1.
Train station
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A train station, railway station, railroad station, or depot is a railway facility where trains regularly stop to load or unload passengers or freight. It generally consists of at least one platform and a station building providing such ancillary services as ticket sales. If a station is on a line, it often has a passing loop to facilitate traffic movements. The smallest stations are most often referred to as stops or, in parts of the world. Stations may be at level, underground, or elevated. Connections may be available to intersecting rail lines or other modes such as buses. In British usage, the station is commonly understood to mean a railway station unless otherwise qualified. In the United States, the most common term in contemporary usage is train station, Railway station and railroad station are less frequent. Outside North America, a depot is place where buses, trains, or other vehicles are housed and maintained and from which they are dispatched for service. The two-storey Mount Clare station in Baltimore, Maryland, which survives as a museum, first saw service as the terminus of the horse-drawn Baltimore. The oldest terminal station in the world was Crown Street railway station in Liverpool, built in 1830, as the first train on the Liverpool-Manchester line left Liverpool, the station is slightly older than the Manchester terminal at Liverpool Road. The station was the first to incorporate a train shed, the station was demolished in 1836 as the Liverpool terminal station moved to Lime Street railway station. Crown Street station was converted to a goods station terminal, the first stations had little in the way of buildings or amenities. The first stations in the modern sense were on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, manchesters Liverpool Road Station, the second oldest terminal station in the world, is preserved as part of the Museum of Science and Industry in Manchester. It resembles a row of Georgian houses, dual-purpose stations can sometimes still be found today, though in many cases goods facilities are restricted to major stations. In rural and remote communities across Canada and the United States, such stations were known as flag stops or flag stations. Many stations date from the 19th century and reflect the architecture of the time. Countries where railways arrived later may still have such architecture, as later stations often imitated 19th-century styles, various forms of architecture have been used in the construction of stations, from those boasting grand, intricate, Baroque- or Gothic-style edifices, to plainer utilitarian or modernist styles
2.
Railway signalling
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Railway signalling is a system used to direct railway traffic and keep trains clear of each other at all times. Trains move on fixed rails, making them susceptible to collision. This susceptibility is exacerbated by the weight and inertia of a train. Most forms of control involve movement authority being passed from those responsible for each section of a rail network to the train crew. The set of rules and the equipment used to accomplish this determine what is known as the method of working. Not all these methods require the use of signals. The earliest rail cars were first hauled by horses or mules, a mounted flagman on a horse preceded some early trains. Hand and arm signals were used to direct the “train drivers”, foggy and poor-visibility conditions gave rise to flags and lanterns. Wayside signalling dates back as far as 1832, and used elevated flags or balls that could be seen from afar, the simplest form of operation, at least in terms of equipment, is to run the system according to a timetable. Every train crew understands and adheres to a fixed schedule, trains may only run on each track section at a scheduled time, during which they have possession and no other train may use the same section. When trains run in opposite directions on a railroad, meeting points are scheduled. Neither train is permitted to move before the other has arrived, in the US the display of two green flags is an indication that another train is following the first and the waiting train must wait for the next train to pass. In addition, the carrying the flags gives eight blasts on the whistle as it approaches. The waiting train must return eight blasts before the flag carrying train may proceed, the timetable system has several disadvantages. First, there is no confirmation that the track ahead is clear. A second problem is the systems inflexibility, trains cannot be added, delayed, or rescheduled without advance notice. A third problem is a corollary of the second, the system is inefficient, to provide flexibility, the timetable must give trains a broad allocation of time to allow for delays, so the line is not in the possession of each train for longer than is otherwise necessary. Nonetheless, this system permits operation on a vast scale, with no requirements for any kind of communication that travels faster than a train, timetable operation was the normal mode of operation in North America in the early days of the railroad
3.
Train protection system
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A train protection system is a railway technical installation to ensure safe operation in the event of human failure. The earliest systems were train stops, as used by the New York City Subway, the Toronto subway, the London Underground, the Moscow Subway. Beside every signal is a moveable arm, the Great Western Railway in the UK introduced its automatic train control system in the early years of the 20th century. Each distant signal had before it a ramp between the running rails, if the signal showed green, the ramp was energised with a low voltage current which was passed to the locomotive when a shoe came into contact with the ramp. A bell rang in the cab to confirm the clear aspect. If the signal showed yellow the ramp was dead and a siren sounded in the cab, if the siren was not cancelled, the brakes would automatically be applied. After the nationalisation of the railways in the UK in 1948, in this system data is transmitted magnetically between the track and locomotive by magnets mounted beside the rails and on the locomotive. Additionally, they require the driver to confirm distant signals that show stop or caution – failure to do so results in the train stopping. More advanced systems calculate a braking curve that determines if the train can stop before the red signal. They require that the train driver enter the weight and the type of brakes into the onboard computer, to overcome that problem, some systems allow additional magnets to be placed between distant and home signals, or data transfer from the signalling system to the onboard computer is continuous. Prior to the development of a train protection system in Europe. Locomotives that crossed national borders had to be equipped with multiple systems, in cases where this wasnt possible or practical, the locomotives themselves had to be changed. To overcome these problems, the European Train Control System standard was developed and it offers different levels of functionality, ranging from simple to complex. This model allows adopters to meet the cost and performance requirements of disparate solutions, the European system has been in operation since 2002 and uses GSM digital radio with continuous connectivity. The newer systems use cab signalling, where the trains constantly receive information regarding their positions to other trains. The computer shows the driver how fast he may drive, instead of him relying on exterior signals and these systems are usually far more than automatic train protection systems, not only do they prevent accidents, but also actively support the train driver. This goes as far as some systems being nearly able to drive the train automatically
4.
Train
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A train is a form of rail transport consisting of a series of vehicles that usually runs along a rail track to transport cargo or passengers. Motive power is provided by a locomotive or individual motors in self-propelled multiple units. Although historically steam propulsion dominated, the most common forms are diesel and electric locomotives. Other energy sources include horses, engine or water-driven rope or wire winch, gravity, pneumatics, batteries, the word train comes from the Old French trahiner, from the Latin trahere pull, draw. There are various types of trains that are designed for particular purposes, a train may consist of a combination of one or more locomotives and attached railroad cars, or a self-propelled multiple unit. The first trains were rope-hauled, gravity powered or pulled by horses, from the early 19th century almost all were powered by steam locomotives. A passenger train is one which includes passenger-carrying vehicles which can often be very long, one notable and growing long-distance train category is high-speed rail. In order to much faster operation over 500 km/h, innovative Maglev technology has been researched for years. In most countries, such as the United Kingdom, the distinction between a tramway and a railway is precise and defined in law, a freight train uses freight cars to transport goods or materials. Freight and passengers may be carried in the train in a mixed consist. Rail cars and machinery used for maintenance and repair of tracks, etc. are termed maintenance of way equipment, similarly, dedicated trains may be used to provide support services to stations along a train line, such as garbage or revenue collection. There are various types of trains that are designed for particular purposes, a train can consist of a combination of one or more locomotives and attached railroad cars, or a self-propelled multiple unit. Trains can also be hauled by horses, pulled by a cable, special kinds of trains running on corresponding special railways are atmospheric railways, monorails, high-speed railways, maglev, rubber-tired underground, funicular and cog railways. A passenger train may consist of one or several locomotives and coaches, alternatively, a train may consist entirely of passenger carrying coaches, some or all of which are powered as a multiple unit. In many parts of the world, particularly the Far East and Europe, freight trains are composed of wagons or trucks rather than carriages, though some parcel and mail trains are outwardly more like passenger trains. Trains can also be mixed, comprising both passenger accommodation and freight vehicles, special trains are also used for track maintenance, in some places, this is called maintenance of way. A train with a locomotive attached at each end is described as top and tailed, where a second locomotive is attached temporarily to assist a train up steep banks or grades it is referred to as banking in the UK, or helper service in North America. Recently, many loaded trains in the United States have been made up one or more locomotives in the middle or at the rear of the train
5.
Railway signal
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A signal is a mechanical or electrical device erected beside a railway line to pass information relating to the state of the line ahead to train/engine drivers. The driver interprets the signals indication and acts accordingly, typically, a signal might inform the driver of the speed at which the train may safely proceed or it may instruct the driver to stop. Originally, signals displayed simple stop/proceed indications, as traffic density increased, this proved to be too limiting and refinements were added. One such refinement was the addition of distant signals on the approach to stop signals, the distant signal gave the driver warning that he was approaching a signal which might require a stop. This allowed for an increase in speed, since train drivers no longer had to drive at a speed within sighting distance of the stop signal. Under timetable and train operation, the signals did not directly convey orders to the train crew. Instead, they directed the crew to pick up orders, possibly stopping to do so if the order warranted it, signals are used to indicate one or more of the following, that the line ahead is clear or blocked. That the driver has permission to proceed, the speed the train may travel. The state of the next signal and that the train orders are to be picked up by the crew. Signals can be placed, at the start of a section of track, on the approach to a movable item of infrastructure, such as points/switches or a swingbridge. in advance of other signals. On the approach to a level crossing, ahead of platforms or other places that trains are likely to be stopped. Running lines are usually continuously signalled, each line of a double track railway is normally signalled in one direction only, with all signals facing the same direction on either line. Where bi-directional signalling is installed, signals face in both directions on both tracks, signals are generally not provided for controlling movements within sidings or yard areas. The aspect is the appearance of the signal, the indication is the meaning. In American practice the indications have conventional names, so that for instance Medium Approach means Proceed at not exceeding medium speed and it is important to understand that for signals that use coloured aspects, the colour of each individual light is subsumed in the overall pattern. In the United States, for example, it is common to see a Clear aspect consisting of a light above a red light. The red light in this instance does not indicate Stop, it is simply a component of a larger aspect. Operating rules normally specify that there is some imperfection in the display of an aspect
6.
Siemens Nexas
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The Siemens Nexas are a class of electric multiple units manufactured by Siemens Transportation Systems for the suburban railway network of Melbourne, Australia between 2002 and 2005. The design of the trains was based on the Siemens Modular Metro, in March 2000 M>Train ordered 62 Siemens Nexas trains to fulfill a franchise commitment to replace its fleet of Hitachi trains. The original order was for 62 3-car sets, with an option for an additional ten 3-car sets. In December 2002 just before the first was delivered, National Express handed the M>Train franchise back to the Government of Victoria, all passed to Connex Melbourne in April 2004. The option for ten additional trains was exercised in August 2005, Siemens Rail Services was contracted to provide maintenance of the trains for a period of 15 years at Newport Workshops. With the refranchising of the network to Metro Trains Melbourne in 2009, the first entered service on 21 March 2003 with the last delivered in January 2006. In December 2014, Siemens Nexas 831M-2566T -832M with a seating layout added extra hand rails layout at the doors. In late 2006 the trains suffered a number of braking discrepancies while in service,14 trains overshot platforms in the space of three days, the 15 units involved in these overshoots were withdrawn from service for checks, and instructions were issued to the drivers to minimise further occurrences. By mid-January 2007, a total of 24 three-carriage trains had been impounded for testing after 20 further incidents of over-running stations since 22 December 2006. On 13 January 2007, Connex stopped running the Siemens Nexas trains as 3-car sets until the issue was resolved. On 29 January 2007, Connex cancelled 37 peak-period services until further notice, by 1 February 2007,38 three-car sets were withdrawn due to continuing braking failures, meaning that almost half of the Siemens Nexas fleet was out of revenue service. The entire fleet has now re-entered service, although with a not to run single unit operations. In December 2008 train operator Connex commenced proceedings in the Supreme Court to claim damages from Siemens, Connex claims Siemens provided trains with a braking system that was defective, faulty and inadequate, the trains being not fit for their purpose and were not of merchantable quality. In March 2009, it was reported that three Siemens Nexas trains had been impounded due to new braking incidents in the week prior, the sand boxes are fitted to the middle two bogies of each 3-car set. In June 2011 installation of sanding equipment was completed across the entire fleet, speed restrictions have now been lifted on all Siemens Nexas trains. All were built by Siemens Transportation Systems, Vienna with the final fitout completed at Newport Workshops, there are several notable differences between the Siemens Nexas trains and other trains which operate in Melbourne. Two doors per carriage per side, plug-type doors - hinged outward and slide along the outside of the vehicle when opening. Passengers can freely move from carriage to carriage, within a 3-carriage set, without opening doors, the Siemens Nexas are fitted with Passenger information system produced by the German firm Annax
7.
Rail tracks
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The track on a railway or railroad, also known as the permanent way, is the structure consisting of the rails, fasteners, railroad ties and ballast, plus the underlying subgrade. It enables trains to move by providing a surface for their wheels to roll upon. For clarity it is referred to as railway track or railroad track. Tracks where electric trains or electric trams run are equipped with a system such as an overhead electrical power line or an additional electrified rail. The term permanent way also refers to the track in addition to structures such as fences etc. Most railroads with heavy traffic use continuously welded rails supported by sleepers attached via baseplates that spread the load, a plastic or rubber pad is usually placed between the rail and the tieplate where concrete sleepers are used. The rail is held down to the sleeper with resilient fastenings. For much of the 20th century, rail track used softwood timber sleepers and jointed rails, jointed rails were used at first because contemporary technology did not offer any alternative. The joints also needed to be lubricated, and wear at the mating surfaces needed to be rectified by shimming. For this reason jointed track is not financially appropriate for heavily operated railroads, timber sleepers are of many available timbers, and are often treated with creosote, copper-chrome-arsenic, or other wood preservative. Pre-stressed concrete sleepers are used where timber is scarce and where tonnage or speeds are high. Steel is used in some applications, the track ballast is customarily crushed stone, and the purpose of this is to support the sleepers and allow some adjustment of their position, while allowing free drainage. A disadvantage of traditional track structures is the demand for maintenance, particularly surfacing and lining to restore the desired track geometry. Weakness of the subgrade and drainage deficiencies also lead to maintenance costs. This can be overcome by using ballastless track, in its simplest form this consists of a continuous slab of concrete with the rails supported directly on its upper surface. There are a number of systems, and variations include a continuous reinforced concrete slab. Many permutations of design have been put forward, however, ballastless track has a high initial cost, and in the case of existing railroads the upgrade to such requires closure of the route for a long period. Its whole-life cost can be lower because of the reduction in maintenance, some rubber-tyred metros use ballastless tracks
8.
Electric motor
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An electric motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. The reverse of this is the conversion of energy into electrical energy and is done by an electric generator. In normal motoring mode, most electric motors operate through the interaction between an electric motors magnetic field and winding currents to generate force within the motor, small motors may be found in electric watches. General-purpose motors with highly standardized dimensions and characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for industrial use, the largest of electric motors are used for ship propulsion, pipeline compression and pumped-storage applications with ratings reaching 100 megawatts. Electric motors may be classified by electric power source type, internal construction, application, type of motion output, perhaps the first electric motors were simple electrostatic devices created by the Scottish monk Andrew Gordon in the 1740s. The theoretical principle behind production of force by the interactions of an electric current. The conversion of energy into mechanical energy by electromagnetic means was demonstrated by the British scientist Michael Faraday in 1821. A free-hanging wire was dipped into a pool of mercury, on which a permanent magnet was placed, when a current was passed through the wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the current gave rise to a close circular magnetic field around the wire. This motor is often demonstrated in experiments, brine substituting for toxic mercury. Though Barlows wheel was a refinement to this Faraday demonstration. In 1827, Hungarian physicist Ányos Jedlik started experimenting with electromagnetic coils, after Jedlik solved the technical problems of the continuous rotation with the invention of the commutator, he called his early devices electromagnetic self-rotors. Although they were used only for instructional purposes, in 1828 Jedlik demonstrated the first device to contain the three components of practical DC motors, the stator, rotor and commutator. The device employed no permanent magnets, as the fields of both the stationary and revolving components were produced solely by the currents flowing through their windings. His motor set a record which was improved only four years later in September 1838 by Jacobi himself. His second motor was powerful enough to drive a boat with 14 people across a wide river and it was not until 1839/40 that other developers worldwide managed to build motors of similar and later also of higher performance. The first commutator DC electric motor capable of turning machinery was invented by the British scientist William Sturgeon in 1832, following Sturgeons work, a commutator-type direct-current electric motor made with the intention of commercial use was built by the American inventor Thomas Davenport, which he patented in 1837. The motors ran at up to 600 revolutions per minute, and powered machine tools, due to the high cost of primary battery power, the motors were commercially unsuccessful and Davenport went bankrupt. Several inventors followed Sturgeon in the development of DC motors but all encountered the same battery power cost issues, no electricity distribution had been developed at the time
9.
Valve
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A valve is a device that regulates, directs or controls the flow of a fluid by opening, closing, or partially obstructing various passageways. Valves are technically fittings, but are discussed as a separate category. In an open valve, fluid flows in a direction from higher pressure to lower pressure, the word is derived from the Latin valva, the moving part of a door, in turn from volvere, to turn, roll. The simplest, and very ancient, valve is simply a freely hinged flap which drops to obstruct fluid flow in one direction and this is called a check valve, as it prevents or checks the flow in one direction. Modern control valves may regulate pressure or flow downstream and operate on sophisticated automation systems, even aerosols have a tiny valve built in. Valves are also used in the military and transport sectors, valves may be operated manually, either by a handle, lever, pedal or wheel. Valves may also be automatic, driven by changes in pressure, temperature and these changes may act upon a diaphragm or a piston which in turn activates the valve, examples of this type of valve found commonly are safety valves fitted to hot water systems or boilers. More complex control systems using valves requiring automatic control based on an external input require an actuator, an actuator will stroke the valve depending on its input and set-up, allowing the valve to be positioned accurately, and allowing control over a variety of requirements. Valves vary widely in form and application, sizes typically range from 0.1 mm to 60 cm. Special valves can have a diameter exceeding 5 meters, valve costs range from simple inexpensive disposable valves to specialized valves which cost thousands of US dollars per inch of the diameter of the valve. Disposable valves may be found in household items including mini-pump dispensers. Valves are quite diverse and may be classified into a number of basic types, valves may also be classified by how they are actuated, Hydraulic Pneumatic Manual Solenoid valve Motor The main parts of the most usual type of valve are the body and the bonnet. These two parts form the casing that holds the fluid going through the valve, the valves body is the outer casing of most or all of the valve that contains the internal parts or trim. The bonnet is the part of the encasing through which the stem passes, the bonnet typically screws into or is bolted to the valve body. Valve bodies are usually metallic or plastic, brass, bronze, gunmetal, cast iron, steel, alloy steels and stainless steels are very common. Seawater applications, like plants, often use duplex valves, as well as super duplex valves, due to their corrosion resistant properties. Alloy 20 valves are used in sulphuric acid plants, whilst monel valves are used in hydrofluoric acid plants. Hastelloy valves are used in high temperature applications, such as nuclear plants
10.
Railway brake
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Brakes are used on the cars of railway trains to enable deceleration, control acceleration or to keep them standing when parked. Clasp brakes are one type of historically used on trains. In the earliest days of railways, braking technology was primitive, some railways fitted a special deep-noted brake whistle to locomotives to indicate to the porters the necessity to apply the brakes. All the brakes at this stage of development were applied by operation of a screw and linkage to brake blocks applied to wheel treads, and it was also unreliable, as the application of brakes by guards depended upon them hearing and responding quickly to a whistle for brakes. This had become apparent from the trials on railway brakes carried out at Newark in the previous year, the chief types of solution were, The chain brake, such as the Heberlein brake, in which a chain was connected continuously along the train. As with car brakes, actuating pressure to apply brakes was transmitted hydraulically and these found some favor in the UK, but even in the UK problems were found with the water used as brake fluid freezing The Westinghouse air brake system. The Westinghouse system uses smaller air reservoirs and brake cylinders than the vacuum equipment. An ejector on the created a vacuum in a continuous pipe along the train. This system was very cheap and effective, but it had the weakness that it became inoperative if the train became divided or if the train pipe was ruptured. This system was similar to the vacuum system, except that the creation of vacuum in the train pipe exhausted vacuum reservoirs on every vehicle. If the driver applied the brake, his drivers brake valve admitted atmospheric air to the pipe. Being an automatic brake, this system applies braking effort if the train divided or if the train pipe is ruptured. Its disadvantage is that the vacuum reservoirs were required on every vehicle, and their bulk. Note, there are a number of variants and developments of all these systems, the Newark trials showed the braking performance of the Westinghouse air-brakes to be distinctly superior but for other reasons it was the vacuum system that was generally adopted on UK railways. Goods and mineral vehicles were provided with hand brakes by which the brakes could be applied by a lever operated by staff on the ground. Early goods vehicles had brake handles on one side only and random alignment of the vehicles gave the guard sufficient braking but, from about 1930 and these trains, not fitted with continuous brakes were described as unfitted trains and they survived in British practice until about 1985. By 1952 only 14% of open wagons, 55% of covered, in the early days of diesel locomotives, a purpose-built brake tender was attached to the locomotive to increase braking effort when hauling unfitted trains. The brake tender was low, so that the driver could see the line and signals ahead if the brake tender was propelled ahead of the locomotive
11.
Spring (device)
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A spring is an elastic object used to store mechanical energy. Springs are usually out of spring steel. There are a number of spring designs, in everyday usage the term often refers to coil springs. When a spring is compressed or stretched from its resting position, the rate or spring constant of a spring is the change in the force it exerts, divided by the change in deflection of the spring. That is, it is the gradient of the force versus deflection curve, an extension or compression springs rate is expressed in units of force divided by distance, for example lbf/in or N/m. A torsion spring is a spring that works by twisting, when it is twisted about its axis by an angle, a torsion springs rate is in units of torque divided by angle, such as N·m/rad or ft·lbf/degree. The inverse of spring rate is compliance, that is, if a spring has a rate of 10 N/mm, the stiffness of springs in parallel is additive, as is the compliance of springs in series. Springs are made from a variety of materials, the most common being spring steel. Small springs can be wound from pre-hardened stock, while larger ones are made from annealed steel, some non-ferrous metals are also used including phosphor bronze and titanium for parts requiring corrosion resistance and beryllium copper for springs carrying electrical current. Simple non-coiled springs were used throughout history, e. g. the bow. In the Bronze Age more sophisticated spring devices were used, as shown by the spread of tweezers in many cultures, coiled springs appeared early in the 15th century, in door locks. The first spring powered-clocks appeared in that century and evolved into the first large watches by the 16th century, in 1676 British physicist Robert Hooke discovered Hookes law which states that the force a spring exerts is proportional to its extension. Compression spring – is designed to operate with a compression load, flat spring – this type is made of a flat spring steel. Machined spring – this type of spring is manufactured by machining bar stock with a lathe and/or milling operation rather than a coiling operation, since it is machined, the spring may incorporate features in addition to the elastic element. Machined springs can be made in the load cases of compression/extension, torsion. Serpentine spring - a zig-zag of thick wire - often used in modern upholstery/furniture, the most common types of spring are, Cantilever spring – a spring which is fixed only at one end. Coil spring or helical spring – a spring is of two types, Tension or extension springs are designed to become longer under load and their turns are normally touching in the unloaded position, and they have a hook, eye or some other means of attachment at each end. Compression springs are designed to become shorter when loaded and their turns are not touching in the unloaded position, and they need no attachment points
12.
Fail-safe
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A systems being fail-safe means not that failure is impossible or improbable, but rather that the systems design prevents or mitigates unsafe consequences of the systems failure. That is, if and when a system fails, it is safe or at least no less safe than when it was operating correctly. Since many types of failure are possible, failure mode and effects analysis is used to examine failure situations and recommend safety design, some systems can never be made fail safe, as continuous availability is needed. Redundancy, fault tolerance, or recovery procedures are used for these situations and this also makes the system less sensitive for the reliability prediction errors or quality induced uncertainty for the separate items. On the other hand, failure detection & correction and avoidance of common cause failures becomes here increasingly important to system level reliability. Examples include, Roller-shutter fire doors - that are activated by building systems or local smoke detectors must close automatically when signaled regardless of power. In case of power outage the coiling fire door does not need to close, a temperature sensitive fusible link may be employed to hold the fire doors open against gravity or a closing spring. In case of fire, the link melts and releases the doors, the handbrake-holding requirement thus both operates according to the principles of fail-safety and contributes to the fail-security of the system. This is an example of a dead mans switch, lawnmowers and snow blowers have a hand-closed lever that must be held down at all times. If it is released, it stops the blades or rotors rotation and this is also a dead mans switch. Air brakes on trains and air brakes on trucks. The brakes are held in the off position by air pressure created in the brake system. Should a brake line split, or a carriage become de-coupled, the air pressure will be lost and it is impossible to drive a truck with a serious leak in the air brake system. Motorized gates — In case of power outage the gate can be pushed open by hand with no crank or key required, when such a gate provides vehicle access to homes, a fail-safe design is used, where the door opens to allow fire department access. Safety valves - Various devices that operate with fluids use fuses or safety valves as fail-safe mechanisms, a railway semaphore signal is designed so that should the cable controlling the signal break, the arm returns to the danger position, preventing any trains passing the inoperative signal. On diving watches, the rotating bezel used to measure dive time has a ratchet, if the bezel is inadvertently rotated during the dive, it will give a false reading of increased time spent below. This protects the diver from underestimating their decompression obligation, which could cause decompression sickness, isolation valves, and control valves - that are used for example in systems containing hazardous substances, can be designed to close upon loss of power, for example by spring force. This is known as fail-closed upon loss of power, an elevator has brakes that are held off brake pads by the tension of the elevator cable
13.
Pulse code cab signaling
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Pulse code cab signaling is a form of cab signaling technology developed in the United States by the Union Switch and Signal corporation for the Pennsylvania Railroad in the 1920s. In its home territory on former PRR successor Conrail owned lines, in 1922 the Interstate Commerce Commission issued a ruling requiring trains to be equipped with automatic train stop technology to operate at 80 mph or greater. The task was assigned to Union Switch and Signal corporation, the PRRs preferred signal supplier, the first test installation between Sunbury and Lewistown, PA in 1923 used the tracks as an inductive loop coupled to the locomotive’s receiver. The system had two 60 Hz signals, the break-sensing “track” signal was fed down one rail towards the oncoming train and crossed through its wheels, returning in the other rail. The pickup just ahead of the wheels would sum the approaching current from one side with the current on the other. The externally returned ”loop” signal was fed into and out of the mid tap of a resistor across each end of the track circuit, the pickup would sum the approaching current on each side as it carried on past to the far end of the track. This signal was shifted 90 degrees from the other, the signals were applied one or both continuously to give Approach or Clear aspects while no signal was a Restricting aspect. The test installation eliminated wayside block signals, and trains relied solely on cab signals. The pivotal change was that now it would come on above Restricting merely as a carrier and 1.25 to 3 Hz on-off pulsing of it would be used as a code to convey the aspects. The presence of the carrier alone was not meaningful, no pulsing would still mean a Restricting aspect and this new system allowed four signal aspects, Restricting, Approach, Approach Medium, and Clear. Later, passenger engines were upgraded with speed control which enforced the rulebook speed associated with each cab signal, over time the PRR installed cab signals over much of its eastern system from Pittsburgh to Philadelphia, New York to Washington. This system was inherited by Conrail and Amtrak and various commuter agencies running on former PRR territory such as SEPTA. Because all trains running in cab signal territory had to be equipped with cab signals, pulse code cab signals work by sending metered pulses along an existing AC track circuit operating at some chosen carrier frequency. The pulses are detected via induction by a sensor hanging a few inches above the rail before the set of wheels. The codes are measured in pulses per minute and for the 4-aspect PRR system are set at 180 ppm for Clear,120 ppm for Approach Medium,75 ppm for Approach and 0 for Restricting. The pulse rates are chosen to avoid any one rate being a multiple of another leading to reflected harmonics causing false indications, the system is failsafe in that the lack of code would display a Restricting signal. The codes would be transmitted to the train from the limit in front of it. This way if the rail was broken or another train entered the block, any codes would not reach the onrushing train, Trains with an insufficient number of axles will not short out all of the cab signal current so that following trains might receive an incorrect aspect
14.
Wear
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Wear is related to interactions between surfaces and specifically the removal and deformation of material on a surface as a result of mechanical action of the opposite surface. In materials science, wear is erosion or sideways displacement of material from its derivative, Wear of metals occurs by the plastic displacement of surface and near-surface material and by the detachment of particles that form wear debris. The size of the particles may vary from millimeter range down to an ion range. This process may occur by contact with metals, nonmetallic solids, flowing liquids. Secondary stage or mid-age process, where a rate of ageing is in motion. Most of the operational life is comprised in this stage. Tertiary stage or old-age period, where the components are subjected to rapid failure due to a rate of ageing. The secondary stage is shortened with increasing severity of conditions such as higher temperatures, strain rates, stress. Note that, wear rate is influenced by the operating conditions. Specifically, normal loads and sliding speeds play a role in determining wear rate. In addition, tribo-chemical reaction is important in order to understand the wear behavior. Different oxide layers are developed during the sliding motion, the layers are originated from complex interaction among surface, lubricants, and environmental molecules. In general, a plot, namely wear map. Demonstrating wear rate under different loading condition is used for operation and this graph also represents dominating wear modes under different loading conditions. Surface engineering and treatments are used to wear and extend the components working life. The study of the processes of wear is part of the discipline of tribology, the complex nature of wear has delayed its investigations and resulted in isolated studies towards specific wear mechanisms or processes. Impact-, cavitation-, diffusive- and corrosive- wear are all such examples and these wear mechanisms, however, do not necessarily act independently and wear mechanisms are not mutually exclusive. Industrial Wear are commonly described as incidence of multiple wear mechanisms occurring in unison, another way to describe Industrial Wear is to define clear distinctions in how different friction mechanisms operate, for example distinguish between mechanisms with high or low energy density
15.
1995 Russell Hill subway accident
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The 1995 Russell Hill subway accident was a deadly train crash that occurred in Toronto, Ontario, Canada on Yonge-University-Spadina line of the Toronto subway on August 11,1995. Three people were killed and 30 were taken to hospital with injuries when one train rear-ended another train, the subway line was shut down for five days following the incident. Investigations found that human error and a flaw in the mechanical safety devices caused this accident. It remains the deadliest accident in a transit system in Canadian history. At 6,02 p. m. on August 11,1995, there were between 200 and 300 passengers on the two trains, of whom three were killed and 30 taken to hospital with injuries, about 100 more later filed injury claims against the TTC. Many of the injured were extracted from the twisted remains of the most damaged subway cars by rescue workers who worked through the evening under extremely hot. Of the four members, three were taken to hospital with injuries. The accident had two causes, first the inexperienced driver, Robert Jeffrey, who mistook the signals. The TTC subway uses conventional wayside signals without cab signalling, thus drivers are expected to remember each signal aspect and act accordingly until they receive new information from the following signal. The following description is limited to aspects relevant to the accident, some signals are automatic and have a single head that shows one of the three basic colours. Red means stop and stay, yellow means that the signal is red and the driver should prepare to stop. Interlocking or home signals have a head and show two coloured lights. The top light has the meaning as that of an automatic signal. The second light is red if the top light is red, otherwise it shows if the switches are set for a secondary route. Thus the combination yellow over green means the same as a single yellow, at locations such as downgrades, curves, and switches, the same signals additionally serve to enforce speed limits. A system called grade timing regulates speeds, and is indicated by a lunar white light below the one or two coloured lights previously mentioned. If the train goes too fast, it pass the red signal. In 1995 the second signal did not provide any confirmation that it was about to change, a long downgrade would therefore have several consecutive grade-timing sections
16.
Track circuit
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A track circuit is a simple electrical device used to detect the absence of a train on rail tracks, used to inform signallers and control relevant signals. The basic principle behind the circuit lies in the connection of the two rails by the wheels and axle of locomotives and rolling stock to short out an electrical circuit. This circuit is monitored by electrical equipment to detect the absence of the trains, since this is a safety appliance, fail-safe operation is crucial, therefore the circuit is designed to indicate the presence of a train when failures occur. On the other hand, false occupancy readings are disruptive to operations and are to be minimized. Track circuits allow railway signalling systems to operate semi-automatically, by displaying signals for trains to slow down or stop in the presence of occupied track ahead of them. They help prevent dispatchers and operators from causing accidents, both by informing them of track occupancy and by preventing signals from displaying unsafe indications, a track circuit typically has power applied to each rail and a relay coil wired across them. When no train is present, the relay is energised by the current flowing from the source through the rails. When a train is present, its axles short the rails together, the current to the relay coil drops. Circuits through the relay contacts therefore report whether or not the track is occupied, each circuit detects a defined section of track, such as a block. These sections are separated by insulated joints, usually in both rails, to prevent one circuit from falsely powering another in the event of insulation failure, the electrical polarity is usually reversed from section to section. Circuits are powered at low voltages to protect against line power failures, the relays and the power supply are attached to opposite ends of the section to prevent broken rails from electrically isolating part of the track from the circuit. A series resistor limits the current when the circuit is short-circuited. In some railway electrification schemes, one or both of the rails are used to carry the return current. This prevents use of the basic DC track circuit because the substantial traction currents overwhelm the small track circuit currents. To accommodate this, AC track circuits use alternating current signals instead of current but typically. The relays are arranged to detect the frequency and to ignore DC. Again, failsafe principles dictate that the relay interprets the presence of the signal as unoccupied track, the AC signal can be coded and locomotives equipped with inductive pickups to create a cab signalling system. There are two approaches to provide a continuous path for traction current that spans multiple track circuit blocks
17.
Railroad engineer
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An engineer, engine driver, train driver, train operator, is a person who operates a train. The driver is in charge of, and responsible for driving the engine, as well as the operation of the train, train speed. The use of the engineer to describe this occupation in North America should not be confused with the usual meanings of engineer. For many American railroads, the following career progression is typical, assistant conductor, conductor, in the US, drivers are required to be certified and re-certified every two to three years. In American English a hostler moves engines around train yards, in India, a driver starts as a diesel assistant or electrical assistant. They then get promoted on a scale, goods, passenger, Mail/Express, in New Zealand, the United States and Canada, train drivers are historically known as locomotive engineers, or handelers. In the United Kingdom, South Africa, and Australia they are known as drivers, engine drivers, locomotive drivers. Ben Chifley, former Prime Minister of Australia Casey Jones, American engineer whose wreck on the Illinois Central Railroad on April 30,1900 was immortalized in verse, fireman Motorman Stormy Kromer cap Huibregtse, Jon R. American Railroad Labor and the Genesis of the New Deal, 1919-1935 Licht, working for the Railroad, the organization of work in the nineteenth century Orr, John W. Set Up Running, The Life of a Pennsylvania Railroad Engineman, 1904-1949 Tuck, Joseph Hugh. Media related to Locomotive drivers at Wikimedia Commons A detailed explanation of what train driving involves, link to a site that offers an engineer experience program at a museum in California
18.
Inertia
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Inertia is the resistance of any physical object to any change in its state of motion, this includes changes to its speed, direction, or state of rest. It is the tendency of objects to keep moving in a line at constant velocity. The principle of inertia is one of the principles of classical physics that are used to describe the motion of objects. Inertia comes from the Latin word, iners, meaning idle, Inertia is one of the primary manifestations of mass, which is a quantitative property of physical systems. In common usage, the inertia may refer to an objects amount of resistance to change in velocity, or sometimes to its momentum. Thus, an object will continue moving at its current velocity until some force causes its speed or direction to change. On the surface of the Earth, inertia is often masked by the effects of friction and air resistance, both of which tend to decrease the speed of moving objects, and gravity. Aristotle explained the continued motion of projectiles, which are separated from their projector, by the action of the surrounding medium, Aristotle concluded that such violent motion in a void was impossible. Despite its general acceptance, Aristotles concept of motion was disputed on several occasions by notable philosophers over nearly two millennia, for example, Lucretius stated that the default state of matter was motion, not stasis. Philoponus proposed that motion was not maintained by the action of a surrounding medium, although this was not the modern concept of inertia, for there was still the need for a power to keep a body in motion, it proved a fundamental step in that direction. This view was opposed by Averroes and by many scholastic philosophers who supported Aristotle. However, this view did not go unchallenged in the Islamic world, in the 14th century, Jean Buridan rejected the notion that a motion-generating property, which he named impetus, dissipated spontaneously. Buridans position was that an object would be arrested by the resistance of the air. Buridan also maintained that impetus increased with speed, thus, his idea of impetus was similar in many ways to the modern concept of momentum. Buridan also believed that impetus could be not only linear, but also circular in nature, buridans thought was followed up by his pupil Albert of Saxony and the Oxford Calculators, who performed various experiments that further undermined the classical, Aristotelian view. Their work in turn was elaborated by Nicole Oresme who pioneered the practice of demonstrating laws of motion in the form of graphs, benedetti cites the motion of a rock in a sling as an example of the inherent linear motion of objects, forced into circular motion. The law of inertia states that it is the tendency of an object to resist a change in motion. According to Newton, an object will stay at rest or stay in motion unless acted on by a net force, whether it results from gravity, friction, contact
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Hamilton railway station, New South Wales
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Hamilton railway station is located on the Newcastle line in New South Wales. It serves the inner Newcastle suburb of Hamilton, on 5 January 2015, Hamilton became the interim terminus for NSW TrainLinks Central Coast & Newcastle and Hunter line services following the partial closure of the Newcastle line. It will fulfill this role until Newcastle Interchange opens in 2017, the Platform 1 building was built circa 1875, the Platform 2 building in 1898. In 2007, Platform 1 was extended eastwards to accommodate eight carriages, in January 2015, Platform 2 was extended eastwards to accommodate eight carriages. As part of the works to relocate the lines terminus to Newcastle Interchange and it is serviced by NSW TrainLink Central Coast & Newcastle Line services to and from Sydney Central and Hunter railway line services to and from Maitland, Muswellbrook, Scone, Telarah and Dungog. Hamilton Junction Signal Box is separated from Hamilton station by Beaumont Street level crossing, the Victorian signal box was built in 1897 by McKenzie & Holland, making it one of the oldest surviving mechanical signal boxes in Australia, and also one of the busiest. Formerly a much busier location, this signal box once had control of lines, sidings
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Railways in Melbourne
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The Melbourne rail network is operated by Metro Trains Melbourne under franchise from the Government of Victoria. A rapid transit system for Melbourne is currently in planning stages, Melbournes suburban railway network consists of 16 electrified lines, the central City Loop subway, and 207 stations, with a total length of 372 km of electrified lines. The suburban network operates between approximately 5,00 a. m. and midnight, the network is primarily at ground level, with more than 170 level crossings, and some tracks shared with freight trains and V/Line regional services. In the 2013–14 financial year, the Melbourne rail network recorded 232 million passenger trips, in 1839, the Government Surveyor Robert Hoddle, who laid out Melbournes road grid, provided for a railway linking Melbourne and Hobsons Bay. On 8 February 1853 the Government also approved the establishment of the Geelong and Melbourne Railway Company, work began in March 1853 on the Sandridge railway line, stretching 4 kilometres from the Melbourne terminus to Sandridge. The line was owned and operated by Melbourne and Hobsons Bay Railway Company, in 1855 the Government conducted enquiries and carried out surveys into country railways. On 1 April 1856, the Railway Department was established as part of the Board of Land, on 23 May of that year the Melbourne, Mount Alexander and Murray River Railway Company was taken over by the Government. Trains were ordered from Robert Stephenson and Company of the United Kingdom, the first train was locally built by Robertson, Martin & Smith, however, owing to delays in shipping. Australias first steam locomotive was built in ten weeks and cost £2,700, forming the first steam train to travel in Australia, it made its maiden trip on 12 September 1854. The opening of the line occurred during the period of the Victorian gold rush—a time when both Melbourne and Victoria undertook massive capital works, each with its own gala opening, the inaugural journey on the Sandridge line was no exception. According to the Argus newspapers report of the day, Long before the hour appointed. A great crowd assembled round the station at the Melbourne terminus, the trip took 10 minutes, none of the later stations along the line having been built yet. On arriving at Station Pier, it was hailed with gun-salutes by the warships HMS Electra, by March 1855, the four engines ordered from the UK were all in service, with trains running every half-hour. They were named Melbourne, Sandridge, Victoria, and Yarra, the network was extended with lines being built to the suburbs, reaching a peak by the 1900s. Electrification of the system commenced from 1919, with multiple unit operation commencing at the same time. Melbournes second railway line opened 13 May 1857, when the Melbourne and this line was later extended by the St Kilda and Brighton Railway Company, which opened a line from St Kilda to Brighton in 1857. Country lines were built in 1857, with the Geelong. In 1859 the Williamstown railway line opened, connecting Williamstown and Geelong to Spencer Street Station and this line was extended to Windsor in 1860, connecting with the St Kilda and Brighton Railway Company line from St Kilda
21.
Union Switch & Signal
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Union Switch and Signal is a supplier of railway signaling equipment, systems and services in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. As of January 1,2009, US&S is known as Ansaldo STS USA, george Westinghouse founded Union Switch & Signal in 1881, consolidating the assets of the Union Electric Signal Company and the Interlocking Switch & Signal Company. In 1925 US&S acquired the Hall Signal Company, primarily to obtain the latter companys patents for searchlight signals, US&S operated as an independent company until 1917, when it became a subsidiary of the Westinghouse Air Brake Company. In 1968, American Standard purchased WABCO and reorganized US&S as a separate division, in 1988, Ansaldo purchased US&S from American Standard. In November 1993, US&S became a traded company with shares listed on Nasdaq. In December 1996, US&S merged with the other signaling investments of Ansaldo, as a result of that merger, US&S is now a wholly owned subsidiary of Ansaldo STS, a global supplier of signaling, control and automation systems. The company was renamed Ansaldo STS – USA in January 2009, throughout its history, US&S had manufacturing facilities in the borough of Swissvale, Pennsylvania, near Pittsburgh. The Swissvale plant was closed in 1985 and demolished in 1986, US&S moved manufacturing operations to a facility in Batesburg-Leesville, South Carolina. It maintained a facility in Pittsburgh. Other facilities include a service and repair shop in Kingston, Ontario, US&S built the first power interlocking system in the United States, a pneumatic design, in 1882 at East St. Louis, Illinois. Within several years the company developed a system, which was widely adopted by railroads across the country. In 1901 US&S developed the first electro-pneumatic automatic train stop system for the Boston Elevated Railway and this system was later adopted by the New York City Subway and other transit systems. In 1908 the company introduced a highway crossing gate. In 1923 US&S developed the first inductive train control system, the company developed coded track circuits, supporting bi-directional cab signalling, in 1934. The first digital rail yard control system was built by US&S in 1970, for the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe railway at Kansas City, US&S first patented the Model 15A Highway crossing bell on February 20,1917. The bell has been referred to as the Teardrop bell by railroaders and signal fans alike because of its unique shape. This bell has appeared on advertising literature for railroad signals as far back as the 1920s as far abroad as Chile and Italy on early wig wag crossings and this is the most commonly seen variation of the Teardrop. This bell is treasured by many for its slow low pitched ring at an irregular cadence, the production of this bell was discontinued sometime by the 1960s, but WABCO carried replacement castings and service manuals into the 1970s
22.
Automatic train stop
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An automatic train stop or ATS is a system on a train that automatically stops a train if certain situations occur to prevent accidents. In some scenarios it functions as a type of dead mans switch, Automatic train stop differs from the concept of Automatic Train Control in that ATS does not feature an onboard speed control mechanism. The invention of the railway air brake provided an external means for stopping a train via a physical object opening a valve on the brake line to the atmosphere. Eventually known as stops or trip stops, the first mechanical ATS system was installed in France in 1878 with some railroads in Russia following suit using a similar system in 1880. In 1901 Union Switch and Signal Company developed the first North American automatic train stop system for the Boston Elevated Railway and this system was soon adopted by the New York City Subway and other rapid transit systems in the United States. Moreover, the involved in a physical tripping action can begin to damage both the wayside and vehicle borne equipment at speeds over 70 miles per hour. Electronic systems make use of electric currents or electromagnetic fields to trigger some action in the locomotive cab, without physical contact electronic systems could be used with higher speeds, limited only be the equipments ability to sense the signal from stop devices. The first such system was Le Crocodile installed on French railways starting in 1872 which used an electrified contact rail to trigger an acknowledgment from the driver. If no such acknowledgment was made in 5 seconds the train would be stopped and this system was also of the acknowledgment type and was adopted by several railroads, continuing to see service as of 2013. In 1954, Japan introduced ATS-B, the first known variant of ATS, in 1967, ATS-S was invented, the first non-contact-based ATS to be used, in 1974, ATS-P was used for the first time, and in 1986, H-ATS was invented. Since 1951 ATS has been required by the Interstate Commerce Commission as a safety requirement to allow passenger trains to exceed a speed limit of 79 mph. The popularity of ATS as a protection mechanism fell after the introduction of track coded cab signals in the 1930s. Many trains in Japan are equipped with this system, the ATS systems in Japan are slightly similar to those used in the United States, but are mostly transponder-based. The first ATS systems in Japan were introduced in the early 20th century, like the ATS systems used by the railways in the JR Group, they are transponder-based as well, but are generally incompatible with the ATS systems used by JR. In Wellington only a few signals at a junction are fitted with mechanical ATS. Some Korail and subway lines are equipped with this system, Underground lines and have ATS equipped, while, and have the more advanced Communications-based train control. Some Manchester Metrolink services are ATS equipped, however this is being phased out due to the introduction of line of sight signalling, london Underground lines are universally fitted with ATS equipment. This comprises a trip arm outside the running rail
23.
Boston Elevated Railway
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The Boston Elevated Railway was a streetcar and rapid transit railroad operated on, above, and below, the streets of Boston, Massachusetts and surrounding communities. Founded in 1894, it acquired the West End Street Railway via lease. Its modern successor is the state-run Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority, which continues to operate in part on infrastructure developed by BERy, originally intended to build a short electric trolley line to Brookline, the West End Street Railway was organized in 1887. By the next year it had consolidated ownership of a number of streetcar lines. As the system grew, a switch to underground pulled-cable propulsion was contemplated, after visiting Frank Sprague and witnessing the Richmond, Virginia system in action, WESR President Henry Whitney chose to deploy electric propulsion systems. A section of track was used to test the Bentley-Knight underground power line, after competing in operational tests with the Sprague streetcar system, the Thomson-Houston company was chosen for system-wide deployment of overhead wires. The electrified rapid transit system was named an IEEE Milestone in Electrical Engineering in 2004, the Green Line A Branch later served roughly the same purpose. The last horse car line was along Marlborough Street in the Back Bay, in the late 19th century, the electric power industry was in its infancy, the power grid as we know it today simply did not exist. By 1904, the system had 36 megawatts of generating capacity,421 miles of track for over 1550 street cars, the first bus route was in 1922, between Union Square, Allston and Faneuil Street. In 1933 this was merged with the Union Square - Central bus, in 1890, the West End Railway was authorized by the state to construct elevated railways, but did not pursue this possibility. The state consequently authorized a new franchise for such an endeavor, the first stretch of elevated track was put in service in 1901, between Sullivan Square in Charlestown and Dudley Square in Roxbury. In 1897, BERy acquired a lease on the West Ends lines. The elevated network was expanded to include six end-points, with vehicles run on the tracks in routes design to any destination without changing. The difficulty of transporting coal over land from the Port of Boston, the system was gradually converted until completion in 1931, when 14 substations were in place. The first route of the Boston trackless trolley system was opened by BERy and it was route 77, Harvard – Lechmere via Cambridge Street. Trackless trolleys still run from Harvard station, but only to the west and north, the companys rapid transit lines have evolved into the Red, Blue, and Orange Lines. The only streetcars that remain are the branches of the Green Line and the Ashmont-Mattapan High Speed Line. Operations of the company were taken over by the Metropolitan Transit Authority, now the MBTA, library records, 1884-1967 are located in the Northeastern University Libraries, Archives and Special Collections Department, Boston, MA
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New York City Subway
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Opened in 1904, the New York City Subway is one of the worlds oldest public transit systems, one of the worlds most used metro systems, and the metro system with the most stations. It offers service 24 hours per day, every day of the year, the New York City Subway is the largest rapid transit system in the world by number of stations, with 472 stations in operation. Stations are located throughout the boroughs of Manhattan, Brooklyn, Queens, the Port Authority Trans-Hudson and the AirTrain JFK, in Manhattan and Queens respectively, accept the subways MetroCard but are not operated by the MTA and do not allow free transfers. Another mass transit service that is not operated by the MTA, the system is also one of the worlds longest. Overall, the system contains 236 miles of routes, translating into 665 miles of track. In 2015, the subway delivered over 1.76 billion rides, averaging approximately 5.7 million daily rides on weekdays and a combined 5.9 million rides each weekend. Of the systems 25 services,22 of them pass through Manhattan, the exceptions being the G train, the Franklin Avenue Shuttle, and the Rockaway Park Shuttle. Large portions of the subway outside Manhattan are elevated, on embankments, or in open cuts, in total, 40% of track is not underground despite the subway moniker. Many lines and stations have both express and local services and these lines have three or four tracks. Normally, the two are used for local trains, while the inner one or two are used for express trains. Stations served by express trains are typically major transfer points or destinations, alfred Ely Beach built the first demonstration for an underground transit system in New York City in 1869 and opened it in February 1870. The tunnel was never extended for political and financial reasons, although extensions had been planned to take the tunnel southward to The Battery, the Great Blizzard of 1888 helped demonstrate the benefits of an underground transportation system. A plan for the construction of the subway was approved in 1894, the first underground line of the subway opened on October 27,1904, almost 36 years after the opening of the first elevated line in New York City, which became the IRT Ninth Avenue Line. The fare was $0.05 and on the first day the trains carried over 150,000 passengers, the oldest structure still in use opened in 1885 as part of the BMT Lexington Avenue Line in Brooklyn and is now part of the BMT Jamaica Line. The oldest right-of-way, which is part of the BMT West End Line near Coney Island Creek, was in use in 1864 as a railroad called the Brooklyn, Bath. By the time the first subway opened, the lines had been consolidated into two privately owned systems, the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company and the Interborough Rapid Transit Company, the city built most of the lines and leased them to the companies. This required it to be run at cost, necessitating fares up to double the five-cent fare popular at the time, in 1940, the city bought the two private systems. Some elevated lines ceased service immediately while others closed soon after, integration was slow, but several connections were built between the IND and BMT, these now operate as one division called the B Division
25.
London Underground
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The London Underground is a public rapid transit system serving London and some parts of the adjacent counties of Buckinghamshire, Essex and Hertfordshire in the United Kingdom. The network has expanded to 11 lines, and in 2015–16 carried 1.34 billion passengers, the 11 lines collectively handle approximately 4.8 million passengers a day. The system has 270 stations and 250 miles of track, despite its name, only 45% of the system is actually underground in tunnels, with much of the network in the outer environs of London being on the surface. In addition, the Underground does not cover most southern parts of Greater London, the current operator, London Underground Limited, is a wholly owned subsidiary of Transport for London, the statutory corporation responsible for the transport network in Greater London. As of 2015, 92% of operational expenditure is covered by passenger fares, the Travelcard ticket was introduced in 1983 and Oyster, a contactless ticketing system, in 2003. Contactless card payments were introduced in 2014, the LPTB was a prominent patron of art and design, commissioning many new station buildings, posters and public artworks in a modernist style. Other famous London Underground branding includes the roundel and Johnston typeface, to prepare construction, a short test tunnel was built in 1855 in Kibblesworth, a small town with geological properties similar to London. This test tunnel was used for two years in the development of the first underground train, and was later, in 1861, the worlds first underground railway, it opened in January 1863 between Paddington and Farringdon using gas-lit wooden carriages hauled by steam locomotives. It was hailed as a success, carrying 38,000 passengers on the opening day, the Metropolitan District Railway opened in December 1868 from South Kensington to Westminster as part of a plan for an underground inner circle connecting Londons main-line termini. The Metropolitan and District railways completed the Circle line in 1884, built using the cut and this opened in 1890 with electric locomotives that hauled carriages with small opaque windows, nicknamed padded cells. The Waterloo and City Railway opened in 1898, followed by the Central London Railway in 1900, the Metropolitan Railway protested about the change of plan, but after arbitration by the Board of Trade, the DC system was adopted. When the Bakerloo was so named in July 1906, The Railway Magazine called it an undignified gutter title, by 1907 the District and Metropolitan Railways had electrified the underground sections of their lines. In January 1913, the UERL acquired the Central London Railway, the Bakerloo line was extended north to Queens Park to join a new electric line from Euston to Watford, but World War I delayed construction and trains reached Watford Junction in 1917. During air raids in 1915 people used the stations as shelters. An extension of the Central line west to Ealing was also delayed by the war, the Metropolitan promoted housing estates near the railway with the Metro-land brand and nine housing estates were built near stations on the line. Electrification was extended north from Harrow to Rickmansworth, and branches opened from Rickmansworth to Watford in 1925, the Piccadilly line was extended north to Cockfosters and took over District line branches to Harrow and Hounslow. In 1933, most of Londons underground railways, tramway and bus services were merged to form the London Passenger Transport Board, the Waterloo & City Railway, which was by then in the ownership of the main line Southern Railway, remained with its existing owners. In the same year that the London Passenger Transport Board was formed, in the following years, the outlying lines of the former Metropolitan Railway closed, the Brill Tramway in 1935, and the line from Quainton Road to Verney Junction in 1936
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Rapid transit
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Rapid transit, also known as heavy rail, metro, subway, tube, or underground, is a type of high-capacity public transport generally found in urban areas. The stations typically have high platforms, without steps inside the trains and they are typically integrated with other public transport and often operated by the same public transport authorities. However, some transit systems have at-grade intersections between a rapid transit line and a road or between two rapid transit lines. It is unchallenged in its ability to transport large numbers of people quickly over short distances with little use of land, variations of rapid transit include people movers, small-scale light metro, and the commuter rail hybrid S-Bahn. The worlds first rapid-transit system was the partially underground Metropolitan Railway which opened as a railway in 1863. In 1868, New York opened the elevated West Side and Yonkers Patent Railway, china has the largest number of rapid transit systems in the world. The worlds longest single-operator rapid transit system by length is the Shanghai Metro. The worlds largest single rapid transit service provider by both length of revenue track (665 miles and number of stations is the New York City Subway. The busiest rapid transit systems in the world by annual ridership are the Tokyo subway system, the Seoul Metropolitan Subway, the Moscow Metro, the Beijing Subway, Metro is the most common term for underground rapid transit systems used by non-native English speakers. One of these terms may apply to a system, even if a large part of the network runs at ground level. In Scotland, however, the Glasgow Subway underground rapid transit system is known as the Subway, in the US, underground mass transit systems are primarily known as subways, whereas the term metro is a shortened reference to a metropolitan area. In that vein, Chicagos commuter rail system, serving the area, is called Metra. Exceptions in naming rapid transit systems are Washington DCs subway system the Washington Metro, Los Angeles Metro Rail, and the Miami Metrorail, the opening of Londons steam-hauled Metropolitan Railway in 1863 marked the beginning of rapid transit. Initial experiences with steam engines, despite ventilation, were unpleasant, experiments with pneumatic railways failed in their extended adoption by cities. Electric traction was more efficient, faster and cleaner than steam, in 1890 the City & South London Railway was the first electric-traction rapid transit railway, which was also fully underground. Both railways were merged into London Underground. The 1893 Liverpool Overhead Railway was designed to use electric traction from the outset, budapest in Hungary and Glasgow, Chicago and New York all converted or purpose-designed and built electric rail services. Advancements in technology have allowed new automated services, hybrid solutions have also evolved, such as tram-train and premetro, which incorporate some of the features of rapid transit systems
27.
RailCorp
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Rail Corporation New South Wales is a State-owned corporation of the State of New South Wales established under the Transport Administration Act 1988 in 2004. From 2004 until 2013, RailCorp operated passenger services in New South Wales. Other functions include network access, leasing and managing the NSW Governments contract with Airport Link Company, the acting chief executive of RailCorp is Sydney Trains chief executive Howard Collins. Initially governed by a Board of Directors as a State owned corporation, changes to the Transport Administration Act,1988 resulted in abolition of the Board effective 1 July 2010 and the repositioning of RailCorp as an entity under Transport NSW. RailCorp reports to the Minister for Transport, in a series of seven reports released during 2008, the ICAC reported that more than $21 million in improper contracts and deals through the procurement of services in just three years. In June 2009, RailCorp terminated the contract of Vicki Coleman, its Chief Information Officer, the ICAC recommended charges against 33 people, yet by April 2012, only eight people had faced the courts. Those that received custodial sentences included Allan Michael Blackstock and Renea Hughes, youssef Madrajat was directed to undertake community service. Further charges are expected to be laid on others, and several are still waiting the outcome of criminal proceedings, RailCorp maintains a statewide Emergency Response Unit. The function of this unit is to attend incidents, such as derailments, the unit also undertakes cross-training with Fire and Rescue NSW. The units motto is Semper Paratus, translated from Latin to mean Always Ready, Rail transport in New South Wales Railways in Sydney RailCorp
28.
Bernau bei Berlin
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Bernau bei Berlin is a German town in the Barnim district. The town is located about 10 km northeast of Berlin, archaeological excavations of Mesolithic prove the fact that this area has been inhabited since about 8800 BC. The city was first mentioned in 1232, the true reasons of its founding are not known. According to a legend Albert I of Brandenburg permitted the founding of the city in 1140 because of the beer which was offered to him. It is true that beer has been brewed with the water of the river Panke, therefore, it was forbidden by law to pollute this river with waste and excrements before the days the brewing took place. Bernau had its boom years before the Thirty Years War, large parts of the defensive wall with town gate and wet moats are relics of that time. These helped Bernau defend itself successfully against attackers, e. g. the Hussites in 1432, following the plague and war Bernau was poor and bleak. Frederick I of Prussia settled 25 Huguenotic families in 1699, in 1842 a railway line was opened. One of the first electrical suburban railway lines in the world began operation in 1924 and this line of the Berlin S-Bahn connected Bernau with the Stettiner Bahnhof in Berlin. The Bundesschule des Allgemeiner Deutscher Gewerkschaftsbund, designed by Bauhaus director Hannes Meyer, the Waldsiedlung is a district of the city where the political leaders of the GDR lived isolated from the people. The museum of history has two locations. One is the gate with the former prison Hungerturm. It is one of three town gates, that were part of the defensive wall. Today armours and instruments of torture of the Middle Ages are shown there, common furniture of several epochs and utensils of the executioner are exhibited in the Henkerhaus to demonstrate the life in the small town. In 2005 the Wolf Kahlen Museum opened, media art from 40 years is shown. In 2005 Annelie Grund created the monument for the victims of witch-hunt, the church St. Marien dominates the skyline of the town. The nave was built in the 15th century, large parts of the defensive walls and wet moats of the Middle Ages are preserved. The defensive wall is supplemented by several houses, the Pulverturm
29.
Passenger rail terminology
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It uses passenger railcars operating singly or in multiple unit trains on fixed rails. It operates on separate rights-of-way from which all other vehicular and foot traffic are excluded and it uses sophisticated signaling systems, and high platform loading. Originally, the rapid transit was used in the 1800s to describe new forms of quick urban public transportation that had a right-of-way separated from street traffic. This set rapid transit apart from horsecars, trams, streetcars, omnibuses, though the term was almost always used to describe rail transportation, other forms of transit were sometimes described by their proponents as rapid transit, including local ferries in some cases. The term bus rapid transit has recently come into use to describe bus lines with features to speed their operation and these usually have more characteristics of light rail than rapid transit. They are consequently designed for operations in tunnel, viaducts or on surface level, in different parts of the world Metro systems are also known as the underground, the subway or the tube. Rail systems with specific construction issues operating on a segregated guideway are also treated as Metros as long as they are designated as part of the public transport network. ”Metropolitan railways are used for high capacity public transportation. They can operate in trains of up to 10 cars, carrying 1800 passengers or more, in Germany, the terms U-Bahn and S-Bahn are used. Some metro systems run on rubber tires but are based on the same principles as steel wheel systems. Subway used in a transit sense refers to either a rapid transit system using heavy rail or a light system that goes underground. The term may only to the underground parts of the system. Some lines described as subway use light rail equipment, notably, Bostons Green Line and the Newark City Subway, each about half underground, originated from fully surface streetcar lines. Sometimes the term is qualified, such as in Philadelphia, where trolleys operate in a subway for part of their route. In some cities where subway is used, it refers to the system, in others. Historic posters referred to Chicagos Red & Blue lines as the subway lines, interestingly, when the Boston subway was originally built, the subway label was only used for sections into which streetcars operated, and the rapid transit sections were called tunnels. Bus subways are uncommon but do exist, though in cases the non-underground portions of route are not called subways. Bus subways are built to provide an exclusive right-of-way for bus rapid transit lines. These are usually called by the bus rapid transit
30.
Zugbeeinflussungssystem S-Bahn Berlin
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It is able to gradually replace the old system based on train stops with overlap safety. The conversion will be finished on the subnetwork Stadtbahn until the end of 2020, on the subnetwork Nord-Süd until the end of 2023 and on the subnetwork Ring until the end of 2025. The Berlin S-Bahn commuter rail system has its own tracks that is separate from the national rail network although most lines run in parallel with the normal railways. Although a heavy rail system the vehicle fleet is specialized for the Berlin rail network with its closest cousins in the S-Bahn Hamburg. Berlin was among the first to introduce an automated train protection system based on metal bar at the height of the first bogie where the trip cock is placed, the metal bar folds away to allow passing. If the metal bar is up it will catch the train by sliding along the outer frame. The train stops are installed at some distance before the critical point so that with an assumed maximum speed the train can be halted. To improve safety the S-Bahn Berlin GmbH, DB Netz AG, the development was done in parallel with the evolution of ETCS since the mid-1990s and the results were first shown on the InnoTrans 2002 fair. In August 2007 a contract with Siemens was closed on the delivery of cab signaling for 600 trains, the installation were to be performed in 20 stages over a period starting in 2010 until 2015. The first activation in daily routine had been scheduled for 11 October 2011 on the S1 line - reconstruction of all lines was to commence in 2011. The allowance for the usage of the old track stops was originally limited to 2014 as it was expected that the migration to the new system would be complete until then. With a motion to the Federal Railway Authority the migration phase to ZBS was extended to 2025, although the system is based on ETCS Level 1 it is not compatible. Most notably, the system has dropped the usage of Euroloop line signalling - instead additional infill balises are placed between the distant signal and the stop signal. A semaphore on the distant signal flags to use a speed in approaching the stop signal - in most situations in rapid transit a stop signal will be dropped before reaching the stop semaphore. To increase throughput on the lines the infill balises can send an upgrade message to the cab signalling electronics. Using a special design allows the reuse of the old wayside signals - the transparent data balises are connected to the older distant, given the lower maximum speed of the rapid transit system the Eurobalises can be placed at shorter distance. The cab computer software is much simpler as the weight of the train can be inferred from an assumed maximum, the sum of advantages makes the system faster and cheaper than using a plain ECTS level 1 train protection system. Notes, video presentation on ZBS, Tobias Grimmel, Technische Universität Berlin,3
31.
Eurobalise
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An Eurobalise is a specific variant of a balise being a transponder placed between the rails of a railway. A balise typically needs no power source, in response to radio frequency energy broadcast by a Balise Transmission Module mounted under a passing train, the balise transmits information to the train. The provisions for Eurobalises to receive information from the train has been removed from the specification, the transmission rate is sufficient to transmit at least 3 copies of a telegram to be received by a train passing at any speed up to 500 km/h. Eurobalises are typically placed in pairs on two sleepers in the center of the track, for ETCS they are typically spaced 3 metres apart. With the balises being numbered the train will know whether it travels in nominal or reverse direction, singular balises exist only when linked to a previous balise group or when their function is reduced to provide only the exact position. There may be up to 8 balises in an balise group, a Fixed Data Balise, or short fixed balise is programmed to transmit the same data to every train. Information transmitted by a fixed balise typically includes, the location of the balise, the geometry of the line, such as curves and gradients, the programming is performed using a wireless programming device. Thus a fixed balise can notify a train of its location, and the distance to the next signal. A Transparent Data Balise, or short controllable balise is connected to a Lineside Electronics Unit, Balises forming part of an ETCS Level 1 signalling system employ this capability. The LEU integrates with the signal system either by connecting to the lineside railway signal or to the signalling control tower. A balise transmits telegrams at a specific site, to allow a continuous transmission the telegrams may be sent along leaky feeder cable being up to 1000 metres long. The Euroloop cable is connected with a balise at its end which serves as the End of Loop Marker. The telegram structure is the same as for the balise it is connected to, originally the Euroloop used the same frequency as the Eurobalises but that was changed for specification 2.0.1 in September 2004. Euroloops had been used in Switzerland which completed the change in July 2010, the downlink uses an amplitude modulation on the 27.095 MHz frequency. This frequency is used to power the passive balises, the uplink uses frequency-shift keying with 3.951 MHz for a logical 0 and 4.516 MHz for a logical 1. The data rate of 564.48 kBit/s is enough to transmit 3 copies of a telegram to a train passing at 500 km/h, the Euroloop frequency was moved to a centre of 13.54750 MHz. In a practical setup the BTM requires 65 Watt to power the Eurobalises, each pair of balises usually consists of a switchable balise and a fixed balise. A balise transmits a telegram of either 1023 bits or 341 bits in the channel encoding with 11 bit per symbol, to avoid transmission errors the payload is scrambled, substituted with a symbol code of different Hamming distance, and a checksum is added for validity checks
32.
Berlin S-Bahn
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The Berlin S-Bahn is a rapid transit railway system in and around Berlin, the capital city of Germany. It has been in operation under this name since December 1930, having previously called the special tariff area Berliner Stadt-. It complements the Berlin U-Bahn and is the link to many outer-Berlin areas, in other parts of Germany and other German-speaking countries, the brand name S-Bahn is used without those Berlin specific features. The Hamburg S-Bahn is the other system using third-rail electrification. The Berlin S-Bahn consists today of 15 lines serving 166 stations, the S-Bahn carried 395 million passengers in 2012. It is integrated with the mostly underground U-Bahn to form the backbone of Berlins rapid transport system, unlike the U-Bahn, the S-Bahn crosses Berlin city limits into the surrounding state of Brandenburg, e. g. to Potsdam. Although the S- and U-Bahn are part of a fare system. The S-Bahn is operated by S-Bahn Berlin GmbH, a subsidiary of the Deutsche Bahn, whereas the U-Bahn is run by BVG, the main public transit company for the city of Berlin. The S-Bahn routes all feed into one of three lines, a central, elevated east-west line, a central, mostly underground north-south line. Outside the Ringbahn, suburban routes radiate in all directions, lines S1, S2 and S25 are north-south lines that use the North-South tunnel as their midsection. They were equally distributed into Oranienburg, Bernau and Hennigsdorf in the north, lines S3, S5, S7 and S75 are east-west lines using the Stadtbahn cross-city railway. The western termini are located at Potsdam and Spandau, the eastern termini are Erkner, Strausberg Nord, Ahrensfelde and Wartenberg. Before 2009 and after 2017, the S9 used and will use a curve at Ostkreuz to change from Stadtbahn to the South-Western leg of the Ringbahn. Lines S41 and S42 continuously circle around the Ringbahn, the former clockwise, lines S45, S46 and S47 link destinations in the southeast with the southern section of the Ringbahn via the tangential link from the Görlitzer Bahn to the Ring via Köllnische Heide. Lines S8, S85, and S9 are north-south lines using the section of the Ringbahn between Bornholmer Straße and Treptower Park via Ostkreuz, using the Görlitzer Bahn in the South. Generally speaking, the first digit of a number denotes the main route or a group of routes. Thus, S25 is a branch of S2, while S41, S42, S45, S46, so S41, S42, S45, S46 and S47 are together S4. However, the S4 does not exist as an independent entity, since 9 January 1984, all the West Berlin S-Bahn routes are labelled with an S followed by a number
33.
Bogie
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A bogie is a chassis or framework carrying wheels, attached to a vehicle, thus serving as a modular subassembly of wheels and axles. Bogies take various forms in various modes of transport, while bogie is the preferred spelling and first-listed variant in various dictionaries, bogey and bogy are also used. A bogie in the UK, or a truck, wheel truck. In Indian English, bogie may also refer to a railway carriage. In South Africa, the bogie is often alternatively used to refer to a freight or goods wagon. The first standard gauge British railway to build coaches with bogies, an alternate configuration often is used in articulated vehicles, which places the bogies under the connection between the carriages or wagons. Most bogies have two axles, but some cars designed for heavy loads have more axles per bogie, heavy-duty cars may have more than two bogies using span bolsters to equalize the load and connect the bogies to the cars. Suspension to absorb shocks between the frame and the rail vehicle body, Common types are coil springs, or rubber airbags. At least one wheelset, composed of an axle with bearings and a wheel at each end The bolster, the railway car is supported at the pivot point on the bolster. Axle box suspensions absorb shocks between the bearings and the bogie frame. The axle box suspension usually consists of a spring between the frame and axle bearings to permit up-and-down movement, and sliders to prevent lateral movement. A more modern design uses solid rubber springs, brake equipment, Two main types are used, brake shoes that are pressed against the tread of the wheel, and disc brakes and pads. More modern, bolsterless bogie designs omit these features, instead taking advantage of the movement of the suspension to permit rotational movement. The Commonwealth bogie, manufactured by the English Steel Corporation under licence from the Commonwealth Steel Company in Illinois, fitted with SKF or Timken bearings, it was introduced in the late 1950s for all BR Mark 1 vehicles. It was a heavy, cast-steel design weighing about 6.5 long tons, with sealed roller bearings on the axle ends, the leaf springs were replaced by coil springs running vertically rather than horizontally. The advanced design gave a better quality than the BR1. The side frame of the bogie was usually of bar construction, with simple horn guides attached, the axle boxes had a cast-steel equaliser beam or bar resting on them. The bar had two steel coil springs placed on it and the bogie frame rested on the springs, the effect was to allow the bar to act as a compensating lever between the two axles and to use both springs to soften shocks from either axle
34.
Berlin U-Bahn
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The Berlin U-Bahn is a rapid transit railway in Berlin, the capital city of Germany, and a major part of the citys public transport system. Together with the S-Bahn, a network of train lines. In addition, a tram network operates in the parts of the city. Opened in 1902, the U-Bahn serves 173 stations spread across ten lines, with a track length of 151.7 kilometres. Trains run every two to five minutes during peak hours, every five minutes for the rest of the day, over the course of a year, U-Bahn trains travel 132 million km, and carry over 400 million passengers. In 2015,534.5 million passengers rode the U-Bahn, the entire system is maintained and operated by the Berliner Verkehrsbetriebe, commonly known as the BVG. Designed to alleviate traffic flowing into and out of central Berlin, the East Berlin U-Bahn lines from West Berlin were severed, except for two West Berlin lines that ran through East Berlin. These were allowed to pass through East Berlin without stopping at any of the stations, Friedrichstraße was the exception because it was used as a transfer point between U6 and the West Berlin S-Bahn system, and a border crossing into East Berlin. The system was reopened following the fall of the Berlin Wall. The Berlin U-Bahn is the most extensive network in Germany. In 2006, travel on the U-Bahn was equivalent to 122.2 million km of car journeys, at the end of the 19th century, city planners in Berlin were looking for solutions to the increasing traffic problems facing the city. As potential solutions, industrialist and inventor Ernst Werner von Siemens suggested the construction of elevated railways, while AEG proposed an underground system. Years of negotiations followed until, on 10 September 1896, work began on an elevated railway to run between Stralauer Tor and Zoologischer Garten, with a short spur to Potsdamer Platz. Known as the Stammstrecke, the route was inaugurated on 15 February 1902, before the year ended, the railway had been extended, by 17 August, east to Warschauer Brücke, and, by 14 December, west to Knie. In a bid to secure its own improvement, Schöneberg also wanted a connection to Berlin, the elevated railway company did not believe such a line would be profitable, so the city built the first locally financed underground in Germany. It was opened on 1 December 1910, just a few months earlier, work began on a fourth line to link Wilmersdorf in the south-west to the growing Berlin U-Bahn. The early network ran mostly east to west, connecting the areas in and around Berlin. In order to open up the network to more of the workers of Berlin, in 1920, the surrounding areas were annexed to form Groß-Berlin, removing the need for many negotiations, and giving the city much greater bargaining power over the private Hochbahngesellschaft
35.
Moscow Metro
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The Moscow Metro is a rapid transit system serving Moscow, Russia and the neighbouring Moscow Oblast cities of Krasnogorsk, Reutov, Lyubertsy and Kotelniki. Opened in 1935 with one 11-kilometre line and 13 stations, it was the first underground system in the Soviet Union. As of 2017, the Moscow Metro excluding the Moscow Central Circle has 206 stations and its length is 339.1 km. The system is underground, with the deepest section 84 metres underground at the Park Pobedy station. The Moscow Metro, an enterprise, is 339. Of the metros 229,78 are deep underground,109 are shallow, the deep stations comprise 55 triple-vaulted pylon stations,19 triple-vaulted column stations, and one single-vault station. The shallow stations comprise 72 spanned column stations,33 single-vaulted stations, in addition, there are 12 ground-level stations, four elevated stations, and one station on a bridge. Two stations have three tracks, and one has double halls, seven of the stations have side platforms. In addition, there were two stations within rail yards. One station is reserved for future service, the Moscow Metro uses the Russian gauge of 1,520 millimetres, like other Russian railways, and an underrunning third rail with a supply of 825 V DC. The average distance between stations is 1.7 kilometres, the shortest section is between Vystavochnaya and Mezhdunarodnaya and the longest is between Krylatskoye and Strogino, long distances between stations have the positive effect of a high cruising speed of 41.7 kilometres per hour. Moscow Metro starts opening at 05,25 and closes at 01,00, the minimum interval between trains is 90 seconds during the morning and evening rush hours. As of 2013 the system has a daily ridership of 6.73 million passengers with the peak of 9.28 million. Since 1 December 2014 free Wi-Fi was available on all lines of the Moscow Metro, the network was launched by MaximaTelecom. Each line is identified by a name, an alphanumeric index, the upcoming station is announced by a male voice on inbound trains to the city center and by a female voice on outbound trains. The metro has a connection to the Moscow Monorail, a 4. 7-km, prior to the official opening, the monorail had operated in excursion mode since 2004. The Filyovskaya and Arbatsko-Pokrovskaya lines had six- and seven-car trains as well, rolling stock on the Koltsevaya line is being replaced with these articulated 81-740/741 «Rusich» four-car trains. The Butovskaya Line was designed by different standards, and has shorter platforms and it employs articulated 81-740/741 trains, which consist of three cars
36.
B Division (New York City Subway)
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The New York City Subways B Division consists of the lines that operate with lettered services, as well as the Franklin Avenue and Rockaway Park Shuttles. These lines and services were operated by the Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation, B Division rolling stock is wider, longer, and heavier than those of the A Division, measuring 10 or 9.75 ft by 60 or 75 ft. The two former systems are sometimes referred to as the BMT Division and IND Division. A large system of elevated railways in Brooklyn was formed by 1908 by the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company, crossing the Brooklyn Bridge, with the Dual Contracts, signed in 1913, the BRT acquired extensions outward into Queens, as well as through Lower and Midtown Manhattan. The BRT became the Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation in 1923 after a bankruptcy, the Independent Subway System was created by the city in the 1920s and 1930s as a third system operated by the city, competing with the BMT and Interborough Rapid Transit Company. The city took over operations of the BMT and IRT in 1940, since the original IRT tunnels were smaller, it has remained a separate division to this day. IND services were labeled on maps and signs starting with the opening of the first line in 1932. Six letters - A to F - were assigned to the services, sorted by the north terminal and midtown line. G and H were assigned to lesser services, which did not enter Manhattan, the following labels were used from 1940 to 1967, Until 1954 and 1955, when the Culver Ramp and 60th Street Tunnel Connection opened, the BMT and IND trackage was not connected. Beginning in 1924, BMT services were designated by number, the city assigned letters - generally following the IND pattern of double letters for local services - in the early 1960s to prepare for the 1967 Chrystie Street Connection. Only Southern Division routes were labeled on maps, but all services except remnants of the old els were assigned letters, * Unofficially signed as M, in 1967, the Culver and Franklin Shuttles became SS - the standard shuttle designation - and the Myrtle Local was labeled MJ. The 1967 opening of the Chrystie Street Connection resulted in a number of changes
37.
Sydney
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Sydney /ˈsɪdni/ is the state capital of New South Wales and the most populous city in Australia and Oceania. Located on Australias east coast, the metropolis surrounds the worlds largest natural harbour, residents of Sydney are known as Sydneysiders. The Sydney area has been inhabited by indigenous Australians for at least 30,000 years, the first British settlers, led by Captain Arthur Phillip, arrived in 1788 to found Sydney as a penal colony, the first European settlement in Australia. Since convict transportation ended in the century, the city has transformed from a colonial outpost into a major global cultural. As at June 2016 Sydneys estimated population was 5,005,358, in the 2011 census,34 percent of the population reported having been born overseas, representing many different nationalities and making Sydney one of the most multicultural cities in the world. There are more than 250 different languages spoken in Sydney and about one-third of residents speak a language other than English at home and it is classified as an Alpha+ World City by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network, indicating its influence in the region and throughout the world. Ranked eleventh in the world for economic opportunity, Sydney has a market economy with strengths in finance, manufacturing. Its gross regional product was $337 billion in 2013, the largest in Australia, there is a significant concentration of foreign banks and multinational corporations in Sydney and the city is promoted as one of Asia Pacifics leading financial hubs. Its natural features include Sydney Harbour, the Royal National Park, man-made attractions such as the Sydney Opera House, Sydney Tower and the Sydney Harbour Bridge are also well known to international visitors. The first people to inhabit the now known as Sydney were indigenous Australians having migrated from northern Australia. Radiocarbon dating suggests human activity first started to occur in the Sydney area from around 30,735 years ago, the earliest British settlers called them Eora people. Eora is the term the indigenous used to explain their origins upon first contact with the British. Its literal meaning is from this place, prior to the arrival of the British there were 4,000 to 8,000 native people in Sydney from as many as 29 different clans. Sydney Cove from Port Jackson to Petersham was inhabited by the Cadigal clan, the principal language groups were Darug, Guringai, and Dharawal. The earliest Europeans to visit the area noted that the people were conducting activities such as camping and fishing, using trees for bark and food, collecting shells. Development has destroyed much of the citys history including that of the first inhabitants, there continues to be examples of rock art and engravings located in the protected Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park. The first meeting between the people and the British occurred on 29 April 1770 when Lieutenant James Cook landed at Botany Bay on the Kurnell Peninsula. He noted in his journal that they were confused and somewhat hostile towards the foreign visitors, Cook was on a mission of exploration and was not commissioned to start a settlement
38.
Wellington
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Wellington is the capital and second most populous urban area of New Zealand, with 405,000 residents. It is at the tip of the North Island, between Cook Strait and the Rimutaka Range. Wellington is the population centre of the southern North Island and is the administrative centre of the Wellington Region. It is the worlds windiest city, with a wind speed of over 26 km/h. Situated near the centre of the country, Wellington was well placed for trade. In 1839 it was chosen as the first major planned settlement for British immigrants coming to New Zealand, the settlement was named in honour of the Arthur Wellesley, the first Duke of Wellington and victor of the Battle of Waterloo. As the nations capital since 1865, the New Zealand Government and Parliament, Supreme Court, despite being much smaller than Auckland, Wellington is also referred to as New Zealands cultural capital. The city is home to the National Archives, the National Library, architectural sights include the Government Building—one of the largest wooden buildings in the world—as well as the iconic Beehive. Wellington plays host to artistic and cultural organisations, including the New Zealand Symphony Orchestra. It has an urban culture, with many cafés, restaurants. One of the worlds most liveable cities, the 2014 Mercer Quality of Living Survey ranked Wellington 12th in the world, Wellingtons economy is primarily service-based, with an emphasis on finance, business services, and government. It is the centre of New Zealands film and special effects industries, Wellington ranks as one of New Zealands chief seaports and serves both domestic and international shipping. The city is served by Wellington International Airport, the third busiest airport in the country, Wellingtons transport network includes train and bus lines which reach as far as the Kapiti Coast and Wairarapa, and ferries connect the city to the South Island. Wellington takes its name from Arthur Wellesley, the first Duke of Wellington and victor of the Battle of Waterloo, his title comes from the town of Wellington in the English county of Somerset. One of the founders of the settlement, Edward Jerningham Wakefield, reported that the settlers took up the views of the directors with great cordiality, in Māori, Wellington has three names. In New Zealand Sign Language, the name is signed by raising the index, middle and ring fingers of one hand, palm forward, to form a W, and shaking it slightly from side to side twice. The citys location close to the mouth of the narrow Cook Strait leads to its vulnerability to strong gales, legends recount that Kupe discovered and explored the district in about the 10th century. The earliest date with hard evidence for Maori living in New Zealand is about 1280, European settlement began with the arrival of an advance party of the New Zealand Company on the ship Tory on 20 September 1839, followed by 150 settlers on the Aurora on 22 January 1840
39.
Toronto subway
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The Toronto subway is a rapid transit system in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, operated by the Toronto Transit Commission. It is a system consisting of three heavy rail lines operating predominantly underground and one elevated light metro line, collectively encompassing 69 stations and 68.3 kilometres of track. It accommodated an average of 1,066,100 passenger trips each weekday during the quarter of 2015. There are 4 rapid transit lines in Toronto plus another under construction, Line 1 Yonge–University, is the longest and busiest rapid transit line in the system. It opened as the Yonge subway in 1954 with a length of 7.4 kilometres, Today, the line is U-shaped having two northern terminals looping on its southern end via Union Station. An 8. 6-kilometre, six-station extension of Line 1 north to Vaughan is under construction, Line 2 Bloor–Danforth, opened in 1966, runs parallel to Bloor Street and Danforth Avenue between Kipling Station in Etobicoke and Kennedy Station in Scarborough. There is a plan to extend Line 2 eastwards from Kennedy Station to Scarborough Town Centre, Line 3 Scarborough is an above-ground medium-capacity rail line serving the citys eponymous suburban district. The line runs from Kennedy Station to McCowan Station passing Scarborough Town Centre and this is the only rapid transit line in Toronto to use Intermediate Capacity Transit System technology. There is a plan to close and dismantle Line 3 after Line 2 is extended to Scarborough Town Centre, Line 5 Eglinton is a 19-kilometre light rail line under construction scheduled to open in 2021. The line will have 25 stations of which 15 will be underground, here is a list of line, extension and station openings on the Toronto subway system. Canadas first subway, the Yonge subway, opened in 1954 with a length of 7.4 kilometres, the line ran under or parallel to Yonge Street between Eglinton Avenue and Union Station. It replaced the Yonge streetcar line, Canadas first streetcar line, in 1963, the line was extended under University Avenue north to Bloor Street to connect with the Bloor-Danforth subway at the double-deck St. George Station. In 1974, the line was extended from Eglinton Station north to Finch Station, the Spadina segment of the line was constructed north from St. George Station initially to Wilson Station in 1978, and eventually to Downsview Station in 1996. Part of the Spadina segment runs in the median of an expressway, four decades of extensions gave the line a U-shaped route running from its two northern terminals and looping on its southern end at Union Station. As of 1996, the line was 30.2 kilometres long, opened in 1966, the Bloor–Danforth subway runs east-west under or near Bloor Street and Danforth Avenue. It replaced the Bloor streetcar line, initially, the subway line ran between Keele Station to Woodbine Station. In 1968, the line was extended west to Islington Station and east to Warden Station, opened in 1985, the Scarborough RT is a light metro line running from Kennedy Station to McCowan station. The TTC started to construct the line to use Canadian Light Rail Vehicles and this line was never extended, and the current plan is to close and dismantle the line, replacing it with an extension of Line 2 to Scarborough Town Centre
40.
Interlocking
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In railway signalling, an interlocking is an arrangement of signal apparatus that prevents conflicting movements through an arrangement of tracks such as junctions or crossings. The signalling appliances and tracks are collectively referred to as an interlocking plant. An interlocking is designed so that it is impossible to display a signal to proceed unless the route to be used is proven safe. A minimal interlocking consists of signals, but usually includes additional appliances such as points and derails, some of the fundamental principles of interlocking include, Signals may not be operated to permit conflicting train movements to take place at the same time. Switches and other appliances in the route must be set before a signal may allow train movements to enter that route. Railway interlocking is of British origin, where numerous patents were granted, in June 1856, John Saxby received the first patent for interlocking switches and signals. In 1868, Saxby was awarded a patent for what is today in North America as “preliminary latch locking”. Preliminary latch locking became so successful that by 1873,13,000 mechanical locking levers were employed on the London, at the time, Toucey was General Superintendent and Buchanan was Superintendent of Machinery on the NYC&HRR. Toucey and Buchanan formed the Toucey and Buchanan Interlocking Switch and Signal Company in Harrisburg, the first important installations of their mechanism were on the switches and signals of the Manhattan Elevated Railroad Company and the New York Elevated Railroad Company in 1877-78. Compared to Saxbys design, Toucey and Buchanans interlocking mechanism was more cumbersome and less sophisticated, Union Switch & Signal bought their company in 1882. The challenge facing the industry was achieving the same level of safety and reliability that was inherent to purely mechanical systems. An experimental hydro-pneumatic interlocking was installed at the Bound Brook, New Jersey junction of the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad, by 1891, there were 18 hydro-pneumatic plants, on six railroads, operating a total of 482 levers. The installations worked, but there were defects in the design. By 1900,54 electro-pneumatic interlocking plants, controlling a total of 1,864 interlocking levers, were in use on 13 North American railroads. This type of system would remain one of two competing systems into the future, although it did have the disadvantage of needing extra single-use equipment. Interlockings using electric motors for moving switches and signals became viable in 1894, another interlocking of this type was installed in Berlin Westend in 1896. By 1913, this system had been installed on 83 railroads in 35 US States and Canadian Provinces. Interlockings can be categorized as mechanical, electrical, or electronic/computer-based, in mechanical interlocking plants, a locking bed is constructed, consisting of steel bars forming a grid
41.
Piccadilly line
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The Piccadilly line /ˌpɪkəˈdɪli/ is a line of the London Underground, coloured dark blue on the Tube map. It is the fourth busiest line on the Underground network on the basis of the number of passengers transported per year with 210,000,000. It is mainly a deep-level line, running from the north to the west of London via Zone 1, with a number of surface sections and it is named after the road above it between Hyde Park Corner and Piccadilly Circus. Some of its stations are shared with the District line and some are shared with the Metropolitan line and it is the second longest line on the system, after the Central line, and has the second most stations, after the District line. The GN&SRs and B&PCRs separate routes were linked with a section between Piccadilly Circus and Holborn. A section of the District Railways scheme for a tube line between South Kensington and Earls Court was also added in order to complete the route. When the GNP&BR was formally opened on 15 December 1906, the line ran from the Great Northern Railways station at Finsbury Park to the District Railways station at Hammersmith. On 30 November 1907, the branch from Holborn to the Strand opened. In 1905, plans were made to extend it the distance south under the River Thames to Waterloo. Although built with twin tunnels, single track shuttle operation became the norm on the branch from 1918 on, on 1 July 1910 the GNP&BR and the other UERL-owned tube railways were merged by private Act of Parliament to become the London Electric Railway Company. On 10 December 1928, a rebuilt Piccadilly Circus station was opened, There had been deputations made to Parliament asking for an early extension of the line either towards Tottenham and Edmonton or towards Wood Green and Palmers Green. The early 1930s was a time of recession, and in order to relieve unemployment, government capital was made available, the chief features of the scheme were an extension northwards from Finsbury Park to Cockfosters. However, a Ventilation station, in architectural style to tube stations of the time was provided at the site. There was also opposition from the London and North Eastern Railway to the line. The extension began from Finsbury Park to a point a little south of Arnos Grove, a Parliamentary report of 1919 recommended through running to Richmond and Ealing. By the end of the 1920s the priority had shifted to serving the areas around Hounslow and north, construction of the linking sections started in 1930, and the services opened as follows. To Uxbridge, the District Railway had operated services to Uxbridge since 1910 and this influence can be seen in the bold vertical and horizontal forms, which were combined with the use of traditional materials like brick. Many of these Holden-designed station are listed buildings and this idea was eventually rejected due to the inconvenience to passengers that would have been caused during rebuilding, as well as the costs of the new tunnels
42.
Glenbrook rail accident
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The Indian Pacific train was authorised to pass a red signal at Glenbrook and stopped at the next signal, also red. A delay of seven minutes resulted despite the locomotive having a radio. The interurban train restarted with authority after stopping at the red signal at Glenbrook and collided shortly after with the rear of the Indian Pacific train waiting at the second failed signal. The track was curved to the left, the train was using the track, the driver was sitting on the left side of the train. These four factors contributed to less than average visibility, a Commission of Inquiry headed by Justice Peter McInerny investigated the accident. The Commission found that the accident occurred after a power failure disabled two consecutive automatic signals, due to their design, both exhibited danger. Both trains obtained permission from the signalman at Penrith to pass the first signal at danger. The driver of the Indian Pacific obeyed the rule requiring him to proceed with extreme caution, the Commission found fault with a number of procedures, their application by railway employees, and the training those employees had received. Training for passing signals at danger was deficient, as was the rule, the seven people who died were in the front compartment of the first carriage of the interurban train. He was badly injured, but survived because of this, as he ran through, a man from the front compartment ran to the upper deck to warn passengers and thereby also survived the crash. A third train, bound for Lithgow, only narrowly avoided colliding with the wreckage when signallers managed to warn the driver to stop just 60 seconds before it reached the crash site. The train was a standard four-car V set, labelled V21. The first carriage, DIM8067, received damage to its front and lower compartments. To avoid any reference and insensitivity to the victims, it was re-numbered DIM8020, granville rail disaster Cowan rail accident
43.
The French Connection (film)
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The French Connection is a 1971 American crime thriller film directed by William Friedkin and produced by Philip DAntoni. It stars Gene Hackman, Fernando Rey, and Roy Scheider, the film was adapted and fictionalized by Ernest Tidyman from the 1969 non-fiction book by Robin Moore. It tells the story of New York Police Department detectives Jimmy Popeye Doyle and Buddy Cloudy Russo, whose real-life counterparts were Narcotics Detectives Eddie Egan and it was the first R-rated movie to win the Academy Award for Best Picture since the introduction of the MPAA film rating system. It also won Academy Awards for Best Actor, Best Director, Best Film Editing and it was nominated for Best Supporting Actor, Best Cinematography and Best Sound Mixing. Tidyman also received a Golden Globe Award nomination, a Writers Guild of America Award, a sequel, French Connection II, followed in 1975 with Gene Hackman and Fernando Rey reprising their roles. The American Film Institute included the film in its list of the best American films in 1998, in 2005, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant. In Marseille, a detective is following Alain Charnier, a wealthy French criminal who runs the largest heroin-smuggling syndicate in the world. The policeman is assassinated by Charniers hitman, Pierre Nicoli, Charnier plans to smuggle $32 million worth of heroin into the United States by hiding it in the car of his unsuspecting friend, French television personality Henri Devereaux. In New York City, detectives Jimmy Popeye Doyle and Buddy Cloudy Russo are conducting an undercover stakeout in Bedford-Stuyvesant, Brooklyn. After seeing a drug transaction take place in a bar, Cloudy goes in to make an arrest, after catching up with their suspect and severely beating him, the detectives interrogate the man, who reveals his drug connection. Later, Popeye and Cloudy go out for drinks at the Copacabana and they decide to tail the couple, and soon learn that the Bocas, who run a modest newsstand luncheonette, have criminal records, Sal for armed robbery and murder, and Angie for shoplifting. The detectives suspect that the Bocas, who frequent several nightclubs and they soon establish a link between the Bocas and lawyer Joel Weinstock, who is part of the narcotics underworld. Soon after, Popeye learns from an informant that a shipment of heroin will arrive in the New York area. The detectives convince their supervisor, Walt Simonson, to wiretap the Bocas phones, Popeye and Cloudy are joined in the investigation by a federal agent named Mulderig. Popeye and Mulderig dislike each other based on having worked together in the past, Charnier soon realizes he has been observed since his arrival in New York. He makes Popeye and escapes, waving tauntingly on the departing subway shuttle from Grand Central Terminal, to avoid being tailed, he has Sal Boca instead meet him in Washington D. C. where Boca asks for a delay to avoid the police. Charnier, however, wants to conclude the deal quickly so he can return to France, on the flight back to New York, Nicoli offers to kill Popeye, but Charnier objects, knowing that Popeye would be replaced by another policeman. Nicoli insists, however, saying they will be back in France before a replacement is assigned, soon after, Nicoli attempts to shoot Popeye from the roof of Doyles apartment complex but misses
44.
Automatic Warning System
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The Automatic Warning System is a form of limited cab signalling introduced in 1956 in the United Kingdom. The Rail Safety and Standards Board defines it as, The original concept of AWS was to provide the driver with an audible, should the driver fail to respond to a warning indication, an emergency brake application will be initiated. Since the introduction of signalling, the majority of signals are fitted with AWS. It should be noted that AWS does not relieve the driver of the responsibility of observing and obeying lineside signals and it was based on a 1930 system developed by Alfred Ernest Hudd and marketed as the Strowger-Hudd system. An earlier contact system, installed on the Great Western Railway since 1906, AWS is part of the signalling system and warns the driver whether the next signal is clear or not. These warnings are usually given 200 yards before the signal, though the distance can vary according to linespeed, information about the signal aspect is conveyed by electromagnetic induction to the moving train through equipment fixed in the middle of the track, known as an AWS magnet. The system works by the train detecting sequences and polarities of magnetic fields passing between the equipment and the train equipment via a receiver under the train. If the signal being approached is displaying a clear for a semaphore or green for a multiple aspect colour light signal and this lets the driver know that the next signal is showing clear and that the AWS system is working. If the signal being approached is displaying a restrictive aspect, the AWS will sound a horn, the driver then has approximately 2 seconds to press the AWS/TPWS acknowledgement button. The horn then stops and the indicator changes to a pattern of black and yellow spokes. As a fail-safe mechanism, the button must be released after it has been pressed, if a driver should collapse onto the button or keep it held down, the AWS will not be cancelled. If the driver fails to cancel the warning in time the brake will apply. When this occurs the red Brake demand light will flash on the AWS/TPWS Driver machine interface, the driver must now push the AWS/TPWS acknowledgement button, and the brakes will release after a safety time out period has elapsed. AWS is provided at most main aspect signals on running lines, though there are exceptions, At through stations where the permitted speed is 30 mph or less. Where this occurs, these are called AWS gap areas, AWS magnets are not provided at semaphore stop signals. Where a line is not fitted with AWS magnets, it is shown in the Sectional Appendix, early devices used a mechanical connection between the signal and the locomotive. In 1840, the locomotive engineer Edward Bury experimented with a system whereby a lever at track level, connected to the signal, sounded the locomotives whistle, in 1873, United Kingdom Patent No.3286 was granted to C. Williams for a system in which, if a signal was passed at danger, numerous similar patents followed but they all bore the same disadvantage – that they could not be used at higher speeds for risk of damage to the mechanism – and they came to nothing
