1.
Vienna
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Vienna is the capital and largest city of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austrias primary city, with a population of about 1.8 million, and its cultural, economic and it is the 7th-largest city by population within city limits in the European Union. Today, it has the second largest number of German speakers after Berlin, Vienna is host to many major international organizations, including the United Nations and OPEC. The city is located in the part of Austria and is close to the borders of the Czech Republic, Slovakia. These regions work together in a European Centrope border region, along with nearby Bratislava, Vienna forms a metropolitan region with 3 million inhabitants. In 2001, the city centre was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, apart from being regarded as the City of Music because of its musical legacy, Vienna is also said to be The City of Dreams because it was home to the worlds first psycho-analyst – Sigmund Freud. The citys roots lie in early Celtic and Roman settlements that transformed into a Medieval and Baroque city and it is well known for having played an essential role as a leading European music centre, from the great age of Viennese Classicism through the early part of the 20th century. The historic centre of Vienna is rich in architectural ensembles, including Baroque castles and gardens, Vienna is known for its high quality of life. In a 2005 study of 127 world cities, the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked the city first for the worlds most liveable cities, between 2011 and 2015, Vienna was ranked second, behind Melbourne, Australia. Monocles 2015 Quality of Life Survey ranked Vienna second on a list of the top 25 cities in the world to make a base within, the UN-Habitat has classified Vienna as being the most prosperous city in the world in 2012/2013. Vienna regularly hosts urban planning conferences and is used as a case study by urban planners. Between 2005 and 2010, Vienna was the worlds number-one destination for international congresses and it attracts over 3.7 million tourists a year. The English name Vienna is borrowed from the homonymous Italian version of the name or the French Vienne. The etymology of the name is still subject to scholarly dispute. Some claim that the name comes from Vedunia, meaning forest stream, which produced the Old High German Uuenia. A variant of this Celtic name could be preserved in the Czech and Slovak names of the city, the name of the city in Hungarian, Serbo-Croatian and Ottoman Turkish has a different, probably Slavonic origin, and originally referred to an Avar fort in the area. Slovene-speakers call the city Dunaj, which in other Central European Slavic languages means the Danube River, evidence has been found of continuous habitation since 500 BC, when the site of Vienna on the Danube River was settled by the Celts. In 15 BC, the Romans fortified the city they called Vindobona to guard the empire against Germanic tribes to the north
2.
Austria
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Austria, officially the Republic of Austria, is a federal republic and a landlocked country of over 8.7 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Hungary and Slovakia to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, the territory of Austria covers 83,879 km2. The terrain is mountainous, lying within the Alps, only 32% of the country is below 500 m. The majority of the population speaks local Bavarian dialects of German as their native language, other local official languages are Hungarian, Burgenland Croatian, and Slovene. The origins of modern-day Austria date back to the time of the Habsburg dynasty, from the time of the Reformation, many northern German princes, resenting the authority of the Emperor, used Protestantism as a flag of rebellion. Following Napoleons defeat, Prussia emerged as Austrias chief competitor for rule of a greater Germany, Austrias defeat by Prussia at the Battle of Königgrätz, during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, cleared the way for Prussia to assert control over the rest of Germany. In 1867, the empire was reformed into Austria-Hungary, Austria was thus the first to go to war in the July Crisis, which would ultimately escalate into World War I. The First Austrian Republic was established in 1919, in 1938 Nazi Germany annexed Austria in the Anschluss. This lasted until the end of World War II in 1945, after which Germany was occupied by the Allies, in 1955, the Austrian State Treaty re-established Austria as a sovereign state, ending the occupation. In the same year, the Austrian Parliament created the Declaration of Neutrality which declared that the Second Austrian Republic would become permanently neutral, today, Austria is a parliamentary representative democracy comprising nine federal states. The capital and largest city, with a population exceeding 1.7 million, is Vienna, other major urban areas of Austria include Graz, Linz, Salzburg and Innsbruck. Austria is one of the richest countries in the world, with a nominal per capita GDP of $43,724, the country has developed a high standard of living and in 2014 was ranked 21st in the world for its Human Development Index. Austria has been a member of the United Nations since 1955, joined the European Union in 1995, Austria also signed the Schengen Agreement in 1995, and adopted the euro currency in 1999. The German name for Austria, Österreich, meant eastern realm in Old High German, and is cognate with the word Ostarrîchi and this word is probably a translation of Medieval Latin Marchia orientalis into a local dialect. Austria was a prefecture of Bavaria created in 976, the word Austria is a Latinisation of the German name and was first recorded in the 12th century. Accordingly, Norig would essentially mean the same as Ostarrîchi and Österreich, the Celtic name was eventually Latinised to Noricum after the Romans conquered the area that encloses most of modern-day Austria, around 15 BC. Noricum later became a Roman province in the mid-first century AD, heers hypothesis is not accepted by linguists. Settled in ancient times, the Central European land that is now Austria was occupied in pre-Roman times by various Celtic tribes, the Celtic kingdom of Noricum was later claimed by the Roman Empire and made a province
3.
Horsecar
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A horsecar, or horse-drawn tram, is an animal-powered tram or streetcar. These were local versions of the lines and picked up and dropped off passengers on a regular route. The horse-drawn streetcar combined the low cost, flexibility, and safety of power with the efficiency, smoothness. The first tram services in the world were started by the Swansea and Mumbles Railway in Wales, fare-paying passengers were carried on a line between Oystermouth, Mumbles and Swansea Docks from 1807. The Gloucester and Cheltenham Tramroad carried passengers although its purpose was freight. Many companies adopted a design of a partly enclosed double-decker carriage hauled by two horses, the last horse-drawn tram was retired from London in 1915. Horses continued to be used for light shunting well into the 20th century, the last horse used for shunting on British Railways was retired on 21 February 1967 in Newmarket, Suffolk. In the United States the very first streetcar appeared on November 26,1832, on the New York, the cars were designed by John Stephenson of New Rochelle, New York and constructed at his company in New York City. The earliest streetcars used horses and sometimes mules, usually two as a team, to haul the cars, rarely, other animals were tried, including humans in emergency circumstances. By the mid-1880s, there were 415 street railway companies in the USA operating over 6,000 miles of track, by 1890 New Yorkers took 297 horsecar rides per capita per year. The average street car horse had a life expectancy of two years. In 1861, Toronto Street Railway horsecars replaced horse driven omnibuses as a public transit mode in Toronto, starting in 1892, electric streetcars emerged in Toronto and by 1894 the TSR stopped operating horsecars in Toronto. The first horse-drawn rail cars on the continent of Europe were operated from 1828 by the České Budějovice - Linz railway, Europe saw a proliferation of horsecar use for new tram services from the mid-1860s, with many towns building new networks. Tropical plantations made extensive use of animal-powered trams for passengers and freight, often employing the Decauville narrow-gauge portable track system. In some cases these systems were extensive and evolved into interurban tram networks. Surviving examples may be found in both the Yucatan and Brazil, since a typical horse pulled a streetcar for about a dozen miles a day and worked for four or five hours, many systems needed ten or more horses in stable for each horsecar. Horsecars were largely replaced by electric-powered streetcars following the invention by Frank J. Sprague of a trolley system on streetcars for collecting electricity from overhead wires. His spring-loaded trolley pole used a wheel to travel along the wire, in late 1887 and early 1888, using his trolley system, Sprague installed the first successful large electric street railway system in Richmond, Virginia
4.
Track gauge
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In rail transport, track gauge is the spacing of the rails on a railway track and is measured between the inner faces of the load-bearing rails. All vehicles on a network must have running gear that is compatible with the track gauge, as the dominant parameter determining interoperability, it is still frequently used as a descriptor of a route or network. There is a distinction between the gauge and actual gauge at some locality, due to divergence of track components from the nominal. Railway engineers use a device, like a caliper, to measure the actual gauge, the nominal track gauge is the distance between the inner faces of the rails. In current practice, it is specified at a distance below the rail head as the inner faces of the rail head are not necessarily vertical. In some cases in the earliest days of railways, the company saw itself as an infrastructure provider only. Colloquially the wagons might be referred to as four-foot gauge wagons, say and this nominal value does not equate to the flange spacing, as some freedom is allowed for. An infrastructure manager might specify new or replacement track components at a variation from the nominal gauge for pragmatic reasons. Track is defined in old Imperial units or in universally accepted metric units or SI units, Imperial units were established in United Kingdom by The Weights and Measures Act of 1824. In addition, there are constraints, such as the load-carrying capacity of axles. Narrow gauge railways usually cost less to build because they are lighter in construction, using smaller cars and locomotives, as well as smaller bridges, smaller tunnels. Narrow gauge is often used in mountainous terrain, where the savings in civil engineering work can be substantial. Broader gauge railways are generally expensive to build and require wider curves. There is no single perfect gauge, because different environments and economic considerations come into play, a narrow gauge is superior if ones main considerations are economy and tight curvature. For direct, unimpeded routes with high traffic, a broad gauge may be preferable, the Standard, Russian, and 46 gauges are designed to strike a reasonable balance between these factors. In addition to the general trade-off, another important factor is standardization, once a standard has been chosen, and equipment, infrastructure, and training calibrated to that standard, conversion becomes difficult and expensive. This also makes it easier to adopt an existing standard than to invent a new one and this is true of many technologies, including railroad gauges. The reduced cost, greater efficiency, and greater economic opportunity offered by the use of a common standard explains why a number of gauges predominate worldwide
5.
Wiener Linien
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Wiener Linien are the company running the largest part of the public transit network in the city of Vienna, Austria. They are part of the city corporation Wiener Stadtwerke Holding AG and they are still under city control as part of the responsibilities of the City Administrator for Finance and Economics, currently Renate Brauner. As of 2009, Wiener Linien employ approximately 8,000 people, ridership numbers have climbed since the 1970s and now exceeds those of 2005 by approximately 60 million. The number of season ticket holders has risen to a new record of 334,577. 24% of all passengers are schoolchildren, sales rose slightly in 2004 to €345.2. According to surveys, 36% of all journeys in Vienna are completed using public transport, passengers are represented by a Passenger Advisory Council and can make suggestions for improvements. Wiener Linien operate bus and tram routes, and partly underground. The U-Bahn network is being expanded, and to a lesser extent the bus routes. U-Bahn ridership is growing strongly, but in contrast tram ridership is slightly lower. In addition there are 7 routes of Demand responsive transport, Wiener Linien services also connect to mainline ÖBB trains and the Vienna S-Bahn. Most daytime services run between 5,00 am and 0,30 am. During rush hours, many routes run at intervals of two to five minutes, during evening hours, the U-Bahn runs at 7 and a half minute intervals and trams, between 0,30 and 5,00 am, night bus routes run every 15 to 30 minutes. Following a February 2010 plebiscite, nighttime U-Bahn service on weekends at 15-minute intervals is to be instituted in September 2010, Wiener Linien fares are integrated into the VOR, their routes all lie within its core zone. Schoolchildren, students, the unemployed, and pensioners are served at considerably reduced prices, the construction of a metro in Vienna had been preceded by decades of political debate, since the Social Democratic majority in Vienna had initially preferred other modes of transit. The first stretch of newly constructed U-Bahn rail was placed in operation in 1978, the Vienna U-Bahn system currently consists of five lines, is 69. Electrified at the expense, the trams were integrated into the transport network in 1925. Until construction of the U-Bahn, the trams were the mode of public transport in Vienna. After 1945, numerous lines were abandoned because of increasing use of private cars or converted to bus routes because of economic unviability
6.
Standard gauge
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The standard gauge is a widely used railway track gauge. Approximately 55% of the lines in the world are this gauge, all high-speed rail lines, except those in Russia, Uzbekistan, and Finland, are standard gauge. The distance between the edges of the rails is defined to be 1435 mm except in the United States. It is also called the UIC gauge or UIC track gauge, as railways developed and expanded, one of the key issues was the track gauge to be used. The result was the adoption throughout a large part of the world of a gauge of 1435 mm. In North East England, some lines in colliery areas were 4 ft 8 in. All these lines had been widened to standard gauge by 1846, parts of the United States, mainly in the Northeast, adopted the same gauge, because some early trains were purchased from Britain. However, until well into the half of the 19th century, Britain. The American gauges converged as the advantages of equipment interchange became increasingly apparent, notably, all the 5 ft broad gauge track in the South was converted to standard gauge over the course of two days beginning on 31 May 1886. See Track gauge in the United States, snopes categorized this legend as false, but commented that. It is perhaps more fairly labelled as True, but for trivial, the historical tendency to place the wheels of horse-drawn vehicles approximately 5 feet apart probably derives from the width needed to fit a carthorse in between the shafts. Others were 4 ft 4 in or 4 ft 7 1⁄2 in, the English railway pioneer George Stephenson spent much of his early engineering career working for the coal mines of County Durham. He favoured 4 ft 8 in for wagonways in Northumberland and Durham, the Hetton and Springwell wagonways also used this gauge. Stephensons Stockton and Darlington railway was primarily to transport coal from mines near Shildon to the port at Stockton-on-Tees. The initial gauge of 4 ft 8 in was set to accommodate the existing gauge of hundreds of horse-drawn chaldron wagons that were already in use on the wagonways in the mines. The railway used this gauge for 15 years before a change was made to 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in gauge, George Stephenson used the 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in gauge for the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, authorised in 1826 and opened 30 September 1830. The success of this led to Stephenson and his son Robert being employed to engineer several other larger railway projects. Monkland and Kirkintilloch Railway, authorised 1824 and opened 1825, used 4 ft 6 in, Dundee and Newtyle Railway, authorised 1829 and opened 1831, used 4 ft 6 1⁄2 in
7.
Railway electrification system
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A railway electrification system supplies electric power to railway trains and trams without an on-board prime mover or local fuel supply. Electrification has many advantages but requires significant capital expenditure, selection of an electrification system is based on economics of energy supply, maintenance, and capital cost compared to the revenue obtained for freight and passenger traffic. Different systems are used for urban and intercity areas, some electric locomotives can switch to different supply voltages to allow flexibility in operation, Electric railways use electric locomotives to haul passengers or freight in separate cars or electric multiple units, passenger cars with their own motors. Electricity is typically generated in large and relatively efficient generating stations, transmitted to the railway network, some electric railways have their own dedicated generating stations and transmission lines but most purchase power from an electric utility. The railway usually provides its own lines, switches and transformers. Power is supplied to moving trains with a continuous conductor running along the track usually takes one of two forms. The first is a line or catenary wire suspended from poles or towers along the track or from structure or tunnel ceilings. Locomotives or multiple units pick up power from the wire with pantographs on their roofs that press a conductive strip against it with a spring or air pressure. Examples are described later in this article, the second is a third rail mounted at track level and contacted by a sliding pickup shoe. Both overhead wire and third-rail systems usually use the rails as the return conductor. In comparison to the alternative, the diesel engine, electric railways offer substantially better energy efficiency, lower emissions. Electric locomotives are usually quieter, more powerful, and more responsive and they have no local emissions, an important advantage in tunnels and urban areas. Different regions may use different supply voltages and frequencies, complicating through service, the limited clearances available under catenaries may preclude efficient double-stack container service. Possible lethal electric current due to risk of contact with high-voltage contact wires, overhead wires are safer than third rails, but they are often considered unsightly. These are independent of the system used, so that. The permissible range of voltages allowed for the voltages is as stated in standards BS EN50163. These take into account the number of trains drawing current and their distance from the substation, railways must operate at variable speeds. Until the mid 1980s this was only practical with the brush-type DC motor, since such conversion was not well developed in the late 19th century and early 20th century, most early electrified railways used DC and many still do, particularly rapid transit and trams
8.
Volt
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The volt is the derived unit for electric potential, electric potential difference, and electromotive force. One volt is defined as the difference in potential between two points of a conducting wire when an electric current of one ampere dissipates one watt of power between those points. It is also equal to the difference between two parallel, infinite planes spaced 1 meter apart that create an electric field of 1 newton per coulomb. Additionally, it is the difference between two points that will impart one joule of energy per coulomb of charge that passes through it. It can also be expressed as amperes times ohms, watts per ampere, or joules per coulomb, for the Josephson constant, KJ = 2e/h, the conventional value KJ-90 is used, K J-90 =0.4835979 GHz μ V. This standard is typically realized using an array of several thousand or tens of thousands of junctions. Empirically, several experiments have shown that the method is independent of device design, material, measurement setup, etc. in the water-flow analogy sometimes used to explain electric circuits by comparing them with water-filled pipes, voltage is likened to difference in water pressure. Current is proportional to the diameter of the pipe or the amount of water flowing at that pressure. A resistor would be a reduced diameter somewhere in the piping, the relationship between voltage and current is defined by Ohms Law. Ohms Law is analogous to the Hagen–Poiseuille equation, as both are linear models relating flux and potential in their respective systems, the voltage produced by each electrochemical cell in a battery is determined by the chemistry of that cell. Cells can be combined in series for multiples of that voltage, mechanical generators can usually be constructed to any voltage in a range of feasibility. High-voltage electric power lines,110 kV and up Lightning, Varies greatly. Volta had determined that the most effective pair of metals to produce electricity was zinc. In 1861, Latimer Clark and Sir Charles Bright coined the name volt for the unit of resistance, by 1873, the British Association for the Advancement of Science had defined the volt, ohm, and farad. In 1881, the International Electrical Congress, now the International Electrotechnical Commission and they made the volt equal to 108 cgs units of voltage, the cgs system at the time being the customary system of units in science. At that time, the volt was defined as the difference across a conductor when a current of one ampere dissipates one watt of power. The international volt was defined in 1893 as 1/1.434 of the emf of a Clark cell and this definition was abandoned in 1908 in favor of a definition based on the international ohm and international ampere until the entire set of reproducible units was abandoned in 1948. Prior to the development of the Josephson junction voltage standard, the volt was maintained in laboratories using specially constructed batteries called standard cells
9.
Direct current
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Direct current is a flow of electrical charge carriers that always takes place in the same direction. The current need not always have the magnitude, but if it is to be defined as dc. This contrasts with alternating current which varies the direction of flow, sources of direct current include power supplies, electrochemical cells and batteries, and photovoltaic cells and panels. The intensity, or amplitude, of a direct current might fluctuate with time, in some such cases the dc has an ac component superimposed on it. An example of this is the output of a cell that receives a modulated light communications signal. A source of dc is sometimes called a dc generator, batteries and various other sources of dc produce a constant voltage. This is called pure dc and can be represented by a straight, the peak and effective values are the same. The peak to peak value is zero because the instantaneous amplitude never changes, in some instances the value of a dc voltage pulsates or oscillates rapidly with time, in a manner similar to the changes in an ac wave. The unfiltered output of a wave or a full wave rectifier. In 1820, Hans Christian Orsted discovered that electrical current creates a magnetic field and this discovery made scientists relate magnetism to the electric phenomena. In 1879, Thomas Edison invented the light bulb. He improved a 50-year-old idea using lower current electricity, a vacuum inside the globe and a small carbonized filament. At that time, the idea of lightning was not new. Edison not only invented an incandescent electric light, but an electric lighting system contained all the necessary elements to make the incandescent light safe, economical. Prior to 1879, direct current electricity had been used in lighting for the outdoors and it was in the 1880s when the modern electric utility industry began. It was an evolution from street lighting systems and from gas and it was located in Lower Manhattan, on Pearl Street. This station provided light and electricity to customers in a one square mile range, the station was called Thomas Edisons Pearl Street Electricity Generating Station. This station introduced four elements of an electric utility system, Efficient distribution, competitive price, reliable central generation
10.
Network length (transport)
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In transport terminology, network length refers to the total length of a transport network, and commonly also refers to the length of any fixed infrastructure associated with the network. A measurement can be made of the length of various different modes of transport, including rail, bus, road. The measurement may focus on one of a number of characteristics, such as route length. In 2000, this terminology was adopted by an English language best practice guide to public transport, since then, a number of other English language specialist publications have adopted the same terminology, for the same reason. The terminology is also used in this article. The route length of a network is the sum of the lengths of all routes in the network, such as railways. The U. S. Department of Transportations Federal Transit Administration has also referred to this as Directional Route Miles. Where a network is made up of railways, route length has also defined, by at least one source. In scheduled transport, a calculation may also be made of line length. Any route in the network that is shared by multiple lines is therefore counted more than once, as a result, the line length of a transport network is always greater than or equal to its route length. If a network is made up of railways, tramways, or a combination of the two, its length may also be calculated. The track length of a network is the combined length of all tracks in the network. Thus, a double track route will have a length twice as long as its route length. To illustrate how the three different calculations of network length are performed, here is an example, The tramway network of a small town has two lines. Maps of the show line 1 in blue, and line 2 in red. Both lines begin at point A, and run on a common route 5 km long to point B, at point B, the two lines divide. Line 1 continues a further 5 km from point B to a terminus at point C, line 2 similarly continues a further 5 km from point B, but to a different terminus, at point D. The entire network is double tracked, apart from a 1 km long single track from point B to the depot
11.
Tram stop
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A tram stop, tram station, streetcar stop, or light rail station is a place designated for a tram, streetcar, or light rail vehicle to stop so passengers can board or alight it. Generally, tram stops share most characteristics of bus stops, but because trams operate on rails, they often include railway platforms, however, trams may also be used with bus stop type flags and with mid-street pavements as platforms, in street running mode. Most tram or streetcar stops in Melbourne and Toronto and other systems with extensive sections of street-running have no associated platforms, with stops in the middle of the roadway pavement. In most jurisdictions, traffic cannot legally pass a tram or streetcar whose doors are open, on the other hand, several light rail systems have high-platform stops or stations with dedicated platforms at railway platform height. Reasons for this include systems being created from former rail routes. Such trams also stop at dedicated platform stops on Stadtbahns in Germany, not all tram stops are served full-time. In the 1920s, Toronto created Sunday stops in addition to stops along its streetcar routes. Sunday stops were only used on a Sunday and, with few exceptions, were always near a Christian church, there were also a few Sunday stops near subway stations that were usable only before 9 am, the Sunday opening time of the subway system. However, the Toronto Transit Commission decided to close all Sunday stops on June 7,2015, the TTC found that Sunday stops slow down streetcars making it more difficult to maintain schedules. Also, Sunday stops were also unfair to non-Christian places of worship which never had the equivalent of a Sunday stop, by 2015, most Sunday stops were along current and former streetcar routes. The design of tram stops have seen many recent innovations, the Dubai Tram, bus stop Street running Train/railway station
12.
German language
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German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, South Tyrol, the German-speaking Community of Belgium and it is also one of the three official languages of Luxembourg. Major languages which are most similar to German include other members of the West Germanic language branch, such as Afrikaans, Dutch, English, Luxembourgish and it is the second most widely spoken Germanic language, after English. One of the languages of the world, German is the first language of about 95 million people worldwide. The German speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of publication of new books. German derives most of its vocabulary from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, a portion of German words are derived from Latin and Greek, and fewer are borrowed from French and English. With slightly different standardized variants, German is a pluricentric language, like English, German is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects, with many unique varieties existing in Europe and also other parts of the world. The history of the German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the migration period, when Martin Luther translated the Bible, he based his translation primarily on the standard bureaucratic language used in Saxony, also known as Meißner Deutsch. Copies of Luthers Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region that translated words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Roman Catholics initially rejected Luthers translation, and tried to create their own Catholic standard of the German language – the difference in relation to Protestant German was minimal. It was not until the middle of the 18th century that a widely accepted standard was created, until about 1800, standard German was mainly a written language, in urban northern Germany, the local Low German dialects were spoken. Standard German, which was different, was often learned as a foreign language with uncertain pronunciation. Northern German pronunciation was considered the standard in prescriptive pronunciation guides though, however, German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire, which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the mid-19th century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire and its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Some cities, such as Prague and Budapest, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain, others, such as Pozsony, were originally settled during the Habsburg period, and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest and Bratislava as well as cities like Zagreb, the most comprehensive guide to the vocabulary of the German language is found within the Deutsches Wörterbuch. This dictionary was created by the Brothers Grimm and is composed of 16 parts which were issued between 1852 and 1860, in 1872, grammatical and orthographic rules first appeared in the Duden Handbook. In 1901, the 2nd Orthographical Conference ended with a standardization of the German language in its written form
13.
Public transport
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Public transport modes include city buses, trolleybuses, trams and passenger trains, rapid transit and ferries. Public transport between cities is dominated by airlines, coaches, and intercity rail, high-speed rail networks are being developed in many parts of the world. Most public transport runs to a timetable, with the most frequent services running to a headway. Share taxis offer services in many parts of the world. Paratransit is sometimes used in areas of low demand and for people who need a door-to-door service, there are distinct differences in urban public transit between Asia, North America, and Europe. In Asia, mass transit operations are run by profit-driven privately owned and publicly traded mass transit. In North America, mass transit operations are run by municipal transit authorities. In Europe, mass transit operations are run by both state-owned and private companies. Public transport services can be profit-driven by use of pay-by-the-distance fares or funded by government subsidies in which flat rate fares are charged to each passenger. Services can be profitable through high ridership numbers and high farebox recovery ratios, or can be regulated. Fully subsidized, zero-fare services operate in some towns and cities, for geographical, historical and economic reasons, there are differences internationally regarding use and extent of public transport. It has 3,400 members from 92 countries, conveyances designed for public hire are as old as the first ferries, and the earliest public transport was water transport, on land people walked or rode an animal. Ferries appear in Greek mythology—corpses in ancient Greece were buried with a coin underneath their tongue to pay the ferryman Charon to take them to Hades, the omnibus was introduced to London in July 1829. The first passenger railway opened in 1806, it ran between Swansea and Mumbles in southwest Wales in the United Kingdom. In 1825 George Stephenson built the Locomotion for the Stockton and Darlington Railway in northeast England, the usability of different types of public transport, and its overall appeal, can be measured by seven criteria, although they overlap somewhat. These are speed, comfort, safety, cost, proximity, speed is calculated from total journey time including transfers. Proximity means how far passengers have to walk or otherwise travel before they can begin the public transport leg of their journey, timeliness is how long they have to wait for the vehicle. Directness records how far a journey using public transport deviates from the shortest route, an airline provides scheduled service with aircraft between airports
14.
Capital city
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A capital city is the municipality exercising primary status in a country, state, province, or other region, usually as its seat of government. A capital is typically a city that encompasses the offices and meeting places of its respective government. In some jurisdictions, including countries, the different branches of government are located in different settlements. In some cases, a distinction is made between the capital and the seat of government, which is in another place. The word capital derives from the Latin caput, meaning head, in several English-speaking states, the terms county town, county seat, and borough seat are also used in lower subdivisions. In unitary states, subnational capitals are known as administrative centres. The capital is often, but not necessarily, the largest city of its constituent, historically, the major economic centre of a state or region often becomes the focal point of political power, and becomes a capital through conquest or federation. Examples are Ancient Babylon, Abbasid Baghdad, Ancient Athens, Rome, Constantinople, Changan, Ancient Cusco, Madrid, Paris, London, Moscow, Beijing, Tokyo, Vienna, and Berlin. Some of these cities are or were also religious centres, e. g. Constantinople, Rome, Jerusalem, Ancient Babylon, Moscow, Belgrade, Paris, and Peking. A capital city that is also the economic, cultural. The convergence of political and economic or cultural power is by no means universal, traditional capitals may be economically eclipsed by provincial rivals, e. g. Nanking by Shanghai, Quebec City by Montreal, and numerous US state capitals. The decline of a dynasty or culture could also mean the extinction of its city, as occurred at Babylon. Although many capitals are defined by constitution or legislation, many long-time capitals have no legal designation as such, for example Bern, Edinburgh, Lisbon, London, Paris, are located in or near them. In Canada, there is a capital, while the ten provinces. The states of such countries as Mexico, Brazil, and Australia all have capital cities, for example, the six state capitals of Australia are Adelaide, Brisbane, Hobart, Melbourne, Perth, and Sydney. In Australia, the capital cities is regularly used, to refer to the aforementioned state capitals plus the federal capital Canberra and Darwin. Abu Dhabi is the city of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi. In unitary states which consist of multiple constituent countries, such as the United Kingdom or the Kingdom of Denmark, the national capitals of Germany and Russia, the Stadtstaat of Berlin and the Federal City of Moscow, are also constituent states of both countries in their own right
15.
Interwar period
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There were numerous new nations in Eastern Europe, most of them small in size. The United States gained dominance in world finance, by the middle of the decade, prosperity was widespread, with the second half of the decade known, especially in Germany, as the Golden Twenties. The Roaring Twenties highlighted novel and highly social and cultural trends. These trends, made possible by sustained economic prosperity, were most visible in major cities like New York, Chicago, Paris, Berlin, the Jazz Age began and Art Deco peaked. For women, knee-length skirts and dresses became socially acceptable, as did bobbed hair with a marcel wave, the women who pioneered these trends were frequently referred to as flappers. Not all was new, “normalcy” returned to politics in the wake of hyper-emotional wartime passions in the United States, France, and Germany. The leftist revolutions in Finland, Poland, Germany, Austria, Hungary and Spain were defeated by conservatives, but succeeded in Russia, in Italy the fascists came to power under Mussolini after threatening a march on Rome. Most independent countries enacted womens suffrage in the era, including Canada in 1917, Britain in 1918. There were a few countries that held out until after the Second World War. If women could work in factories, it seemed both ungrateful and illogical to deny them a place in the polling booth. But the vote was more than simply a reward for war work. The Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland and Greece did especially well, in advanced economies the prosperity reached middle class households and many in the working class. With radio, automobiles, telephones, and electric lighting and appliances, there was unprecedented industrial growth, accelerated consumer demand and aspirations, and significant changes in lifestyle and culture. The media began to focus on celebrities, especially sports heroes, major cities built large sports stadiums for the fans, in addition to palatial cinemas. The Great Depression was a worldwide economic depression that took place during the 1930s. The timing varied across nations, in most countries it started in 1929 and it was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century. The depression originated in the United States, after a decline in lofty stock prices. Between 1929 and 1932, worldwide GDP fell by an estimated 15%, by comparison, worldwide GDP fell by less than 1% from 2008 to 2009 during the Great Recession
16.
Tram
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A tram is a rail vehicle which runs on tracks along public urban streets, and also sometimes on a segregated right of way. The lines or networks operated by tramcars are called tramways, Tramways powered by electricity, the most common type historically, were once called electric street railways. However, trams were used in urban areas before the universal adoption of electrification. Tram lines may run between cities and/or towns, and/or partially grade-separated even in the cities. Very occasionally, trams also carry freight, Tram vehicles are usually lighter and shorter than conventional trains and rapid transit trains, but the size of trams is rapidly increasing. Some trams may also run on railway tracks, a tramway may be upgraded to a light rail or a rapid transit line. For all these reasons, the differences between the modes of rail transportation are often indistinct. In the United States, the tram has sometimes been used for rubber-tired trackless trains. Today, most trams use electrical power, usually fed by a pantograph, in some cases by a sliding shoe on a third rail. If necessary, they may have dual power systems — electricity in city streets, trams are now included in the wider term light rail, which also includes segregated systems. The English terms tram and tramway are derived from the Scots word tram, referring respectively to a type of truck used in coal mines and the tracks on which they ran. The word tram probably derived from Middle Flemish trame, a Romanesque word meaning the beam or shaft of a barrow or sledge, the identical word la trame with the meaning crossbeam is also used in the French language. The word Tram-car is attested from 1873, although the terms tram and tramway have been adopted by many languages, they are not used universally in English, North Americans prefer streetcar, trolley, or trolleycar. The term streetcar is first recorded in 1840, and originally referred to horsecars, when electrification came, Americans began to speak of trolleycars or later, trolleys. The troller design frequently fell off the wires, and was replaced by other more reliable devices. The terms trolley pole and trolley wheel both derive from the troller, Modern trams often have an overhead pantograph mechanical linkage to connect to power, abandoning the trolley pole altogether. Conventional diesel tourist buses decorated to look like streetcars are sometimes called trolleys in the US, the term may also apply to an aerial ropeway, e. g. the Roosevelt Island Tramway. Over time, the trolley has fallen into informal use
17.
Wien Westbahnhof railway station
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Wien Westbahnhof is a major Austrian railway station, the original starting point of the West railway and a former terminus of international rail services. Locally, Wien Westbahnhof is served by S-Bahn-line S50 and underground lines U3, six tram lines converge on Europaplatz in front of the station, although none go into the city centre. There are also buses to the airport, Westbahnhof is in Viennas 15th District on the Gürtel. Mariahilfer Strasse to the immediate south-east provides a route into the centre of the city. Westbahnhof is one of the busiest stations of Vienna and used to be of one of several termini for international trains in the city, concomitantly, the frequency of fast regional service along the West railway was increased. The station is also the point for regional rail lines into the west of Vienna that are included in the Eastern Regional Traffic Authority. Built for the railway, the station was designed by the architect Moritz Löhr. The facility was made up of four built in a historical style. The main hall was 104 metres long and originally 27.2 metres wide and it was covered by a beamed iron awning and provided space for four tracks. Intervening peninsular platforms were not yet available, the exit from the hall was flanked by two towers. On the east, an administration building separated the trackage from the Gürtel. The side wings included provision for arrivals and departures, the southerly departure side consisted of an ornamented portal with steps and three large arches supported by columns, that were crowned with statues. Access passages to the left and right of these led to the two office buildings. Through this portal, one entered the hall and the departure platform. On slightly elevated terrain, the departure side offered the most impressive view of the station from the southeast. In order to deal with the number of passengers, the two towers that flanked the departure gate were moved further apart in a modification that lasted from 1910 to 1912. The roof construction was changed and space for a fifth track was attained. In addition, further covered platforms and departure tracks were provided in the foreground of the tracks in the terminal proper
18.
Hernals
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Hernals is the 17th district of Vienna, Austria. It was annexed in 1892 out of the townships of Hernals, Dornbach, the district of Hernals stretches out along the canals of the Als River west of Vienna between the Wienerwald and the Gürtel. The Als is the second-longest stream to flow from the Wienerwald into the Danube, the highest point, at 464 meters, is Heuberg. The original Vororte of Hernals, Dornbach, and Neuwaldegg were annexed in 1892, the houses in the central areas were built around the turn of the 19th–20th centuries during the Gründerzeit. Further out, the original houses remain, often with gardens. Farmland composes about 29. 7% of the area of the district. With about 59. 6% of the populated with greenery, Hernals is one of the greenest districts in Vienna, with 39. 6% forest and 14% smaller gardens. Agriculture composes only 1. 4% and plays little role today, the wineries have mostly retreated into the hills of Schafberg and belong to the Roman Catholic parish of Dornbach. The developed area of Hernals covers 29. 7% of the district area, the proportion of residential area in the built-space is 90. 9%, the 2nd highest in Vienna. Accordingly, the proportion of land and land for the cultural, religious, sporting or public sector. Greenspace in Hernals covers 59. 6%, by which Hernals is the 3rd greenest district, nearly 66. 5% of the greenspace falls in forests,12. 1% in meadows, and 11. 4% in small gardens. The outdoor sports and recreation areas use only an amount of Hernalser greenspace. The former major wine-growing region has all but disappeared on Schafberg hill, the proportion of trafficked area in the district is 10. 3%, very low. Waters cover 0. 4% of the district area, archaeological digs place the first settlements in the Hernals district in the Neolithic Era, near the Als Stream, whose waters were teaming with fish. Digs from the Roman times reveal brickyards near todays Elterleinplatz, during the Middle Ages, the villages of Hernals and Dornbach were built along the Als, while Neuwaldegg was founded at the start of the Modern Era. The founding of Hernals as the 17th district of Vienna came during the end of the 19th century, after the suburb cities of Vienna were annexed in 1850, discussions began in the 1870s to annex more of the surrounding areas. Although the areas were against such an annexation, Emperor Franz Joseph I declared in 1888 that it would be so, the decree took effect on January 1,1892 and united Hernals, Dornbach, and Neuwaldegg together as the 17th district. At that time, the Hernals township was the most significant of the three and was the most populous township of Lower Austria beside Vienna, in 1890,74,657 people and 1,803 houses composed the newly established district
19.
Donaukanal
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The Donaukanal is a former arm of the river Danube, now regulated as a water channel, within the city of Vienna, Austria. It is 17.3 km long and, unlike the Danube itself, it borders Viennas city centre, Innere Stadt, where the Wien River flows into it. The Donaukanal bifurcates from the river at the Nußdorf weir and lock complex, in Döbling. The island thus formed between the Donaukanal and the Danube holds 2 of the 23 districts of Vienna, Brigittenau, the canal is crossed by 15 road bridges and 5 train bridges. Because in German, the name Kanal, which has used since about 1700, evokes associations of an open sewer. The name Donaukanal, has used since 1686, for the southern branch of the River Danube in Vienna. Originally a natural branch, during 1598-1600, it was regulated for the first time by Baron von Hoyos, in the 19th century, the Schwimmtor, a movable floating barrier, was constructed near the upstream entrance to the canal. It was designed to protect the canal from floods and drift ice, the Nußdorf weir and lock complex were constructed between 1894 and 1899, and provide a greater degree of flood control than the Schwimmtor. However the Schwimmtor remained in use until World War I, and was not scrapped until 1945, in the early 1990s, work started in the southern section of the Donaukanal to create a recreation area along its banks. The paths on both sides of the Donaukanal are regularly used by joggers, cyclists and skaters, recently, there have been successful attempts during the summer months at turning the place into a more attractive recreational area. Boat rides circling Leopoldstadt and Brigittenau via the Donaukanal and Danube start at Schwedenplatz, the same location provides the Vienna terminal of the Twin City Liner fast ferry service that links Vienna with Bratislava, transiting the Donaukanal to reach the Danube. The Donaukanaltreiben Festival is held every year in June in several locations along the Donaukanal, mainly Austrian professional and amateur bands are invited but from year to year the organisers invite bands from the neighbouring countries. The banks of the Donaukanal were immortalized by Heinz Conrads in his song A schräge Wiesn, instead, he spends his spare time napping on the grassy slopes next to the Donaukanal. Media related to Donaukanal at Wikimedia Commons Donaukanal at the aeiou Encyclopedia
20.
Schottentor
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Schottentor is a station on Line U2 of the Vienna U-Bahn. It is located in the Innere Stadt District, the station is an interchange node between U2 and several tramway lines, many of which terminate here. Media related to Schottentor metro station at Wikimedia Commons
21.
Hietzing
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Hietzing is the 13th municipal District of Vienna. It is located west of the districts, west of Meidling. Hietzing is a populated urban area with many residential buildings. The thirteenth district is located at the end of the city where it borders the Wienerwald. Liesing is to the south, Meidling to the east and Penzing, which was part of Hietzing until 1954, most of the northern border is formed by the River Wien. Traditionally, it is subdivided into six parts, Hietzing, Unter Sankt Veit, Ober Sankt Veit, Hacking, Lainz, furthermore, the Lainzer Tiergarten, a large park in the Wienerwald populated by boars, and Schönbrunn Palace and the surrounding parks are part of Hietzing. Hietzing was formed from the six former municipalities Hietzing, Unter-St. -Veit, Ober-St. -Veit, Hacking, Lainz and Speising, six of the Katastralgemeinden broadly align with the former municipal areas. Rosenberg as well as its own Schönbrunn form Katastralgemeinden, comes to Katastralgemeinde add Auhof, which covers large parts of the district area and essentially Lainzer Tiergarten. Even a small part of Katastralgemeinden Hütteldorf and Unterbaumgarten are on Hietzinger area, a breakdown of the district area is also in the census-districts of official statistics in which the census figures of the district municipalities are combined. Despite partial name matches, the boundaries of the census-districts do not match with those of Katastralgemeinden, the developed area of Hietzing includes only 21. 5% of area of the district, where this is the second lowest value of a municipality of Vienna. The space itself is distributed as 78. 7% to 16. 5%, for residential areas versus total area of cultural, religious and this relatively high figure is compared to one for a Viennese township as a very low proportion of farmland. Greenspace in Hietzing takes in a share of 71. 7% and this is the highest value in Vienna, where the largest area of Lainzer Tiergarten is included. Nearly 73. 4% of green space is accounted for by forest,15. 5% more green space are the meadows, parks 6. 3%, agricultural land and leisure areas, are only a small proportion of green space territories. Waters in Hietzing take in an area of 0. 8%, the proportion of traffic areas in the district region is, with 6. 0%, the lowest value in Vienna. The name Hietzing derives itself from Hiezo or Hezzo, the first authentic mention comes from the year 1130. Since 1253 the Klosterneuburg Abbey appeared, the oldest properties were in the area of Altgasse, north therefrom were cattle meadows, a few south fields and expanded vineyards. Before the first Turkish siege, Hietzing was an emerging wine-making place, after the heavy destruction, the place recovered quickly. The mid-17th century began the transformation of the vineyards into farmland, the growing popularity of the pilgrimage site, Maria Hietzing required the expansion of Seelsorge
22.
Perchtoldsdorf
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Perchtoldsdorf is a market town in the Mödling District, in the Austrian state of Lower Austria. It is chiefly known as a winemaking place and it is located immediately at the Vienna city limits, south of the Liesing borough and about 16 kilometres southwest of the city centre. The western parts of the area border on the Vienna Woods mountain range. With a population of 14,614, Perchtoldsdorf is the second largest municipality. It is served by the Vienna S-Bahn network and can also be reached by bus, the area formed a coast region of the Paratethys sea during the miocene epoch, documented by numerous fossilizations of marine creatures. Neolithic circular enclosures suggest the assumption that the plain was settled from about 6000 BC onwards. Perchtoldsdorf Castle probably was laid out before 1000 AD, part of a chain of fortifications along the rim of the Vienna Woods. One Lord Heinricus de Pertoldesdorf was mentioned in an 1138 deed, the Babenberg margraves had to defend the newly conquered territories from the recently displaced Magyars on behalf of the Ottonian and Salian emperors. Their Perchtoldsdorf vassals continued to rule from the castle even when the Babenberg dynasty became extinct in 1246. Upon the death of Otto von Perchtoldsdorf in 1286, the passed to the House of Habsburg. Duchess Beatrice established a hospital in 1407, now demolished, the conflict between the Habsburg emperor Frederick III and his younger brother Archduke Albert VI of Austria started an unstable period in the region. In 1446, many homes in the town were burned during the invasion of the Hungarian regent John Hunyadi and this turbulent period interrupted the construction of the tower house, the towns landmark with a height of 60 metres, which started in 1450 and was finished about 1521. The tower and other fortifications permitted a successful defense of the city against the Ottoman troops during the 1529 Siege of Vienna, an Ottoman Turkish assault in a second siege in July 1683 destroyed the town and ended in a massacre. The Turks reneged on their surrender terms after the city capitulated and it also continued a long history of viticulture and wine cultivation as the primary agricultural product. The early full-colour feature film The Miracle was partly shot on location in and around the parish church in October 1912
23.
Floridsdorf
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Floridsdorf is the 21st district of Vienna, Austria. Floridsdorf is located in the part of Vienna. The District Office and the centre of Floridsdorf are located round Am Spitz, at the junction of Prager Straße, parts of Floridsdorf were formerly villages. For example, there are Stammersdorf, Strebersdorf and Leopoldau, because of this, Floridsdorf is mostly a very rural district, with many taverns selling homegrown wine. In the north of Floridsdorf, the area is dominated by the foothills of the Bisamberg hill. While the summit of Bisamberg,358 metres, is already in Lower Austria, it is the Summit Falkenberg,320 metres, the Danube forms the southwestern border district. A part of the New Danube and a section of the Danube Island are in Floridsdorf, in Floridsdorf is also the northern part of the Old Danube. In 1992, the Marchfeld channel was put into operation, which crosses the district area, the Floridsdorf district consists of seven formerly independent communities in their entirety, Floridsdorf, Donaufeld, Großjedlersdorf, Jedlesee, Leopoldau, Stammersdorf, and Strebersdorf. It also contains portions of two others, the eponymous district part Floridsdorf is also the smallest in area. The largest part is Stammersdorf, in the north of the district, Stammersdorf borders Strebersdorf and Großjedlersdorf, consisting of the two Katastralgemeinden Großjedlersdorf I and II. To the east, on the border of the 22nd district, are Leopoldau, Jedlesee in the west is composed of Jedlesee and Schwarze Lackenau. In addition to those full sub-districts, Floridsdorf also contains parts of Kagran and Kaisermühlen. The district is broken down into 28 census districts. The district of Autokader takes its name from the largest auto plant of the Habsburg monarchy, Gaswerk Leopoldau refers to the city gas works, the first settlements, in this area, were already there in the New Stone Age. Stone hatchets and pot remains found, from time, indicate that there were hunters who first settled in this area. In the area of Leopoldau, weapons were made of bronze, several items are in the District Museum. Around 500 BC, Celts came in the territory of present-day Floridsdorf and it has long been the territory of no-mans-land, a buffer zone between the Romans and Germans, and there were also repeated battles between the two peoples. After the end of Roman rule, it drew Longobards, Avars, the Avars were later defeated by Carlomagno, turning Bayern into the country from the Magyars to be distributed
24.
Grinzing
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Grinzing was an independent municipality until 1892 and is today a part of Döbling, the 19th district of Vienna. Grinzing lies in the northwest of Vienna and, with an area of 613.52 hectares, is the largest suburb in the district of Döbling. The border then runs along the Hungerbergstraße to mark the boundary to Unterdöbling, before following the course of the Kaasgraben, finally, the border turns northwestward and continues via the Himmelstraße and the Spießweg to the edge of the city of Vienna, which separates Grinzing from Weidling. Grinzing is characterised by numerous forested ridges of the Wienerwald, Hermannskogel, the tallest hill in Vienna, lies on the border to Lower Austria. There are also other well-known hills, including the Reisenberg, Latisberg, Vogelsangberg, Hungerberg, Grinzing’s woods are home to several streams, including the Schreiberbach, which runs untouched through the Wildgrube almost as far as Nußdorf. The Reisenbergbach begins to the west of the Reisenberg and makes its way through Grinzing, the headwaters of the Arbesbach also lie in the west of Grinzing. A further notable characteristic of the area are its grapevines, especially on the Reisenberg and Hungerberg hills, the name Grinzing means of the people who belong to a man named Grinzo. Many German words ending in ing are indicators of membership to a Sippe, a version of the name Grinzing first appears in 1114, when it was called Grinzigan. The village of Grinzing came into the possession of the noble house Grunzinger in the 11th century, the Grunzinger built the Trummelhof, the remains of which can still be seen in the house at number 30 in the Cobenzlgasse. This former manor was supposedly named because it was built on top of Roman ruins. The village was inhabited primarily by vintners and day labourers, who served land-owning monasteries, in the 14th century, the last of the Grunzinger, Rüdiger von Gründsing, died, and in 1350 he was buried in the Minoritenkirche in Vienna. Thereafter, Grinzing fell within the jurisdiction of the Klosterneuburg Monastery, the church Zum heiligen Kreuz was erected in 1426. Grinzing suffered greatly in the following the Middle Ages. In 1484, Matthias Corvinus laid waste to the village, while in 1529 the Ottoman Turks inflicted heavy damage, in 1604, a major fire destroyed sections of the village and in 1683 the Turks once again ruined the newly reconstructed houses. Grinzing nonetheless developed better than its neighbours, in 1713, there were 70 houses, but the plague hit the village hard. More than half of houses were infected, and 129 people died. This seriously stunted the village’s growth, in 1783, the church in Grinzing was elevated to the status of a parish church, it was financed through the dissolution of several religious orders in the area by Joseph II. However, the pace of development in the village remained slow in the following decades, in 1795, there were 83 houses
25.
Karl Lueger
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Karl Lueger was an Austrian politician, mayor of Vienna, and leader and founder of the Austrian Christian Social Party. He is credited with the transformation of the city of Vienna into a modern city, the populist and anti-Semitic politics of his Christian Social Party are sometimes viewed as a model for Hitlers Nazism. Karl Lueger came from a modest background, born at Wieden to Leopold Lueger of Neustadtl an der Donau and his birthplace is now the western part of the main building of the Vienna University of Technology at Karlsplatz where Luegers father worked as an usher at the Vienna Polytechnic. He nevertheless was able to attend the renowned Theresianum boarding school as a day student and he studied law at the University of Vienna, receiving his doctorate in 1870. While at the university he was a member of the Catholic Student Association and he established his own lawyers office in Vienna in 1874 and soon became known as a little peoples advocate. The association ended when Lueger became identified with anti-semitism, Lueger played a part in many political spheres, including Vienna City Council, eventually becoming mayor, the federal Austrian parliament and the state parliament of Lower Austria. In 1875 he was elected as a deputy of Viennas City Council. He was a member from 1875 to 1876 and from 1878 to 1910 and he campaigned against the government of liberal mayor Cajetan Felder and achieved popularity as a campaigner against corruption. In 1888 he brought together the German National and Christian Social factions at City Hall to form a group later became known as the United Christians. After personal intercession by Pope Leo XIII his election was finally sanctioned in 1897 and he was a zealous Catholic, and wished to “capture the university” for the Church. He would have neither Social Democrats nor Pan-Germans nor Jews in the municipal administration and he secured good treatment for Czech immigrants. He planned to make Vienna one of the most beautiful of garden cities, in his incumbency, Lueger is credited with the extension of the public water supply by its second main aquifer, which provides tap water of mineral water quality to large parts of the city. He incorporated the suburbs, and built parks and gardens, der schöne Karl achieved tremendous popularity among the citizens. A significant part of the infrastructure and organisations that are responsible for the standard of living in the contemporary city were created during his terms of office. Lueger served as mayor of Vienna until his death from diabetes mellitus in 1910. He was buried in the crypt of the newly erected St Charles Borromeo Church at the Zentralfriedhof, Luegers early political life was associated with Georg von Schönerer and the German National Party, which was anti-Semitic. In 1885 he was elected to the house of the Austrian Imperial Parliament, representig the Fifth District of Vienna. From 1890 he was also a member of the Lower Austria parliament, Lueger, Prince Liechtenstein, Vogelsang and Schindler met regularly at the Hotel Zur goldenen Ente in Viennas First District, and would refer to their meetings as Enten-Abende
26.
Heinrich von Wittek
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(1921 Heinrich Ritter von Wittek was an Austrian politician of the Christian Social Party. He served as head of the k. k, railway Ministry and as Minister-President of Cisleithania for four weeks in 1899/1900. The boy grew up at the Austrian court and especially befriended with Archduke Ludwig Viktor, younger brother of Emperor Franz Joseph I and his father was ennobled in 1858 and elevated to the hereditary rank of Ritter in 1871. Wittek attended the Vienna Schottengymnasium, where he obtained his Matura degree, as a proven expert, he was promoted to head of the railway department in 1886 and led the ministry for a short while in 1895. Upon the resignation of Count Manfred von Clary-Aldringen on 21 December 1899, Wittek is also credited with improving the social conditions of the railway employees. However, as the building suffered substantial cost overruns, he lost support. A few days later, his CS party colleague Mayor Karl Lueger made him a citizen of Vienna. On August 16 he was appointed life peer of the Austrian House of Lords by Emperor Franz Joseph I, upon the 1907 legislative election, he succeeded Mayor Karl Lueger as a CS member of the House of Deputies. Wittek died in Vienna and was buried in the Hietzing Cemetery, entry on Aeiou Encyclopedia Ottův slovník naučný nové doby Portrait
27.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
28.
Wiener Stadtbahn
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The Wiener Stadtbahn was a public transportation system operated under this name from 1898 to 1989. Today, the Vienna U-Bahn lines U4 and U6 and the Vienna S-Bahn run on its former lines. The name derives from the usage of the term around the turn of the 19th/20th century to denote a full-scale railway in an urban area and it is not related to the usage of the term Stadtbahn in post-World War II Germany. The Stadtbahn is one of Viennas better-known examples of early Art Nouveau architecture, other preserved historical stations are the elevated stations along the Gürtel and in some of the suburbs. The Stadtbahn was built between 1894 and 1901 along with the regulation of the Wien River and the Danube Canal. Of the lines that were not built, two lines should have crossed the city, and one would have extended the Gürtel line along the southern Gürtel road to Südbahnhof railway station. These would have helped the Stadtbahn be an appealing and useful transportation system. When the lines opened, in four stages between 1898 and 1901, they failed to attract mass riders due to costs, affluent passengers were discouraged by dirt from engine smokestacks. While primarily a railway line, some trains continued on the mainlines to the north. In 1918, services came to a due to the coal shortage after World War I. Subsequently, the Wiental, Donaukanal, and Gürtel lines were leased by the city of Vienna and they were electrified and reopened in 1925 under the name Wiener Elektrische Stadtbahn. Under the new scheme, each line was assigned a single letter which could be combined with other letters to indicate the lines served. Also notable is line 18G, which was operated until 1945 and ran from Heiligenstadt to Gumpendorfer Strasse station, many stations and numerous sections of the lines were destroyed in World War II. Reconstruction of the lines took until 1955, and some of the stations were never rebuilt. In 1968 it was decided to integrate the Stadtbahn lines into the new subway system. Conversion of line WD to line U4 was completed in 1981, conversion of lines G, since then, the term Stadtbahn has disappeared from official use. A special type of engine, kkStB class 30, was designed by the Austrian engineer Karl Gölsdorf specifically for use on the Stadtbahn. The engine was optimized for quick acceleration, to suit the tight curves and steep inclines of the lines, and to emit a minimum of smoke, the passenger cars were 2-axle trailers that were rather freely based on a design by Otto Wagner
29.
Anschluss
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Anschluss is the term used to describe the annexation of Austria into Nazi Germany in March 1938. German spelling, until the German orthography reform of 1996, was Anschluß, the idea of an Anschluss began after the Unification of Germany excluded Austria and the Austrian Germans from the Prussian-dominated German nation-state in 1871. Austria was annexed by Nazi Germany on 12 March 1938, there had been several years of pressure from supporters in Austria and Germany for the Heim ins Reich movement. Earlier, Nazi Germany had provided support for the Austrian National Socialist Party in its bid to seize power from Austrias Fatherland Front government. Infuriated, on 11 March, Adolf Hitler threatened invasion of Austria, and demanded Chancellor von Schuschniggs resignation, Hitlers plan was for Seyss-Inquart to call immediately for German troops to rush to Austrias aid, restoring order and giving the invasion an air of legitimacy. In the face of threat, Schuschnigg informed Seyss-Inquart that the plebiscite would be cancelled. Nevertheless, the German Führer underestimated his opposition, Schuschnigg did resign on the evening of 11 March, but President Wilhelm Miklas refused to appoint Seyss-Inquart as Chancellor. At 8,45 pm, Hitler, tired of waiting, around 10 pm, a forged telegram was sent in Seyss-Inquarts name asking for German troops, since he was not yet Chancellor and was unable to do so himself. Seyss-Inquart was not installed as Chancellor until after midnight, when Miklas resigned himself to the inevitable, clearly it was Hitler, and not Schuschnigg, who was terrified by the potential results of the scheduled plebiscite, and that was the best indication of where Austrians loyalty lay. The newly installed Nazis, within two days, transferred power to Germany, and Wehrmacht troops entered Austria to enforce the Anschluss, Austrian citizens of Jewish origin were not allowed to vote. No military confrontation took place, and even the strongest voices against the annexation, particularly Fascist Italy, France, the loudest verbal protest was voiced by the government of Mexico. Although Austria had never been a part of the German Empire, Austria was predominantly ethnically German, prior to annexing Austria in 1938, Nazi Germany had remilitarized the Rhineland, and the Saar region was returned to Germany after 15 years of occupation through a plebiscite. In March 1939, Hitler then dismantled Czechoslovakia by recognising the independence of Slovakia and that same year, Memelland was returned from Lithuania. With the Anschluss, the Republic of Austria ceased to exist as an independent state, at the end of World War II, a Provisional Austrian Government under Karl Renner was set up by conservatives, social democrats and communists on 27 April 1945. It cancelled the Anschluss the same day and was recognized by the Allies in the following months. In 1955 the Austrian State Treaty re-established Austria as a sovereign state, the idea of grouping all Germans into a nation-state country had been the subject of debate in the 19th century from the ending of the Holy Roman Empire until the ending of the German Confederation. Austria had wanted a Großdeutsche Lösung, whereby the German states would be united under the leadership of the Austrian Germans and this solution would include all the German states, but Prussia would have to take second place. This controversy, called dualism, dominated Prusso-Austrian diplomacy and the politics of the German states, by 1871, the decision was to form a kleindeutsch German Empire based on Prussia and excluding Austria
30.
Third Reich
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Nazi Germany is the common English name for the period in German history from 1933 to 1945, when Germany was governed by a dictatorship under the control of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party. Under Hitlers rule, Germany was transformed into a fascist state in which the Nazi Party took totalitarian control over all aspects of life. The official name of the state was Deutsches Reich from 1933 to 1943, the period is also known under the names the Third Reich and the National Socialist Period. The Nazi regime came to an end after the Allied Powers defeated Germany in May 1945, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany by the President of the Weimar Republic Paul von Hindenburg on 30 January 1933. The Nazi Party then began to eliminate all opposition and consolidate its power. Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934, and Hitler became dictator of Germany by merging the powers and offices of the Chancellery, a national referendum held 19 August 1934 confirmed Hitler as sole Führer of Germany. All power was centralised in Hitlers person, and his word became above all laws, the government was not a coordinated, co-operating body, but a collection of factions struggling for power and Hitlers favour. In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazis restored economic stability and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending, extensive public works were undertaken, including the construction of Autobahnen. The return to economic stability boosted the regimes popularity, racism, especially antisemitism, was a central feature of the regime. The Germanic peoples were considered by the Nazis to be the purest branch of the Aryan race, millions of Jews and other peoples deemed undesirable by the state were murdered in the Holocaust. Opposition to Hitlers rule was ruthlessly suppressed, members of the liberal, socialist, and communist opposition were killed, imprisoned, or exiled. The Christian churches were also oppressed, with many leaders imprisoned, education focused on racial biology, population policy, and fitness for military service. Career and educational opportunities for women were curtailed, recreation and tourism were organised via the Strength Through Joy program, and the 1936 Summer Olympics showcased the Third Reich on the international stage. Propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels made effective use of film, mass rallies, the government controlled artistic expression, promoting specific art forms and banning or discouraging others. Beginning in the late 1930s, Nazi Germany made increasingly aggressive territorial demands and it seized Austria and Czechoslovakia in 1938 and 1939. Hitler made a pact with Joseph Stalin and invaded Poland in September 1939. In alliance with Italy and smaller Axis powers, Germany conquered most of Europe by 1940, reichskommissariats took control of conquered areas, and a German administration was established in what was left of Poland. Jews and others deemed undesirable were imprisoned, murdered in Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps, following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, the tide gradually turned against the Nazis, who suffered major military defeats in 1943
31.
Left hand traffic
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This is so fundamental to traffic flow that it is sometimes referred to as the rule of the road. About two-thirds of the population use RHT, with the remaining 76 countries and territories using LHT. Countries that use LHT account for about a sixth of the worlds area, in the early 1900s some countries including Canada, Spain, and Brazil had different rules in different parts of the country. During the 1900s many countries standardised within their jurisdictions, and changed from LHT to RHT, in 1919,104 of the worlds territories were LHT and an equal number were RHT. From 1919 to 1986,34 of the LHT territories switched to RHT, many of the countries with LHT are former British colonies in the Caribbean, Southern Africa, Southeast Asia, Australia, and New Zealand. Japan, Thailand, Nepal, Bhutan, Mozambique, Suriname, East Timor, in Europe, only four countries still drive on the left, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Malta, and Cyprus, all of which are islands. Nearly all countries use one side or the other throughout their entire territory, most exceptions are due to historical considerations and involve islands with no road connection to the main part of a country. China is RHT except the Special Administrative Regions of China of Hong Kong, the United States is RHT except the United States Virgin Islands. The United Kingdom is LHT, but its overseas territories of Gibraltar, according to the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, water traffic is RHT. For aircraft the US Federal Aviation Regulations provide for passing on the right, light rail vehicles generally operate on the same side as other road traffic in the country. Many countries use RHT for automobiles but LHT for trains, often because of the influence of the British on early railway systems, in some countries rail traffic remained LHT after automobile traffic switched to RHT, for example in China, Brazil, and Argentina. However, France, Belgium, and Switzerland have used RHT for automobiles since their introduction, there is no technical reason to prefer one side over the other. Ancient Greek, Egyptian, and Roman troops kept to the left when marching, in 1998, archaeologists found a well-preserved double track leading to a Roman quarry near Swindon. The first reference in English law to an order for LHT was in 1756, northcote Parkinson, believed that ancient travellers on horseback or on foot generally kept to the left, since most people were right handed. If two men riding on horseback were to start a fight, each would edge toward the left, in the year 1300, Pope Boniface VIII directed pilgrims to keep left. In the late 1700s, traffic in the United States was RHT based on use of large freight wagons pulled by several pairs of horses. The wagons had no seat, so a postilion sat on the left rear horse. Seated on the left, the driver preferred that other wagons pass him on the left so that he could be sure to keep clear of the wheels of oncoming wagons, in France, traditionally foot traffic had kept right, while carriage traffic kept left
32.
Right hand traffic
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This is so fundamental to traffic flow that it is sometimes referred to as the rule of the road. About two-thirds of the population use RHT, with the remaining 76 countries and territories using LHT. Countries that use LHT account for about a sixth of the worlds area, in the early 1900s some countries including Canada, Spain, and Brazil had different rules in different parts of the country. During the 1900s many countries standardised within their jurisdictions, and changed from LHT to RHT, in 1919,104 of the worlds territories were LHT and an equal number were RHT. From 1919 to 1986,34 of the LHT territories switched to RHT, many of the countries with LHT are former British colonies in the Caribbean, Southern Africa, Southeast Asia, Australia, and New Zealand. Japan, Thailand, Nepal, Bhutan, Mozambique, Suriname, East Timor, in Europe, only four countries still drive on the left, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Malta, and Cyprus, all of which are islands. Nearly all countries use one side or the other throughout their entire territory, most exceptions are due to historical considerations and involve islands with no road connection to the main part of a country. China is RHT except the Special Administrative Regions of China of Hong Kong, the United States is RHT except the United States Virgin Islands. The United Kingdom is LHT, but its overseas territories of Gibraltar, according to the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, water traffic is RHT. For aircraft the US Federal Aviation Regulations provide for passing on the right, light rail vehicles generally operate on the same side as other road traffic in the country. Many countries use RHT for automobiles but LHT for trains, often because of the influence of the British on early railway systems, in some countries rail traffic remained LHT after automobile traffic switched to RHT, for example in China, Brazil, and Argentina. However, France, Belgium, and Switzerland have used RHT for automobiles since their introduction, there is no technical reason to prefer one side over the other. Ancient Greek, Egyptian, and Roman troops kept to the left when marching, in 1998, archaeologists found a well-preserved double track leading to a Roman quarry near Swindon. The first reference in English law to an order for LHT was in 1756, northcote Parkinson, believed that ancient travellers on horseback or on foot generally kept to the left, since most people were right handed. If two men riding on horseback were to start a fight, each would edge toward the left, in the year 1300, Pope Boniface VIII directed pilgrims to keep left. In the late 1700s, traffic in the United States was RHT based on use of large freight wagons pulled by several pairs of horses. The wagons had no seat, so a postilion sat on the left rear horse. Seated on the left, the driver preferred that other wagons pass him on the left so that he could be sure to keep clear of the wheels of oncoming wagons, in France, traditionally foot traffic had kept right, while carriage traffic kept left
33.
Snowplow
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A snowplow is a device intended for mounting on a vehicle, used for removing snow and ice from outdoor surfaces, typically those serving transportation purposes. In other cases, pickup trucks and front end loaders are outfitted with attachments to fulfill this purpose, some regions that do not frequently see snow may use graders to remove compacted snow and ice off the streets. Snowplows can also be mounted on cars or locomotives to clear railway tracks. A snowplow works by using a blade to push snow to the side to clear it from a surface, modern plows may include technology to make it easier to perform the work and stay on the road. These include Global Positioning System receivers, head-up displays and infrared cameras, large custom snowplows are commonly used at major airports in North America. These plows have oversized blades and additional equipment like a rotating sweeper broom, for sidewalks and narrow lanes small tractor plows are often used within Canada and the United States. When snowfall accumulates above a height, snowplow operators may be seen clearing the main arteries first. The first snow plows were horse-drawn wedge-plows made of wood, with the advent of the automobile, a number of inventors set about to improve existing snow plows. In the US, the snow-clearer is said to have been patented as early as the 1840s, the first snow plow ever built specifically for use with motor equipment was in 1913. It was manufactured by Good Roads Machinery in Kennett Square, PA. and was designed to meet the requirements outlined by engineers of the New York City Street Cleaning Bureau. Good Roads patented the first four-wheel grader in 1889 thus making it the first pull grading apparatus patented in the United States. Unlike most early snow plow manufacturers, Good Roads continues to manufacture snow removal equipment today under the name Good Roads Godwin, now located in Dunn, North Carolina. In the early 1920s Good Roads often advertised in The American City magazine that. three out of every four snow plows in use throughout the whole United States are Good Roads Champions. By the mid-1920s Good Roads was manufacturing snow plows of various shapes and sizes for use on a variety of motorized equipment. Other snow plow manufactures began to follow suit as motorized plows were proven more efficient than other methods of snow removal, in 1923, the brothers Hans and Even Øveraasen of Norway constructed an early snowplow for use on cars. This proved to be the start of a tradition in snow-clearing equipment for roads, railways and airports, carl Frink of Clayton, New York, USA was also an early manufacturer of automobile-mounted snowplows. His company, Frink Snowplows, now Frink-America, was founded by some accounts as early as 1920, today snow plows are produced by numerous companies around the world and available for different kinds of vehicles such as service trucks, pickup trucks, SUVs and ATVs. They are installed using model specific or universal hardware and mount to the frame of the vehicle to ensure durable connection, there are manual, power and hydraulic operating snow plows
34.
Vienna Offensive
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The Vienna Offensive was launched by the Soviet 3rd Ukrainian Front in order to capture Vienna in Austria. The offensive lasted from 2 to 13 April 1945, the city of Vienna was surrounded and under siege for most of the offensive until its capture. After the failure of Operation Spring Awakening, Sepp Dietrichs 6th SS Panzer Army retreated in stages to the Vienna area, the Germans desperately prepared defensive positions in an attempt to guard the city against the rapidly arriving Soviets. In spring 1945, the advance of Soviet General Fyodor Tolbukhins 3rd Ukrainian Front through western Hungary gathered momentum on both sides of the Danube. On 30 March, the advancing Soviets crossed the Hron and Nitra Rivers, Tolbukhin was now ready to advance into Austria and take Vienna. On 2 April, Vienna Radio denied that the Austrian capital had been declared an open city, on the same day, Soviet troops approached Vienna from the south after they overran Wiener Neustadt, Eisenstadt, Neunkirchen and Gloggnitz. Baden and Bratislava were overrun on 4 April, after arriving in the Vienna area, the armies of the Soviet 3rd Ukrainian Front surrounded, besieged, and attacked the city. Involved in this action were the Soviet 4th Guards Army, the Soviet 6th Guards Tank Army, the Soviet 9th Guards Army, and the Soviet 46th Army. The O-5 Resistance Group, Austrians led by Carl Szokoll, wanting to spare Vienna destruction, actively attempted to sabotage the German defenses and to aid the entry of the Red Army. The only major German force facing the Soviet attackers was the German II SS Panzer Corps of the 6th SS Panzer Army, along with ad hoc forces made up of garrison and anti-aircraft units. Declared a defensive region, Viennas defense was commanded by General Rudolf von Bünau, the battle for the Austrian capital was characterized in some cases by fierce urban combat, but there were also parts of the city the Soviets advanced into with little opposition. Defending in the Prater Park was the 6th Panzer Division, along the side of the city were the 2nd and 3rd SS Panzer Divisions. The Soviets assaulted Viennas eastern and southern suburbs with the 4th Guards Army, the German defenders kept the Soviets out of the city’s southern suburbs until 7 April. The western suburbs were especially important to the Soviets because they included Viennas main railway station, the Soviet success in the western suburbs was followed quickly by infiltration of the eastern and northern suburbs later the same day. North of the Danube River, the 46th Army pushed westward through Viennas northern suburbs, central Vienna was now cut off from the rest of Austria. By the 9th of April, the Soviet troops began to infiltrate the center of the city, on the night of 11 April, the 4th Guards Army stormed the Danube canals, with the 20th Guards Rifle Corps and 1st Mechanized Corps moving on the Reichsbrücke Bridge. However, other important bridges were destroyed, Vienna finally fell when the last defenders in the city surrendered on the same day. Bittrichs II SS Panzer Corps, however, pulled out to the west on the evening of 13 April to avoid encirclement, the same day, the 46th Army took Essling and the Danube Flotilla landed naval infantry up the river by Klosterneuburg
35.
Marshall Plan
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The plan was in operation for four years beginning April 8,1948. The goals of the United States were to rebuild war-devastated regions, remove trade barriers, modernize industry, make Europe prosperous once more, the Marshall Plan aid was divided amongst the participant states roughly on a per capita basis. A larger amount was given to the industrial powers, as the prevailing opinion was that their resuscitation was essential for general European revival. Somewhat more aid per capita was also directed towards the Allied nations, the largest recipient of Marshall Plan money was the United Kingdom, followed by France and West Germany. Some 18 European countries received Plan benefits, although offered participation, the Soviet Union refused Plan benefits, and also blocked benefits to Eastern Bloc countries, such as East Germany and Poland. The United States provided similar aid programs in Asia, but they were not called Marshall Plan, the initiative is named after Secretary of State George Marshall, who also served as the United States Army Chief of staff during WWII. The plan had bipartisan support in Washington, where the Republicans controlled Congress, Marshall spoke of an urgent need to help the European recovery in his address at Harvard University in June 1947. The purpose of the Marshall Plan was to aid in the recovery of nations after WWII as well as to antagonize the Soviet Union. In order to combat the effects of the Marshall Plan, the USSR developed its own economic plan and it was not as effective as the Marshall Plan, and in some ways contradictory to eastern block countries that served alongside the axis powers in WWII. The phrase equivalent of the Marshall Plan is often used to describe a proposed large-scale economic rescue program, the reconstruction plan, developed at a meeting of the participating European states, was drafted on June 5,1947. It offered the aid to the Soviet Union and its allies. In fact, the Soviet Union prevented its satellite states from accepting, Secretary Marshall became convinced Stalin had no interest in helping restore economic health in Western Europe. President Harry Truman signed the Marshall Plan on April 3,1948, the Marshall Plan was replaced by the Mutual Security Plan at the end of 1951, that new plan gave away about $7 billion annually until 1961 when it was replaced by another program. The ERP addressed each of the obstacles to postwar recovery, the plan looked to the future, and did not focus on the destruction caused by the war. By 1952, as the funding ended, the economy of every participant state had surpassed pre-war levels, for all Marshall Plan recipients, by the end of World War II, much of Europe was devastated. Sustained aerial bombardment during the war had badly damaged most major cities, the regions trade flows had been thoroughly disrupted, millions were in refugee camps living on aid from United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration and other agencies. Food shortages were severe, especially in the winter of 1946–47. From July 1945 through June 1946, the United States shipped 16.5 million tons of food, primarily wheat, to Europe and Japan
36.
Bus
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A bus is a road vehicle designed to carry many passengers. Buses can have a capacity as high as 300 passengers, many types of buses, such as city transit buses and inter-city coaches, charge a fare. Other types, such as elementary or secondary school buses or shuttle buses within a post-secondary education campus do not charge a fare, in many jurisdictions, bus drivers require a special licence above and beyond a regular drivers licence. Horse-drawn buses were used from the 1820s, followed by steam buses in the 1830s, the first internal combustion engine buses, or motor buses, were used in 1895. Recently, interest has been growing in hybrid electric buses, fuel cell buses, as of the 2010s, bus manufacturing is increasingly globalised, with the same designs appearing around the world. Bus is a form of the Latin word omnibus. The first horse-drawn omnibus service was started by a businessman named Stanislas Baudry in the French city of Nantes in 1823, Nantes citizens soon gave the nickname omnibus to the vehicle. The omnibus in Nantes was a success and Baudry moved to Paris, a similar service was introduced in London in 1829. The first mechanically propelled omnibus appeared on the streets of London on 22 April 1833, in parallel to the development of the bus was the invention of the electric trolleybus, typically fed through trolley poles by overhead wires. The Siemens brothers, William in England and Ernst Werner in Germany, sir William first proposed the idea in an article to the Journal of the Society of Arts in 1881 as an. arrangement by which an ordinary omnibus. The first such vehicle, the Electromote, was made by his brother Dr. Ernst Werner von Siemens and presented to the public in 1882 in Halensee, Germany. Although this experimental vehicle fulfilled all the criteria of a typical trolleybus. Max Schiemann opened a trolleybus in 1901 near Dresden, in Germany. Although this system operated only until 1904, Schiemann had developed what is now the standard trolleybus current collection system, in the early days, a few other methods of current collection were used. Leeds and Bradford became the first cities to put trolleybuses into service in Great Britain on 20 June 1911, in Siegerland, Germany, two passenger bus lines ran briefly, but unprofitably, in 1895 using a six-passenger motor carriage developed from the 1893 Benz Viktoria. Another commercial bus line using the same model Benz omnibuses ran for a time in 1898 in the rural area around Llandudno. Daimler also produced one of the earliest motor-bus models in 1898, the vehicle had a maximum speed of 18 kph and accommodated up to 20 passengers, in an enclosed area below and on an open-air platform above. With the success and popularity of bus, Daimler expanded production, selling more buses to companies in London and, in 1899, to Stockholm
37.
Articulated tram
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A tram is a rail vehicle which runs on tracks along public urban streets, and also sometimes on a segregated right of way. The lines or networks operated by tramcars are called tramways, Tramways powered by electricity, the most common type historically, were once called electric street railways. However, trams were used in urban areas before the universal adoption of electrification. Tram lines may run between cities and/or towns, and/or partially grade-separated even in the cities. Very occasionally, trams also carry freight, Tram vehicles are usually lighter and shorter than conventional trains and rapid transit trains, but the size of trams is rapidly increasing. Some trams may also run on railway tracks, a tramway may be upgraded to a light rail or a rapid transit line. For all these reasons, the differences between the modes of rail transportation are often indistinct. In the United States, the tram has sometimes been used for rubber-tired trackless trains. Today, most trams use electrical power, usually fed by a pantograph, in some cases by a sliding shoe on a third rail. If necessary, they may have dual power systems — electricity in city streets, trams are now included in the wider term light rail, which also includes segregated systems. The English terms tram and tramway are derived from the Scots word tram, referring respectively to a type of truck used in coal mines and the tracks on which they ran. The word tram probably derived from Middle Flemish trame, a Romanesque word meaning the beam or shaft of a barrow or sledge, the identical word la trame with the meaning crossbeam is also used in the French language. The word Tram-car is attested from 1873, although the terms tram and tramway have been adopted by many languages, they are not used universally in English, North Americans prefer streetcar, trolley, or trolleycar. The term streetcar is first recorded in 1840, and originally referred to horsecars, when electrification came, Americans began to speak of trolleycars or later, trolleys. The troller design frequently fell off the wires, and was replaced by other more reliable devices. The terms trolley pole and trolley wheel both derive from the troller, Modern trams often have an overhead pantograph mechanical linkage to connect to power, abandoning the trolley pole altogether. Conventional diesel tourist buses decorated to look like streetcars are sometimes called trolleys in the US, the term may also apply to an aerial ropeway, e. g. the Roosevelt Island Tramway. Over time, the trolley has fallen into informal use
38.
Chassis
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A chassis consists of an internal vehicle frame that supports an artificial object in its construction and use, can also provide protection for some internal parts. An example of a chassis is the underpart of a motor vehicle, if the running gear such as wheels and transmission, and sometimes even the drivers seat, are included, then the assembly is described as a rolling chassis. In the case of vehicles, the rolling chassis means the frame plus the running gear like engine, transmission, drive shaft, differential. An under body, which is not necessary for integrity of the structure, is built on the chassis to complete the vehicle. For commercial vehicles, a rolling chassis consists of an assembly of all the parts of a truck to be ready for operation on the road. The design of a car chassis will be different than one for commercial vehicles because of the heavier loads. Commercial vehicle manufacturers sell chassis only, cowl and chassis, as well as chassis cab versions that can be outfitted with specialized bodies and these include motor homes, fire engines, ambulances, box trucks, etc. In particular applications, such as buses, a government agency like National Highway Traffic Safety Administration in the U. S. defines the design standards of chassis. An armoured fighting vehicles hull serves as the chassis and comprises the part of the AFV that includes the tracks, engine, drivers seat. This describes the hull, although common usage might include the upper hull to mean the AFV without the turret. The hull serves as a basis for platforms on tanks, armoured carriers, combat engineering vehicles. In an electronic device, the chassis consists of a frame or other supporting structure on which the circuit boards. In the absence of a frame, the chassis refers to the circuit boards and components themselves. The combination of chassis and outer covering is called an enclosure. Vietnam Studies, Department of the Army, Washington, D. C.1978
39.
DUEWAG
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The Duewag AG was one of Germanys major manufacturers for rail vehicles. The business was sold in 1999 to Siemens transportation, the company was founded in 1898 as Waggonfabrik Uerdingen AG in Uerdingen and produced rail vehicles under the brand DÜWAG. In 1981, the changed its name from Waggonfabrik Uerdingen AG to Duewag AG. In 2002 a new 6000m² entrance/office building was built at the plant, the last tramcar to be manufactured at Uerdingen was in 2012 with production of the new Avenio model moving to Vienna however commuter and high speed vehicle production remains at the plant. Duewag vehicles were close to a market in West Germany, as nearly every tram. Collection of photos of Duewag manufactured Trams
40.
Simmering-Graz-Pauker
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It was established in 1941 through the merger of Simmering machinery and rolling stock company with the Graz machine and rolling stock company and the Paukerwerkstraße Corporation from Vienna. The company experienced growth until the mid-1980s. In the early 1990s, as part of the restructuring of the economy the Republic of Austria sold their shares to Siemens AG. The company then operated for a few years as a Siemens SGP GmbH, until 30 September 2009 the former factories of SGP were part of Siemens Transportation Systems Austria GmbH & Co KG. On 1 October 2009, the company was converted to a corporation and has since been trading as Siemens AG Austria. On 16 September 2006, the plant in Vienna-Simmering celebrated its 175th anniversary, as part of Siemens, the factories were transformed from full-range suppliers to specialized centers of excellence. The Graz factory is now involved in the design and manufacturing of trucks and other specialized chassis while the factory in Vienna manufactures metro rolling stock, in addition, rail vehicles are being designed and developed at both locations and then manufactured in other plants. During the 1950s Simmering-Graz-Pauker A. G. developed the SGP M-222 Flamingo and it was a conventional twin engine monoplane, smaller than many but seating four in two rows. The first prototype flew for the first time on 15 May 1959 but was lost in a crash during single engine tests on 2 August 1959. Development work continued on an aircraft which first flew in 1960. At the end of 1964 the program was terminated and the three surviving examples scrapped, from 1985 to 1991 SGP was the parent company of Hoffman Aircraft Limited. Examples of SGP vehicles Simmering-Graz-Pauker AG in, Austria-Forum, the Austrian knowledge network online Homepage of Siemens Transportation Systems
41.
Lohner-Werke
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The Lohner-Werke or simply Lohner, was a Viennese luxury coachbuilding firm founded in the 19th century by Jacob Lohner. Around 1900 the firm produced electric-cars, being the first in Austria to do, in 1970 Canadian firm Bombardier Inc. acquired a controlling share in the company and renamed it Bombardier-Rotax GmbH. Under bombardier the company became Bombardier Wien Schienenfahrzeuge, later Bombardier Transportation Austria GmbH and it relocated to a specialised factory in 2007, and now produces only trams. In 1821 German Heinrich Lohner established a workshop in Vienna, Austria, in 1823 he formed a joint venture with master saddlemaker Ludwig Laurenzi, Laurenzi & Lohner. After the death of Ludwig Laurenzi in 1863 the company became Jacob Lohner & Co. under Heinrich Lohners son Jacob Lohner, Jacob Lohner transformed his fathers craft business into a factory eventually manufacturing between 300 and 500 vehicles per year. The company supplied vehicles to the courts of the houses of Norway, Sweden, and Romania, as well as to the Austrian emperor. In 1887 Jacob Lohners son Ludwig Lohner took over the company and he decided that self-powered cars were the future, initially working with Béla Egger, and in 1898 hiring Ferdinand Porsche. During his employment Porsche designed a number of vehicles, the Lohner Porsche chaise was powered by batteries, with two front wheel electric motors mounted in the wheel hubs. One of his electric vehicles was an exhibit at the Exposition Universelle. Porsche later developed petrol-engined cars with electric transmissions, some versions of which had additional batteries - and are considered to be a version of the hybrid car. Vehicles using the electric transmission with hub motors were sold to the German army. Lohner also produced aircraft for the budding Spanish Air Force, after World War I the company abandoned aircraft production, and shifted its production to the manufacturing of trams, and coachbodies. During the Great Depression the factory in Floridsdorf shut down, during the Anschluss with Germany Lohner produced aircraft wings. The plant was damaged in 1944, and post World War II the company was in administration until 1949 when it was returned to the control of the Lohner family. In 1949 Lohner began manufacturing scooters and mopeds which were designed by Otto Kauba, the scooter range included popular models such as the Sissy, L125 and L98, but sales were eventually reduced due to the popularity of the motorcar. Tram production also resumed post World War II, in 1959, the Lohner factory merged with Rotax which had supplied engines for its motorscooters. During the 1960s contracts included hay-loaders, gun carriages for the Austrian Army, in 1970 the company was acquired by Bombardier purchased a majority of shares in the company and renamed it Bombardier-Rotax GmbH. Reorganized later as a division of Bombardier-Rotax named Bombardier Wien Schienenfahrzeuge, after Bombardiers acquisition of Adtranz in 2001, the companys production plan designated the Vienna works for carbody production, specialising in Light rail vehicles
42.
Vienna U-Bahn
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The Vienna U-Bahn, where U-Bahn is an abbreviation of the German term Untergrundbahn, is one of the two rapid transit systems for Vienna, Austria. The second system is the Vienna S-Bahn, with the opening in October 2013 of the 4.2 kilometers -, three-station extension of the U2 line, the five line U-Bahn network consists of 78.5 kilometers of route, serving 104 stations. It is the backbone of one of the best performing public transport systems worldwide according to UITP in June 2009. More than 1.3 million passengers rode the Vienna U-Bahn every day in 2009, and 567.6 million passengers used the U-Bahn in 2011, the network is undergoing expansion and rolling stock renewal. Since 1969,200 million euros have been invested annually in the extension of the Vienna U-Bahn, the modern U-Bahn opened on 25 February 1978, but two of the lines extended and later designated as U-Bahn date back to the Stadtbahn system, which opened in 1898. Parts of the U2 and U6 lines began as subway tunnels built to accommodate tram lines. Only the U1 and U3 were built wholly as new subway lines, Lines are designated by a number and the prefix U and identified on station signage and related literature by a colour. There are five lines, U1, U2, U3, U4, since the late 1960s there have been numerous suggestions of routings for a line U5, but all these projects had been shelved until the construction of a new U5 was announced in early 2014. Ticketing for the network is integrated under the Wiener Linien umbrella brand with all means of transport in Vienna, including trams. Local tickets are valid on S-Bahn suburban rail services and other train services but these are operated by the railway operator. Tickets are not valid on bus services operated by Vienna Airport Lines, compared to other underground railways worldwide, the Vienna U-Bahn is young. The question of whether to build a Vienna U-Bahn was the subject of heated debate for one hundred years. From 1844 to the 1960s, numerous mass train transport plans were discussed, ignored or simply rejected, the first system to be constructed was a four-line Stadtbahn railway network using steam trains. Ground was broken in 1892, and the system was opened in stages between 11 May 1898 and 6 August 1901, some of the Jugendstil stations for this system designed by Otto Wagner are still in use. However, the Stadtbahn proved inadequate for mass transport, less successful than the tramway, starting in 1910, plans were considered for an underground system, but were interrupted by the First World War, which also necessitated closing the Stadtbahn to civilian use. After the war, the situation of a smaller and poorer country ruled out continuing with the plan. However, starting on 26 May 1924 the Stadtbahn was electrified, something that many had called for before the war, plans for a U-Bahn dating to 1912–14 were revived and discussions took place in 1929, but the Great Depression again necessitated abandoning planning. Both in 1937 and after the Anschluß, when Vienna became the largest city by area in the Third Reich, ambitious plans for a U-Bahn
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Wien Hauptbahnhof
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Wien Hauptbahnhof is the main railway station in Vienna, Austria, located in the Favoriten district. Wien Hauptbahnhof has replaced the Wien Südbahnhof terminus with a through station linking four major railway lines converging on Vienna from the North, East, West, the new station offers significantly improved, principally international, connectivity. By moving the access to Südtiroler Platz, the new station is better connected to the Vienna U-Bahn system. The Südtiroler Platz S-Bahn station was renamed Wien Hbf in December 2012, the city council agreed to build the station 15 December 2006. Construction began in June 2007, starting with preliminary works such as the remodelling of the S-Bahn station Südtiroler Platz, in 2008, the S-Bahn and the U-Bahn stations at Südtiroler Platz were connected with each other and Südbahnhof was demolished. In 2009, ÖBB Infrastruktur awarded a construction contract to a consortium led by Strabag. The bulk of Südbahnhofs services were closed with the change of 13 December 2009. Trains began passing through the new Hauptbahhof without stopping,6 August 2012, the station became partly operational in December 2012, with regional and S-Bahn services using platforms 9-12 and long-distance trains not stopping. It was expected that the Hauptbahnhof would fully open in December 2014, the rebuilt station has around 100 shops and restaurants as well as 600 car parking spaces. Office and residential developments are currently being built, the city council agreed to build the station 15 December 2006. Construction began in June 2007, starting with preliminary works such as the remodelling of the S-Bahn station Südtiroler Platz, in 2008, the S-Bahn and the U-Bahn stations at Südtiroler Platz were connected with each other and Südbahnhof was demolished. In 2009, ÖBB Infrastruktur awarded a construction contract to a consortium led by Strabag. The bulk of Südbahnhofs services were closed with the change of 13 December 2009. Trains began passing through the new Hauptbahhof without stopping,6 August 2012, the station became partly operational in December 2012, with regional and S-Bahn services using platforms 9-12 and long-distance trains not stopping. It was expected that the Hauptbahnhof would fully open in December 2014, the rebuilt station has around 100 shops and restaurants as well as 600 car parking spaces. Office and residential developments are currently being built
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Wien Praterstern railway station
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Wien Praterstern is one of Viennas main railway stations, being used by 35,000 people daily. It is located on the roundabout Praterstern in Leopoldstadt, in the north of the city, Viennas two most recognisable structures, the Wiener Riesenrad and the Stephansdom are both visible from the platforms. Underneath the station is the Praterstern U-Bahn station, which is on Line U1, the first station was built during the construction of the North railway, it was opened on 6 January 1838 as k. k. Nordbahnhof in the style in which the names of all public works were rendered at the time. Due to rapidly rising numbers, the station became too small very quickly and had to be rebuilt. Between 1858 and 1865, the building in the vicinity of Praterstern was built. Like all other stations in Vienna at this time, the Northern Station was planned to be an exhibition building, several architects were assigned to planning the building, interior decorating was done by sculptors and fresco painters. The station was opened on 15 November 1865, in the days of Austria-Hungary, the station was one of the most significant stations in Europe and Viennas primary railway stations, connecting Vienna with Brno, Prague and Warsaw. For many immigrants, it was the door to Vienna, during World War II, the station was severely damaged by bombs and subsequently fell into disuse, it was finally demolished in 1965. The new building was constructed directly at Praterstern for logistical reasons and was opened on 1 June 1959 as Bahnhof Praterstern, on 1 September 1975, it was renamed Wien Nord. On platform level, the new station was completed in April 2007, the new station offers 6,000 m² of space for businesses and service enterprises. Platforms were raised to 55 cm above the age to make boarding. A tactile orientation system is planned for blind people, the reconstruction started in 2004 and was completed in April 2008. The area of the freight station, no longer needed by the Austrian Federal Railways, is planned to become a new city district. The part on the Lasallestraße was already developed in the 1990s, at first, a new line parallel to these blocks is planned, in steps, the area is to be expanded to the northwest. The tram line O is planned to be extended into this area as well, however, the time horizon of this project lies around 2025. Personal Schnellbahn Page about Wien Praterstern renovation ÖBB-Bahnhofsoffensive Wien Nord auf Schiene Ziel2Wien - Bahnhöfe
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Prater
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The Prater is a large public park in Viennas 2nd district. The Wurstelprater amusement park, often simply called Prater, lies in one corner of the Wiener Prater and includes the Wiener Riesenrad Ferris wheel. The name Prater derives from one or the other or possibly both Latin words pratum, meaning meadow, and Praetor, meaning magistrate or lawyer, possibly via Spanish prado or Italian prato. The area that makes up the modern Prater was first mentioned in 1162, the word Prater was first used in 1403, originally referring to a small island in the Danube north of Freudenau, but was gradually extended to mean the neighbouring areas as well. The land changed hands frequently until it was bought by Emperor Maximilian II in 1560 to be a hunting ground, to deal with the problem of poachers, Emperor Rudolf II forbade entry to the Prater. On April 7,1766, Emperor Joseph II declared the Prater to be free for enjoyment, and allowed the establishment of coffee-houses and cafés. Throughout this time, hunting continued to place in the Prater. In 1873, a World Exhibition was held in the Prater, for which an area of land was set aside, centered on the Rotunda. This land now houses the Messegelände, on the grounds of modern-day Kaiserwiese, an attraction called Venice in Vienna” was established in 1895 by Gabor Steiner. The area included a lagoon to simulate the canals of Venice. In 2004, major renovations to the Wurstelprater began, and a new railway line was finished and brought into service on May 11,2008. The railway station Praterstern has been in operation for a time and is only a few dozen metres away from an entrance to the park. The overall area of the park has also reduced by the building of the Ernst-Happel-Stadion. In 2013, the new campus of the Wirtschaftsuniversität Wien was opened next to the Prater, the Hauptallee is the main artery, lined with horse chestnut trees, closed to motorists and known to sports enthusiasts from the annual Vienna Marathon. The Wiener Prater is home to the Liliputbahn, a gauge railway. Another unusual object to be found in the Wiener Prater is the Republik Kugelmugel, the Wiener Prater also houses a planetarium and the Prater Museum. Singers Midgets Official Prater site Liliputbahn miniature railway Official Vienna Tourism, Prater Prater on Citype Information, Prater Wien
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Media related to Trams in Vienna at Wikimedia Commons
