1.
Seal (emblem)
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A seal is a device for making an impression in wax, clay, paper, or some other medium, including an embossment on paper, and is also the impression thus made. The original purpose was to authenticate a document, a wrapper for one such as a modern envelope, the seal-making device is also referred to as the seal matrix or die, the imprint it creates as the seal impression. In most traditional forms of dry seal the design on the matrix is in intaglio. The design on the impression will reverse that of the matrix and this will not be the case if paper is embossed from behind, where the matrix and impression read the same way, and both matrix and impression are in relief. However engraved gems were carved in relief, called cameo in this context. The process is essentially that of a mould and these pendent seal impressions dangled below the documents they authenticated, to which the attachment tag was sewn or otherwise attached. Some jurisdictions consider rubber stamps or specified signature-accompanying words such as seal or L. S. to be the equivalent of, i. e. an equally effective substitute for. In Europe, although coats of arms and heraldic badges may well feature in such contexts as well as on seals, the study of seals is known as sigillography or sphragistics. Seals were used in the earliest civilizations and are of importance in archaeology. In ancient Mesopotamia carved or engraved cylinder seals in stone or other materials were used and these could be rolled along to create an impression on clay, and used as labels on consignments of trade goods, or for other purposes. They are normally hollow and it is presumed that they were worn on a string or chain round the neck, many have only images, often very finely carved, with no writing, while others have both. From Ancient Egypt seals in the form of signet-rings, including some with the names of kings, have been found, recently, seals have come to light in South Arabia datable to the Himyarite age. One example shows a name written in Aramaic engraved in reverse so as to read correctly in the impression, from the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC until the Middle Ages, seals of various kinds were in production in the Aegean islands and mainland Greece. In the Early Minoan age these were formed of stone and ivory. By the Middle Minoan age a new set for seal forms, motifs, hard stone requires new rotary carving techniques. The Late Bronze Age is the par excellence of the lens-shaped seal and the seal ring. These were a luxury art form and became keenly collected. His collection fell as booty to Pompey the Great, who deposited it in a temple in Rome, engraved gems continued to be produced and collected until the 19th century
2.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
3.
Financial endowment
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A financial endowment is a donation of money or property to a nonprofit organization for the ongoing support of that organization. An endowment may come with stipulations regarding its usage, the total value of an institutions investments is often referred to as the institutions endowment and is typically organized as a public charity, private foundation, or trust. Among the institutions that commonly manage endowments are academic institutions, cultural institutions, service organizations, the earliest endowed chairs were those established by the Roman emperor and Stoic philosopher Marcus Aurelius in Athens in AD176. Aurelius created one endowed chair for each of the schools of philosophy, Platonism, Aristotelianism, Stoicism. Later, similar endowments were set up in other major cities of the Empire. Today, the University of Glasgow has fifteen Regius Professorships, private individuals soon adopted the practice of endowing professorships. Isaac Newton held the Lucasian Chair of Mathematics at Cambridge beginning in 1669, unrestricted endowment can be used in any way the recipient chooses to carry out its mission. Term endowment funds stipulate that all or part of the principal may be expended only after the expiration of a period of time or occurrence of a specified event. Quasi endowment funds must retain the purpose and intent as specified by the donor or source of the original funds, Endowment revenue can be restricted by donors to serve many purposes. Endowed professorships or scholarships restricted to a subject are common. Ignoring the restriction is called invading the endowment, but change of circumstance or financial duress like bankruptcy can preclude carrying out the donors intent. A court can alter the use of restricted endowment under a doctrine called cy-près meaning to find an alternative as near as possible to the donors intent, the restricted/unrestricted distinction focuses on the use of the funds, see quasi-endowment below for a distinction about whether principal can be spent. Academic institutions, such as colleges and universities, will control a endowment fund that finances a portion of the operating or capital requirements of the institution. In addition to an endowment fund, each university may also control a number of restricted endowments that are intended to fund specific areas within the institution. The most common examples are endowed professorships, and endowed scholarships or fellowships, in the United States, the endowment is often integral to the financial health of educational institutions. Alumni or friends of institutions sometimes contribute capital to the endowment, the endowment funding culture is strong in the United States and Canada but less pronounced overseas, with the exceptions of Cambridge and Oxford universities. Endowment funds have also created to support secondary and elementary school districts in several states in the United States. An endowed professorship is a position permanently paid for with the revenue from an endowment fund set up for that purpose
4.
Lexington, Kentucky
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Lexington, consolidated with Fayette County, is the second-largest city in Kentucky and the 61st largest in the United States. Known as the Horse Capital of the World, it is the heart of the states Bluegrass region, with a mayor-alderman form of government, it is one of two cities in Kentucky designated by the state as first-class, the other is the states largest city of Louisville. In the 2016 U. S. Census Estimate, the population was 318,449, anchoring a metropolitan area of 506,751 people. Lexington ranks tenth among US cities in college education rate, with 39. 5% of residents having at least a bachelors degree and this area of fertile soil and abundant wildlife was long occupied by varying tribes of Native Americans. European explorers began to trade with them but settlers did not come in force until the late 18th century, Lexington was founded by European Americans in June 1775, in what was then considered Fincastle County, Virginia,17 years before Kentucky became a state. A party of frontiersmen, led by William McConnell, camped on the Middle Fork of Elkhorn Creek at the site of the present-day McConnell Springs, upon hearing of the colonists victory in the Battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19,1775, they named their campsite Lexington. It was the first of what would be many American places to be named after the Massachusetts town, the risk of Indian attacks delayed permanent settlement for four years. In 1779, during the American Revolutionary War, Col. Robert Patterson and 25 companions came from Fort Harrod and they built cabins and a stockade, establishing a settlement known as Bryan Station. In 1780, Lexington was made the seat of Virginias newly organized Fayette County, colonists defended it against a British and allied Shawnee attack in 1782, during the last part of the American Revolutionary War. The town was chartered on May 6,1782, by an act of the Virginia General Assembly, the First African Baptist Church was founded c. 1790 by Peter Durrett, a Baptist preacher and slave held by Joseph Craig. Durrett helped guide The Travelling Church, a migration of several hundred pioneers led by the preacher Lewis Craig and Captain William Ellis from Orange County. It is the oldest black Baptist congregation in Kentucky and the third oldest in the United States, I would suppose it contains about five hundred dwelling houses, many of them elegant and three stories high. The country around Lexington for many miles in every direction, is equal in beauty and fertility to anything the imagination can paint and is already in a state of cultivation. Residents have fondly continued to refer to Lexington as The Athens of the West since Espys poem dedicated to the city, in the early 19th century, planter John Wesley Hunt became the first millionaire west of the Alleghenies. London Ferrill, second preacher of First African Baptist, was one of three clergy who stayed in the city to serve the suffering victims, additional cholera outbreaks occurred in 1848–49 and the early 1850s. Cholera was spread by using contaminated water supplies, but its transmission was not understood in those years. Often the wealthier people would flee town for outlying areas to try to avoid the spread of disease, planters held slaves for use as field hands, laborers, artisans, and domestic servants. In the city, slaves worked primarily as servants and artisans, although they also worked with merchants, shippers
5.
Kentucky
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Kentucky, officially the Commonwealth of Kentucky, is a state located in the east south-central region of the United States. Kentucky is one of four U. S. states constituted as a commonwealth, originally a part of Virginia, in 1792 Kentucky became the 15th state to join the Union. Kentucky is the 37th most extensive and the 26th most populous of the 50 United States, Kentucky is known as the Bluegrass State, a nickname based on the bluegrass found in many of its pastures due to the fertile soil. One of the regions in Kentucky is the Bluegrass Region in central Kentucky. In 1776, the counties of Virginia beyond the Appalachian Mountains became known as Kentucky County, the precise etymology of the name is uncertain, but likely based on an Iroquoian name meaning the meadow or the prairie. Kentucky is situated in the Upland South, a significant portion of eastern Kentucky is part of Appalachia. Kentucky borders seven states, from the Midwest and the Southeast, West Virginia lies to the east, Virginia to the southeast, Tennessee to the south, Missouri to the west, Illinois and Indiana to the northwest, and Ohio to the north and northeast. Only Missouri and Tennessee, both of which border eight states, touch more, Kentuckys northern border is formed by the Ohio River and its western border by the Mississippi River. The official state borders are based on the courses of the rivers as they existed when Kentucky became a state in 1792, for instance, northbound travelers on U. S.41 from Henderson, after crossing the Ohio River, will be in Kentucky for about two miles. Ellis Park, a racetrack, is located in this small piece of Kentucky. Waterworks Road is part of the land border between Indiana and Kentucky. Kentucky has a part known as Kentucky Bend, at the far west corner of the state. It exists as an exclave surrounded completely by Missouri and Tennessee, Road access to this small part of Kentucky on the Mississippi River requires a trip through Tennessee. The epicenter of the powerful 1811–12 New Madrid earthquakes was near this area, much of the outer Bluegrass is in the Eden Shale Hills area, made up of short, steep, and very narrow hills. The Jackson Purchase and western Pennyrile are home to several bald cypress/tupelo swamps, located within the southeastern interior portion of North America, Kentucky has a climate that can best be described as a humid subtropical climate. Temperatures in Kentucky usually range from daytime summer highs of 87 °F to the low of 23 °F. The average precipitation is 46 inches a year, Kentucky experiences four distinct seasons, with substantial variations in the severity of summer and winter. The highest recorded temperature was 114 °F at Greensburg on July 28,1930 while the lowest recorded temperature was −37 °F at Shelbyville on January 19,1994, due to its location, Kentucky has a moderate humid subtropical climate, with abundant rainfall
6.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
7.
NCAA Division III
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Sports Division III is a division of the National Collegiate Athletic Association of the United States. The division consists of colleges and universities that choose not to offer athletically related financial aid to their student-athletes, as explained in more detail in the article about NCAA Division II, the NCAAs first split was into two divisions. The former College Division formed because many NCAA member schools wanted an alternative to the nature of what is now Division I. Division III formed in 1973, in a split of the College Division, the former College Division members that chose to offer athletic scholarships or to remain in a division with those who did became Division II, while members that did not became Division III. Division III is the NCAA’s largest division with 438 active member institutions, of the member institutions, 81% are private, while only 19% are public. Division III schools range in size from an undergraduate enrollment of 348 to a maximum of 21,247. Division III institutions have to sponsor at least five sports for men and five for women, there are minimum contest and participant minimums for each sport. Division III athletic programs are non-revenue-generating, extracurricular programs that are staffed and funded like any other university department, hence, they feature student-athletes who receive no financial aid related to their athletic ability. Student athletes also cannot redshirt as freshmen, and schools may not use endowments or funds whose primary purpose is to benefit athletic programs, Division III schools shall not award financial aid to any student on the basis of athletics leadership, ability, participation or performance. The ban on scholarships is strictly enforced. S, an all-sports conference is defined here as one that sponsors both mens and womens basketball. A conference name followed by * denotes a conference also sponsors football. Six of them are grandfathered schools that have competed at the highest level of a particular mens sport prior to the institution of the Division classifications in 1971. Presumably due to Title IX considerations, grandfathered schools are allowed to field one womens sport in Division I. These schools are allowed to offer scholarships in their Division I mens and womens sports to remain competitive with their opponents. The State University of New York at Oneonta, which had been grandfathered in mens soccer, rutgers University–Newark, which had been grandfathered in mens volleyball, did the same in 2014. Academic-based and need-based financial aid is available, as is the case for Division III. Franklin and Marshall College Hobart College Massachusetts Institute of Technology MIT also fields mens rowing, lawrence continues to field a fencing team, but that team is now considered Division III. Football and basketball may not be grandfathered Division I programs because their potential would give them an unfair advantage over other Division III schools
8.
Heartland Collegiate Athletic Conference
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The Heartland Collegiate Athletic Conference is an intercollegiate athletic conference affiliated with the NCAAs Division III. Member institutions are located in Indiana, Kentucky and Ohio, although officially instituted during the 1998-1999 season, the HCAC actually traces its history to the formation of the Indiana Collegiate Athletic Conference in 1987. Original members of the HCAC included Anderson, Bluffton, Franklin, Hanover, Manchester, Mount St. Joseph, Wabash, of the ten current members, six were founding members of the former ICAC. Former members include DePauw, Taylor, Wabash, and Wilmington, Rose–Hulman Institute of Technology re-joined as of July 1,2006. The Indiana Collegiate Athletic Conference was formed in June 1987, with 1990-1991 being the first full season of competition, charter members in 1987 included Anderson University, DePauw University, Franklin College, Hanover College, Manchester College, and Wabash College. Rose–Hulman Institute of Technology and Taylor University later joined in 1988, the addition of three Ohio schools and the departure of two Indiana schools during the 1998-1999 season prompted a change in name to Heartland Collegiate Athletic Conference. Wabash and Wilmington later departed in the 1998-99 and 1999-2000 seasons respectively, Rose–Hulman would re-join the HCAC, effectively for the 2006-07 season. The most recent expansion was when Earlham College of Richmond, Indiana was accepted as the 10th member of the conference in October 2009 to begin competition in the fall of 2010, all of the conferences members throughout its history have been private schools. All have a religious affiliation except current member Rose-Hulman and former member Wabash, note Rose–Hulman left the HCAC following the end of the 1997-98 season, but returned in the 2006-07 season. Note Wabash left the HCAC for all-sports after the 1998-99 season except for football
9.
Ohio Athletic Conference
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The Ohio Athletic Conference was formed in 1902 and is the third oldest athletic conference in the United States. Its current commissioner is Tim Gleason, the Ohio Athletic Conference competes in the NCAAs Division III. Through the years,31 schools have been members of the OAC, the enrollments of the current ten member institutions range from around 1,000 to 4,500. Member teams are located in Ohio, the OAC currently has 10 members
10.
Transylvania University
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Transylvania University is a private university in Lexington, Kentucky, United States. It was founded in 1780, making it the first university in Kentucky and it offers 36 major programs, as well as dual-degree engineering programs, and is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. Its medical program graduated 8,000 physicians by 1859 and its enduring footprint, both in national and southern academia, make it among the most prolific cultural establishments and the most storied institutions in the South. Transylvania was the first college west of the Allegheny Mountains, and was the namesake of the Colony of Transylvania, Latin for across the woods, Thomas Jefferson was governor of Virginia when the Virginia Assembly chartered Transylvania Seminary in 1780. Called Transylvania University by 1799, its first sponsor was the Christ Episcopal Churchs rector, the school later became affiliated with the Presbyterian Church. Originally situated in a log cabin in Boyle County, Kentucky, the first site in Lexington was a single building in what is now the historic Gratz Park. By 1818, a new building was constructed for students classes. Later, in 1829, that burned, and the school was moved to its present location north of Third Street. Old Morrison, the campus building at the time, was constructed 1830–34, under the supervision of Henry Clay. After 1818, the university included a school, a law school, a divinity school. This school was not affiliated with the modern University of Kentucky, founded by Baptist churches in Kentucky, Bacon College operated from 1837 to 1851. It was also distinct from nearby Georgetown College, another Baptist-supported institution and this school closed in 1860 and its Harrodsburg building burned in 1864. By mutual agreement and an act of the legislature the college was merged with Transylvania University in 1865. It attracted many politically ambitious young men including Stephen F. Austin, following the devastating Civil War, Kentucky University was hit by a major fire, and both it and Transylvania University were left in dire financial straits. In 1865, both institutions secured permission to merge, the new institution used Transylvanias campus in Lexington while perpetuating the Kentucky University name. However, due to questions regarding having a federally funded land-grant college controlled by a religious body, the A&M of Kentucky soon developed into one of the states flagship public universities, the University of Kentucky. Kentucky Universitys College of the Bible, which traced its roots to Bacon Colleges Department of Hebrew Literature, Transylvanias seminary eventually became a separate institution, but remained housed on the Kentucky University campus until 1950. It later changed its name to the Lexington Theological Seminary, in 1903, Hamilton College, a Lexington-based womens college founded in 1869, merged into Kentucky University
11.
Southern Association of Colleges and Schools
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This agency accredits over 13,000 public and private educational institutions ranging from preschool to college level in the Southern United States. Its headquarters are in North Druid Hills, Georgia, near Decatur, there are a number of affiliate organizations within the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. One affiliate organization is the Southern Association of Community, Junior, the reports include specific public sanctions of schools and statements disclosing why those institutions have been placed on sanction. The Commission on Colleges accredits both public and private institutions of education in the United States, including some community colleges as well as four-year institutions. As a regional accreditor, SACSCOC accreditation extends to all of the programs offered at the accredited institution. The SACSCOC has also accredited the American University in Dubai, SACS CASI accredits over 13,000 primary, middle, and secondary schools, as well as school systems located in the SACS region. In 2006, AdvancED was established with the unification of SACS CASI, NCA CASI, today, SACS CASI acts as an accreditation division of AdvancED. List of recognized accreditation associations of higher learning Official website
12.
Transylvania Colony
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The Transylvania Colony was a short-lived, extra-legal colony founded during 1775 by land speculator Richard Henderson, who controlled the North Carolina-based Transylvania Company. To further complicate matters, this early American frontier land was claimed at the same time by both the Province of Virginia and the North Carolina colony. The Transylvania Colony was primarily located in what is now the central, the American pioneer and frontier explorer Daniel Boone was hired by Henderson to establish the Wilderness Road going through the Cumberland Gap and into southeastern Kentucky. Transylvania officially ceased to exist as a government entity in 1776 when the Virginia General Assembly invalidated the Transylvania Purchase, in the 1768 Treaty of Fort Stanwix, the Iroquois ceded their claims on lands south of the Ohio River to the Kingdom of Great Britain. Although they claimed sovereignty over much of what is now Kentucky, the Iroquois did not actually there, as did their nominal vassal. In addition, the Cherokee to the south and east used much of the area as their hunting grounds. The Shawnee, however, had not conducted a boundary agreement with the colonies since 1758 at the Treaty of Easton, consequently, they began to attack frontier settlers moving into the region. This led to Lord Dunmores War, fought in 1774, primarily between the Shawnee and the Province of Virginia, the Shawnee lost this brief war and their chief Cornstalk ceded all their claims south of the Ohio River, including Kentucky. On 27 August 1774, Richard Henderson, a judge from North Carolina, originally called Richard Henderson and Company, the company name was first changed to the Louisa Company, and finally to the Transylvania Company on January 6,1775. In March 1775, Richard Henderson and Daniel Boone met with more than 1,200 Cherokee at Sycamore Shoals, present were Cherokee leaders such as Attakullakulla and Oconostota. The land thus delineated,20 million acres, encompassed an area half the size of present-day Kentucky, Henderson and his partners probably believed that a recent British legal opinion, the Camden-Yorke opinion, had made such purchases legal. Prior to the signing of the Sycamore Shoals Treaty, Henderson had hired Daniel Boone, Boone had been in southeast Kentucky long before the founding of any Kentucky settlements. Afterward, Boone was hired to blaze what became known as the Wilderness Road, during this trail-blazing expedition, Boone and his party suffered several Indian attacks. Along with a party of thirty workers, Boone marked a path to the Kentucky River, where he established Boonesborough. Unknown to Boone, Henderson led another expedition following in Boones tracks, in addition to Boonesborough, other settlements, notably Harrodsburg, were established at this time. Many of these settlers had come to Kentucky on their own initiative, when Henderson arrived at Boonesborough fewer than a hundred people resided there. This population and a few settlements in the area constituted the sparse concentration of white settlers in the isolated western wilderness. The settlers recognized their precarious situation and they not only faced significant Indian hostilities, but lacked adequate supplies and shelter
13.
Alma mater
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Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
14.
Vice President of the United States
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The executive power of both the vice president and the president is granted under Article Two, Section One of the Constitution. The vice president is elected, together with the president. The Office of the Vice President of the United States assists, as the president of the United States Senate, the vice president votes only when it is necessary to break a tie. Additionally, pursuant to the Twelfth Amendment, the president presides over the joint session of Congress when it convenes to count the vote of the Electoral College. Currently, the president is usually seen as an integral part of a presidents administration. The Constitution does not expressly assign the office to any one branch, causing a dispute among scholars whether it belongs to the executive branch, the legislative branch, or both. The modern view of the president as a member of the executive branch is due in part to the assignment of executive duties to the vice president by either the president or Congress. Mike Pence of Indiana is the 48th and current vice president and he assumed office on January 20,2017. The formation of the office of vice president resulted directly from the compromise reached at the Philadelphia Convention which created the Electoral College, the delegates at Philadelphia agreed that each state would receive a number of presidential electors equal to the sum of that states allocation of Representatives and Senators. The delegates assumed that electors would typically choose to favor any candidate from their state over candidates from other states, under a plurality election process, this would tend to result in electing candidates solely from the largest states. Consequently, the delegates agreed that presidents must be elected by a majority of the number of electors. To guard against such stratagems, the Philadelphia delegates specified that the first runner-up presidential candidate would become vice president, the process for selecting the vice president was later modified in the Twelfth Amendment. Each elector still receives two votes, but now one of those votes is for president, while the other is for vice president. The requirement that one of those votes be cast for a candidate not from the electors own state remains in effect. S, other statutorily granted roles include membership of both the National Security Council and the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. As President of the Senate, the president has two primary duties, to cast a vote in the event of a Senate deadlock and to preside over. For example, in the first half of 2001, the Senators were divided 50-50 between Republicans and Democrats and Dick Cheneys tie-breaking vote gave the Republicans the Senate majority, as President of the Senate, the vice president oversees procedural matters and may cast a tie-breaking vote. As President of the Senate, John Adams cast 29 tie-breaking votes that was surpassed by John C. Calhoun with 31. Adamss votes protected the presidents sole authority over the removal of appointees, influenced the location of the national capital, on at least one occasion Adams persuaded senators to vote against legislation he opposed, and he frequently addressed the Senate on procedural and policy matters
15.
Supreme Court of the United States
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The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court of the United States. In the legal system of the United States, the Supreme Court is the interpreter of federal constitutional law. The Court normally consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight justices who are nominated by the President. Once appointed, justices have life tenure unless they resign, retire, in modern discourse, the justices are often categorized as having conservative, moderate, or liberal philosophies of law and of judicial interpretation. Each justice has one vote, and while many cases are decided unanimously, the Court meets in the United States Supreme Court Building in Washington, D. C. The Supreme Court is sometimes referred to as SCOTUS, in analogy to other acronyms such as POTUS. The ratification of the United States Constitution established the Supreme Court in 1789 and its powers are detailed in Article Three of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is the court specifically established by the Constitution. The Court first convened on February 2,1790, by which five of its six initial positions had been filled. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, in its first session, he Supreme Court convened for the first time at the Royal Exchange Building on Broad Street and they had no cases to consider. After a week of inactivity, they adjourned until September, the sixth member was not confirmed until May 12,1790. Because the full Court had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was made by two-thirds. However, Congress has always allowed less than the Courts full membership to make decisions, under Chief Justices Jay, Rutledge, and Ellsworth, the Court heard few cases, its first decision was West v. Barnes, a case involving a procedural issue. The Courts power and prestige grew substantially during the Marshall Court, the Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion seriatim, a remnant of British tradition, and instead issuing a single majority opinion. Also during Marshalls tenure, although beyond the Courts control, the impeachment, the Taney Court made several important rulings, such as Sheldon v. Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford, which helped precipitate the Civil War. In the Reconstruction era, the Chase, Waite, and Fuller Courts interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution, during World War II, the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens and the mandatory pledge of allegiance. Nevertheless, Gobitis was soon repudiated, and the Steel Seizure Case restricted the pro-government trend, the Warren Court dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional civil liberties. It held that segregation in public schools violates equal protection and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote
16.
United States Senate
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The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the House of Representatives, the lower chamber, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. S. From 1789 until 1913, Senators were appointed by the legislatures of the states represented, following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. The Senate chamber is located in the wing of the Capitol, in Washington. It further has the responsibility of conducting trials of those impeached by the House, in the early 20th century, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began, although they are not constitutional officers. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise, there was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a Peoples House directly elected by the people, the other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Senate was thus not designed to serve the people of the United States equally, the Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation. First convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate, the name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders. James Madison made the comment about the Senate, In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people. An agrarian law would take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation, landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority, the senate, therefore, ought to be this body, and to answer these purposes, the people ought to have permanency and stability. The Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that states consent, the District of Columbia and all other territories are not entitled to representation in either House of the Congress. The District of Columbia elects two senators, but they are officials of the D. C. city government. The United States has had 50 states since 1959, thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming and this means some citizens are effectively two orders of magnitude better represented in the Senate than those in other states. Seats in the House of Representatives are approximately proportionate to the population of each state, before the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, Senators were elected by the individual state legislatures
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United States House of Representatives
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The United States House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the Senate, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the House are established by Article One of the United States Constitution, since its inception in 1789, all representatives are elected popularly. The total number of voting representatives is fixed by law at 435, the House is charged with the passage of federal legislation, known as bills, which, after concurrence by the Senate, are sent to the President for consideration. The presiding officer is the Speaker of the House, who is elected by the members thereof and is traditionally the leader of the controlling party. He or she and other leaders are chosen by the Democratic Caucus or the Republican Conferences. The House meets in the wing of the United States Capitol. Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress of the Confederation was a body in which each state was equally represented. All states except Rhode Island agreed to send delegates, the issue of how to structure Congress was one of the most divisive among the founders during the Convention. The House is referred to as the house, with the Senate being the upper house. Both houses approval is necessary for the passage of legislation, the Virginia Plan drew the support of delegates from large states such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, as it called for representation based on population. The smaller states, however, favored the New Jersey Plan, the Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states in 1788, but its implementation was set for March 4,1789. The House began work on April 1,1789, when it achieved a quorum for the first time, during the first half of the 19th century, the House was frequently in conflict with the Senate over regionally divisive issues, including slavery. The North was much more populous than the South, and therefore dominated the House of Representatives, However, the North held no such advantage in the Senate, where the equal representation of states prevailed. Regional conflict was most pronounced over the issue of slavery, One example of a provision repeatedly supported by the House but blocked by the Senate was the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in the land gained during the Mexican–American War. Conflict over slavery and other issues persisted until the Civil War, the war culminated in the Souths defeat and in the abolition of slavery. Because all southern senators except Andrew Johnson resigned their seats at the beginning of the war, the years of Reconstruction that followed witnessed large majorities for the Republican Party, which many Americans associated with the Unions victory in the Civil War and the ending of slavery. The Reconstruction period ended in about 1877, the ensuing era, the Democratic and the Republican Party held majorities in the House at various times. The late 19th and early 20th centuries also saw an increase in the power of the Speaker of the House
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President of the Confederate States of America
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The President of the Confederate States of America was the elected head of state and government of the Confederate States. The president also headed the branch of government and was commander-in-chief of the Army and Navy. Article II of the Confederate States Constitution vested the power of the Confederacy in the president. He was further empowered to grant reprieves and pardons, and convene, on February 18,1861, Jefferson Davis became president of the provisional government. On February 22,1862, he became president of the permanent government, the constitutional powers of the President of the Confederate States of America were similar to those of the President of the United States of America. The permanent Confederate States Constitution made him commander-in-chief of the Army and Navy and he was also empowered to grant reprieves and pardons for offenses against the Confederate States. He could fill vacancies during a recess of the Senate, but he could not reappoint, during a recess, on February 9,1861, the provisional congress at Montgomery unanimously elected Jefferson Davis president and Alexander H. Stephens vice president. Stephens, who was a delegate to Congress from Georgia, was inaugurated on February 11, Davis was inaugurated on February 18 upon his arrival from Mississippi, where he had gone upon his resignation from the U. S. Senate. Davis and Stephens were elected on November 6,1861, for six-years terms, the Capital had been moved in June 1861, to Richmond, and the inauguration took place at the statue of Washington, on the public square, on February 22,1862. In 1861, the President of the Confederate States earned a CS$25,000 annual salary, along with an account. The Presidents Office was located on the floor of the Custom House on Main Street, a structure which also housed the Cabinet Room. The City of Richmond purchased the Brockenbrough house for presentation to the Confederate government for use as an executive mansion, Davis declined to accept the gift, but the mansion was leased for his use. Referred to as the White House of the Confederacy or the Grey House, later it became a repository for documents, relics, and pictures, and in 1896 it was redesignated the Confederate Museum. Late on the evening of April 2,1865, President Davis, his aides, the Cabinet stayed at Danville,140 miles southwest of Richmond, until April 10, when, hearing of Lees surrender, it continued farther south. At Greensboro, North Carolina, on April 12 the Cabinet met with Generals Johnston and Beauregard, as the railroad south of Greensboro had been destroyed, the flight from that location was on horseback and in ambulances, wagons, and carriages. The last Cabinet meetings took place at Charlotte, on April 24, and 26, and on May 4, when Davis left Washington, Georgia, elements of the United States Cavalry captured Davis and his companions at an encampment near Irwinville, May 10,1865. Jefferson Davis was imprisoned at Fort Monroe, Virginia, until his release on bail on May 13,1867, during his confinement the United States Government prepared to bring him to trial for treason and for complicity in the assassination of United States President Abraham Lincoln. In November 1868 Davis was brought to trial under a new indictment, but the judges disagreed, President Johnson issued a general amnesty in December 1868, and the Supreme Court entered a nolle prosequi, thus freeing Davis
19.
Southern United States
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The Southern United States, commonly referred to as the American South, Dixie, or simply the South, is a region of the United States of America. The South does not fully match the geographic south of the United States, arizona and New Mexico, which are geographically in the southern part of the country, are rarely considered part, while West Virginia, which separated from Virginia in 1863, commonly is. Some scholars have proposed definitions of the South that do not coincide neatly with state boundaries, while the states of Delaware and Maryland, as well as the District of Columbia permitted slavery prior to the start of the Civil War, they remained with the Union. However, the United States Census Bureau puts them in the South, usually, the South is defined as including the southeastern and south-central United States. The region is known for its culture and history, having developed its own customs, musical styles, and cuisines, the Southern ethnic heritage is diverse and includes strong European, African, and some Native American components. Since the late 1960s, black people have many offices in Southern states, especially in the coastal states of Virginia. Historically, the South relied heavily on agriculture, and was rural until after 1945. It has since become more industrialized and urban and has attracted national and international migrants, the American South is now among the fastest-growing areas in the United States. Houston is the largest city in the Southern United States, sociological research indicates that Southern collective identity stems from political, demographic, and cultural distinctiveness from the rest of the United States. The region contains almost all of the Bible Belt, an area of high Protestant church attendance and predominantly conservative, indeed, studies have shown that Southerners are more conservative than non-Southerners in several areas, including religion, morality, international relations and race relations. Apart from its climate, the experience in the South increasingly resembles the rest of the nation. The arrival of millions of Northerners and millions of Hispanics meant the introduction of cultural values, the process has worked both ways, however, with aspects of Southern culture spreading throughout a greater portion of the rest of the United States in a process termed Southernization. The question of how to define the subregions in the South has been the focus of research for nearly a century, as defined by the United States Census Bureau, the Southern region of the United States includes sixteen states. As of 2010, an estimated 114,555,744 people, or thirty-seven percent of all U. S. residents, lived in the South, the nations most populous region. Other terms related to the South include, The Old South, the New South, usually including the South Atlantic States. The Solid South, region largely controlled by the Democratic Party from 1877 to 1964, before that, blacks were elected to national office and many to local office through the 1880s, Populist-Republican coalitions gained victories for Fusionist candidates for governors in the 1890s. Includes at least all the 11 former Confederate States, Southeastern United States, usually including the Carolinas, the Virginias, Tennessee, Kentucky, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Florida. The Deep South, various definitions, usually including Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia, occasionally, parts of adjoining states are included
20.
Allegheny Mountains
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The Alleghenies comprise the rugged western-central portion of the Appalachians. They rise to approximately 4,862 feet in northeastern West Virginia, in the east, they are dominated by a high, steep escarpment known as the Allegheny Front. In the west, they slope down into the closely associated Allegheny Plateau which extends into Ohio, the principal settlements of the Alleghenies are Altoona, State College, and Johnstown, Pennsylvania, and Cumberland, Maryland. The name is derived from the Allegheny River, which only a small portion of the Alleghenies in west-central Pennsylvania. The meaning of the word, which comes from the Lenape Indians, is not definitively known but is translated as fine river. A Lenape legend tells of an ancient tribe called the Allegewi who lived on the river and were defeated by the Lenape, Allegheny is the early French spelling, and Allegany is closer to the early English spelling. The word Allegheny was once used to refer to the whole of what are now called the Appalachian Mountains. John Norton used it around 1810 to refer to the mountains in Tennessee, around the same time, Washington Irving proposed renaming the United States either Appalachia or Alleghania. In 1861, Arnold Henry Guyot published the first systematic study of the whole mountain range. His map labeled the range as the Alleghanies, but his book was titled On the Appalachian Mountain System, as late as 1867, John Muir—in his book A Thousand Mile Walk to the Gulf—used the word Alleghanies in referring to the southern Appalachians. There was no agreement about the Appalachians versus the Alleghanies until the late 19th century. From northeast to southwest, the Allegheny Mountains run about 400 miles, from west to east, at their widest, they are about 100 miles. To the west, the Alleghenies grade down into the dissected Allegheny Plateau, the westernmost ridges are considered to be the Laurel and Chestnut Ridges in Pennsylvania and Laurel and Rich Mountains in West Virginia. The mountains to the south of the Alleghenies—the Appalachians in westernmost Virginia, eastern Kentucky, the Alleghenies and the Cumberlands both constitute part of the Ridge and Valley Province of the Appalachians. The eastern edge of the Alleghenies is marked by the Allegheny Front and this great escarpment roughly follows a portion of the Eastern Continental Divide in this area. A number of gorges and valleys drain the Alleghenies, to the east, Smoke Hole Canyon, and to the west the New River Gorge. Thus, about half the precipitation falling on the Alleghenies makes its way west to the Mississippi and half goes east to Chesapeake Bay, the highest ridges of the Alleghenies are just west of the Front, which has an east/west elevational change of up to 3,000 feet. Absolute elevations of the Allegheny Highlands reach nearly 5,000 feet, the highest point in the Allegheny Mountains is Spruce Knob, on Spruce Mountain in West Virginia
21.
Thomas Jefferson
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Thomas Jefferson was an American Founding Father who was the principal author of the Declaration of Independence and later served as the third President of the United States from 1801 to 1809. Previously, he was elected the second Vice President of the United States, Jefferson was primarily of English ancestry, born and educated in colonial Virginia. He graduated from the College of William & Mary and briefly practiced law and he became the United States Minister to France in May 1785, and subsequently the nations first Secretary of State in 1790–1793 under President George Washington. Jefferson and James Madison organized the Democratic-Republican Party to oppose the Federalist Party during the formation of the First Party System, as President, Jefferson pursued the nations shipping and trade interests against Barbary pirates and aggressive British trade policies. He also organized the Louisiana Purchase, almost doubling the countrys territory, as a result of peace negotiations with France, his administration reduced military forces. Jeffersons second term was beset with difficulties at home, including the trial of former Vice President Aaron Burr, American foreign trade was diminished when Jefferson implemented the Embargo Act of 1807, responding to British threats to U. S. shipping. In 1803, Jefferson began a process of Indian tribe removal to the newly organized Louisiana Territory. Jefferson mastered many disciplines, which ranged from surveying and mathematics to horticulture and he was a proven architect in the classical tradition. Jeffersons keen interest in religion and philosophy earned him the presidency of the American Philosophical Society and he shunned organized religion, but was influenced by both Christianity and deism. He was well versed in linguistics and spoke several languages and he founded the University of Virginia after retiring from public office. He was a letter writer and corresponded with many prominent and important people throughout his adult life. His only full-length book is Notes on the State of Virginia, Jefferson owned several plantations which were worked by hundreds of slaves. Most historians now believe that, after the death of his wife in 1782, he had a relationship with his slave Sally Hemings and fathered at least one of her children. Various modern scholars are more critical of Jeffersons private life, pointing out the discrepancy between his ownership of slaves and his political principles, for example. Presidential scholars, however, consistently rank Jefferson among the greatest presidents, Thomas Jefferson was born on April 13,1743, at the family home in Shadwell in the Colony of Virginia, the third of ten children. He was of English and possibly Welsh descent and was born a British subject and his father Peter Jefferson was a planter and surveyor who died when Jefferson was fourteen, his mother was Jane Randolph. Peter Jefferson moved his family to Tuckahoe Plantation in 1745 upon the death of a friend who had named him guardian of his children, the Jeffersons returned to Shadwell in 1752, where Peter died in 1757, his estate was divided between his sons Thomas and Randolph. Thomas inherited approximately 5,000 acres of land, including Monticello and he assumed full authority over his property at age 21
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Virginia General Assembly
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The Virginia General Assembly is the legislative body of the Commonwealth of Virginia, and the oldest continuous law-making body in the New World, established on July 30,1619. The General Assembly is a body consisting of a lower house, the Virginia House of Delegates, with 100 members, and an upper house. Combined together, the General Assembly consists of 140 elected representatives from a number of constituent districts across the commonwealth. The House of Delegates is presided over by the Speaker of the House, the House and Senate each elect a clerk and sergeant-at-arms. The Senate of Virginias clerk is known as the Clerk of the Senate, the Republican Party currently holds the majority in both the House of Delegates and the Senate. The General Assembly meets in Virginias capital of Richmond, when sitting in Richmond, the General Assembly holds sessions in the Virginia State Capitol, designed by Thomas Jefferson in 1788 and expanded in 1904. During the American Civil War, the building was used as the capitol of the Confederate States of America, the building was renovated between 2005 and 2006. Senators and Delegates have their offices in the General Assembly Building across the street north of the Capitol. The Governor of Virginia lives across the street directly east of the Capitol in the Virginia Executive Mansion, the Virginia General Assembly is described as the oldest continuous law-making body in the New World. Its existence dates from the establishment of the Virginia Governors Council, at various times it may have been referred to as the Grand Assembly of Virginia. The General Assembly met in Jamestown from 1619 until 1699, when it moved to Williamsburg, Virginia and it became the General Assembly in 1776 with the ratification of the Virginia Constitution. The government was moved to Richmond in 1780 during the administration of Governor Thomas Jefferson, the annual salary for senators is $18,000. The annual salary for delegates is $17,640, under the Constitution, a senator or delegate who moves his residence from the district for which he is elected shall thereby vacate his office. Article II, section 6 on apportionment states, Members of the, Senate and of the House of Delegates of the General Assembly shall be elected from electoral districts established by the General Assembly. The Redistricting Coalition of Virginia proposes either an independent commission or a commission that is not polarized. Member organizations include the League of Women Voters of Virginia, AARP of Virginia, OneVirginia2021, the Virginia Chamber of Commerce, Governor Bob McDonnells Independent Bipartisan Advisory Commission on Redistricting for the Commonwealth of Virginia made its report on April 1,2011. It made two recommendations for state legislative house that showed maps of districts more compact and contiguous than those adopted by the General Assembly. In 2011, the Virginia College and University Redistricting Competition was organized by Professors Michael McDonald of George Mason University, about 150 students on sixteen teams from thirteen schools submitted plans for legislative and U. S
23.
Episcopal Church (United States)
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The Episcopal Church is the United States-based member church of the worldwide Anglican Communion. The current presiding bishop of the Episcopal Church is Michael Bruce Curry, in 2014, the Episcopal Church had 1,956,042 baptized members. In 2011, it was the nations 14th largest denomination, in 2015, Pew Research estimated that 1.2 percent of the adult population in the United States, or 3 million people, self-identify as mainline Episcopalians/Anglicans. The Episcopal Church describes itself as Protestant, yet Catholic, the Episcopal Church is an apostolic church, tracing its bishops back to the apostles via holy orders. The Book of Common Prayer, a collection of traditional rites, blessings, liturgies, the Episcopal Church was active in the Social Gospel movement of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Since the 1960s and 1970s, the church has pursued a more liberal course. It has opposed the death penalty and supported the civil rights movement, some of its leaders and priests are known for marching with influential civil rights demonstrators such as Martin Luther King Jr. The Church calls for the legal equality of gay and lesbian people. Due to the process of editing or making additions to the Prayer Book, the BCP still describes marriage as being the union of a man. The Episcopal Church ordains women and LGBT people to the priesthood, the diaconate, in 2003, Gene Robinson was the first non-celibate openly gay person ordained as a bishop in documented Christian history. There are two names of the Episcopal Church specified in its constitution, The Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America. The latter is the commonly used name. In other languages, an equivalent is used, until 1964, the only official name in use was The Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America. In the 19th century, High Church members advocated changing the name and they were opposed by the churchs evangelical wing, which felt that the Protestant Episcopal label accurately reflected the Reformed character of Anglicanism. After 1877, alternative names were proposed and rejected by the General Convention. A commonly proposed alternative was the American Catholic Church, by the 1960s, opposition to dropping the word Protestant had largely subsided. The 66th General Convention voted in 1979 to use the name The Episcopal Church in the Oath of Conformity of the Declaration for Ordination, the evolution of the name can be seen in the churchs Book of Common Prayer. The alternate name The Episcopal Church in the United States of America has never been a name of the church but is commonly seen in English
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Presbyterianism
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Presbyterianism is a part of the Reformed tradition within Protestantism which traces its origins to the British Isles, particularly Scotland. Presbyterian churches derive their name from the form of church government. Presbyterian theology typically emphasizes the sovereignty of God, the authority of the Scriptures, Presbyterian church government was ensured in Scotland by the Acts of Union in 1707 which created the Kingdom of Great Britain. In fact, most Presbyterians found in England can trace a Scottish connection, the Presbyterian denominations in Scotland hold to the theology of John Calvin and his immediate successors, although there are a range of theological views within contemporary Presbyterianism. The roots of Presbyterianism lie in the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century, most Reformed churches which trace their history back to Scotland are either presbyterian or congregationalist in government. In the twentieth century, some Presbyterians played an important role in the ecumenical movement, many Presbyterian denominations have found ways of working together with other Reformed denominations and Christians of other traditions, especially in the World Communion of Reformed Churches. Some Presbyterian churches have entered into unions with other churches, such as Congregationalists, Lutherans, Anglicans, Presbyterian history is part of the history of Christianity, but the beginning of Presbyterianism as a distinct movement occurred during the 16th-century Protestant Reformation. As the Catholic Church resisted the reformers, several different theological movements splintered from the Church, the Presbyterian church traces its ancestry back primarily to England and Scotland. In August 1560 the Parliament of Scotland adopted the Scots Confession as the creed of the Scottish Kingdom, Presbyterians distinguish themselves from other denominations by doctrine, institutional organization and worship, often using a Book of Order to regulate common practice and order. The origins of the Presbyterian churches are in Calvinism, many branches of Presbyterianism are remnants of previous splits from larger groups. Presbyterians place great importance upon education and lifelong learning, Presbyterian government is by councils of elders. Teaching and ruling elders are ordained and convene in the lowest council known as a session or consistory responsible for the discipline, nurture, teaching elders have responsibility for teaching, worship, and performing sacraments. Pastors are called by individual congregations, a congregation issues a call for the pastors service, but this call must be ratified by the local presbytery. Ruling elders are usually laymen who are elected by the congregation and ordained to serve with the elders, assuming responsibility for nurture. Often, especially in larger congregations, the elders delegate the practicalities of buildings, finance and this group may variously be known as a Deacon Board, Board of Deacons Diaconate, or Deacons Court. These are sometimes known as presbyters to the full congregation, above the sessions exist presbyteries, which have area responsibilities. These are composed of teaching elders and ruling elders from each of the constituent congregations, the presbytery sends representatives to a broader regional or national assembly, generally known as the General Assembly, although an intermediate level of a synod sometimes exists. The Church of Scotland abolished the Synod in 1993, Presbyterian governance is practised by Presbyterian denominations and also by many other Reformed churches
25.
Log cabin
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A log cabin is a dwelling constructed of logs, especially a less finished or architecturally sophisticated structure. Log cabins have an ancient history in Europe, and in America are often associated with first generation home building by settlers, construction with logs was described by Roman architect Vitruvius Pollio in his architectural treatise De Architectura. He noted that in Pontus, dwellings were constructed by laying logs horizontally overtop of each other and filling in the gaps with chips, historically log cabin construction has its roots in Scandinavia and Eastern Europe. Although their origin is uncertain, the first log structures were probably being built in Northern Europe by the Bronze Age. C. A. Weslager describes Europeans as having. accomplished in building several forms of log housing, having different methods of corner timbering, Log saunas or bathhouses of this type are still found in rural Finland. By stacking tree trunks one on top of another and overlapping the logs at the corners and they developed interlocking corners by notching the logs at the ends, resulting in strong structures that were easier to make weather-tight by inserting moss or other soft material into the joints. As the original coniferous forest extended over the coldest parts of the world, the insulating properties of the solid wood were a great advantage over a timber frame construction covered with animal skins, felt, boards or shingles. Over the decades, increasingly complex joints were developed to ensure more weather tight joints between the logs, but the profiles were still based on the round log. It was also common to replace individual logs damaged by dry rot as necessary, the Wood Museum in Trondheim, Norway, displays fourteen different traditional profiles, but a basic form of log construction was used all over North Europe and Asia and later imported to America. Log construction was especially suited to Scandinavia, where straight, tall tree trunks are readily available, with suitable tools, a log cabin can be erected from scratch in days by a family. As no chemical reaction is involved, such as hardening of mortar, many older towns in Northern Scandinavia have been built exclusively out of log houses, which have been decorated by board paneling and wood cuttings. Today, construction of log cabins as leisure homes is a fully developed industry in Finland. Modern log cabins often feature fiberglass insulation and are sold as prefabricated kits machined in a factory, Log cabins are mostly constructed without the use of nails and thus derive their stability from simple stacking, with only a few dowel joints for reinforcement. This is because a log cabin tends to compress slightly as it settles, nails would soon be out of alignment and torn out. In the present-day United States, settlers may have first constructed log cabins by 1638, historians believe that the first log cabins built in North America were in the Swedish colony of Nya Sverige in the Delaware River and Brandywine River valleys. Many of its colonists were actually Forest Finns, because Finland was a part of Sweden at that time. New Sweden only briefly existed before it became the Dutch colony of New Netherland, the Swedish-Finnish colonists quick and easy construction techniques not only remained, but spread. Later German and Ukrainian immigrants also used this technique, the Scots and Scots-Irish had no tradition of building with logs, but they quickly adopted the method
26.
Boyle County, Kentucky
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Boyle County is a county located in the U. S. state of Kentucky. As of the 2010 census, the population was 28,432, the county was formed in 1842 and named for John Boyle, a U. S. Representative, chief justice of the Kentucky Court of Appeals and later federal judge for the District of Kentucky. Boyle County is part of the Danville, KY Micropolitan Statistical Area, in 1820, a portion of Casey County, now south of KY Route 300, was annexed to Mercer County. This became part of Boyle County when Boyle County was formed on February 15,1842 from sections of Lincoln County and it is named for John Boyle, Congressman, Chief Justice of the Kentucky Court of Appeals, and U. S. District Judge. A courthouse fire in 1860 resulted in the loss of county records. During the American Civil War, the Battle of Perryville took place here on October 8,1862,7407 men fell in the battle. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 183 square miles. The population density was 152 per square mile, there were 11,418 housing units at an average density of 63 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 87. 77% White,9. 68% Black or African American,0. 19% Native American,0. 56% Asian,0. 03% Pacific Islander,0. 65% from other races, and 1. 12% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 44% of the population,27. 10% of all households were made up of individuals and 12. 10% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.38 and the family size was 2.87. By age,22. 70% of the population was under 18,11. 00% from 18 to 24,28. 60% from 25 to 44,23. 70% from 45 to 64, the median age was 37 years. For every 100 females there were 98.30 males, for every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.00 males. The median income for a household in the county was US $35,241, males had a median income of $33,411 versus $23,635 for females. The per capita income for the county was $18,288, about 9. 10% of families and 11. 90% of the population were below the poverty line, including 15. 80% of those under age 18 and 12. 10% of those age 65 or over. Boyle County Schools is the district that serves all of Boyle County except Danville with three elementary schools, one middle school, and one high school. Danville Schools is the district that serves the city of Danville with three elementary schools, one middle school, and one high school. Centre College, a nationally recognized liberal arts college, is located in Danville, four other colleges and universities have campuses in Boyle County, Bluegrass Community and Technical College, Eastern Kentucky University, Midway University, and National College
27.
Gratz Park Historic District
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The Gratz Park is a neighborhood and historic district located just north of downtown Lexington, Kentucky. It was named after early Lexington businessman Benjamin Gratz whose home stands on the corner of Mill, the historic district consists of 16 buildings including the Hunt-Morgan House, the Bodley-Bullock House, the Carnegie Library, and several other private residences. Gratz Park occupies a tract of land that was established in 1781 outside of the boundaries of Lexington. The Park was the site of Transylvania College until the building was destroyed by fire in 1829. The Transylvania campus was moved across Third Street to its present location, at the northern edge of the park is the Fountain of Youth, built in memory of Lexington author James Lane Allen using proceeds willed to the city by Allen. The park was deeded to the city of Lexington during the century and is still used as a public park today. The Gratz Park is bounded by West Third and West Second streets on the north and south, the park is open to the public. The Historic Christ Church Cathedral is located at the edge of the district at 166 Market Street, several houses within the district that are open to the public. Population in 2000,194 Land area,0.056 square miles Population density,3,494 per square mile Median household income, $22,233 Gratz Park
28.
Henry Clay
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Henry Clay, Sr. was an American lawyer and planter, statesman, and skilled orator who represented Kentucky in both the United States Senate and House of Representatives. He served three terms as Speaker of the House of Representatives and served as Secretary of State under President John Quincy Adams from 1825 to 1829. Clay ran for the presidency in 1824,1832 and 1844, however, he was unsuccessful in all of his attempts to reach his nations highest office. Despite his presidential losses, Clay remained a dominant figure in the Whig Party, Clay was a dominant figure in both the First and Second Party systems. After serving two stints in the Senate, Clay won election to the House of Representatives in 1810 and was elected Speaker of the House in 1811. Clay would remain a prominent public figure until his death 41 years later in 1852, a leading war hawk, Speaker Clay favored war with Britain and played a significant role in leading the nation into the War of 1812. In 1814, Clays tenure as Speaker was interrupted when Clay traveled to Europe, Clay ran for president in 1824 and lost, finishing fourth in a four-man contest. No candidate received a majority, and so the election was decided in the House of Representatives. Clay maneuvered House voting in favor of John Quincy Adams, who appointed him as Secretary of State. Opposing candidate Andrew Jackson denounced the actions of Clay and Adams as part of a corrupt bargain, Clay returned to the Senate in 1831. He continued to advocate his American System, and become a leader of the opposition to President Andrew Jackson, President Jackson opposed federally-subsidized internal improvements and a national bank as a threat to states rights, and the president used his veto power to defeat many of Clays proposals. In 1832, Clay ran for president as a candidate of the National Republican Party, following the election, the National Republicans united with other opponents of Jackson to form the Whig Party, which remained one of the two major American political parties until after Clays death. In 1844, Clay won the Whig Partys presidential nomination, Clays opposition to the annexation of Texas, partly over fears that such an annexation would inflame the slavery issue, hurt his campaign, and Democrat James K. Polk won the election. Clay later opposed the Mexican–American War, which resulted in part from the Texas annexation, Clay returned to the Senate for a final term, where he helped broker a compromise over the status of slavery in the Mexican Cession. Known as The Great Compromiser, Clay brokered important agreements during the Nullification Crisis, as part of the Great Triumvirate or Immortal Trio, along with his colleagues Daniel Webster and John C. Calhoun, he was instrumental in formulating the Missouri Compromise of 1820, the Compromise Tariff of 1833, and he was viewed as the primary representative of Western interests in this group, and was given the names Harry of the West and The Western Star. As a plantation owner, Clay held slaves during his lifetime, Henry Clay was born on April 12,1777, at the Clay homestead in Hanover County, Virginia, in a story-and-a-half frame house. It was a home for a common Virginia planter of that time
29.
Medical school
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A medical school is a tertiary educational institution—or part of such an institution—that teaches medicine, and awards a professional degree for physicians and surgeons. Such medical degrees include the Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery, Doctor of Medicine, many medical schools offer additional degrees, such as a Doctor of Philosophy, Masters degree, a physician assistant program, or other post-secondary education. Medical schools can also employ medical researchers and operate hospitals, around the world, criteria, structure, teaching methodology, and nature of medical programs offered at medical schools vary considerably. Medical schools are highly competitive, using standardized entrance examinations, as well as grade point average and leadership roles. In most countries, the study of medicine is completed as a degree not requiring prerequisite undergraduate coursework. However, a number of places are emerging for graduate entrants who have completed an undergraduate degree including some required courses. In the United States and Canada, almost all medical degrees are second entry degrees, many modern medical schools integrate clinical education with basic sciences from the beginning of the curriculum. More traditional curricula are usually divided into preclinical and clinical blocks, in preclinical sciences, students study subjects such as biochemistry, genetics, pharmacology, pathology, anatomy, physiology and medical microbiology, among others. Subsequent clinical rotations usually include internal medicine, general surgery, pediatrics, psychiatry, although medical schools confer upon graduates a medical degree, a physician typically may not legally practice medicine until licensed by the local government authority. Licensing may also require passing a test, undergoing a background check, checking references, paying a fee. Basic Medical education lasts 6 years in all the medical schools, Entry into these medical schools are highly competitive and it is usually based on successful completion of the Senior High School Examinations. The University of Ghana Medical School has however introduced a graduate medical program to admit students with mainly science-related degrees into a 4-year medical school program. Students graduating from any of these schools get the MBChB degree. For the First 3 years Students are awarded BSc in the field of Medical science for University of Ghana medical school, Medical graduates are then registered provisionally with the Medical and Dental Council of Ghana as House Officers. Upon completion of the mandatory 2-year housemanship, these doctors are permanently registered with the MDC. Medical officers are sometimes hired by the Ghana Health Service to work in the Districts/Rural areas as Primary Care Physicians. In Kenya, medical school is a faculty of a university, Medical education lasts for 5 years after which the student graduates with an undergraduate degree. The first two years of medical school cover the medical sciences while the last four years are focused on the clinical sciences
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Law school
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A law school is an institution specializing in legal education, usually involved as part of a process for becoming a lawyer within a given jurisdiction. Nowadays the legal education consists in a 5-year-long course in which, afterwards, the practice of law is conditioned upon admission to the bar of a particular state or other territorial jurisdiction. Public attorneys, public prossecutors and magistrates admission is made, mainly, through an entrance examination and a constitutional mandatory three years of legal experience. The postgraduation, stricto sensu, consists in a, a) master´s degree, which is usually a two-year degree, and a b) doctorate´s degree, which can take up another four years. The typical law degree required to practice law in Canada is now the Juris Doctor, there is some scholarly content in the coursework. The programs consist of three years, and have content in their mandatory first year courses. Some schools, however, have not switched from LL. B. to the J. D. – one notable university that still awards the LL. B is McGill University. Given that the Canadian legal system includes both the French civil law and the Anglo-American common law, some law schools offer both an LL. B. or J. D. and a B. C. L. LL. L. or LL. B. degree, such as McGill University, University of Ottawa, in particular, McGill University Faculty of Law offers a combined civil law and common law program, which has been called transsystemic. At other faculties, if a person completes a common law degree and this is also true for civil law graduates who wish to complete a common law degree. Despite changes in designation, schools opting for the J. D. have not altered their curricula, neither the J. D. or LL. B. and the École du Barreau du Québec. In France, the education is a three tier system. The student may study for a LLB, then a LLM and, for those interested in Law theory, many French universities offers Law courses in department labelled as Research and Education Units and/or Faculties of Law or Law Schools. Law Degree in Indonesia consists of three tier systems, the first tier is the Degree of which carries the title of Sarjana Hukum/S. H. This can be obtained in 4–7 years after they enter Law School straight from Senior High School, the second tier varies depending on the legal specialties taken after the first tier. The general title for this tier is Magister Hukum / M. H, although it is also common to see other title for secondary tier such as Magister Kenotariatan / M. Kn. for Notarial professionals line of work. The second tier can be obtained normally in 1-2 year, the third tier in Indonesian Law Degree is Doctor / DR. To work in legal professions of choice in Indonesia, a Bachelor Law Degree is obligatory, graduates can pursue their career as Legal in-house counsel, Judge profession, Public Prosecutor, other legal-related work and Advocate
31.
Francis Bacon
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Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St Alban, PC KC was an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, jurist, orator, and author. He served both as Attorney General and as Lord Chancellor of England, after his death, he remained extremely influential through his works, especially as philosophical advocate and practitioner of the scientific method during the scientific revolution. Bacon has been called the father of empiricism and his works argued for the possibility of scientific knowledge based only upon inductive reasoning and careful observation of events in nature. Most importantly, he argued this could be achieved by use of a sceptical and methodical approach whereby scientists aim to avoid misleading themselves. This marked a new turn in the rhetorical and theoretical framework for science, Bacon was generally neglected at court by Queen Elizabeth, but after the accession of King James I in 1603, Bacon was knighted. He was later created Baron Verulam in 1618 and Viscount St. Alban in 1621, because he had no heirs, both titles became extinct upon his death in 1626, at 65 years of age. Bacon died of pneumonia, with one account by John Aubrey stating that he had contracted the condition while studying the effects of freezing on the preservation of meat. Francis Bacon was born on 22 January 1561 at York House near the Strand in London, the son of Sir Nicholas Bacon by his wife, Anne Bacon. His mothers sister was married to William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley, biographers believe that Bacon was educated at home in his early years owing to poor health, which would plague him throughout his life. He received tuition from John Walsall, a graduate of Oxford with a leaning toward Puritanism. Bacons education was conducted largely in Latin and followed the medieval curriculum and he was also educated at the University of Poitiers. It was at Cambridge that he first met Queen Elizabeth, who was impressed by his precocious intellect and his studies brought him to the belief that the methods and results of science as then practised were erroneous. His reverence for Aristotle conflicted with his rejection of Aristotelian philosophy, on 27 June 1576, he and Anthony entered de societate magistrorum at Grays Inn. A few months later, Francis went abroad with Sir Amias Paulet, the state of government and society in France under Henry III afforded him valuable political instruction. For the next three years he visited Blois, Poitiers, Tours, Italy, and Spain, during his travels, Bacon studied language, statecraft, and civil law while performing routine diplomatic tasks. On at least one occasion he delivered diplomatic letters to England for Walsingham, Burghley, the sudden death of his father in February 1579 prompted Bacon to return to England. Sir Nicholas had laid up a sum of money to purchase an estate for his youngest son, but he died before doing so. Having borrowed money, Bacon got into debt, Bacon stated that he had three goals, to uncover truth, to serve his country, and to serve his church
32.
University of Kentucky
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The University of Kentucky is a public co-educational university in Lexington, Kentucky. S. The institution comprises 16 colleges, a school,93 undergraduate programs,99 master programs,66 doctoral programs. The University of Kentucky has fifteen libraries on campus, young Library, a federal depository, hosting subjects related to social sciences, humanities, and life sciences collections. In recent years, the university has focused expenditures increasingly on research, the directive mandated that the university become a Top 20 public research institution, in terms of an overall ranking to be determined by the university itself, by the year 2020. Courses were offered at Ashland, The Henry Clay Estate, three years later, James Kennedy Patterson became the first president of the land-grant university and the first degree was awarded. In 1876, the university began to offer degree programs. Two years later, A&M separated from Kentucky University, which is now Transylvania University, for the new school, Lexington donated a 52-acre park and fair ground, which became the core of UKs present campus. A&M was initially a male-only institution, but began to admit women in 1880, in 1892, the official colors of the university, royal blue and white, were adopted. An earlier color set, blue and light yellow, was adopted earlier at a Kentucky-Centre College football game on December 19,1891, the particular hue of blue was determined from a necktie, which was used to demonstrate the color of royal blue. On February 15,1882, Administration Building was the first building of three completed on the present campus, three years later, the college formed the Agricultural Experiment Station, which researches issues relating to agribusiness, food processing, nutrition, water and soil resources and the environment. This was followed up by the creation of the universitys Agricultural Extension Service in 1910, the extension service became a model of the federally mandated programs that were required beginning in 1914. Patterson Hall, the schools first womens dormitory, was constructed in 1904, residents had to cross a swampy depression, where the Student Center now stands, to reach central campus. Four years later, the name was changed to the State University, Lexington, Kentucky upon reaching university status. The university led to the creation of the College of Home Economics in 1916, the College of Commerce was established in 1925, known today as the Gatton College of Business and Economics. In 1929, Memorial Hall was completed, dedicated to the 2,756 Kentuckians who died in World War I and this was followed up by the new King Library, which opened in 1931 and was named for a long-time library director, Margaret I. The universitys graduate and professional programs became racially integrated in 1949 when Lyman T. Johnson, African Americans would not be allowed to attend as undergraduates until 1954, following the US Supreme Courts Brown v. Board of Education decision. In 1939, Governor Happy Chandler appointed the first woman trustee on the University of Kentucky Board of Trustees and she served from 1939 to 1960. In 1962, Blazer Hall was opened as the Georgia M Blazer Hall for Women in tribute to her years of service as a University of Kentucky trustee
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Georgetown College
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Georgetown College is a small, private, Christian liberal arts college located in Georgetown, Kentucky, United States. Chartered in 1829, Georgetown College was the first Baptist college west of the Allegheny Mountains, with a low student-to-faculty ratio of 13-to-1, the college offers many undergraduate degrees and a Master of Arts in Education. Georgetown College is located in the Bluegrass region of Central Kentucky,12 miles north of Lexington, KY, approximately 70 miles east of Louisville, KY, and 75 miles south of Cincinnati, Ohio. Georgetown College traces its roots to Royal Springs Academy, a school founded by Baptist minister Elijah Craig in Georgetown in 1787. The institution was renamed Rittenhouse Academy in 1798 as part of a grant agreement, and was led by Barton Stone. The academy declined and closed by 1829, in 1829, the Kentucky General Assembly chartered the Kentucky Baptist Education Society with the purpose of establishing a Baptist college in the state. Twenty-four trustees under the leadership of Silas Noel selected the town of Georgetown as the site for the new school, Georgetown was selected because the community agreed to raise $20,000 and to donate the assets of the recently closed Rittenhouse Academy. Georgetown College overcame numerous difficulties in its early years, the first president hired for the college in 1829, William D. Staughton, died before assuming his duties. The second president, Rev. Joel Smith Bacon, stayed two years, fighting court cases to release funding for the college before leaving out of frustration, the funds were not released until 1836, when Benjamin Franklin Farnsworth became the third president hired. By then there was a struggle in progress, Farnsworth had been hired by the Baptists to frustrate the Campbellites who were attempting to take control of the college. After the Campbellites founded a college only blocks away, Farnsworth found his attempts to build up Georgetown College stymied. In 1838, Rev. Rockwood Giddings became the president hired for the college. During his short tenure, Giddings began construction on Recitation Hall and he made many other advances that put the college on sound footing. Giddings died of exhaustion after a year in office and was replaced by Rev. Howard Malcolm in 1840, Malcolm oversaw the completion of the construction of the building, now known as Giddings Hall. He also expanded the educational offerings beyond the classics and encouraged the founding of literary societies and he resigned in 1849 when his anti-slavery vote at Kentuckys third constitutional convention resulted in much criticism from slavery proponents and a threat on his life. As the student population grew, the administration sought out ways to diversify the campus, in 2005, Georgetown College and the Kentucky Baptist Convention redefined their formal relationship. With the approval of the new agreement by the Convention, the college reverted to its arrangement with Kentucky Baptists. Under a 1942 agreement, the Convention chose the colleges trustees, the colleges board submitted candidates to the Conventions Committee on Nominations and delegates to the annual meeting of the Convention elected them
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Baptists
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Other tenets of Baptist churches include soul competency, salvation through faith alone, Scripture alone as the rule of faith and practice, and the autonomy of the local congregation. Baptists recognize two ministerial offices, elders and deacons, Baptist churches are widely considered to be Protestant churches, though some Baptists disavow this identity. Historians trace the earliest church labeled Baptist back to 1609 in Amsterdam, in accordance with his reading of the New Testament, he rejected baptism of infants and instituted baptism only of believing adults. Baptist practice spread to England, where the General Baptists considered Christs atonement to extend to all people, while the Particular Baptists believed that it extended only to the elect. Thomas Helwys formulated a distinctively Baptist request that the church and the state be kept separate in matters of law, Helwys died in prison as a consequence of the religious persecution of English dissenters under King James I. In 1638, Roger Williams established the first Baptist congregation in the North American colonies, in the mid-18th century, the First Great Awakening contributed to Baptist growth in both New England and the South. Baptist missionaries have spread their church to every continent, the largest Baptist denomination is the Southern Baptist Convention, with the membership of associated churches totaling more than 15 million. Modern Baptist churches trace their history to the English Separatist movement in the century after the rise of the original Protestant denominations and this view of Baptist origins has the most historical support and is the most widely accepted. Adherents to this position consider the influence of Anabaptists upon early Baptists to be minimal and it was a time of considerable political and religious turmoil. Both individuals and churches were willing to give up their theological roots if they became convinced that a more biblical truth had been discovered, during the Protestant Reformation, the Church of England separated from the Roman Catholic Church. There were some Christians who were not content with the achievements of the mainstream Protestant Reformation, there also were Christians who were disappointed that the Church of England had not made corrections of what some considered to be errors and abuses. Of those most critical of the Churchs direction, some chose to stay and they became known as Puritans and are described by Gourley as cousins of the English Separatists. Others decided they must leave the Church because of their dissatisfaction, historians trace the earliest Baptist church back to 1609 in Amsterdam, with John Smyth as its pastor. Three years earlier, while a Fellow of Christs College, Cambridge, reared in the Church of England, he became Puritan, English Separatist, and then a Baptist Separatist, and ended his days working with the Mennonites. He began meeting in England with 60–70 English Separatists, in the face of great danger, Smyth and his lay supporter, Thomas Helwys, together with those they led, broke with the other English exiles because Smyth and Helwys were convinced they should be baptized as believers. In 1609 Smyth first baptized himself and then baptized the others, in 1609, while still there, Smyth wrote a tract titled The Character of the Beast, or The False Constitution of the Church. In it he expressed two propositions, first, infants are not to be baptized, and second, Antichristians converted are to be admitted into the true Church by baptism. Hence, his conviction was that a church should consist only of regenerate believers who have been baptized on a personal confession of faith
35.
Harrodsburg, Kentucky
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Harrodsburg is a home rule-class city in Mercer County, Kentucky, in the United States. It is the seat of its county, the population was 8,340 at the 2010 census. Harrodstown was laid out and founded by its namesake James Harrod on June 16,1774, amid Dunmores War, the settlement was abandoned later the same year as a result of Native American attacks, but it was resettled a year later in 1775. Fear of attacks from the Native Americans during the American Revolutionary War left it one of three settlements in Kentucky after 1777, along with Logans Fort and Boonesborough. Also known as Oldtown, Harrodstown was the first seat of Virginias Kentucky, Lincoln and it remains the seat of Mercer County in Kentucky. The settlement was established by the Virginia legislature in 1785 as Harrodsburg. In 1789, it was named the location of the Kentucky Federal District Court, the Kentucky legislature incorporated Harrodsburg in 1836. John Boyle on October 10,1862, the city then remained under martial law for the remainder of the war. The Louisville Southern Railroad network reached the city in 1888, Louisville Southern Railways construction commenced in 1884 and ran from Louisville through Shelbyville and Lawrenceburg to Harrodsburg, which was reached in 1888. A spur was constructed to Burgin, where the Louisville Southern joined the Cincinnati Southerns Cincinnati, New Orleans, now all run and operated by Norfolk Southern Railway. Pioneer Memorial Park was opened on June 16,1927, franklin Delano Roosevelt honored the city with a monument honoring the first permanent settlement west of the Appalachians. Company D of the 192nd Tank Battalion in the Battle of Bataan was from Harrodsburg, http, //shakervillageky. org Harrodsburg is located at 37°45′50″N 84°50′46″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 5.3 sq mi. U. S.127 runs North-South through Harrodsburg, U. S.127 Bypass goes around Harrodsburg. U. S.68 runs East-West through Harrodsburg, but U. S.68 turns onto U. S.127 some of the time in Harrodsburg, SR152 also runs East-West through Harrodsburg. These are the routes that runs through Harrodsburg. U. S.68 U. S.127 KY152 Harrodsburg is in the subtropical climate zone. Summers are hot and humid, and winters are cool with mild periods, average high is 87 °F in July and August, the warmest months, with the average lows of 26 °F in January, the coolest month
36.
John C. Breckinridge
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John Cabell Breckinridge was a lawyer, politician, and soldier from the U. S. state of Kentucky. He represented the state in both houses of Congress and became the 14th and youngest-ever Vice President of the United States and he served in the U. S. Senate during the outbreak of the American Civil War, but was expelled after joining the Confederate Army. He remains the only Senator of the United States convicted of treason against the United States of America by the Senate and he was appointed Confederate Secretary of War late in the war. Elected to the U. S. House of Representatives in 1851, after reapportionment in 1854 made his re-election unlikely, he declined to run for another term. The Democrats won the election, but Breckinridge had little influence with Buchanan and, as presiding officer of the Senate, in 1859, he was elected to succeed U. S. Senator John J. Crittenden at the end of Crittendens term in 1861, as vice president, Breckinridge joined with Buchanan in supporting the pro-slavery Lecompton Constitution for Kansas, which led to a split in the Democratic Party. The Southern wing was led by Breckinridge, doughfaced Northerner Buchanan, and the northern wing, a third party, the Constitutional Union Party, nominated John Bell. Taking his seat in the Senate, he urged compromise to preserve the Union although seven states had already seceded, Unionists took control of the state legislature when Kentuckys neutrality was breached. After this occurred, Breckinridge fled behind Confederate battle lines where he was commissioned a brigadier general, following the Battle of Shiloh in April 1862, he was promoted to major general, and in October he was assigned to the Army of Mississippi under General Braxton Bragg. After participating in Jubal Earlys 1864 campaigns in the Shenandoah Valley, Breckinridge was charged with defending Confederate supplies in Tennessee, in February 1865, Confederate President Jefferson Davis appointed him Secretary of War. Concluding that the war was hopeless, he urged Davis to arrange a national surrender, after the fall of the Confederate capital at Richmond, he ensured the preservation of Confederate military and governmental records. He traveled south from Richmond and managed to capture by Federal forces. He then fled to Cuba, Great Britain, and finally, in exile, he toured Europe from August 1866 to June 1868. When President Andrew Johnson extended amnesty to all former Confederates in late 1868, he returned to Kentucky, War injuries sapped his health, and after two operations, he died on May 17,1875. John Cabell Breckinridge was born at Thorn Hill, his familys estate near Lexington, Kentucky, the fourth of six children born to Joseph Cabell and Mary Clay Breckinridge, he was their only son. His mother was the daughter of Samuel Stanhope Smith, who founded Hampden–Sydney College in 1775, and granddaughter of John Witherspoon, having previously served as Speaker of the Kentucky House of Representatives, his father had been appointed Kentuckys Secretary of State just prior to his sons birth. In February, the family moved with Governor John Adair to the Governors Mansion in Frankfort, in August 1823, an illness referred to as the prevailing fever struck Frankfort, and Cabell Breckinridge took his children to stay with his mother in Lexington. On his return, both he and his wife fell ill, he died, but she survived and his assets were not enough to pay his debts, and his wife joined the children in Lexington, supported by her mother-in-law
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Democratic Party (United States)
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The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president
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Bluegrass region
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The Bluegrass region is a geographic region in the U. S. state of Kentucky. It makes up the part of the state where a majority of the states population has lived and developed its largest cities. Before European-American settlement, various cultures of indigenous peoples adapted to the region and they hunted its large herds of bison and other game, especially near salt licks. The name Kentucky means meadow lands in several different Indian languages and was applied to this region. Europeans adopted the name to apply to the state, europeans named the Bluegrass region for the blue flowered Poa grass that grew there. Americans settled in number in the region in the decades after the Revolutionary War, by 1800 these planters noticed that horses grazed in the Bluegrass region were more hardy than those from other regions, this is due to the high content of calcium in the soil. Within decades of increased settlement, the herds of bison had moved west. Breeding of Thoroughbred horses was developed here, as well as of quality livestock. Kentucky livestock was driven to Tennessee and other areas of the Ohio valley for sale, planters, supported by slave labor, also cultivated major commodity crops, such as tobacco, hemp, and grapes. The first commercial winery in the United States was opened in the Bluegrass region in 1801 in present-day Jessamine County by a group of Swiss immigrants and it was authorized by the state legislature. The Bluegrass region is characterized by underlying fossiliferous limestone, dolostone, hills are generally rolling, and the soil is highly fertile for growing pasture. Since the antebellum years, the Bluegrass region has been a center for breeding quality livestock, since the late 20th century, the area has become increasingly developed with residential and commercial properties, particularly around Lexington, the business center. Farms are losing ground to development and slowly disappearing, in 2006, The World Monuments Fund included the Bluegrass region on its global list of 100 most endangered sites. The Kentucky Bluegrass is bounded on the east by the Cumberland Plateau, on the south and west, it borders the Pennyroyal Plateau, with Muldraugh Hill, another escarpment, forming the boundary. Much of the region is drained by the Kentucky River and its tributaries, the river cuts a deep canyon called the Kentucky River Palisades through the region, preserving meanders that indicate that the river was once a mature low valley that was suddenly uplifted. Particularly near the Kentucky River, the region exhibits Karst topography, with sinkholes, caves, although Bluegrass music is popular throughout the region, the genre is indirectly named for the state rather than the region. Klotter, James C. and Daniel Rowland, eds, a Race Against Time for Kentuckys Bluegrass Country. Local-scale turnpike roads in nineteenth-century Kentucky
39.
American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
40.
Land-grant university
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A land-grant university is an institution of higher education in the United States designated by a state to receive the benefits of the Morrill Acts of 1862 and 1890. The Morrill Acts funded educational institutions by granting federally controlled land to the states for them to sell, to funds, to establish. This mission was in contrast to the practice of higher education to focus on an abstract liberal arts curriculum. Ultimately, most land-grant colleges became large public universities that offer a full spectrum of educational opportunities. However, some land-grant colleges are schools, including Cornell University. The concept of publicly funded agricultural and technical educational institutions first rose to attention through the efforts of Jonathan Baldwin Turner in the late 1840s. The first land-grant bill was introduced in Congress by Representative Justin Smith Morrill of Vermont in 1857, the bill passed in 1859, but was vetoed by President James Buchanan. Morrill resubmitted his bill in 1861, and it was enacted into law in 1862. Upon passage of the federal land-grant law in 1862, Iowa was the first state legislature to accept the provisions of the Morrill Act, Iowa subsequently designated the State Agricultural College as the land grant college on March 29,1864. The first land-grant institution actually created under the Act was Kansas State University, which was established on February 16,1863, the oldest school that currently holds land-grant status is Rutgers University, founded in 1766 and designated the land-grant college of New Jersey in 1864. The oldest school to ever hold land-grant status was Yale University and this designation was later stripped by the Connecticut legislature under populist pressure and transferred to what would become the University of Connecticut. A second Morrill Act was passed in 1890, aimed at the former Confederate states and this act required each state to show that race was not an admissions criterion, or else to designate a separate land-grant institution for persons of color. Among the seventy colleges and universities which eventually evolved from the Morrill Acts are several of historically black colleges and universities. In imitation of the land-grant colleges focus on agricultural and mechanical research, Congress later established programs of sea grant colleges, space grant colleges and it is also the smallest land-grant university in the country. The Farmers High School of Pennsylvania, later to become The Pennsylvania State University, michigan State and Penn State were subsequently designated as the federal land-grant colleges for their states in 1863. Older state universities – such as the University of Georgia, which was established with a grant of land in 1784 – were also funded through the use of land grants. Indeed, land grants to institutions are a practice inherited from Europe. These earlier examples, however, offered a different mission than the education offered by land-grant institutions established under the Morrill Act
41.
Morrill Land-Grant Acts
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The Morrill Land-Grant Acts are United States statutes that allowed for the creation of land-grant colleges in U. S. states using the proceeds of federal land sales. The Morrill Act of 1862 was enacted during the American Civil War, for 20 years prior to the first introduction of the bill in 1857, there was a political movement calling for the creation of agriculture colleges. The movement was led by Professor Jonathan Baldwin Turner of Illinois College, for example, the Michigan Constitution of 1850 called for the creation of an agricultural school, though it was not until February 12,1855, that Michigan Governor Kinsley S. Unlike the Turner Plan, which provided a grant to each state. This was more advantageous to the populous eastern states. The Morrill Act was first proposed in 1857, and was passed by Congress in 1859, in 1861, Morrill resubmitted the act with the amendment that the proposed institutions would teach military tactics as well as engineering and agriculture. Aided by the secession of states that did not support the plans. The previous day Lincoln signed a bill financing the railroad with land grants. Less than two months earlier he signed the Homestead Act encouraging western settlement, together these actions, taken at a time when the Union Army was poorly performing, did much to define post-Civil War America. Under the act, each state received a total of 30,000 acres of federal land, either within or contiguous to its boundaries. This land, or the proceeds from its sale, was to be used toward establishing and funding the educational institutions described above. After the war, however, the 1862 Act was extended to the former Confederate states, it was extended to every state and territory. 8 On September 11,1862, the state of Iowa was the first to accept the terms of the Morrill Act which provided the funding boost needed for the fledgling State Agricultural College and Model Farm. The first land-grant institution actually created under the Act was Kansas State University, which was established on February 16,1863, before the Civil War American engineers were mostly educated at West Point. While the Congressional debate associated with the Morrill Act was largely focused on benefits to agriculture, after the Civil War, as the German University model began to replace the English College, with the encouragement of the Morrill Act the engineering discipline was gradually defined. Because the Morrill Act excluded spending on buildings, engineering specific infrastructure such as textbooks, in 1866 there were around 300 American men with engineering degrees and six reputable colleges granting them. By 1911 the United States was graduating 3000 engineers a year, the Morrill Act coincided with the establishment of engineering in the American university. With a few exceptions, nearly all of the Land-Grant Colleges are public, to maintain their status as land-grant colleges, a number of programs are required to be maintained by the college
