1.
Submarine communications cable
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A submarine communications cable is a cable laid on the sea bed between land-based stations to carry telecommunication signals across stretches of ocean. The first submarine communications cables, laid in the 1850s, carried telegraphy traffic, subsequent generations of cables carried telephone traffic, then data communications traffic. Modern cables use optical technology to carry digital data, which includes telephone, Internet. Samuel Morse proclaimed his faith in it as early as 1840, and in 1842, he submerged a wire, insulated with tarred hemp and India rubber, in the water of New York Harbor, the following autumn, Wheatstone performed a similar experiment in Swansea Bay. A good insulator to cover the wire and prevent the current from leaking into the water was necessary for the success of a long submarine line. India rubber had been tried by Moritz von Jacobi, the Prussian electrical engineer, another insulating gum which could be melted by heat and readily applied to wire made its appearance in 1842. Gutta-percha, the juice of the Palaquium gutta tree, was introduced to Europe by William Montgomerie. Twenty years earlier, he had seen made of it in Singapore. It was tried on a wire laid across the Rhine between Deutz and Cologne, walker, electrician to the South Eastern Railway, submerged a two-mile wire coated with gutta-percha off the coast from Folkestone, which was tested successfully. It was simply a copper wire coated with gutta-percha, without any other protection, in 1853 further successful cables were laid, linking Great Britain with Ireland, Belgium and the Netherlands, and crossing The Belts in Denmark. The British & Irish Magnetic Telegraph Company completed the first successful Irish link on May 23 between Portpatrick and Donaghadee using the collier William Hutt, the same ship was used for the link from Dover to Ostend in Belgium, by the Submarine Telegraph Company. Meanwhile, the Electric & International Telegraph Company completed two cables across the North Sea, from Orford Ness to Scheveningen, The Netherlands and they were laid by the Monarch, a paddle steamer which later became the first vessel with permanent cable-laying equipment. In 1858 the Steamship Elba was used to lay a Telegraph cable from Jersey to Guernsey, on to Alderney, problems soon developed with eleven breaks occurring by 1860 due to storms, tidal and sand movements and wear on rocks. A report to the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1860 set out the problems to assist in future cable laying operations, the first attempt at laying a transatlantic telegraph cable was promoted by Cyrus West Field, who persuaded British industrialists to fund and lay one in 1858. However, the technology of the day was not capable of supporting the project, it was plagued with problems from the outset, and was in operation for only a month. Subsequent attempts in 1865 and 1866 with the worlds largest steamship, Great Eastern later went on to lay the first cable reaching to India from Aden, Yemen, in 1870. From the 1850s until 1911, British submarine cable systems dominated the most important market, the British had both supply side and demand side advantages. In terms of supply, Britain had entrepreneurs willing to put forth enormous amounts of capital necessary to build, lay, in terms of demand, Britains vast colonial empire led to business for the cable companies from news agencies, trading and shipping companies, and the British government
2.
Atlantic Ocean
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The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the worlds oceans with a total area of about 106,460,000 square kilometres. It covers approximately 20 percent of the Earths surface and about 29 percent of its surface area. It separates the Old World from the New World, the Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between Eurasia and Africa to the east, and the Americas to the west. The Equatorial Counter Current subdivides it into the North Atlantic Ocean, in contrast, the term Atlantic originally referred specifically to the Atlas Mountains in Morocco and the sea off the Strait of Gibraltar and the North African coast. The Greek word thalassa has been reused by scientists for the huge Panthalassa ocean that surrounded the supercontinent Pangaea hundreds of years ago. The term Aethiopian Ocean, derived from Ancient Ethiopia, was applied to the Southern Atlantic as late as the mid-19th century, many Irish or British people refer to the United States and Canada as across the pond, and vice versa. The Black Atlantic refers to the role of ocean in shaping black peoples history. Irish migration to the US is meant when the term The Green Atlantic is used, the term Red Atlantic has been used in reference to the Marxian concept of an Atlantic working class, as well as to the Atlantic experience of indigenous Americans. Correspondingly, the extent and number of oceans and seas varies, the Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west by North and South America. It connects to the Arctic Ocean through the Denmark Strait, Greenland Sea, Norwegian Sea, to the east, the boundaries of the ocean proper are Europe, the Strait of Gibraltar and Africa. In the southeast, the Atlantic merges into the Indian Ocean, the 20° East meridian, running south from Cape Agulhas to Antarctica defines its border. In the 1953 definition it extends south to Antarctica, while in later maps it is bounded at the 60° parallel by the Southern Ocean, the Atlantic has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs, and seas. Including these marginal seas the coast line of the Atlantic measures 111,866 km compared to 135,663 km for the Pacific. Including its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers an area of 106,460,000 km2 or 23. 5% of the ocean and has a volume of 310,410,900 km3 or 23. 3%. Excluding its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers 81,760,000 km2 and has a volume of 305,811,900 km3, the North Atlantic covers 41,490,000 km2 and the South Atlantic 40,270,000 km2. The average depth is 3,646 m and the maximum depth, the bathymetry of the Atlantic is dominated by a submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It runs from 87°N or 300 km south of the North Pole to the subantarctic Bouvet Island at 42°S, the MAR divides the Atlantic longitudinally into two halves, in each of which a series of basins are delimited by secondary, transverse ridges. The MAR reaches above 2000 m along most of its length, the MAR is a barrier for bottom water, but at these two transform faults deep water currents can pass from one side to the other
3.
Telegraph
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Telegraphy is the long-distance transmission of textual or symbolic messages without the physical exchange of an object bearing the message. Thus semaphore is a method of telegraphy, whereas pigeon post is not, telegraphy requires that the method used for encoding the message be known to both sender and receiver. Such methods are designed according to the limits of the medium used. The use of signals, beacons, reflected light signals. In the 19th century, the harnessing of electricity led to the invention of electrical telegraphy, the advent of radio in the early 20th century brought about radiotelegraphy and other forms of wireless telegraphy. The word telegraph was first coined by the French inventor of the Semaphore line, Claude Chappe, a telegraph is a device for transmitting and receiving messages over long distances, i. e. for telegraphy. The word telegraph alone now generally refers to an electrical telegraph, Wireless telegraphy is also known as CW, for continuous wave, as opposed to the earlier radio technique of using a spark gap. Contrary to the definition used by Chappe, Morse argued that the term telegraph can strictly be applied only to systems that transmit. This is to be distinguished from semaphore, which transmits messages. Smoke signals, for instance, are to be considered semaphore, according to Morse, telegraph dates only from 1832 when Pavel Schilling invented one of the earliest electrical telegraphs. A telegraph message sent by a telegraph operator or telegrapher using Morse code was known as a telegram. A cablegram was a sent by a submarine telegraph cable. Later, a Telex was a sent by a Telex network. A wire picture or wire photo was a picture that was sent from a remote location by a facsimile telegraph. A diplomatic telegram, also known as a cable, is the term given to a confidential communication between a diplomatic mission and the foreign ministry of its parent country. These continue to be called telegrams or cables regardless of the used for transmission. Commercial electrical telegraphs were introduced from 1837, the first telegraphs came in the form of optical telegraph, including the use of smoke signals, beacons, or reflected light, which have existed since ancient times. Early proposals for a telegraph system were made to the Royal Society by Robert Hooke in 1684 and were first implemented on an experimental level by Sir Richard Lovell Edgeworth in 1767
4.
Valentia Island
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Valentia Island is one of Irelands most westerly points. It lies off the Iveragh Peninsula in the southwest of County Kerry and it is linked to the mainland by the Maurice ONeill Memorial Bridge at Portmagee. A car ferry departs from Reenard Point to Knightstown, the islands main settlement. A second, smaller village named Chapeltown is located at roughly the midpoint of the island,3 kilometres from the bridge, the permanent population of the island is 665. Its approximately 11 kilometres long by almost 3 kilometres wide, Valentia was the eastern terminus of the first commercially viable transatlantic telegraph cable. The first attempt in 1857 to land a cable from Ballycarbery Strand on the mainland just east of Valentia Island ended in disappointment, Transatlantic telegraph cables operated from Valentia Island for one hundred years, ending with Western Union International terminating its cable operations in 1966. Prior to the telegraph, American longitude measurements had a 2. Benjamin Gould and his partner A. T. Mosman reached Valentia on 2 October 1866 and they built a temporary longitude observatory beside the Foilhommerum Cable Station to support synchronized longitude observations with Hearts Content, Newfoundland. After many rainy and cloudy days, the first transatlantic longitude signals were exchanged between Foilhommerum and Hearts Content on October 24,1866, in 1993, an undergraduate geology student discovered fossilised tetrapod trackways, footprints in mud preserved in Devonian rocks on the north coast of the island. About 385 million years ago, a primitive vertebrate passed along a shoreline in the equatorial swampland that is now southwestern Ireland. The prints were preserved by silt overlying them, and were converted to rock over the ages, the Valentia Island trackways are among the oldest signs of vertebrate life on land. The combined features and history of the make it an attractive tourist destination. Geokaun Mountain and Fogher Cliffs, the highest mountain on Valentia Island, on the northeast of the island stands Glanleam House amid sub-tropical gardens. Protected by windbreaks from Atlantic gales and never touched by frost, the gardens are laid out in a naturalistic style as a series of walks. There are plants from South America, Australia, New Zealand, Chile, the gardens are memorialized in a selected golden-variegated Luma apiculata Glanleam Gold that originated as a sport in the garden. The gardens are open to the public, the slate quarry which reopened in 1998 provided slates for the British Houses of Parliament. The Telegraph Field is the site of the first permanent communications link between Europe and North America Transatlantic telegraph cables operated from Valentia Island from 1866, the Valentia Island Weather Station is located 51°56 23N, 10° 1440W and is 25 metres above mean sea level. It is one of the 22 coastal weather stations whose reports are broadcast as part of the BBC Shipping Forecast, Valentia Observatory is part of Met Éireann, the Irish Meteorological Service
5.
Ireland
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Ireland is an island in the North Atlantic. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, Ireland is the second-largest island of the British Isles, the third-largest in Europe, and the twentieth-largest on Earth. Politically, Ireland is divided between the Republic of Ireland, which covers five-sixths of the island, and Northern Ireland, in 2011, the population of Ireland was about 6.4 million, ranking it the second-most populous island in Europe after Great Britain. Just under 4.6 million live in the Republic of Ireland, the islands geography comprises relatively low-lying mountains surrounding a central plain, with several navigable rivers extending inland. The island has lush vegetation, a product of its mild, thick woodlands covered the island until the Middle Ages. As of 2013, the amount of land that is wooded in Ireland is about 11% of the total, there are twenty-six extant mammal species native to Ireland. The Irish climate is moderate and classified as oceanic. As a result, winters are milder than expected for such a northerly area, however, summers are cooler than those in Continental Europe. Rainfall and cloud cover are abundant, the earliest evidence of human presence in Ireland is dated at 10,500 BC. Gaelic Ireland had emerged by the 1st century CE, the island was Christianised from the 5th century onward. Following the Norman invasion in the 12th century, England claimed sovereignty over Ireland, however, English rule did not extend over the whole island until the 16th–17th century Tudor conquest, which led to colonisation by settlers from Britain. In the 1690s, a system of Protestant English rule was designed to materially disadvantage the Catholic majority and Protestant dissenters, with the Acts of Union in 1801, Ireland became a part of the United Kingdom. Northern Ireland saw much civil unrest from the late 1960s until the 1990s and this subsided following a political agreement in 1998. In 1973 the Republic of Ireland joined the European Economic Community while the United Kingdom, Irish culture has had a significant influence on other cultures, especially in the fields of literature. Alongside mainstream Western culture, an indigenous culture exists, as expressed through Gaelic games, Irish music. The culture of the island shares many features with that of Great Britain, including the English language, and sports such as association football, rugby, horse racing. The name Ireland derives from Old Irish Eriu and this in turn derives from Proto-Celtic *Iveriu, which is also the source of Latin Hibernia. Iveriu derives from a root meaning fat, prosperous, during the last glacial period, and up until about 9000 years ago, most of Ireland was covered with ice, most of the time
6.
Heart's Content, Newfoundland and Labrador
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Hearts Content is an incorporated town in Trinity Bay on the Bay de Verde Peninsula of Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada. The natural harbour that makes up the town is located on the east side of Trinity Bay and it is built along the northeast side, the first references to Hearts Content came from John Guys journal of his voyage into Trinity Bay in 1612. Through much of the 17th century, Hearts Content was used by migratory fisherman from England, the area was permanently settled by at least 1677. Like many other Newfoundland English settlements, this village was a victim to the French army of Pierre Le Moyne dIberville in 1697. During King Williams War, this village was raided in the Avalon Peninsula Campaign, Hearts Content was given its place in the history of international communications by Cyrus West Field who chose it as the terminus of his Transatlantic telegraph cable. Besides the growing importance of the Labrador fishery and the hunt, as well as the shipbuilding industry, other economic stimuli made it a growing. Within 10 years of incorporation Hearts Content obtained most of the facilities and these included a town hall, fire station, a municipal park, water and sewage system, a ballpark and a senior citizens club. 1697 – French under dIberville enter Hearts Content, the final 30 men plus women and children holdup in a fort commanded by Irishmen. The occupants surrender to the French,1700 – Census taken records a population of 35,5 fishing-stages and 7 boats. 1783 – A docking facility established to build sailing craft of all types and this was the first attempt to diversify the economy of Hearts Content. At its height, the industry employs 100 men, shipwrights, sail-makers, caulkers, woodsmen, sailors,1823 – Society for the Propagation of the Gospel opens its first school in Hearts Content, with Thomas Parker as teacher. 1855 – Hearts Content is chosen as the location for the first transatlantic telegraph cable. 1858 – The first ever transatlantic cable, connecting Valentia, Ireland, due to a malfunction, its operation was terminated on October 20,1858. 1862 – Rev. George Gardner founds the Fishermans Society at Hearts Content,1866 – A new transatlantic cable is landed at Hearts Content by the SS Great Eastern. 1873 – Fishermans Society organized in 1862 becomes the Society of United Fisherman with Rev. George Gardner as its first Grand Master,1873 and 1874 – Two more cables are laid to Valentia. 1870s – The Methodist congregation is organized, they built a school. 1880 and 1894 – Two more cables were laid to Valentia, 1880s – Population grows to an estimated 1,200 residents. 1915 – Heart’s Content is linked by railway with the Conception Bay branch of the Reid Newfoundland Railway system, the rail connection allows the Anglo Newfoundland Development Company to use Heart’s Content as a winter port for shipments of newsprint from its mill at Grand Falls
7.
Newfoundland (island)
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Newfoundland is a large Canadian island off the east coast of the North American mainland, and the most populous part of the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. It has 29 percent of the land area. The island is separated from the Labrador Peninsula by the Strait of Belle Isle and it blocks the mouth of the Saint Lawrence River, creating the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, the worlds largest estuary. Newfoundlands nearest neighbour is the French overseas community of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, with an area of 108,860 square kilometres, Newfoundland is the worlds 16th-largest island, Canadas fourth-largest island, and the largest Canadian island outside the North. The provincial capital, St. Johns, is located on the southeastern coast of the island, Cape Spear, just south of the capital, is the easternmost point of North America, excluding Greenland. It is common to consider all directly neighbouring islands such as New World, Twillingate, Fogo, by that classification, Newfoundland and its associated small islands have a total area of 111,390 square kilometres. Additionally 6. 1% claimed at least one parent of French ancestry, the islands total population as of the 2006 census was 479,105. Long settled by peoples of the Dorset culture, the island was visited by the Icelandic Viking Leif Eriksson in the 11th century. The next European visitors to Newfoundland were Portuguese, Basque, Spanish, French, the island was visited by the Genoese navigator John Cabot, working under contract to King Henry VII of England on his expedition from Bristol in 1497. In 1501, Portuguese explorers Gaspar Corte-Real and his brother Miguel Corte-Real charted part of the coast of Newfoundland in a attempt to find the Northwest Passage. Newfoundland is considered Britains oldest colony, at the time of English settlement, the Beothuk inhabited the island. While there is evidence of ancient indigenous peoples on the island. LAnse aux Meadows was a Norse settlement near the northernmost tip of Newfoundland, the site is considered the only undisputed evidence of Pre-Columbian contact between the Old and New Worlds, if the Norse-Inuit contact on Greenland is not counted. There is a second suspected Norse site in Point Rosee, the island is a likely location of Vinland, mentioned in the Viking Chronicles, although this has been disputed. The indigenous people on the island at the time of European settlement were the Beothuk, later immigrants developed a variety of dialects associated with settlement on the island, Newfoundland English, Newfoundland French. In the 19th century, it also had a dialect of Irish known as Newfoundland Irish, Scottish Gaelic was spoken on the island during the 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly in the Codroy Valley area, chiefly by settlers from Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia. The Gaelic names reflected the association with fishing, in Scottish Gaelic, it was called Eilean a Trosg, or literally, similarly, the Irish Gaelic name Talamh an Éisc means Land of the Fish. The first inhabitants of Newfoundland were the Paleo-Eskimo, who have no link to other groups in Newfoundland history
8.
North America
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North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean, and to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers, about 16. 5% of the land area. North America is the third largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 565 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7. 5% of the worlds population, North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period, via crossing the Bering land bridge. The so-called Paleo-Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10,000 years ago, the Classic stage spans roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. The Pre-Columbian era ended with the migrations and the arrival of European settlers during the Age of Discovery. Present-day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect different kind of interactions between European colonists, indigenous peoples, African slaves and their descendants, European influences are strongest in the northern parts of the continent while indigenous and African influences are relatively stronger in the south. Because of the history of colonialism, most North Americans speak English, Spanish or French, the Americas are usually accepted as having been named after the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci by the German cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann. Vespucci, who explored South America between 1497 and 1502, was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a different landmass previously unknown by Europeans. In 1507, Waldseemüller produced a map, in which he placed the word America on the continent of South America. He explained the rationale for the name in the accompanying book Cosmographiae Introductio, for Waldseemüller, no one should object to the naming of the land after its discoverer. He used the Latinized version of Vespuccis name, but in its feminine form America, following the examples of Europa, Asia and Africa. Later, other mapmakers extended the name America to the continent, In 1538. Some argue that the convention is to use the surname for naming discoveries except in the case of royalty, a minutely explored belief that has been advanced is that America was named for a Spanish sailor bearing the ancient Visigothic name of Amairick. Another is that the name is rooted in a Native American language, the term North America maintains various definitions in accordance with location and context. In Canadian English, North America may be used to refer to the United States, alternatively, usage sometimes includes Greenland and Mexico, as well as offshore islands
9.
Europe
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Europe is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, yet the non-oceanic borders of Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are arbitrary. Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometres, or 2% of the Earths surface, politically, Europe is divided into about fifty sovereign states of which the Russian Federation is the largest and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population. Europe had a population of about 740 million as of 2015. Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable than close to the coast, Europe, in particular ancient Greece, was the birthplace of Western civilization. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, during the period, marked the end of ancient history. Renaissance humanism, exploration, art, and science led to the modern era, from the Age of Discovery onwards, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European powers controlled at times the Americas, most of Africa, Oceania. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to economic, cultural, and social change in Western Europe. During the Cold War, Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the west and the Warsaw Pact in the east, until the revolutions of 1989 and fall of the Berlin Wall. In 1955, the Council of Europe was formed following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill and it includes all states except for Belarus, Kazakhstan and Vatican City. Further European integration by some states led to the formation of the European Union, the EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The European Anthem is Ode to Joy and states celebrate peace, in classical Greek mythology, Europa is the name of either a Phoenician princess or of a queen of Crete. The name contains the elements εὐρύς, wide, broad and ὤψ eye, broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion and the poetry devoted to it. For the second part also the divine attributes of grey-eyed Athena or ox-eyed Hera. The same naming motive according to cartographic convention appears in Greek Ανατολή, Martin Litchfield West stated that phonologically, the match between Europas name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor. Next to these there is also a Proto-Indo-European root *h1regʷos, meaning darkness. Most major world languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to the continent, in some Turkic languages the originally Persian name Frangistan is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa
10.
Edward Thornton, 2nd Count of Cacilhas
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Sir Edward Thornton KCB was a prominent British diplomat, who held posts in Latin America, Turkey, Russia, and served for fourteen years as Minister to the United States. Thornton was born in London, the son of Sir Edward Thornton, also a diplomat, Thornton was educated at Kings College London, and at Pembroke College, Cambridge. He entered the service as attaché to the mission at Turin in 1842, filled the same position in Mexico in 1845. Thornton did much to forward the conclusion of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848, in 1852, he was appointed Secretary of Legation at Buenos Aires, and chargé daffaires to Uruguay in 1854. He was appointed Minister to the Argentine Republic in 1859, and this was one of several incidents that damaged Paraguayan relations with Britain. Thornton would later apologise for the action to repair relations, and his actions were used in a House of Commons debate on a clash with Brazil, with William Seymour Vesey-FitzGerald calling him a gentleman who knows how to conciliate. At the time, there was a belief that Latin American states were troublesome, later, Thornton was involved in the creation of the Triple Alliance in the Paraguayan War. Thornton encouraged the leaders of Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay, some historians have claimed that this was an official British government decision, as they wanted to see Paraguay opened to expanded British trade and investment. Other historians have disputed this, pointing to Britains lack of interest in the war, Thornton had been briefly replaced by Sir William Doria, who condemned Argentine intervention in Uruguay, but upon returning he reversed Dorias decisions and threw his support back behind Mitre. The war would continue after Thornton left Brazil, and left Paraguay utterly devastated, thorntons lengthiest assignment was as Minister to the United States, a position he held for fourteen years. In 1871, Thornton served as a member of the commission on the Alabama Claims, Thornton served in 1873 as an arbitrator in the commission on the Mexican and United States Claims. He was appointed Ambassador at St. Petersburg in 1881, for his services Thornton was made a knight of the Grand Cross of the Order of Bath in 1883. A year later Thornton received his last appointment, Ambassador at Constantinople, Thornton died at his London residence,5 Tedworth Sq. after what was described as a lengthy illness. He is buried in Brookwood Cemetery and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Gilman, D. C. Thurston, H. T. Colby, F. M. eds. article name needed
11.
Alonzo Jackman
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Alonzo Jackman was a Vermont educator and military officer. Alonzo Jackman was born in Thetford Center, Vermont on March 20,1809 and he left home as a teenager following his widowed mothers remarriage, and worked as a laborer before deciding to obtain a college education. Entering Norwich University in 1832, he received his bachelors degree in 1836, Jackman joined the Norwich University faculty as Professor of Mathematics, Natural Philosophy, Civil Engineering and Military Science. In addition, he served as the colleges librarian, Jackman wrote several articles and treatises on mathematics and other topics. In the 1840s he prepared an article on constructing an underwater telegraph, when the Transatlantic line was laid in the 1850s and 1860s Jackman received credit for originating the idea. In 1862 Jackman was awarded a doctorate from Norwich University. This group, including Franklin Pierce, Alden Partridge, Truman B, ransom, and Frederic Williams Hopkins, held seminars to discuss tactics, strategy and recruiting, and carry out maneuvers and drills in an effort to improve unit readiness. From 1847 to 1848 he served as a Major and brigade drill master in the New Hampshire Militia, in 1859 he was commissioned as Colonel of the 2nd Vermont Militia Regiment, and in 1860 he was appointed a Brigadier General. This method was adopted by states as they raised volunteer regiments throughout the Civil War. Following the Confederate Raid on St. Albans, Vermont in October,1864, Jackman died suddenly at his home in Northfield, Vermont on February 24,1879. Earlier that day he reported feeling ill and sent word to the university president that he would be unable to teach as scheduled and he died while wearing his uniform and standing at his living room window, falling to the floor after an apparent heart attack. He is buried in Northfields Elmwood Cemetery, a treatise on the doctrine of numerical series, both ascending and descending, Who Originated the Oceanic Telegraph. Jackman Hall, the first building erected when the university moved from the town of Norwich to the town of Northfield after an 1866 fire, is named for him, Jackman was married to Charlotte Sawyer of Royalton, Vermont. They had two children, Alonzo and Helen
12.
Cyrus West Field
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The eighth of ten children, he was the brother of David Dudley Field, Jr. Henry Martyn Field, and Stephen Johnson Field, the 38th United States Supreme Court Justice, among other siblings. When he was 15 years old, Field came to New York City and he entered a business apprenticeship, and earned fifty dollars at his first year as a storeroom clerk, his pay was doubled next year. After three years, he back to Stockbridge, but returned to New York later in his career. Field married Mary Bryan Stone on December 2,1840, two days after he turned twenty one, and they had seven children, although Field had many available career options, he chose business. At first, he worked for his brothers, David Dudley Field, Jr. in 1838, he accepted an offer from his brother Matthew to become his assistant in the paper manufacturing venture, the Columbia Mill, in Lee, Massachusetts. In Spring 1840, he went into business by himself, manufacturing paper in Westfield, the same year, he became a junior partner in the E. Root & Co. a wholesale paper firm based in New York with responsibilities to oversee clients and he stayed in business and was furnishing supplies for the Northeast mills, such as owned by Crane & Company, and buying the finished product wholesale. In March,1853, he repaid all previously cancelled due to insolvency of E, root & Co. debts in full amount with interest, being under no legal obligation to do so. You bore up under heavy burden and paid it as not one in thousands could or would have done. Business earnings permitted Field to partially retire at the age 34 with a fortune of $250,000, in the 1850s he financed the expeditions of Frederic Edwin Church that led the painter into the Andes Mountains seeking new landscapes for his art. By commissioning some of Churchs best-known paintings, Field hoped to lure investors into South America to support his ventures there, later that year he, with Peter Cooper, Abram Stevens Hewitt, Moses Taylor and Samuel F. B. Morse, joined the so-called Cable Cabinet of entrepreneurs, investors and engineers, through this Cable Cabinet, Field became instrumental in laying a 400-mile telegraph line connecting St. Johns, Newfoundland with Nova Scotia, coupling with telegraph lines from the U. S. The cable was officially opened on August 16,1858, when Queen Victoria sent President James Buchanan a message in Morse code. Although the jubilation at the feat was widespread, the cable itself was short-lived, during the Panic of 1857, Fields paper business suspended, and Peter Cooper, his neighbor in Gramercy Park, was the only one that kept him from going under. On August 26,1858, Field returned to a triumphant homecoming at Great Barrington, Massachusetts, in 1866, Field laid a new, more durable trans-Atlantic cable using Brunels SS Great Eastern. Great Eastern was, at the time, the largest ocean-going ship in the world, on his return to Newfoundland, he grappled the cable he had attempted to lay the previous year and made it into a backup wire to the main cable. In 1867, Field received a medal from the U. S. Congress. In the 1870s-80s, Field entered into transportation business and he served as president of the New York Elevated Railroad Company in 1877-1880 and collaborated with Jay Gould on developing the Wabash Railroad
13.
Queen Victoria
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Victoria was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death. From 1 May 1876, she adopted the title of Empress of India. Victoria was the daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, both the Duke of Kent and King George III died in 1820, and Victoria was raised under close supervision by her German-born mother Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. She inherited the throne aged 18, after her fathers three brothers had all died, leaving no surviving legitimate children. The United Kingdom was already a constitutional monarchy, in which the sovereign held relatively little direct political power. Privately, Victoria attempted to influence government policy and ministerial appointments, publicly, Victoria married her first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, in 1840. Their nine children married into royal and noble families across the continent, tying them together, after Alberts death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion, republicanism temporarily gained strength and her Golden and Diamond Jubilees were times of public celebration. Her reign of 63 years and seven months is known as the Victorian era and it was a period of industrial, cultural, political, scientific, and military change within the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire. She was the last British monarch of the House of Hanover and her son and successor, Edward VII, belonged to the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the line of his father. Victorias father was Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, until 1817, Edwards niece, Princess Charlotte of Wales, was the only legitimate grandchild of George III. Her death in 1817 precipitated a crisis that brought pressure on the Duke of Kent. In 1818 he married Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, a widowed German princess with two children—Carl and Feodora —by her first marriage to the Prince of Leiningen and her brother Leopold was Princess Charlottes widower. The Duke and Duchess of Kents only child, Victoria, was born at 4.15 a. m. on 24 May 1819 at Kensington Palace in London. Victoria was christened privately by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Manners-Sutton, on 24 June 1819 in the Cupola Room at Kensington Palace and she was baptised Alexandrina, after one of her godparents, Emperor Alexander I of Russia, and Victoria, after her mother. Additional names proposed by her parents—Georgina, Charlotte, and Augusta—were dropped on the instructions of the Dukes eldest brother, George, the Duke of Clarence and the Duke of Kent married on the same day in 1818, but both of Clarences daughters died as infants. Victorias father died in January 1820, when Victoria was less than a year old, a week later her grandfather died and was succeeded by his eldest son, George IV. The Duke of York died in 1827, when George IV died in 1830, he was succeeded by his next surviving brother, William IV, and Victoria became heir presumptive
14.
President of the United States
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The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is considered to be one of the worlds most powerful political figures, the role includes being the commander-in-chief of the worlds most expensive military with the second largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The office of President holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad, Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The president is empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves. The president is responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is a member. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States, since the office of President was established in 1789, its power has grown substantially, as has the power of the federal government as a whole. However, nine vice presidents have assumed the presidency without having elected to the office. The Twenty-second Amendment prohibits anyone from being elected president for a third term, in all,44 individuals have served 45 presidencies spanning 57 full four-year terms. On January 20,2017, Donald Trump was sworn in as the 45th, in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives to Congress, only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1,1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies, with peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. Prospects for the convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washingtons attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia. It was through the negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U. S. The first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto, the Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options, Sign the legislation, the bill becomes law. Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections, in this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation
15.
James Buchanan
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James Buchanan, Jr. was the 15th President of the United States, serving immediately prior to the American Civil War. He is the president from Pennsylvania, the only president to remain a lifelong bachelor. Beginning in the 1820s, he represented Pennsylvania in the United States House of Representatives and later the Senate, Buchanan was nominated by the Democratic Party in the 1856 presidential election, on a ticket with former Kentucky Representative John C. He defeated both the incumbent President Pierce and Illinois Senator Stephen A. Douglas to win the nomination and his subsequent election victory took place in a three-man race against Republican John C. Shortly after taking office, Buchanan lobbied the Supreme Court to issue a ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford. He allied with the South in attempting to gain the admission of Kansas to the Union as a state under the Lecompton Constitution. In the process, he alienated both Republican abolitionists and Northern Democrats, most of whom supported the principle of sovereignty in determining a new states slaveholding status. He was often called a doughface, a Northerner with Southern sympathies, and he fought with Douglas, in the midst of the growing sectional crisis, the Panic of 1857 struck the nation. Buchanan indicated in his 1857 inaugural address that he would not seek a second term, he kept his word, Breckinridge in the 1860 presidential election. In response, seven Southern states declared their secession from the Union, Buchanans view was that secession was illegal, but that going to war to stop it was also illegal, and so didnt confront the new polity militarily. Buchanan, an attorney, was noted for his mantra, I acknowledge no master, Buchanan supported the United States during the Civil War, and publicly defended himself against charges that he was responsible for the Civil War. Shortly after the Union victory, he published his memoirs, Mr. Buchanans Administration on the Eve of Rebellion and he died in 1868 at age 77. Buchanan aspired to be a president who would rank in history with George Washington, historians who participated in a 2006 survey voted his failure to deal with secession the worst presidential mistake ever made. His parents were both of Ulster Scots descent, the father having emigrated from Milford, County Donegal, Ireland, one of eleven siblings, Buchanan was the oldest child in the family to survive infancy. Shortly after Buchanans birth the family moved to a farm near Mercersburg, Pennsylvania, Buchanans father became the wealthiest person in town, becoming a prosperous merchant and investing in real estate. The family home in Mercersburg was later turned into the James Buchanan Hotel, Buchanan attended the village academy and, starting in 1807, Dickinson College in Carlisle, Pennsylvania. Though he was expelled at one point for poor behavior, he pleaded for a second chance. Later that year, he moved to Lancaster, which, at the time, was the capital of Pennsylvania, James Hopkins, the most prominent lawyer in Lancaster, accepted Buchanan as a student, and in 1812 Buchanan was admitted to the bar after an oral exam
16.
Isambard Kingdom Brunel
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Brunel built dockyards, the Great Western Railway, a series of steamships including the first propeller-driven transatlantic steamship, and numerous important bridges and tunnels. His designs revolutionised public transport and modern engineering, though Brunels projects were not always successful, they often contained innovative solutions to long-standing engineering problems. Brunel set the standard for a railway, using careful surveys to minimise grades and curves. This necessitated expensive construction techniques, new bridges, new viaducts, one controversial feature was the wide gauge, a broad gauge of 7 ft 1⁄4 in, instead of what was later to be known as standard gauge of 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in. Brunel astonished Britain by proposing to extend the Great Western Railway westward to North America by building steam-powered iron-hulled ships and he designed and built three ships that revolutionised naval engineering, the Great Western, the Great Britain, and the Great Eastern. In 2002, Brunel was placed second in a BBC public poll to determine the 100 Greatest Britons, in 2006, the bicentenary of his birth, a major programme of events celebrated his life and work under the name Brunel 200. Brunels name is an amalgamation of his parents names and he inherited the family name of his father, and his middle name is his mothers surname. Brunels first name, Isambard, comes from his fathers middle name, Isambard is a Norman name of Germanic origin, meaning iron-bright. A cognate name is the German surname Eisenbarth, which can still be found today among Bavarians and German-Americans and he had two older sisters, Sophia and Emma, and the whole family moved to London in 1808 for his fathers work. Brunel had a childhood, despite the familys constant money worries. His father taught him drawing and observational techniques from the age of four, during this time he also learned fluent French and the basic principles of engineering. He was encouraged to draw interesting buildings and identify any faults in their structure, when Brunel was eight he was sent to Dr Morrells boarding school in Hove, where he learned the classics. When Brunel was 15, his father Marc, who had accumulated debts of over £5,000, was sent to a debtors prison. After three months went by with no prospect of release, Marc let it be known that he was considering an offer from the Tsar of Russia. In August 1821, facing the prospect of losing a prominent engineer, Brunel subsequently studied under the prominent master clockmaker and horologist Abraham-Louis Breguet, who praised Brunels potential in letters to his father. In late 1822, having completed his apprenticeship, Brunel returned to England, Brunels father, Marc, was the chief engineer, and the project was funded by the Thames Tunnel Company. The composition of the riverbed at Rotherhithe was often more than waterlogged sediment. The latter incident, in 1828, killed the two most senior miners, and Brunel himself narrowly escaped death and he was seriously injured, and spent six months recuperating
17.
SS Great Eastern
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SS Great Eastern was an iron sailing steam ship designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel, and built by J. Scott Russell & Co. at Millwall on the River Thames, London. She was by far the largest ship built at the time of her 1858 launch. Her length of 692 feet was only surpassed in 1899 by the 705-foot 17, 274-gross-ton RMS Oceanic, the ships five funnels were rare. This was later reduced to four, Brunel knew her affectionately as the Great Babe. He died in 1859 shortly after her maiden voyage, during which she was damaged by an explosion. Finishing her life as a music hall and advertising hoarding in Liverpool. On 25 March 1852, Brunel made a sketch of a steamship in his diary and wrote beneath it, using paddle wheels meant that the ship would be able to reach Calcutta, where the Hooghly River was too shallow for screws. Brunel showed his idea to John Scott Russell, a naval architect. Scott Russell examined Brunels plan and made his own calculations as to the ships feasibility and he calculated that it would have a displacement of 20,000 tons and would require 8,500 horsepower to achieve 14 knots, but believed it was possible. At Scott Russells suggestion, they approached the directors of the Eastern Steam Navigation Company, the Eastern Company was formed in January 1851 with the plan of exploiting the increase in trade and emigration to India, China and Australia. However, in March 1852 the Government awarded the contracts to the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company and this left them in the position of having a company without a purpose. He was unable to due to illness and Scott Russell took his place. The Company then set up a committee to investigate the proposal, and they reported in favour, Brunel was appointed Engineer to the project and he began to gather tenders to build the hull, paddle engines and screw engines. If any doubt ever arises on these points I must cease to be responsible, Scott Russell even offered to reduce the tender to £258,000 if an order for a sister ship was placed at the same time. In the spring of 1854 work could at last begin, the first problem to arise was where the ship was to be built. Eventually it was decided to build the ship sideways to the river, later the mechanical design was dropped on the grounds of cost, although the sideways plan remained. Having decided on a launch, a suitable site had to be found, as Scott Russells Millwall, London. The adjacent yard belonging to David Napier was empty, available and suitable, so it was leased, the site of the launch is still visible on the Isle of Dogs
18.
Duplex (telecommunications)
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A duplex communication system requires a pair of channels/frequencies hence the term duplex meaning two parts. The two channels are defined as uplink/downlink or reverse/forward, in a full-duplex system simultaneous transmission/reception is available, i. e. One can transmit and receive simultaneously, in a half-duplex system, each party can communicate with the other but not simultaneously, the communication is one direction at a time. Half duplex systems utilize separate channels for uplink and downlink, i. e. a transmit, in a half duplex communications system one user is allowed to transmit on the uplink channel at a time. The transmitted uplink signal is frequency translated via a radio/repeater to the downlink receive frequency which is received by all other radios tuned to the downlink/receive frequency. A half-duplex system is defined as system which operates two, hence duplex, dedicated uplink/downlink channels/frequencies. In a half duplex system a single path is provided for uplink, all uplink messages are broadcast via the downlink channel to all users simultaneously via a repeater which performs uplink to downlink channel/frequency translation. All cellular and land line PSTNs and PDSNs are full duplex systems, all full duplex systems require a channel/frequency translator via a radio/repeater. This is required in order to translate the uplink/transmit transmission from one to the downlink/receive channel/frequency of user two. Full duplex systems are one to one private systems unlike half duplex systems which broadcast to all users and this effectively makes the cable itself a collision-free environment and doubles the maximum total transmission capacity supported by each Ethernet connection. Time-division duplexing is commonly referred to as simplex communications, a single channel/frequency is employed for bidirectional communications. The term simplex communication as applied to TDM single channel systems predates the term TDD by at least 80 years, frequency-division duplexing as with any other duplex system is defined by two channel/frequency simultaneous communication. A channel/frequency pair are assigned to individual user on the system. An FDD system requires frequency translation from user 1 uplink/reverse frequency to user 2 downlink/forward frequency, full-duplex audio systems like telephones can create echo, which needs to be removed. Echo occurs when the coming out of the speaker, originating from the far end. The sound then reappears at the source end, but delayed. This feedback path may be acoustic, through the air, or it may be mechanically coupled, echo cancellation is a signal-processing operation that subtracts the far-end signal from the microphone signal before it is sent back over the network. Echo cancellation is important to the V.32, V.34, V.56, echo cancelers are available as both software and hardware implementations
19.
William Fothergill Cooke
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Sir William Fothergill Cooke was an English inventor. He was, with Charles Wheatstone, the co-inventor of the Cooke-Wheatstone electrical telegraph, together with John Lewis Ricardo he founded the Electric Telegraph Company, the worlds first public telegraph company, in 1846. He was born at Ealing, Middlesex, his William Cooke father was a surgeon there and he was educated at Durham School and at the University of Edinburgh, and at the age of 20 entered the Indian Army. After five years service in India Cooke returned home, then studied medicine in Paris, in 1836 he saw electric telegraphy, then only experimental, Munke had illustrated his lectures with a telegraphic apparatus on the principle introduced by Pavel Schilling in 1835. Cooke decided to put the invention into practical operation with the railway systems, early in 1837 Cooke returned to England, with introductions to Michael Faraday and Peter Mark Roget. Through them he was introduced to Charles Wheatstone, who in 1834 gave the Royal Society an account of experiments on the velocity of electricity, Cooke had already constructed a system of telegraphing with three needles on Schillings principle, and made designs for a mechanical alarm. He had also made progress in negotiating with the Liverpool. Cooke and Wheatstone went into partnership in May 1837, Cooke handled the business side, a five needle model of telegraph was given up as too expensive. In 1838 an improvement reduced the number of needles to two, and a patent for this was out by Cooke and Wheatstone. But the telegraph was still too costly for general purposes, in the meantime a priority dispute arose between Cooke and Wheatstone. Cooke later tried to obtain an extension of the original patents, a civil list pension was granted to Cooke in 1871. Samuel Morse Attribution This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Burnley. London, Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 102–103, extracts from the Private Letters of the Late Sir William Fothergill Cooke,1836 -39. London, E. and F. N. Spon
20.
Charles Wheatstone
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Charles Wheatstone was born in Barnwood, Gloucester. His father was a music-seller in the town, who moved to 128 Pall Mall, London, four years later, Charles, the second son, went to a village school, near Gloucester, and afterwards to several institutions in London. One of them was in Kennington, and kept by a Mrs. Castlemaine, from another he ran away, but was captured at Windsor, not far from the theatre of his practical telegraph. As a boy he was shy and sensitive, liking well to retire into an attic. His father encouraged him in this, and finally took him out of the uncles charge. At the age of fifteen, Wheatstone translated French poetry, some lines of his on the lyre became the motto of an engraving by Bartolozzi. Small for his age, but with a fine brow, and intelligent blue eyes, he visited an old book-stall in the vicinity of Pall Mall. Most of his pocket-money was spent in purchasing the books which had taken his fancy, whether fairy tales, history, or science. One day, to the surprise of the bookseller, he coveted a volume on the discoveries of Volta in electricity and it was written in French, and so he was obliged to save again, until he could buy a dictionary. Then he began to read the volume, and, with the help of his brother, William, to repeat the experiments described in it, with a home-made battery. In constructing the battery, the boy philosophers ran short of money to procure the requisite copper-plates and they had only a few copper coins left. A happy thought occurred to Charles, who was the spirit in these researches, We must use the pennies themselves, said he. At Christchurch, Marylebone, on 12 February 1847, Wheatstone was married to Emma West and she was the daughter of a Taunton tradesman, and of handsome appearance. She died in 1866, leaving a family of five children to his care. His domestic life was quiet and uneventful, Sir Henry Taylor tells us that he once observed Wheatstone at an evening party in Oxford earnestly holding forth to Lord Palmerston on the capabilities of his telegraph. I must get you to tell that to the Lord Chancellor, and so saying, he fastened the electrician on Lord Westbury, and effected his escape. Wheatstone was knighted in 1868, after his completion of the automatic telegraph and he had previously been made a Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Some thirty-four distinctions and diplomas of home or foreign societies bore witness to his scientific reputation, the same year he was awarded the Ampere Medal by the French Society for the Encouragement of National Industry
21.
Samuel Morse
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Samuel Finley Breese Morse was an American painter and inventor. After having established his reputation as a painter, in his middle age Morse contributed to the invention of a single-wire telegraph system based on European telegraphs. He was a co-developer of the Morse code and helped to develop the use of telegraphy. Samuel F. B. Morse was born in Charlestown, Massachusetts, the first child of the pastor Jedidiah Morse, who was also a geographer and his father was a great preacher of the Calvinist faith and supporter of the American Federalist party. He thought it helped preserve Puritan traditions, and believed in the Federalist support of an alliance with Britain, Morse strongly believed in education within a Federalist framework, alongside the instillation of Calvinist virtues, morals, and prayers for his first son. After attending Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts, Samuel Morse went on to Yale College to receive instruction in the subjects of philosophy, mathematics. While at Yale, he attended lectures on electricity from Benjamin Silliman, in 1810, he graduated from Yale with Phi Beta Kappa honors. Morse expressed some of his Calvinist beliefs in his painting, Landing of the Pilgrims and his image captured the psychology of the Federalists, Calvinists from England brought to North America ideas of religion and government, thus linking the two countries. This work attracted the attention of the notable artist, Washington Allston, Allston wanted Morse to accompany him to England to meet the artist Benjamin West. Allston arranged — with Morses father — a three-year stay for painting study in England, the two men set sail aboard the Lybia on July 15,1811. In England, Morse perfected his painting techniques under Allstons watchful eye, by the end of 1811, at the Academy, he was moved by the art of the Renaissance and paid close attention to the works of Michelangelo and Raphael. After observing and practicing life drawing and absorbing its anatomical demands, the young artist produced his masterpiece, to some, the Dying Hercules seemed to represent a political statement against the British and also the American Federalists. The muscles symbolized the strength of the young and vibrant United States versus the British, during Morses time in Britain, the Americans and British were engaged in the War of 1812. Both societies were conflicted over loyalties, anti-Federalist Americans aligned themselves with the French, abhorred the British, and believed a strong central government to be inherently dangerous to democracy. As the war raged on, Morses letters to his parents became more anti-Federalist in tone, in one such letter, Morse wrote, I assert that the Federalists in the Northern States have done more injury to their country by their violent opposition measures than a French alliance could. Their proceedings are copied into the English papers, read before Parliament, and circulated through their country and they call them cowards, a base set, say they are traitors to their country and ought to be hanged like traitors. Although Jedidiah Morse did not change Samuels political views, he continued as an influence, critics believe that the elder Morses Calvinist ideas are integral to Morses Judgment of Jupiter, another significant work completed in England. Jupiter is shown in a cloud, accompanied by his eagle, with his hand spread above the parties, Marpessa, with an expression of compunction and shame, is throwing herself into the arms of her husband
22.
John Thomas Mullock
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John Thomas Mullock was Roman Catholic bishop of St. Johns, Newfoundland and did much to establish and develop the church in the region. Limerick, Ireland, he died in St. Johns and is buried in the crypt of the Basilica of St. John the Baptist. Born in Limerick in 1807, Mullock was admitted as a Friar Minor in 1825 and he went on to complete his seminary studies at St. Isidores College in Rome, where, in 1829, he was ordained a Catholic priest. After long service in Ireland — at Ennis, Cork, and Dublin — he was appointed in 1847, coadjutor bishop with right of succession to his fellow friar, Michael Anthony Fleming, O. S. F. Catholic Bishop of St. Johns, Newfoundland, for office he was consecrated by Cardinal Fransoni on 27 December 1847. In July,1850, Mullock succeeded Fleming, the Catholic Church made great progress in Newfoundland during his episcopate of Mullock, a new diocese, Harbour Grace, being erected. The splendid cathedral of St. Johns, begun in 1841, was consecrated on 9 September 1855 and he also opened in 1857 St Bonaventures, a school for middle-class boys, a new episcopal palace and library, eleven convents, and numerous churches. Mullock took a keen interest in the development of Newfoundland. He was frequently consulted by the Governor on matters relating to the welfare of the country, before leaving Ireland he was a frequent contributor to the periodical literature of the day, and took an active part in the Irish literary movement of the 1840s. Unlike his great predecessor, Fleming, Mullock regarded himself as a Newfoundlander, and not just an Irish missionary, when in 1852 the Colonial Office refused to grant responsible government to Newfoundland Mullock denounced it in extreme terms in a published letter. He and his priests became active and open supporters of the Liberal Party which became the government when responsible government was granted in 1855, but he soon became disillusioned with politicians who take care of themselves, and do nothing for the people. When the government finally fell, he nevertheless urged Catholics to vote for it, however, in his later years Mullock threw his influence on the side of order, reminding his people that the powers that be are ordained of God. His actions had always sprung from generous motives, and were not unusual in Ireland in the nineteenth century, a kindly, hospitable man, greatly respected for his religious actions, he was yet indignant at what he saw as any insult to his community. When he died the Governor, Sir Anthony Musgrave, attended the Requiem Mass, all the flags flew at half-mast and he and his contemporary Feild, the Anglican Bishop, were among the most influential people in nineteenth century Newfoundland. Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online Catholic encyclopaedia
23.
St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador
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St. Johns is the capital and largest city in Newfoundland and Labrador. It is on the tip of the Avalon Peninsula on the island of Newfoundland. St. Johns covers 446.04 square kilometres and is North Americas most easterly city, excluding those of Greenland. Its name has been attributed to the Nativity of John the Baptist, existing on maps as early as 1519, it is considered by some to be the oldest English-founded city in North America. It was officially incorporated as a city in 1888, the city has a rich history, having played a role in the Seven Years War, the French and Indian War, the American Revolutionary War, and the War of 1812. Italian inventor, Guglielmo Marconi received the first transatlantic wireless signal in St. Johns and its history and culture have made it one of the worlds top ocean-side tourist destinations. St. Johns is one of North Americas oldest settlements, with setting up seasonal camps in the early 16th century. Sebastian Cabot declares in a handwritten Latin text in his original 1545 map, that St. However, the earliest record of the location appears as São João on a Portuguese map by Pedro Reinel in 1519. When John Rut visited St. Johns in 1527 he found Norman, Breton, on 3 August 1527, Rut wrote a letter to King Henry on the findings of his voyage to North America, this was the first known letter sent from North America. St. Jehan is shown on Nicholas Desliens world map of 1541 and it was during this time that Water Street was first developed, making it the oldest street in North America. On 5 August 1583, an English Sea Dog, Sir Humphrey Gilbert claimed the area as Englands first overseas colony under Royal Charter of Queen Elizabeth I. There was no permanent population, however, and Gilbert was lost at sea during his return voyage, the Newfoundland National War Memorial is on the waterfront in St. Johns, at the purported site of Gilberts landing and proclamation. By 1620, the fishermen of Englands West Country controlled most of Newfoundlands east coast, in 1627, William Payne, called St. Johns the principal prime and chief lot in all the whole country. Sometime after 1630, the town of St. Johns was established as a permanent community, before this they were expressly forbidden by the British government, at the urging of the West Country fishing industry, from establishing permanent settlements along the English controlled coast. The population grew slowly in the 17th century, St. Johns was Newfoundlands largest settlement when English naval officers began to take censuses around 1675, the population grew in the summers with the arrival of migratory fishermen. In 1680, fishing ships set up fishing rooms at St. Johns, the towns first significant defenses were likely erected due to commercial interests, following the temporary seizure of St. Johns by the Dutch admiral Michiel de Ruyter in June 1665. The inhabitants fended off a second Dutch attack in 1673, when it was defended by Christopher Martin, Martin landed six cannons from his vessel, the Elias Andrews, and constructed an earthen breastwork and battery near Chain Rock commanding the Narrows leading into the harbour. With only 23 men, the valiant Martin beat off an attack by three Dutch warships, when 1500 English reinforcements arrived in late 1697, they found rubble where the town and fortifications had stood
24.
Gulf of St. Lawrence
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The Gulf of Saint Lawrence is the outlet of the North American Great Lakes via the Saint Lawrence River into the Atlantic Ocean. The gulf is a sea, covering an area of about 236,000 square kilometres and containing about 35,000 cubic kilometres of water. As for significant islands the Gulf of Saint Lawrence contains Anticosti Island, PEI, Îles-de-la-Madeleine, Cape Breton Island, Saint Pierre Island, and Miquelon-Langlade. Half of the ten provinces of Canada adjoin the Gulf, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland and Labrador, and Quebec. Branches of the Gulf include the Chaleur Bay, Fortune Bay, Miramichi Bay, St. Georges Bay, Bay St. George, Bay of Islands, the Cabot Strait between Newfoundland and Saint-Pierre and Cape Breton Island,104 km wide and 480 m deep at its deepest. The Strait of Canso between Cape Breton Island and the Nova Scotia peninsula,1.0 km wide and 60 m deep at its deepest. Due to the construction of the Canso Causeway across the strait in 1955, the limits of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence vary between sources. The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence as follows, Fisheries, St. Paul Island, Nova Scotia, off the northeastern tip of Cape Breton Island, is referred to as the Graveyard of the Gulf because of its many shipwrecks. Access to this island is controlled by the Canadian Coast Guard, the five provinces bordering the Gulf of Saint Lawrence also have several provincial parks apiece, some of which preserve coastal features. The Laurentian Channel is about 290 m deep and about 1,250 km long from the Continental Shelf to the mouth of the Saint Lawrence River. Deep waters with temperatures between 2 and 6.5 °C enter the Gulf at the slope and are slowly advected up the channel by estuariane circulation. Over the 20th century, the waters of the end of the channel have become hypoxic. The gulf has provided an important marine fishery for various First Nations that have lived on its shores for millennia. The first documented voyage by a European in its waters was by the French explorer Jacques Cartier in the year 1534. Cartier named the shores of the Saint Lawrence River The Country of Canadas, after a word meaning village or settlement. At just about the period, Basques came to frequent the area for whale-hunting and trade with the First Nations people of the modern Canadian Atlantic. They left vestiges of their presence in locations of the area—docks, furnaces, graveyards
25.
Nova Scotia
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Nova Scotia is one of Canadas three Maritime provinces, and one of the four provinces which form Atlantic Canada. Nova Scotia is Canadas second-smallest province, with an area of 55,284 square kilometres, including Cape Breton, as of 2016, the population was 923,598. Nova Scotia is the second most-densely populated province in Canada with 17.4 inhabitants per square kilometre, Nova Scotia means New Scotland in Latin and is the recognized English language name for the province. In Scottish Gaelic, the province is called Alba Nuadh, which simply means New Scotland. Nova Scotia is Canadas second-smallest province in area after Prince Edward Island, the provinces mainland is the Nova Scotia peninsula surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, including numerous bays and estuaries. Nowhere in Nova Scotia is more than 67 km from the ocean, Nova Scotia has many ancient fossil-bearing rock formations. These formations are rich on the Bay of Fundys shores. Blue Beach near Hantsport, Joggins Fossil Cliffs, on the Bay of Fundys shores, has yielded an abundance of Carboniferous age fossils, wassons Bluff, near the town of Parrsboro, has yielded both Triassic and Jurassic age fossils. Nova Scotia lies in the mid-temperate zone, since the province is almost surrounded by the sea, the climate is closer to maritime than to continental climate. The winter and summer temperature extremes of the climate are moderated by the ocean. However, winters are cold enough to be classified as continental – still being nearer the freezing point than inland areas to the west. The Nova Scotia climate is in ways similar to the central Baltic Sea coast in Northern Europe. This is in spite of Nova Scotia being some fifteen parallels south, areas not on the Atlantic coast experience warmer summers more typical of inland areas, and winter lows a little colder. The province includes regions of the Mikmaq nation of Mikmaki, the Mikmaq people inhabited Nova Scotia at the time the first European colonists arrived. In 1605, French colonists established the first permanent European settlement in the future Canada at Port Royal, the British conquest of Acadia took place in 1710. The Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 formally recognized this and returned Cape Breton Island to the French, present-day New Brunswick then still formed a part of the French colony of Acadia. The British changed the name of the capital from Port Royal to Annapolis Royal, in 1749, the capital of Nova Scotia moved from Annapolis Royal to the newly established Halifax. In 1755 the vast majority of the French population were removed in the Expulsion of the Acadians
26.
Cabot Strait
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Cabot Strait is a strait in eastern Canada approximately 110 kilometres wide between Cape Ray, Newfoundland and Cape North, Cape Breton Island. It is the widest of the three outlets for the Gulf of Saint Lawrence into the Atlantic Ocean, the others being the Strait of Belle Isle and it is named for the Genoese explorer Giovanni Caboto. The straits bathymetry is varied, with the Laurentian Channel creating a trench through its centre. These bathymetric conditions have been known by mariners to cause rogue waves, the strait is crossed daily by the Marine Atlantic ferry service linking Channel-Port aux Basques, and North Sydney. Ferries have been operating across the strait since 1898 and a telegraph cable was laid in 1856 as part of the transatlantic telegraph cable project. An infamous location in the strait for shipwrecks during the age of sail, St. Pauls Island, in October 1942, German U-boat U-69 torpedoed and sank the unlit Newfoundland ferry SS Caribou, killing 137 people. Then on 25 November 1944 HMCS Shawinigan was torpedoed and sunk with all hands on board by U-1228
27.
Frederick Newton Gisborne
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Frederick Newton Gisborne was a Canadian inventor and electrician. Born in Broughton, Preston, Lancashire, England, he left England in 1842 for a trip around the world, after studying the problems of ocean telegraphy, he laid the first deep-sea cable in North American waters, between Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick in 1852. In 1853 he went to New York City, where in 1854 he became associated with Cyrus W. Field, on the organization of the New York, Newfoundland, and London Telegraph Company, he was appointed the chief engineer. The new company intended to lay the first deep-sea telegraph cable between Europe and North America, in 1879, Gisborne was appointed superintendent of the Canadian government telegraph service, which position he held until his death. Among his numerous inventions were an anti-induction ocean cable, electric and pneumatic ship signals, a composition for the bottoms of iron ships. Charles Dawson, The First Submarine Telegraph Cable in America,1852, the Frederic Newton Gisborne Collection at the Victoria University Library at the University of Toronto
28.
Matthew Fontaine Maury
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Matthew Fontaine Maury, United States Navy, was an American astronomer, historian, oceanographer, meteorologist, cartographer, author, geologist, and educator, LL. D. Maury made many important new contributions to charting winds and ocean currents, in 1825 at age 19, Maury obtained, through the then-US Congressman Sam Houston, a midshipmans warrant in the United States Navy. As a midshipman on board the frigate USS Brandywine, almost immediately he began to study the seas and record methods of navigation. When a leg injury left him unfit for sea duty, Maury devoted his time to the study of navigation, meteorology, winds and he became Superintendent of the U. S. Naval Observatory and head of the Depot of Charts and Instruments. Here, Maury studied thousands of logs and charts. He published the Wind and Current Chart of the North Atlantic, Maurys uniform system of recording oceanographic data was adopted by navies and merchant marines around the world and was used to develop charts for all the major trade routes. With the outbreak of the Civil War, Maury, a Virginian, resigned his commission as a US Navy commander and he spent the war in the South, as well as abroad in Great Britain, Ireland, and France. He helped acquire a ship, CSS Georgia, for the Confederacy while also advocating stopping the war in America among several European Nations, following the war, Maury accepted a teaching position at the Virginia Military Institute in Lexington, Virginia. He died at his V. M. I. home in Lexington in 1873 after completing an exhausting lecture tour on national and international weather forecasting on land. He had also completed his book on his Geological Survey of Virginia, Maury was a descendant of a prominent Virginia family of Huguenot ancestry whose ancestry can be traced back to 15th century France. Matthew Fontaine Maurys grandfather was a teacher to a future U. S. president. Maury also had Dutch-American ancestry from the Minor family of early Virginia, M. F. Maury was born in 1806 in Spotsylvania County, Virginia near the City of Fredericksburg, his parents were Richard Maury and Diane Minor Maury. The family moved to Franklin, Tennessee, when he was age five and he wanted to emulate the naval career of his older brother, Flag Lieutenant John Minor Maury, who however caught yellow fever after fighting pirates as an officer in the United States Navy. As a result of Johns painful death, Matthew Maurys father, Richard, Maury joined the Navy as a midshipman on board the frigate Brandywine which was carrying the Marquis de La Fayette home to France following the Marquis famous visit to the United States. Almost immediately, Maury began to study the seas and record methods of navigation, one of the experiences that piqued this interest was a circumnavigation of the globe on the USS Vincennes, his assigned ship and the first US warship to travel around the world. Matthew Maurys seagoing days came to an end at the age of 33 after a stagecoach accident broke his right leg. Maury had known of the Psalms of David since childhood, John Minor, Mary, Walker, Matilda, Betsy, Richard Launcelot, Matthew Fontaine, Catherine, and Charles. His Bible is depicted on his monument beside his left leg, the product of his work was international recognition and the publication in 1847 of Wind and Current Chart of the North Atlantic
29.
Oceanography
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Oceanography, also known as oceanology, is the study of the physical and the biological aspects of the ocean. Paleoceanography studies the history of the oceans in the geologic past, humans first acquired knowledge of the waves and currents of the seas and oceans in pre-historic times. Observations on tides were recorded by Aristotle and Strabo, early exploration of the oceans was primarily for cartography and mainly limited to its surfaces and of the animals that fishermen brought up in nets, though depth soundings by lead line were taken. Although Juan Ponce de León in 1513 first identified the Gulf Stream, Franklin measured water temperatures during several Atlantic crossings and correctly explained the Gulf Streams cause. Franklin and Timothy Folger printed the first map of the Gulf Stream in 1769-1770, information on the currents of the Pacific Ocean was gathered by explorers of the late 18th century, including James Cook and Louis Antoine de Bougainville. James Rennell wrote the first scientific textbooks on oceanography, detailing the current flows of the Atlantic, during a voyage around the Cape of Good Hope in 1777, he mapped the banks and currents at the Lagullas. He was also the first to understand the nature of the intermittent current near the Isles of Scilly, Robert FitzRoy published a four-volume report of the Beagles three voyages. In 1841–1842 Edward Forbes undertook dredging in the Aegean Sea that founded marine ecology, the first superintendent of the United States Naval Observatory, Matthew Fontaine Maury devoted his time to the study of marine meteorology, navigation, and charting prevailing winds and currents. His 1855 textbook Physical Geography of the Sea was one of the first comprehensive oceanography studies, many nations sent oceanographic observations to Maury at the Naval Observatory, where he and his colleagues evaluated the information and distributed the results worldwide. Despite all this, human knowledge of the oceans remained confined to the topmost few fathoms of the water, almost nothing was known of the ocean depths. The Royal Navys efforts to all of the worlds coastlines in the mid-19th century reinforced the vague idea that most of the ocean was very deep. As exploration ignited both popular and scientific interest in the regions and Africa, so too did the mysteries of the unexplored oceans. The seminal event in the founding of the science of oceanography was the 1872-76 Challenger expedition. As the first true oceanographic cruise, this laid the groundwork for an entire academic. In response to a recommendation from the Royal Society, The British Government announced in 1871 an expedition to explore worlds oceans, charles Wyville Thompson and Sir John Murray launched the Challenger expedition. The Challenger, leased from the Royal Navy, was modified for scientific work, under the scientific supervision of Thomson, Challenger travelled nearly 70,000 nautical miles surveying and exploring. On her journey circumnavigating the globe,492 deep sea soundings,133 bottom dredges,151 open water trawls and 263 serial water temperature observations were taken, around 4,700 new species of marine life were discovered. The result was the Report Of The Scientific Results of the Exploring Voyage of H. M. S, Murray, who supervised the publication, described the report as the greatest advance in the knowledge of our planet since the celebrated discoveries of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries
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Gulf of Saint Lawrence
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The Gulf of Saint Lawrence is the outlet of the North American Great Lakes via the Saint Lawrence River into the Atlantic Ocean. The gulf is a sea, covering an area of about 236,000 square kilometres and containing about 35,000 cubic kilometres of water. As for significant islands the Gulf of Saint Lawrence contains Anticosti Island, PEI, Îles-de-la-Madeleine, Cape Breton Island, Saint Pierre Island, and Miquelon-Langlade. Half of the ten provinces of Canada adjoin the Gulf, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland and Labrador, and Quebec. Branches of the Gulf include the Chaleur Bay, Fortune Bay, Miramichi Bay, St. Georges Bay, Bay St. George, Bay of Islands, the Cabot Strait between Newfoundland and Saint-Pierre and Cape Breton Island,104 km wide and 480 m deep at its deepest. The Strait of Canso between Cape Breton Island and the Nova Scotia peninsula,1.0 km wide and 60 m deep at its deepest. Due to the construction of the Canso Causeway across the strait in 1955, the limits of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence vary between sources. The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence as follows, Fisheries, St. Paul Island, Nova Scotia, off the northeastern tip of Cape Breton Island, is referred to as the Graveyard of the Gulf because of its many shipwrecks. Access to this island is controlled by the Canadian Coast Guard, the five provinces bordering the Gulf of Saint Lawrence also have several provincial parks apiece, some of which preserve coastal features. The Laurentian Channel is about 290 m deep and about 1,250 km long from the Continental Shelf to the mouth of the Saint Lawrence River. Deep waters with temperatures between 2 and 6.5 °C enter the Gulf at the slope and are slowly advected up the channel by estuariane circulation. Over the 20th century, the waters of the end of the channel have become hypoxic. The gulf has provided an important marine fishery for various First Nations that have lived on its shores for millennia. The first documented voyage by a European in its waters was by the French explorer Jacques Cartier in the year 1534. Cartier named the shores of the Saint Lawrence River The Country of Canadas, after a word meaning village or settlement. At just about the period, Basques came to frequent the area for whale-hunting and trade with the First Nations people of the modern Canadian Atlantic. They left vestiges of their presence in locations of the area—docks, furnaces, graveyards
31.
Barque
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A barque, barc, or bark is a type of sailing vessel with three or more masts having the fore- and mainmasts rigged square and only the mizzen rigged fore-and-aft. The word barque entered English via French, which in came from the Latin barca by way of Occitan. The Latin barca may stem from Celtic barc or Greek baris, the Oxford English Dictionary considers the latter improbable. The word barc appears to have come from Celtic languages, the form adopted by English, perhaps from Irish, was bark, while that adopted by Latin as barca very early, which gave rise to the French barge and barque. In Latin, Spanish and Italian the term refers to a small boat. French influence in England led to the use in English of both words, although their meanings now are not the same, well before the 19th century a barge had become interpreted as a small vessel of coastal or inland waters. Somewhat later, a became a sailing vessel of a distinctive rig as detailed below. In Britain, by the century, the spelling had taken on the French form of barque. Francis Bacon used this form of the word as early as 1592, throughout the period of sail, the word was used also as a shortening of the barca-longa of the Mediterranean Sea. The usual convention is that spelling barque refers to a ship and bark to tree hide, barcarole in music shares the same etymology, being originally a folk song sung by Venetian gondolier and derived from barca - boat in Italian. In the 18th century, the British Royal Navy used the bark for a nondescript vessel that did not fit any of its usual categories. She happened to be a sailing vessel with a plain bluff bow. Our Northern Mariners, who are trained in the coal-trade, apply this distinction to a broad-sterned ship, hon. the Earl of Sussex, Lord Deputy of Ireland. By the end of the 18th century, the term came to refer to any vessel with a particular type of sail-plan. This comprises three masts, fore-and-aft sails on the aftermost mast and square sails on all other masts, barques were the workhorse of the Golden Age of Sail in the mid-19th century as they attained passages that nearly matched full rigged ships but could operate with smaller crews. Conversely, the ship rig tended to be retained for training vessels where the larger the crew, another advantage is that a barque can outperform a schooner or barkentine, and is both easier to handle and better at going to windward than a full-rigged ship. Usually the main mast was the tallest, that of Moshulu extends to 58 m off the deck, the four-masted barque can be handled with a surprisingly small crew—at minimum, ten—and while the usual crew was around thirty, almost half of them could be apprentices. Today many sailing ships are barques
32.
Charles Tilston Bright
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Sir Charles Tilston Bright was a British electrical engineer who oversaw the laying of the first transatlantic telegraph cable in 1858, for which work he was knighted. Born on 8 June 1832 in Wanstead, Essex, Bright was educated at Merchant Taylors School, at fifteen he became a clerk for the Electric Telegraph Company and as his talent for electrical engineering became evident, he was appointed engineer to the Magnetic Telegraph Company in 1852. In that role he supervised the laying of lines in the British Isles and this work, and the successful laying of other submarine cables, suggested to others that it might be possible to lay a cable across the Atlantic from Ireland to North America. Samuel Canning supported the effort on board HMS Agamemnon, Bright was knighted in Dublin just a few days later. Sir Charles Bright emerged from the debacle with his reputation intact and went on to supervise the laying of successful cables in the Mediterranean, the Persian Gulf. Bright formed a partnership with Josiah Latimer Clark in 1861 and together they introduced numerous improvements in the manufacture, testing, in 1865 he was awarded a Telford Medal for a paper on the possibilities of submarine cable telegraphy from England to China and Australia. From 1865 to 1868 Bright was Liberal MP for Greenwich and in 1887 he was elected president of the Society of Telegraph Engineers, Bright died on 3 May 1888, at Abbey Wood, near London. His son Charles Bright was also a noted engineer and historian of the subject. Charles Tilston Brights son, also Charles Bright, followed in his fathers footsteps, in addition to cable engineering he was a pioneer in the use of radio as a communication device on both ships and planes. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1895, Charles Bright Leigh Rayments Historical List of MPs Notes Hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by Charles Tilston Bright Hounslow Guardian article
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Pound (mass)
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The pound or pound-mass is a unit of mass used in the imperial, United States customary and other systems of measurement. The international standard symbol for the pound is lb. The unit is descended from the Roman libra, the English word pound is cognate with, among others, German Pfund, Dutch pond, and Swedish pund. All ultimately derive from a borrowing into Proto-Germanic of the Latin expression lībra pondō, usage of the unqualified term pound reflects the historical conflation of mass and weight. This accounts for the modern distinguishing terms pound-mass and pound-force, the United States and countries of the Commonwealth of Nations agreed upon common definitions for the pound and the yard. Since 1 July 1959, the avoirdupois pound has been defined as exactly 0.45359237 kg. In the United Kingdom, the use of the pound was implemented in the Weights and Measures Act 1963.9144 metre exactly. An avoirdupois pound is equal to 16 avoirdupois ounces and to exactly 7,000 grains, the conversion factor between the kilogram and the international pound was therefore chosen to be divisible by 7, and an grain is thus equal to exactly 64.79891 milligrams. The US has not adopted the system despite many efforts to do so. Historically, in different parts of the world, at different points in time, and for different applications, the libra is an ancient Roman unit of mass that was equivalent to approximately 328.9 grams. It was divided into 12 unciae, or ounces, the libra is the origin of the abbreviation for pound, lb. A number of different definitions of the pound have historically used in Britain. Amongst these were the avoirdupois pound and the tower, merchants. Historically, the sterling was a tower pound of silver. In 1528, the standard was changed to the Troy pound, the avoirdupois pound, also known as the wool pound, first came into general use c. It was initially equal to 6992 troy grains, the pound avoirdupois was divided into 16 ounces. During the reign of Queen Elizabeth, the pound was redefined as 7,000 troy grains. Since then, the grain has often been a part of the avoirdupois system
34.
Nautical mile
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A nautical mile is a unit of measurement defined as exactly 1852 meters. Historically, it was defined as one minute of latitude, which is equivalent to one sixtieth of a degree of latitude. Today it is an SI derived unit, being rounded to a number of meters. The derived unit of speed is the knot, defined as one mile per hour. The geographical mile is the length of one minute of longitude along the Equator, there is no internationally agreed symbol. M is used as the abbreviation for the mile by the International Hydrographic Organization and by the International Bureau of Weights. NM is used by the International Civil Aviation Organization, nm is used by the U. S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Nmi is used by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, the word mile is from the Latin word for a thousand paces, mīlia. In 1617 the Dutch scientist Snell assessed the circumference of the Earth at 24,630 Roman miles, around that time British mathematician Edmund Gunter improved navigational tools including a new quadrant to determine latitude at sea. He reasoned that the lines of latitude could be used as the basis for a unit of measurement for distance, as one degree is 1/360 of a circle, one minute of arc is 1/21600 of a circle. These sexagesimal units originated in Babylonian astronomy, Gunter used Snells circumference to define a nautical mile as 6,080 feet, the length of one minute of arc at 48 degrees latitude.3 metres. Other countries measure the minute of arc at 45 degrees latitude, in 1929, the international nautical mile was defined by the First International Extraordinary Hydrographic Conference in Monaco as 1,852 meters. Imperial units and United States customary units used a definition of the nautical mile based on the Clarke Spheroid, the United States nautical mile was defined as 6,080.20 feet based in the Mendenhall Order foot of 1893. It was abandoned in favour of the nautical mile in 1954.181 meters. It was abandoned in 1970 and, legally, references to the unit are now converted to 1,853 meters. Conversion of units Orders of magnitude
35.
Gutta-percha
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Gutta-percha refers to trees of the genus Palaquium and the rigid natural latex produced from the sap of these trees, particularly from Palaquium gutta but also Isonandra gutta and Dichopsis gutta. The word gutta-percha comes from the name in Malay, getah perca. Scientifically classified in 1843, it was found to be a useful natural thermoplastic, in 1851,30,000 long cwt of gutta-percha was imported into Britain. During the second half of the 19th century, gutta-percha was used for domestic and industrial purposes. In particular, it was needed as insulation for underwater telegraph cables, which, according to author John Tully, led to unsustainable harvesting, the first European to discover this material was John Tradescant, who collected it in the far east in 1656. He named this material “Mazer wood”, dr. William Montgomerie, a medical officer in Indian service, introduced gutta-percha into practical use in the West. He was the first to appreciate the potential of material in medicine. Palaquium gutta trees are 5–30 m tall and up to 1 m in trunk diameter, the leaves are evergreen, alternate or spirally arranged, simple, entire, 8–25 cm long, glossy green above, and often yellow or glaucous below. The flowers are produced in clusters along the stems, each flower with a white corolla with four to seven acute lobes. The fruit is an ovoid 3– to 7-cm berry, containing one to four seeds, in many species, in Australia, gutta-percha is a common name specifically used for the tree Excoecaria parvifolia, which yields an aromatic, heavy, dark-brown timber. It is also called northern birch and this particular species is not related to the Palaquium genus. Chemically, gutta-percha is a polyterpene, a polymer of isoprene, or polyisoprene, the cis structure of polyisoprene is the common latex elastomer. While latex rubbers are amorphous in structure, gutta-percha crystallizes. The same bioinertness that made it suitable for marine cables also means it does not readily react within the human body and it is used in a variety of surgical devices and during root canal therapy. It is the predominant material used to obturate, or fill the empty space inside the root of a tooth after it has undergone endodontic therapy, Gutta-percha allows more bacterial leakage with endodontic surgery as compared to Resilon. Gutta-percha latex is biologically inert, resilient, and is an electrical insulator with a high dielectric strength. The wood of many species is also valuable, western inventors discovered the properties of gutta-percha latex in 1842, although the people of its Malayan habitat had used it for many applications for centuries. By 1845, telegraph wires insulated with gutta-percha were being manufactured in the UK and it served as the insulating material for early undersea telegraph cables, including the first transatlantic telegraph cable
36.
Jonathan Nash Hearder
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Jonathan Nash Hearder was a British electrical engineer, inventor, and educator. He is best known for his work in developing alternative experimental procedures for use by the blind and vision impaired, Hearder was born in Plymouth, Devon on 24 December 1809, the son of Jonathan Hearder and Mary Hannah Hearder. He was the eldest of four children, with one brother, Hearder became interested in science at an early age, despite his father being greatly averse to such pursuits. From the age of 17 Hearder gave lectures on topics of science at the Exeter Literary Institution and other societies, including the Plymouth Institution. He began a career as a schoolmaster, and was the first schoolmaster in Plymouth to include science as a subject in the school curriculum. In 1830, at the age of 23, Hearders vision was severely damaged during an explosion while experimenting with the explosive compound silver fulminate. It became Hearders practice to wear green spectacles to conceal his damaged eyes, following the damage to his eyes, Hearders school closed, and Hearder briefly turned to a secondary career in music. However, despite his vision impairment, Hearder continued lecturing and continued to work in experimental science and he began work on developing alternative experimental procedures which did not rely on visual cues. On 27 October 1837 Hearder married Susan Plimsaul and she died two years later in 1839. On 21 January 1840 he married his cousin Joanna Sleep Hearder, in 1838 Hearders father died and Hearder assumed control of his fathers umbrella-making business. He expanded the business to include the making of fishing tackle, according to the Royal Society of Chemistry he could prescribe the particular fly to be used for successful troutfishing in any month, and for any stream in Devonshire. In 1845 Hearder was appointed consulting electrician and galvanist to the South Devon, in 1846, Hearders mother died, aged 69, at the family house in Frankfort Street. Hearder reportedly had an excellent memory, and held a passion for matters connected with local antiquity and he was an active member of the Devonshire Association and the Royal Polytechnic Society. In 1871 Hearder reportedly received the degrees of PhD and DSc although it is not known which institution issued the qualifications, on 16 July 1876, at the age of 67, Hearder died of a sudden paralytic seizure while at 13 Princess Square, Plymouth. He was buried at Ford Park, Plymouth, throughout his life, Hearder undertook significant work on the development of the induction coil. Although the invention of the coil is generally attributed to Heinrich Ruhmkorff. Hearders son on one occasion vouched that he had conveyed his father to London to demonstrate a coil to Michael Faraday a full two years prior to the announcement of Ruhmkorffs design. This induction coil represented an improvement over Heinrich Ruhmkorffs more famous 1851 design, using one-third the wire
37.
Hemp
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Hemp or industrial hemp, typically found in the northern hemisphere, is a variety of the Cannabis sativa plant species that is grown specifically for the industrial uses of its derived products. It is one of the fastest growing plants and was one of the first plants to be spun into usable fiber 10,000 years ago. It can be refined into a variety of items including paper, textiles, clothing, biodegradable plastics, paint, insulation, biofuel, food. Hemp has lower concentrations of THC and higher concentrations of cannabidiol, the legality of industrial hemp varies widely between countries. Some governments regulate the concentration of THC and permit only hemp that is bred with an especially low THC content, then it appears to have been borrowed into Latin, and separately into Slavic and from there into Baltic, Finnish, and Germanic languages. Following Grimms law, the k would have changed to h with the first Germanic sound shift, after which it may have been adapted into the Old English form, hænep. Another possible source of origin is Assyrian qunnabu, which was the name for a source of oil, fiber, cognates of hemp in other Germanic languages, include Dutch hennep, Danish and Norwegian, hamp, German, hanf, and Swedish, hampa. Hemp is used to make a variety of commercial and industrial products including rope, clothes, food, paper, textiles, plastics, insulation, the inner two fibers of the plant are more woody and typically have industrial applications, such as mulch, animal bedding and litter. When oxidized, hemp oil from the seeds becomes solid and can be used in the manufacture of oil-based paints, in creams as an agent, for cooking. Hemp seeds have been used in bird feed mix as well, a survey in 2003 showed that more than 95% of hemp seed sold in the European Union was used in animal and bird feed. Hemp seeds can be raw, ground into a meal, sprouted. The leaves of the plant can be consumed raw in salads. Hemp can also be made into a liquid and used for baking or for such as hemp milk, hemp juice. Hempseed oil is cold-pressed from the seed and is high in unsaturated fatty acids. In 2011, the U. S. imported $11.5 million worth of products, mostly driven by growth in demand for hemp seed. In the U. S. imported hemp can be used legally in food products,100 grams of hulled hemp seeds supply 586 calories. They are 5% water, 5% carbohydrates, 49% total fat, Hemp seeds are notable in providing 64% of the Daily Value of protein per 100 gram serving. Hempseed amino acid profile is comparable to other sources of such as meat, milk, eggs
38.
Enderby's Wharf
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Enderbys Wharf is a wharf and industrial site on the south bank of the Thames in Greenwich, London, associated with Telcon and other companies. It has a history of more than 150 years of production of submarine cables and associated equipment. It covers an area of some 16 acres and has a frontage of around 600 feet, in 2010 a proposal was made to turn 3 acres of the river frontage of the site not in use by Alcatel into a cruise liner terminal and housing. The proposal received planning approval in 2011, subject to approval by the Greater London Authority, mayor Boris Johnson gave his approval to a revised application for a larger terminal in August 2015. At the London elections in 2016 the Conservative and Labour mayoral candidates joined their Green, the wharf was first developed commercially by the whaling company of Samuel Enderby & Sons. The site was first acquired by Samuel Enderby II, with Morden College assisting in the acquisition of the Naval Ammunition wharf, henry Vansitart before he became an Admiral did the initial wharf building along the River frontage. It was Samuel Enderby III who initially developed the site along with brothers Charles and George, Enderbys also built Enderby House in the early 1830s, this remains today as a listed building and part of the Alcatel works on the site. In 1857 submarine cable manufacturers Glass, Elliot & Co and W. T. Henley took over the site, in the 1860s Glass, Elliot was absorbed into the Telegraph Construction and Maintenance Company, which manufactured a second transatlantic telegraph cable at Enderbys Wharf. This was successfully laid by the SS Great Eastern, the company went on to manufacture many more transatlantic cables, and others to Australia, New Zealand, India, Hong Kong etc. In 1935 the site came into the ownership of the newly formed Submarine Cables Ltd, some of the cross-channel, D-Day Pluto pipeline was made at the wharf in World War 2. After ownership by BICC and AEI, in 1970 it passed to STC, manufacture of submarine cable at the site ended in 1975, and work concentrated on manufacture of optical repeaters and amplifiers. It subsequently passed to Northern Telecom and then to Alcatel in 1994, in 2006 Alcatel merged with US company Lucent to create Alcatel-Lucent. Since then Alcatel-Lucent has sold off a part of its site to Barratt Developments for a housing estate. Enderby House, the office building, is on the Barratt site. W. T. Henley Callenders Standard Telephones and Cables Siemens Brothers India Rubber, Gutta Percha and Telegraph Cable Company
39.
Greenwich
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Greenwich is an early-established district of todays London, England, centred 5.5 miles east south-east of Charing Cross. The town lends its name to the Royal Borough of Greenwich, Greenwich is generally described as being part of South-east London and sometimes as being part of East London. Greenwich is notable for its history and for giving its name to the Greenwich Meridian. The town became the site of a palace, the Palace of Placentia from the 15th century. The palace fell into disrepair during the English Civil War and was rebuilt as the Royal Naval Hospital for Sailors by Sir Christopher Wren and his assistant Nicholas Hawksmoor. These buildings became the Royal Naval College in 1873, and they remained an establishment for military education until 1998 when they passed into the hands of the Greenwich Foundation. The historic rooms within these buildings remain open to the public, other buildings are used by University of Greenwich and Trinity Laban Conservatoire of Music and Dance. The town became a resort in the 18th century and many grand houses were built there, such as Vanbrugh Castle established on Maze Hill. From the Georgian period estates of houses were constructed above the town centre, Greenwich formed part of Kent until 1889 when the County of London was created. The place-name Greenwich is first attested in a Saxon charter of 918 and it is recorded as Grenewic in 964, and as Grenawic in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for 1013. It is Grenviz in the Domesday Book of 1086, and Grenewych in the Taxatio Ecclesiastica of 1291, the name means green wic or settlement. An article in The Times of 13 October 1967 stated, East Greenwich, gateway to the Blackwall Tunnel, remains solidly working class, the manpower for one eighth of Londons heavy industry. West Greenwich is a hybrid, the spirit of Nelson, the Cutty Sark, the Maritime Museum, an industrial waterfront and a number of elegant houses, ripe for development. Royal charters granted to English colonists in North America, often used the name of the manor of East Greenwich for describing the tenure as that of free socage, New England charters provided that the grantees should hold their lands as of his Majesty’s manor of East Greenwich. Grants named the castle of Windsor, places in North America that have taken the name East Greenwich include a township in Gloucester County, New Jersey, a hamlet in Washington County, New York, and a town in Kent County, Rhode Island. Tumuli to the south-west of Flamsteed House, in Greenwich Park, are thought to be early Bronze Age barrows re-used by the Saxons in the 6th century as burial grounds, to the east between the Vanbrugh and Maze Hill Gates is the site of a Roman villa or temple. A small area of red paving tesserae protected by railings marks the spot and it was excavated in 1902 and 300 coins were found dating from the emperors Claudius and Honorius to the 5th century. This was excavated by the Channel 4 television programme Time Team in 1999, broadcast in 2000, the Roman road from London to Dover, Watling Street crossed the high ground to the south of Greenwich, through Blackheath
40.
Birkenhead
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Birkenhead /ˌbɜːrkənˈhɛd/ is a town within the Metropolitan Borough of Wirral in Merseyside, England. Historically in Cheshire, it is on the Wirral Peninsula, along the west bank of the River Mersey, the Birkenhead Urban Area defined as the contiguous built-up area along the eastern side of the Wirral had a total population of 325,264 in the 2011 Census. In the 2011 census, the Parliamentary constituency of Birkenhead had a population of 88,818, the Birkenhead and Tranmere electoral ward, covering a much smaller area, had a population of 15,879. The recorded history of Birkenhead began with the establishment of Birkenhead Priory, during the 19th century Birkenhead expanded greatly, becoming a town as a consequence of the Industrial Revolution, with Birkenhead Park and Hamilton Square being examples of the era. Around the same time, Birkenhead gained the first street tramway in Britain, later, the Mersey Railway connected Birkenhead and Liverpool, with the worlds first tunnel beneath a tidal estuary. Birkenhead is perhaps best known for the shipbuilding of Cammell Laird, in the second half of the 20th century, the town suffered a significant period of decline, with containerisation causing a reduction in port activity. During the first half of the 21st century, the Wirral Waters development is planned to regenerate much of the dockland. The name Birkenhead probably means headland overgrown with birch, from the Old English bircen meaning birch tree, the name is not derived from the Birket, a stream which enters the Mersey between Birkenhead and Seacombe. The Birket is a name which was introduced by Ordnance Survey. The earliest records state that the Mersey ferry began operating from Birkenhead in 1150, the priory was visited in 1275 and 1277 by Edward I. In a royal charter of 13 April 1330, Edward III granted the priory further rights, distanced from the Industrial Revolution in Liverpool by the physical barrier of the River Mersey, Birkenhead retained its agricultural status until the advent of steam ferry services. In 1817 a steam ferry service started from Liverpool to Tranmere and in 1822 the paddle steamer, Royal Mail, an iron works was initially established by William Laird in 1824 and was joined by his son John Laird in 1828. The business eventually became Cammell Laird, merchant vessels were also built such as RMS Mauretania and RMS Windsor Castle. The Mersey Railway tunnel opened in 1886, providing direct access to Liverpool. In September 1932 thousands of unemployed people protested in a series of demonstrations organised by the branch of the National Unemployed Workers Movement. After three days of rioting, police were brought in from elsewhere to help quell the rioters, in addition to the ferries and the railway, the Queensway road tunnel opened in 1934 and gave rapid access to Liverpool. This opened up the Wirral Peninsula for development, and prompted further growth of Birkenhead as an industrial centre. Bolstered by migration from rural Cheshire, southern Ireland and Wales, formerly a township in Bidston Parish of the Wirral Hundred, Birkenhead was incorporated as a municipal borough in 1877, and became a county borough with the passing of the Local Government Act 1888
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "article name needed". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
