is not known. Both sacred objects traditionally were kept by the Beesowuunenno, the different tribal-nations lived together and the Beesowuunenno have dispersed for at least 150 years among the former distinct Arapaho tribal groups. They keep the sacred tribal articles, and are considered the nucleus or mother tribe of the Arapaho and they absorbed the historic Hánahawuuena and Beesowuunenno. There are still about 50 people of Beesowuunenno-lineage among the Northern Arapaho, Southern Arapaho, Náwunena or Noowunenno, are called by the Northern Arapaho Nawathineha, the Kiowa know them as Ähayädal, the name for the wild plum
Arapaho
–
Arapaho Dress
Arapaho
–
Arapaho Hinono'eino
Arapaho
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Pouch, Arapaho (Native American), Late 19th or early 20th century,
Brooklyn Museum
Arapaho
–
Painting of Black Man, an Arapaho warrior with face paint and feathers. By
E.A Burbank, 1899.
22.
Alpine tundra
–
Alpine tundra is a type of natural region or biome that does not contain trees because it is at high altitude. The high altitude causes an adverse climate, which is too cold, Alpine tundra transitions to sub-alpine forests below the tree line, stunted forests occurring at the forest-tundra ecotone are known as Krummholz. With increasing elevation it ends at the line where snow. Alpine tundra occurs in mountains worldwide, the flora of the alpine tundra is characterized by dwarf shrubs close to the ground. The cold climate of the tundra is caused by the lack of greenhouse effect at high altitude. Alpine tundra occurs at high altitude at any latitude. Portions of Montane grasslands and shrublands ecoregions worldwide include alpine tundra, Alpine tundra occupies high-mountain summits, slopes, and ridges above timberline. Aspect plays a role as well, the treeline often occurs at higher elevations on warmer equator-facing slopes, with limited access to infrastructure, only a handful of human communities exist in alpine zones. Many are small and have heavily specialized economies, often relying on such as agriculture, mining. An example of such a town is La Rinconada, Peru, a gold-mining town. A counterexample is El Alto, Bolivia, at 4,150 metres, which has a diverse service and manufacturing economy. Alpine climate is the weather for the alpine tundra. The climate becomes colder at high elevations—this characteristic is described by the rate of air, air tends to get colder as it rises. The dry adiabatic lapse rate is 10 °C per km of elevation or altitude, therefore, moving up 100 metres on a mountain is roughly equivalent to moving 80 kilometers towards the pole. This relationship is only approximate, however, since local factors such as proximity to oceans can drastically modify the climate, typical high-elevation growing seasons range from 45 to 90 days, with average summer temperatures near 10 °C. Growing season temperatures frequently fall below freezing, and frost occurs throughout the season in many areas. Precipitation occurs mainly as snow, but soil water availability is highly variable with season, location. For example, snowfields commonly accumulate on the lee sides of ridges while ridgelines may remain nearly snow free due to redistribution by wind, some alpine habitats may be up to 70% snow free in winter
Alpine tundra
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Hikers traversing the
Franconia Ridge in the
White Mountains, much of which is in the alpine zone.
Alpine tundra
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Alpine tundra in North-Western Transbaikalia
Alpine tundra
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Summer in Northern Sweden's
Tarfala Valley with its alpine climate
Alpine tundra
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This alpine valley is entirely above the
tree line
23.
Horace Albright
–
Horace Marden Albright was an American conservationist. Horace Albright was born in 1890 in Bishop, California, the son of George Albright and he graduated from the University of California, Berkeley in 1912, and earned a law degree from Georgetown University. Albright married his college classmate Grace Noble and they had two children, after graduation, he worked for the Department of the Interior in Washington, D. C. As legal assistant he helped acquire land for new national parks in the east. When Mather became ill, Albright managed the NPS as acting director and he later served as superintendent of Yellowstone National Park and, for a short time, Yosemite National Park. On October 18,1922 he was elected Associate Member of the Boone and Crockett Club, on January 12,1929, Albright succeeded Mather as the second director of the NPS and held the post until August 9,1933. In 1933 Albright resigned to work for the U. S. Potash Corporation and U. S. Borax and Chemical Corporation, serving variously as director, vice president, during this time they lived in New Rochelle, New York. In 1937, his portrait was painted by artist Herbert A. Collins, the nations highest civilian award, the Presidential Medal of Freedom, was awarded to Albright by President Jimmy Carter on the 64th anniversary of the National Park Service. President Carter announced the award in August 1980, and the medal was presented on December 8 by Assistant Secretary of the Interior Robert L. Herbst, in a ceremony at Van Nuys, Albright died in Van Nuys, California in 1987. Albright Grove, a grove of old-growth hemlocks and tulip poplars located in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, was named in Albrights honor, the Albright Training Center at Grand Canyon National Park and the Albright Visitor Center at Yellowstone National Park also bear his name. Works by or about Horace M. Albright at Internet Archive National Park Service Biography Oh, Ranger. by Horace M. Albright, college of Natural Resources / University of California, Berkeley
Horace Albright
–
Horace M. Albright
Horace Albright
–
Supt. Albright enjoys a "bear dinner",
Yellowstone National Park, 1922
24.
Native Americans in the United States
–
In the United States, Native Americans are people descended from the Pre-Columbian indigenous population of the land within the countrys modern boundaries. These peoples were composed of distinct tribes, bands, and ethnic groups. Most Native American groups had historically preserved their histories by oral traditions and artwork, at the time of first contact, the indigenous cultures were quite different from those of the proto-industrial and mostly Christian immigrants. Some of the Northeastern and Southwestern cultures in particular were matrilineal, the majority of Indigenous American tribes maintained their hunting grounds and agricultural lands for use of the entire tribe. Europeans at that time had patriarchal cultures and had developed concepts of property rights with respect to land that were extremely different. Assimilation became a consistent policy through American administrations, during the 19th century, the ideology of manifest destiny became integral to the American nationalist movement. Expansion of European-American populations to the west after the American Revolution resulted in increasing pressure on Native American lands and this resulted in the ethnic cleansing of many tribes, with the brutal, forced marches coming to be known as The Trail of Tears. As American expansion reached into the West, settler and miner migrants came into increasing conflict with the Great Basin, Great Plains and these were complex nomadic cultures based on horse culture and seasonal bison hunting. Over time, the United States forced a series of treaties and land cessions by the tribes, in 1924, Native Americans who were not already U. S. citizens were granted citizenship by Congress. Contemporary Native Americans have a relationship with the United States because they may be members of nations, tribes. The terms used to refer to Native Americans have at times been controversial, by comparison, the indigenous peoples of Canada are generally known as First Nations. It is not definitively known how or when the Native Americans first settled the Americas and these early inhabitants, called Paleoamericans, soon diversified into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes. The archaeological periods used are the classifications of archaeological periods and cultures established in Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips 1958 book Method and they divided the archaeological record in the Americas into five phases, see Archaeology of the Americas. The Clovis culture, a hunting culture, is primarily identified by use of fluted spear points. Artifacts from this culture were first excavated in 1932 near Clovis, the Clovis culture ranged over much of North America and also appeared in South America. The culture is identified by the distinctive Clovis point, a flaked flint spear-point with a notched flute, dating of Clovis materials has been by association with animal bones and by the use of carbon dating methods. Recent reexaminations of Clovis materials using improved carbon-dating methods produced results of 11,050 and 10,800 radiocarbon years B. P, other tribes have stories that recount migrations across long tracts of land and a great river, believed to be the Mississippi River. Genetic and linguistic data connect the people of this continent with ancient northeast Asians
Native Americans in the United States
–
Pushmataha
Native Americans in the United States
Native Americans in the United States
–
Charles Eastman
Native Americans in the United States
–
Wilma Mankiller
25.
Arapaho people
–
The Arapaho are a tribe of Native Americans historically living on the plains of Colorado and Wyoming. They were close allies of the Cheyenne tribe and loosely aligned with the Lakota and Dakota, the Arapaho language, Heenetiit, is an Algonquian language closely related to Gros Ventre, whose people are seen as an early offshoot of the Arapaho. Blackfeet and Cheyenne are the other Algonquian-speakers on the Plains, by the 1850s, Arapaho bands formed two tribes, the Northern Arapaho and Southern Arapaho. Since 1878, the Northern Arapaho have lived with the Eastern Shoshone on the Wind River Reservation in Wyoming and are recognized as the Arapahoe Tribe of the Wind River Reservation. The Southern Arapaho live with the Southern Cheyenne in Oklahoma, together, their members are enrolled as the federally recognized Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes. It is uncertain where the word Arapaho came from and it may have come from the Pawnee word for trader, iriiraraapuhu, or it may have been a corruption of a Crow word for tattoo. The Arapaho autonym is Hinonoeino or Inun-ina, when referring to the tribe they use Hinonoeiteen and they were also known as Hitanwoiv or Hetanevoeo/Hetanevoeoo by their Cheyenne allies or Mahpíyato by Dakota, Maȟpíya thó by Lakota and Assiniboine. The Caddo called them Detsekayaa, the Wichita Niarharis-kûrikiwaahûski, and the Comanche Saria Tʉhka / Säretika, to Pawnee, Ute and other tribes they were also known as “dog-eaters”. The Northern Arapaho were also known as BSakuunena, the Cheyenne adapted the Arapaho terms and referred to the Northern Arapaho as Vanohetan or Vanohetaneo/ Vánoétaneoo and to the Southern Arapaho as Nomsennat or Nomseneo. The Arapaho recognize among themselves five main divisions, each speaking a different dialect and apparently representing as many originally distinct, through much of Arapaho history, each tribal-nation maintained a separate ethnic identity, although they occasionally came together and acted as political allies. Each also spoke mutually intelligible dialects, but there existed a degree of difference from Arapaho proper, dialectically, the Haaninin, Beesowuunenno, and Hinonoeino were closely related. Arapaho elders claimed that the Hánahawuuena dialect was the most difficult to comprehend of all the dialects, Hánahawuuena, Hananaxawuunenan or Aanûnhawa, occupying territory adjacent to, but further north of the Nanwacinahaana, spoke the now extinct Haanahawunena dialect. Hinonoeino or Hinanaeinan, they spoke the Arapaho language Beesowuunenno, Baasanwuunenan or Bäsawunena and their war parties used temporary brush shelters like the dome-shaped shade or Sweat lodge of the Great Lakes Algonquian peoples. They are said to have left their old homes more recently than the other Arapaho tribes, before their historic geo-political ethnogensis, each tribal-nation had a principal headman. The exact date of the fusion or fission of each social division is not known. Both sacred objects traditionally were kept by the Beesowuunenno, the different tribal-nations lived together and the Beesowuunenno have dispersed for at least 150 years among the former distinct Arapaho tribal groups. They keep the sacred tribal articles, and are considered the nucleus or mother tribe of the Arapaho and they absorbed the historic Hánahawuuena and Beesowuunenno. There are still about 50 people of Beesowuunenno-lineage among the Northern Arapaho, Southern Arapaho, Náwunena or Noowunenno, are called by the Northern Arapaho Nawathineha, the Kiowa know them as Ähayädal, the name for the wild plum
Arapaho people
–
Arapaho Dress
Arapaho people
–
Arapaho Hinono'eino
Arapaho people
–
Pouch, Arapaho (Native American), Late 19th or early 20th century,
Brooklyn Museum
Arapaho people
–
Painting of Black Man, an Arapaho warrior with face paint and feathers. By
E.A Burbank, 1899.
26.
Ute people
–
Ute people /ˈjuːt/ are Native Americans of the Ute tribe and culture. They are now living primarily in Utah and Colorado, the Ute are in the Great Basin classification of Indigenous People. They have three Ute tribal reservations, Uintah-Ouray in northeastern Utah, Southern Ute in Colorado, and Ute Mountain which primarily lies in Colorado, the majority of Ute are believed to live on one of these reservations. The State of Utah is named after these people, the primary language of the Ute people is English. However, some of the people speak their ancestral Ute language. It is related to the Southern Paiute language and belongs to the Southern subdivision of the Numic branch of the Uto-Aztecan language family, a dictionary and grammar have been written for the language, and the Bible has been translated into Ute. Several orthographies exist, but the language is written in the Latin script, different ideas about the phonetic spelling of many names and some words has caused confusion about the spelling, so many names are often spelled in several different ways. An example is Timpanogos, which has also been spelled as Toompahnahwach, Tumpanuwac, Tumpanawach, Timpanog, Tumpipanogo or Timanogos, from this area, speakers of Uto-Aztecan languages gradually diffused northward and southward. The Ute, Paiute, Shoshone, Comanche and some belong to what is called the Numic subdivision within the Uto-Aztecan language family. It is believed that this Numic group originated near the border of Nevada and California, then spread North, the Numic group is divided into 3 main subdivisions - Southern, Central and Western. Not all of the languages are mutually intelligible, especially those in different subdivisions, Ute and Southern Paiute are Southern Numic Languages, while Shoshone, Gosiute and Comanche are Central Numic, and Northern Paiute and Bannock are Western Numic. The Numic-speaking tribes share many cultural, genetic and linguistic characteristics, many of the tribes met and merged with each other or divided from each other at various times. For instance, the Comanche split off from the Shoshone in about the mid-1600s, since the mid-1800s, some Ute bands merged with Southern Paiute bands to become Paiute. Some possibly Shoshonean tribes, such as the Timpanogos, merged with the Ute and it is also true that there were many times when the tribes did not get along. The name Comanche is from the Ute name for them, kɨmantsi, before Mexican settlers arrived, the Utes occupied significant portions of what are today eastern Utah, western Colorado, including the San Luis Valley, and parts of New Mexico and Wyoming. The Utes were never a group within historic times, instead. Some of the largest known groups were the Capote, Moache, Moanumts, Parianuche, Taviwach, Weeminuche, also the Uintah or Uinta, Uncompahgre tribe and White River Utes. The last partial migration of the Utes within this area was in the year 1885, “In 1861, President Abraham Lincoln signed an executive order establishing the original Uintah Valley Reservation in the eastern part of the Utah territory
Ute people
–
Chief Severo and family, ca. 1899
Ute people
–
Map dated 1838 showing the "Youta" people. From Britannica 7th edition.
Ute people
–
Ledger drawing of a battle between a Ute warrior and mounted Cheyenne warrior. ca. 1880s
Ute people
–
Delegation of Ute Indians in Washington, D.C. in 1880. Background: Woretsiz and general
Charles Adams (Colorado) are standing. Front from left to right: Chief Ignatio of the Southern Utes;
Carl Schurz US Secretary of the Interior;
Chief Ouray and his wife Chipeta
27.
Cairn
–
A cairn is a human-made pile of stones. The word cairn comes from the Scottish Gaelic, càrn, cairns have been and are used for a broad variety of purposes, from prehistoric times to the present. In modern times, cairns are often erected as landmarks, a use they have had since ancient times. Cairns are used as markers in many parts of the world, in uplands, on moorland, on mountaintops, near waterways and on sea cliffs, as well as in barren deserts. They vary in size from small stone markers to entire artificial hills, cairns may be painted or otherwise decorated, whether for increased visibility or for religious reasons. An ancient example is the inuksuk, used by the Inuit, Inupiat, Kalaallit, Yupik, inuksuit are found from Alaska to Greenland. This region, above the Arctic Circle, is dominated by the tundra biome and has areas with few natural landmarks, different types of cairns exist from rough piles of stones to interlocking dry stone round cylinders. The most important cairns commonly used around the world are interlocking stone survey cairns constructed around a central survey mark about every 30 km on the tallest peaks across a nation. These physical survey mark cairn systems by surveyors as the basis for national survey grids to interconnect individual land survey measurements for entire nations, on occasion these permanent interlocking stone cairns were taken down then reconstructed for survey mark for measurements to increase the accuracy of the national survey grid. They can also be used in unpopulated country as emergency location points, for example, the extensive trail network maintained by the DNT, the Norwegian Trekking Association, extensively uses cairns in conjunction with T-painted rock faces to mark trails. Other examples of these can be seen in the fields of Volcanoes National Park to mark several hikes. Placed at regular intervals, a series of cairns can be used to indicate a path across stony or barren terrain, such cairns are often placed at junctions or in places where the trail direction is not obvious. They may also be used to indicate an obscured danger such as a sudden drop, most trail cairns are small, usually being a foot or less in height. However, they may be built taller so as to protrude through a layer of snow, hikers passing by often add a stone, as a small bit of maintenance to counteract the erosive effects of severe weather. North American trail marks are sometimes called ducks or duckies, because they sometimes have a beak pointing in the direction of the route. The expression two rocks do not make a duck reminds hikers that just one rock resting upon another could be the result of accident or nature rather than intentional trail marking. The building of cairns for recreational purposes along trails, to ones personal passage through the area. This distracts from cairns used as navigational guides, and also conflicts with the Leave No Trace ethic
Cairn
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Inuksuit in northern Canada were markers used for wayfinding and to locate caches of food or other stores.
Cairn
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A cairn to mark a mountain summit in
Graubünden,
Switzerland.
Cairn
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Line of cairns used to mark the way above the treeline on
Mount Washington, New Hampshire,
USA.
Cairn
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One of many cairns marking British mass graves at the site of the
Battle of Isandlwana (1879),
South Africa.
28.
Wagon
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A wagon is a heavy four-wheeled vehicle pulled by draught animals or on occasion by humans, used for transporting goods, commodities, agricultural materials, supplies and sometimes people. Wagons are immediately distinguished from carts and from lighter four-wheeled vehicles primarily for carrying people, wagons are usually pulled by animals such as horses, mules or oxen. They may be pulled by one animal or by several, often in pairs or teams, however, there are examples of human-propelled wagons, such as mining corfs. A wagon was called a wain and one who builds or repairs wagons is a wainwright. More specifically, a wain is a type of horse- or oxen-drawn, load-carrying vehicle, however, a two-wheeled haywain would be a hay cart, as opposed to a carriage. Wain is also a term for a chariot. Wain can also be a verb, to carry or deliver, a person who drives wagons is called a wagoner, a teamster, a bullocky, a muleskinner, or simply a driver. The exact name and terminology used is dependent on the design or shape of the wagon. If low and sideless may be called a dray, trolley or float, when traveling over long distances and periods, wagons may be covered with cloth to protect their contents from the elements, these are covered wagons. If it has a permanent top enclosing it, it may be called a van, many earlier designs required a very large turning radius, however, shrinking the width of the bed means decreasing the size of the load. As this is a problem that carts do not face, this factor, combined with their lighter weight, the general solutions to this problem involved several modifications to the front-axle assembly. The front axle assembly of a wagon consists of an axle, a pair of wheels, a round plate with a hole in its centre is located on the underside of the wagon. The plate on the wagon, in turn, sits on the plate on the axle between the wheels and this arrangement allows the axle and wheels to turn horizontally. The pin and hole arrangement could be reversed, the horse harness is attached to this assembly. This technique eventually led to further designs well-adapted to narrow areas, wagons have served numerous purposes, with numerous corresponding designs. As with motorized vehicles, some are designed to serve as functions as possible, while others are highly specialized. This section will discuss a broad overview of the classes of wagons, for details on specific types of wagons. Farm wagons are built for general usage in an agricultural or rural setting
Wagon
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A hay wagon in Germany, of a type common throughout Europe (the leiterwagen). The sides are actually ladders attached to serve as containment of hay or grain, and may be removed, such as for hauling timber
Wagon
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A
Conestoga wagon, a type of freight wagon used extensively in the United States and Canada in the 18th and 19th centuries for long-distance hauling
Wagon
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A bakery delivery wagon in Queensland, Australia
Wagon
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A Romani
Vardo from England.
Trail Ridge Road/Beaver Meadow Road
