1.
Quadrilateral
–
In Euclidean plane geometry, a quadrilateral is a polygon with four edges and four vertices or corners. Sometimes, the quadrangle is used, by analogy with triangle. The origin of the quadrilateral is the two Latin words quadri, a variant of four, and latus, meaning side. Quadrilaterals are simple or complex, also called crossed, simple quadrilaterals are either convex or concave. The interior angles of a simple quadrilateral ABCD add up to 360 degrees of arc and this is a special case of the n-gon interior angle sum formula × 180°. All non-self-crossing quadrilaterals tile the plane by repeated rotation around the midpoints of their edges, any quadrilateral that is not self-intersecting is a simple quadrilateral. In a convex quadrilateral, all angles are less than 180°. Irregular quadrilateral or trapezium, no sides are parallel, trapezium or trapezoid, at least one pair of opposite sides are parallel. Isosceles trapezium or isosceles trapezoid, one pair of sides are parallel. Alternative definitions are a quadrilateral with an axis of symmetry bisecting one pair of opposite sides, parallelogram, a quadrilateral with two pairs of parallel sides. Equivalent conditions are that opposite sides are of length, that opposite angles are equal. In other words, parallelograms include all rhombi and all rhomboids, rhombus or rhomb, all four sides are of equal length. An equivalent condition is that the diagonals bisect each other. Rhomboid, a parallelogram in which adjacent sides are of unequal lengths, not all references agree, some define a rhomboid as a parallelogram which is not a rhombus. Rectangle, all four angles are right angles, an equivalent condition is that the diagonals bisect each other and are equal in length. Square, all four sides are of length, and all four angles are right angles. An equivalent condition is that opposite sides are parallel, that the diagonals bisect each other. A quadrilateral is a if and only if it is both a rhombus and a rectangle
Quadrilateral
–
Six different types of quadrilaterals
2.
Edge (geometry)
–
For edge in graph theory, see Edge In geometry, an edge is a particular type of line segment joining two vertices in a polygon, polyhedron, or higher-dimensional polytope. In a polygon, an edge is a segment on the boundary. In a polyhedron or more generally a polytope, an edge is a segment where two faces meet. A segment joining two vertices while passing through the interior or exterior is not an edge but instead is called a diagonal. In graph theory, an edge is an abstract object connecting two vertices, unlike polygon and polyhedron edges which have a concrete geometric representation as a line segment. However, any polyhedron can be represented by its skeleton or edge-skeleton, conversely, the graphs that are skeletons of three-dimensional polyhedra can be characterized by Steinitzs theorem as being exactly the 3-vertex-connected planar graphs. Any convex polyhedrons surface has Euler characteristic V − E + F =2, where V is the number of vertices, E is the number of edges and this equation is known as Eulers polyhedron formula. Thus the number of edges is 2 less than the sum of the numbers of vertices and faces, for example, a cube has 8 vertices and 6 faces, and hence 12 edges. In a polygon, two edges meet at each vertex, more generally, by Balinskis theorem, at least d edges meet at every vertex of a convex polytope. Similarly, in a polyhedron, exactly two faces meet at every edge, while in higher dimensional polytopes three or more two-dimensional faces meet at every edge. Thus, the edges of a polygon are its facets, the edges of a 3-dimensional convex polyhedron are its ridges, archived from the original on 4 February 2007
Edge (geometry)
–
Three edges AB, BC, and CA, each between two
vertices of a
triangle.
3.
Vertex (geometry)
–
In geometry, a vertex is a point where two or more curves, lines, or edges meet. As a consequence of this definition, the point where two lines meet to form an angle and the corners of polygons and polyhedra are vertices. A vertex is a point of a polygon, polyhedron, or other higher-dimensional polytope. However, in theory, vertices may have fewer than two incident edges, which is usually not allowed for geometric vertices. However, a smooth approximation to a polygon will also have additional vertices. A polygon vertex xi of a simple polygon P is a principal polygon vertex if the diagonal intersects the boundary of P only at x and x, there are two types of principal vertices, ears and mouths. A principal vertex xi of a simple polygon P is called an ear if the diagonal that bridges xi lies entirely in P, according to the two ears theorem, every simple polygon has at least two ears. A principal vertex xi of a simple polygon P is called a mouth if the diagonal lies outside the boundary of P. Any convex polyhedrons surface has Euler characteristic V − E + F =2, where V is the number of vertices, E is the number of edges and this equation is known as Eulers polyhedron formula. Thus the number of vertices is 2 more than the excess of the number of edges over the number of faces, for example, a cube has 12 edges and 6 faces, and hence 8 vertices
Vertex (geometry)
–
A vertex of an angle is the endpoint where two line segments or rays come together.
4.
Area
–
Area is the quantity that expresses the extent of a two-dimensional figure or shape, or planar lamina, in the plane. Surface area is its analog on the surface of a three-dimensional object. It is the analog of the length of a curve or the volume of a solid. The area of a shape can be measured by comparing the shape to squares of a fixed size, in the International System of Units, the standard unit of area is the square metre, which is the area of a square whose sides are one metre long. A shape with an area of three square metres would have the area as three such squares. In mathematics, the square is defined to have area one. There are several formulas for the areas of simple shapes such as triangles, rectangles. Using these formulas, the area of any polygon can be found by dividing the polygon into triangles, for shapes with curved boundary, calculus is usually required to compute the area. Indeed, the problem of determining the area of plane figures was a motivation for the historical development of calculus. For a solid such as a sphere, cone, or cylinder. Formulas for the areas of simple shapes were computed by the ancient Greeks. Area plays an important role in modern mathematics, in addition to its obvious importance in geometry and calculus, area is related to the definition of determinants in linear algebra, and is a basic property of surfaces in differential geometry. In analysis, the area of a subset of the plane is defined using Lebesgue measure, in general, area in higher mathematics is seen as a special case of volume for two-dimensional regions. Area can be defined through the use of axioms, defining it as a function of a collection of certain plane figures to the set of real numbers and it can be proved that such a function exists. An approach to defining what is meant by area is through axioms, area can be defined as a function from a collection M of special kind of plane figures to the set of real numbers which satisfies the following properties, For all S in M, a ≥0. If S and T are in M then so are S ∪ T and S ∩ T, if S and T are in M with S ⊆ T then T − S is in M and a = a − a. If a set S is in M and S is congruent to T then T is also in M, every rectangle R is in M. If the rectangle has length h and breadth k then a = hk, let Q be a set enclosed between two step regions S and T
Area
–
A square metre
quadrat made of PVC pipe.
Area
–
The combined area of these three
shapes is
approximately 15.57
squares.
5.
Convex polygon
–
A convex polygon is a simple polygon in which no line segment between two points on the boundary ever goes outside the polygon. Equivalently, it is a polygon whose interior is a convex set. In a convex polygon, all angles are less than or equal to 180 degrees. A simple polygon which is not convex is called concave, the following properties of a simple polygon are all equivalent to convexity, Every internal angle is less than or equal to 180 degrees. Every point on line segment between two points inside or on the boundary of the polygon remains inside or on the boundary. The polygon is contained in a closed half-plane defined by each of its edges. For each edge, the points are all on the same side of the line that the edge defines. The angle at each vertex contains all vertices in its edges. The polygon is the hull of its edges. Additional properties of convex polygons include, The intersection of two convex polygons is a convex polygon, a convex polygon may br triangulated in linear time through a fan triangulation, consisting in adding diagonals from one vertex to all other vertices. Hellys theorem, For every collection of at least three convex polygons, if the intersection of three of them is nonempty, then the whole collection has a nonempty intersection. Krein–Milman theorem, A convex polygon is the hull of its vertices. Thus it is defined by the set of its vertices. Hyperplane separation theorem, Any two convex polygons with no points in common have a separator line, if the polygons are closed and at least one of them is compact, then there are even two parallel separator lines. Inscribed triangle property, Of all triangles contained in a convex polygon, inscribing triangle property, every convex polygon with area A can be inscribed in a triangle of area at most equal to 2A. Equality holds for a parallelogram.5 × Area ≤ Area ≤2 × Area, the mean width of a convex polygon is equal to its perimeter divided by pi. So its width is the diameter of a circle with the perimeter as the polygon. Every polygon inscribed in a circle, if not self-intersecting, is convex, however, not every convex polygon can be inscribed in a circle
Convex polygon
–
An example of a convex polygon: a
regular pentagon
6.
Euclidean geometry
–
Euclidean geometry is a mathematical system attributed to the Alexandrian Greek mathematician Euclid, which he described in his textbook on geometry, the Elements. Euclids method consists in assuming a set of intuitively appealing axioms. Although many of Euclids results had been stated by earlier mathematicians, Euclid was the first to show how these propositions could fit into a comprehensive deductive and logical system. The Elements begins with plane geometry, still taught in school as the first axiomatic system. It goes on to the geometry of three dimensions. Much of the Elements states results of what are now called algebra and number theory, for more than two thousand years, the adjective Euclidean was unnecessary because no other sort of geometry had been conceived. Euclids axioms seemed so obvious that any theorem proved from them was deemed true in an absolute, often metaphysical. Today, however, many other self-consistent non-Euclidean geometries are known, Euclidean geometry is an example of synthetic geometry, in that it proceeds logically from axioms to propositions without the use of coordinates. This is in contrast to analytic geometry, which uses coordinates, the Elements is mainly a systematization of earlier knowledge of geometry. Its improvement over earlier treatments was recognized, with the result that there was little interest in preserving the earlier ones. There are 13 total books in the Elements, Books I–IV, Books V and VII–X deal with number theory, with numbers treated geometrically via their representation as line segments with various lengths. Notions such as numbers and rational and irrational numbers are introduced. The infinitude of prime numbers is proved, a typical result is the 1,3 ratio between the volume of a cone and a cylinder with the same height and base. Euclidean geometry is a system, in which all theorems are derived from a small number of axioms. To produce a straight line continuously in a straight line. To describe a circle with any centre and distance and that all right angles are equal to one another. Although Euclids statement of the only explicitly asserts the existence of the constructions. The Elements also include the five common notions, Things that are equal to the same thing are also equal to one another
Euclidean geometry
–
Detail from
Raphael 's
The School of Athens featuring a Greek mathematician – perhaps representing
Euclid or
Archimedes – using a
compass to draw a geometric construction.
Euclidean geometry
–
A surveyor uses a
level
Euclidean geometry
–
Sphere packing applies to a stack of
oranges.
Euclidean geometry
–
Geometry is used in art and architecture.
7.
Convex set
–
In convex geometry, a convex set is a subset of an affine space that is closed under convex combinations. For example, a cube is a convex set, but anything that is hollow or has an indent, for example. The boundary of a set is always a convex curve. The intersection of all convex sets containing a given subset A of Euclidean space is called the hull of A. It is the smallest convex set containing A, a convex function is a real-valued function defined on an interval with the property that its epigraph is a convex set. Convex minimization is a subfield of optimization that studies the problem of minimizing convex functions over convex sets, the branch of mathematics devoted to the study of properties of convex sets and convex functions is called convex analysis. The notion of a set can be generalized as described below. Let S be a space over the real numbers, or, more generally. A set C in S is said to be if, for all x and y in C and all t in the interval. In other words, every point on the segment connecting x and y is in C. This implies that a set in a real or complex topological vector space is path-connected. Furthermore, C is strictly convex if every point on the segment connecting x and y other than the endpoints is inside the interior of C. A set C is called convex if it is convex. The convex subsets of R are simply the intervals of R, some examples of convex subsets of the Euclidean plane are solid regular polygons, solid triangles, and intersections of solid triangles. Some examples of convex subsets of a Euclidean 3-dimensional space are the Archimedean solids, the Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra are examples of non-convex sets. A set that is not convex is called a non-convex set, the complement of a convex set, such as the epigraph of a concave function, is sometimes called a reverse convex set, especially in the context of mathematical optimization. If S is a set in n-dimensional space, then for any collection of r, r >1. Ur in S, and for any nonnegative numbers λ1, + λr =1, then one has, ∑ k =1 r λ k u k ∈ S
Convex set
–
Illustration of a convex set which looks somewhat like a deformed circle. The (black) line segment joining points x and y lies completely within the (green) set. Since this is true for any points x and y within the set that we might choose, the set is convex.
8.
Parallel (geometry)
–
In geometry, parallel lines are lines in a plane which do not meet, that is, two lines in a plane that do not intersect or touch each other at any point are said to be parallel. By extension, a line and a plane, or two planes, in three-dimensional Euclidean space that do not share a point are said to be parallel. However, two lines in space which do not meet must be in a common plane to be considered parallel. Parallel planes are planes in the same space that never meet. Parallel lines are the subject of Euclids parallel postulate, parallelism is primarily a property of affine geometries and Euclidean space is a special instance of this type of geometry. Some other spaces, such as space, have analogous properties that are sometimes referred to as parallelism. For example, A B ∥ C D indicates that line AB is parallel to line CD, in the Unicode character set, the parallel and not parallel signs have codepoints U+2225 and U+2226, respectively. In addition, U+22D5 represents the relation equal and parallel to, given parallel straight lines l and m in Euclidean space, the following properties are equivalent, Every point on line m is located at exactly the same distance from line l. Line m is in the plane as line l but does not intersect l. When lines m and l are both intersected by a straight line in the same plane, the corresponding angles of intersection with the transversal are congruent. Thus, the property is the one usually chosen as the defining property of parallel lines in Euclidean geometry. The other properties are consequences of Euclids Parallel Postulate. Another property that also involves measurement is that parallel to each other have the same gradient. The definition of parallel lines as a pair of lines in a plane which do not meet appears as Definition 23 in Book I of Euclids Elements. Alternative definitions were discussed by other Greeks, often as part of an attempt to prove the parallel postulate, proclus attributes a definition of parallel lines as equidistant lines to Posidonius and quotes Geminus in a similar vein. Simplicius also mentions Posidonius definition as well as its modification by the philosopher Aganis, at the end of the nineteenth century, in England, Euclids Elements was still the standard textbook in secondary schools. A major difference between these texts, both between themselves and between them and Euclid, is the treatment of parallel lines. These reform texts were not without their critics and one of them, Charles Dodgson, wrote a play, Euclid and His Modern Rivals, one of the early reform textbooks was James Maurice Wilsons Elementary Geometry of 1868
Parallel (geometry)
–
As shown by the tick marks, lines a and b are parallel. This can be proved because the transversal t produces congruent corresponding angles, shown here both to the right of the transversal, one above and adjacent to line a and the other above and adjacent to line b.
9.
Canadian English
–
Canadian English is the set of varieties of the English language native to Canada. A larger number,28 million people, reported using English as their dominant language, 82% of Canadians outside the province of Quebec reported speaking English natively, but within Quebec the figure was just 7. 7% as most of its residents are native speakers of Quebec French. Canadian English contains elements of British English and American English, as well as many Canadianisms, the construction of identities and English-language varieties across political borders is a complex social phenomenon. The term Canadian English is first attested in a speech by the Reverend A. Constable Geikie in an address to the Canadian Institute in 1857, Canadian English is the product of five waves of immigration and settlement over a period of more than two centuries. Studies on earlier forms of English in Canada are rare, yet connections with other work to historical linguistics can be forged, an overview of diachronic work on Canadian English, or diachronically-relevant work, is Dollinger. Until the 2000s, basically all commentators on the history of CanE have argued from the language-external history, an exception has been in the area of lexis, where Avis et als Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles, offered real-time historical data though its quotations. Recently, historical linguists have started to study earlier Canadian English on historical linguistic data, dCHP-1 is now available in open access. )Most notably, Dollinger pioneered the historical corpus linguistic approach for English in Canada with CONTE and offers a developmental scenario for 18th and 19th century Ontario. Recently, Reuter, with a 19th-century newspaper corpus from Ontario, has confirmed the scenario laid out in Dollinger, Canadian spelling of the English language combines British and American conventions. Words such as realize and paralyze are usually spelled with -ize or -yze rather than -ise or -yse, french-derived words that in American English end with -or and -er, such as color or center, often retain British spellings. While the United States uses the Anglo-French spelling defense and offense, some nouns, as in British English, take -ice while matching verbs take -ise – for example, practice and licence are nouns while practise and license are the respective corresponding verbs. Canadian spelling sometimes retains the British practice of doubling consonants when adding suffixes to words even when the syllable is not stressed. Compare Canadian travelled, counselling, and marvellous to American traveled, counseling, in American English, such consonants are only doubled when stressed, thus, for instance, controllable and enthralling are universal. In other cases, Canadians and Americans differ from British spelling, such as in the case of nouns like curb and tire, Canadian spelling conventions can be partly explained by Canadas trade history. For instance, the British spelling of the word cheque probably relates to Canadas once-important ties to British financial institutions, Canadas political history has also had an influence on Canadian spelling. Canadas first prime minister, John A. Macdonald, once directed the Governor General of Canada to issue an order-in-council directing that government papers be written in the British style, a contemporary reference for formal Canadian spelling is the spelling used for Hansard transcripts of the Parliament of Canada. Many Canadian editors, though, use the Canadian Oxford Dictionary, often along with the chapter on spelling in Editing Canadian English, and, throughout part of the 20th century, some Canadian newspapers adopted American spellings, for example, color as opposed to the British-based colour. Some of the most substantial historical spelling data can be found in Dollinger, the use of such spellings was the long-standing practice of the Canadian Press perhaps since that news agencys inception, but visibly the norm prior to World War II. The practice of dropping the letter u in such words was also considered a labour-saving technique during the days of printing in which movable type was set manually
Canadian English
–
A Canadian-built Curtiss JN-4C "Canuck" training biplane of 1918, with a differing vertical tail to the original U.S. version
Canadian English
–
Based on Labov et al.; averaged F1/F2 means for speakers from Western and Central Canada. Note that /ɒ/ and /ɔ/ are indistinguishable; /æ/ and /ɛ/ are very open.
10.
Parallelogram
–
In Euclidean geometry, a parallelogram is a simple quadrilateral with two pairs of parallel sides. The opposite or facing sides of a parallelogram are of equal length, by comparison, a quadrilateral with just one pair of parallel sides is a trapezoid in American English or a trapezium in British English. The three-dimensional counterpart of a parallelogram is a parallelepiped, rhomboid – A quadrilateral whose opposite sides are parallel and adjacent sides are unequal, and whose angles are not right angles Rectangle – A parallelogram with four angles of equal size. Rhombus – A parallelogram with four sides of equal length, square – A parallelogram with four sides of equal length and angles of equal size. A simple quadrilateral is a if and only if any one of the following statements is true. Two pairs of opposite angles are equal in measure, one pair of opposite sides are parallel and equal in length. Each diagonal divides the quadrilateral into two congruent triangles, the sum of the squares of the sides equals the sum of the squares of the diagonals. It has rotational symmetry of order 2, the sum of the distances from any interior point to the sides is independent of the location of the point. Thus all parallelograms have all the properties listed above, and conversely, if just one of statements is true in a simple quadrilateral. Opposite sides of a parallelogram are parallel and so will never intersect, the area of a parallelogram is twice the area of a triangle created by one of its diagonals. The area of a parallelogram is also equal to the magnitude of the cross product of two adjacent sides. Any line through the midpoint of a parallelogram bisects the area, any non-degenerate affine transformation takes a parallelogram to another parallelogram. A parallelogram has rotational symmetry of order 2, if it also has exactly two lines of reflectional symmetry then it must be a rhombus or an oblong. If it has four lines of symmetry, it is a square. The perimeter of a parallelogram is 2 where a and b are the lengths of adjacent sides, unlike any other convex polygon, a parallelogram cannot be inscribed in any triangle with less than twice its area. The centers of four squares all constructed either internally or externally on the sides of a parallelogram are the vertices of a square. If two lines parallel to sides of a parallelogram are constructed concurrent to a diagonal, then the parallelograms formed on opposite sides of that diagonal are equal in area, the diagonals of a parallelogram divide it into four triangles of equal area. All of the formulas for general convex quadrilaterals apply to parallelograms
Parallelogram
–
This parallelogram is a
rhomboid as it has no right angles and unequal sides.
11.
Calculus
–
Calculus is the mathematical study of continuous change, in the same way that geometry is the study of shape and algebra is the study of generalizations of arithmetic operations. It has two branches, differential calculus, and integral calculus, these two branches are related to each other by the fundamental theorem of calculus. Both branches make use of the notions of convergence of infinite sequences. Generally, modern calculus is considered to have developed in the 17th century by Isaac Newton. Today, calculus has widespread uses in science, engineering and economics, Calculus is a part of modern mathematics education. A course in calculus is a gateway to other, more advanced courses in mathematics devoted to the study of functions and limits, Calculus has historically been called the calculus of infinitesimals, or infinitesimal calculus. Calculus is also used for naming some methods of calculation or theories of computation, such as calculus, calculus of variations, lambda calculus. The ancient period introduced some of the ideas that led to integral calculus, the method of exhaustion was later discovered independently in China by Liu Hui in the 3rd century AD in order to find the area of a circle. In the 5th century AD, Zu Gengzhi, son of Zu Chongzhi, indian mathematicians gave a non-rigorous method of a sort of differentiation of some trigonometric functions. In the Middle East, Alhazen derived a formula for the sum of fourth powers. He used the results to carry out what would now be called an integration, Cavalieris work was not well respected since his methods could lead to erroneous results, and the infinitesimal quantities he introduced were disreputable at first. The formal study of calculus brought together Cavalieris infinitesimals with the calculus of finite differences developed in Europe at around the same time, pierre de Fermat, claiming that he borrowed from Diophantus, introduced the concept of adequality, which represented equality up to an infinitesimal error term. The combination was achieved by John Wallis, Isaac Barrow, and James Gregory, in other work, he developed series expansions for functions, including fractional and irrational powers, and it was clear that he understood the principles of the Taylor series. He did not publish all these discoveries, and at this time infinitesimal methods were considered disreputable. These ideas were arranged into a calculus of infinitesimals by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. He is now regarded as an independent inventor of and contributor to calculus, unlike Newton, Leibniz paid a lot of attention to the formalism, often spending days determining appropriate symbols for concepts. Leibniz and Newton are usually credited with the invention of calculus. Newton was the first to apply calculus to general physics and Leibniz developed much of the used in calculus today
Calculus
–
Isaac Newton developed the use of calculus in his
laws of motion and
gravitation.
Calculus
–
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz was the first to publish his results on the development of calculus.
Calculus
–
Maria Gaetana Agnesi
Calculus
–
The
logarithmic spiral of the
Nautilus shell is a classical image used to depict the growth and change related to calculus
12.
Trapezoidal approximation
–
In mathematics, and more specifically in numerical analysis, the trapezoidal rule is a technique for approximating the definite integral ∫ a b f d x. The trapezoidal rule works by approximating the region under the graph of the function f as a trapezoid and it follows that ∫ a b f d x ≈. A2016 paper reports that the rule was in use in Babylon before 50 BC for integrating the velocity of Jupiter along the ecliptic. The trapezoidal rule is one of a family of formulas for numerical integration called Newton–Cotes formulas, however for various classes of rougher functions, the trapezoidal rule has faster convergence in general than Simpsons rule. Moreover, the trapezoidal rule tends to become extremely accurate when periodic functions are integrated over their periods, for a domain discretized into N equally spaced panels, or N+1 grid points a = x1 < x2 <. < xN+1 = b, where the spacing is h = N the approximation to the integral becomes ∫ a b f d x ≈ h 2 ∑ k =1 N = b − a 2 N. When the grid spacing is non-uniform, one can use the formula ∫ a b f d x ≈12 ∑ k =1 N and this can also be seen from the geometric picture, the trapezoids include all of the area under the curve and extend over it. Similarly, a concave-down function yields an underestimate because area is unaccounted for under the curve, if the interval of the integral being approximated includes an inflection point, the error is harder to identify. Further terms in this error estimate are given by the Euler–Maclaurin summation formula and it is argued that the speed of convergence of the trapezoidal rule reflects and can be used as a definition of classes of smoothness of the functions. The trapezoidal rule often converges very quickly for periodic functions, in the error formula above, f = f, and only the O term remains. More detailed analysis can be found in, for various classes of functions that are not twice-differentiable, the trapezoidal rule has sharper bounds than Simpsons rule
Trapezoidal approximation
–
The function f (x) (in blue) is approximated by a linear function (in red).
13.
Definite integral
–
In mathematics, an integral assigns numbers to functions in a way that can describe displacement, area, volume, and other concepts that arise by combining infinitesimal data. Integration is one of the two operations of calculus, with its inverse, differentiation, being the other. The area above the x-axis adds to the total and that below the x-axis subtracts from the total, roughly speaking, the operation of integration is the reverse of differentiation. For this reason, the integral may also refer to the related notion of the antiderivative. In this case, it is called an integral and is written. The integrals discussed in this article are those termed definite integrals, a rigorous mathematical definition of the integral was given by Bernhard Riemann. It is based on a procedure which approximates the area of a curvilinear region by breaking the region into thin vertical slabs. A line integral is defined for functions of two or three variables, and the interval of integration is replaced by a curve connecting two points on the plane or in the space. In a surface integral, the curve is replaced by a piece of a surface in the three-dimensional space and this method was further developed and employed by Archimedes in the 3rd century BC and used to calculate areas for parabolas and an approximation to the area of a circle. A similar method was developed in China around the 3rd century AD by Liu Hui. This method was used in the 5th century by Chinese father-and-son mathematicians Zu Chongzhi. The next significant advances in integral calculus did not begin to appear until the 17th century, further steps were made in the early 17th century by Barrow and Torricelli, who provided the first hints of a connection between integration and differentiation. Barrow provided the first proof of the theorem of calculus. Wallis generalized Cavalieris method, computing integrals of x to a power, including negative powers. The major advance in integration came in the 17th century with the independent discovery of the theorem of calculus by Newton. The theorem demonstrates a connection between integration and differentiation and this connection, combined with the comparative ease of differentiation, can be exploited to calculate integrals. In particular, the theorem of calculus allows one to solve a much broader class of problems. Equal in importance is the mathematical framework that both Newton and Leibniz developed
Definite integral
–
A definite integral of a function can be represented as the signed area of the region bounded by its graph.
14.
Rhombus
–
In Euclidean geometry, a rhombus is a simple quadrilateral whose four sides all have the same length. Another name is equilateral quadrilateral, since equilateral means that all of its sides are equal in length, every rhombus is a parallelogram and a kite. A rhombus with right angles is a square, the word rhombus comes from Greek ῥόμβος, meaning something that spins, which derives from the verb ῥέμβω, meaning to turn round and round. The word was used both by Euclid and Archimedes, who used the term solid rhombus for two right circular cones sharing a common base, the surface we refer to as rhombus today is a cross section of this solid rhombus through the apex of each of the two cones. This is a case of the superellipse, with exponent 1. Every rhombus has two diagonals connecting pairs of vertices, and two pairs of parallel sides. Using congruent triangles, one can prove that the rhombus is symmetric across each of these diagonals and it follows that any rhombus has the following properties, Opposite angles of a rhombus have equal measure. The two diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular, that is, a rhombus is an orthodiagonal quadrilateral, the first property implies that every rhombus is a parallelogram. Thus denoting the common side as a and the diagonals as p and q, not every parallelogram is a rhombus, though any parallelogram with perpendicular diagonals is a rhombus. In general, any quadrilateral with perpendicular diagonals, one of which is a line of symmetry, is a kite, every rhombus is a kite, and any quadrilateral that is both a kite and parallelogram is a rhombus. A rhombus is a tangential quadrilateral and that is, it has an inscribed circle that is tangent to all four sides. As for all parallelograms, the area K of a rhombus is the product of its base, the base is simply any side length a, K = a ⋅ h. The inradius, denoted by r, can be expressed in terms of the p and q as. The dual polygon of a rhombus is a rectangle, A rhombus has all sides equal, a rhombus has opposite angles equal, while a rectangle has opposite sides equal. A rhombus has a circle, while a rectangle has a circumcircle. A rhombus has an axis of symmetry through each pair of opposite vertex angles, the diagonals of a rhombus intersect at equal angles, while the diagonals of a rectangle are equal in length. The figure formed by joining the midpoints of the sides of a rhombus is a rectangle, a rhombohedron is a three-dimensional figure like a cube, except that its six faces are rhombi instead of squares. The rhombic dodecahedron is a polyhedron with 12 congruent rhombi as its faces
Rhombus
–
Some polyhedra with all rhombic faces
Rhombus
–
Two rhombi.
Rhombus
15.
Rectangle
–
In Euclidean plane geometry, a rectangle is a quadrilateral with four right angles. It can also be defined as a quadrilateral, since equiangular means that all of its angles are equal. It can also be defined as a parallelogram containing a right angle, a rectangle with four sides of equal length is a square. The term oblong is occasionally used to refer to a non-square rectangle, a rectangle with vertices ABCD would be denoted as ABCD. The word rectangle comes from the Latin rectangulus, which is a combination of rectus and angulus, a crossed rectangle is a crossed quadrilateral which consists of two opposite sides of a rectangle along with the two diagonals. It is a case of an antiparallelogram, and its angles are not right angles. Other geometries, such as spherical, elliptic, and hyperbolic, have so-called rectangles with sides equal in length. Rectangles are involved in many tiling problems, such as tiling the plane by rectangles or tiling a rectangle by polygons, a convex quadrilateral with successive sides a, b, c, d whose area is 12. A rectangle is a case of a parallelogram in which each pair of adjacent sides is perpendicular. A parallelogram is a case of a trapezium in which both pairs of opposite sides are parallel and equal in length. A trapezium is a quadrilateral which has at least one pair of parallel opposite sides. A convex quadrilateral is Simple, The boundary does not cross itself, star-shaped, The whole interior is visible from a single point, without crossing any edge. De Villiers defines a more generally as any quadrilateral with axes of symmetry through each pair of opposite sides. This definition includes both right-angled rectangles and crossed rectangles, quadrilaterals with two axes of symmetry, each through a pair of opposite sides, belong to the larger class of quadrilaterals with at least one axis of symmetry through a pair of opposite sides. These quadrilaterals comprise isosceles trapezia and crossed isosceles trapezia, a rectangle is cyclic, all corners lie on a single circle. It is equiangular, all its corner angles are equal and it is isogonal or vertex-transitive, all corners lie within the same symmetry orbit. It has two lines of symmetry and rotational symmetry of order 2. The dual polygon of a rectangle is a rhombus, as shown in the table below, the figure formed by joining, in order, the midpoints of the sides of a rectangle is a rhombus and vice versa
Rectangle
–
Running bond
Rectangle
–
Rectangle
Rectangle
–
Basket weave
16.
Square (geometry)
–
In geometry, a square is a regular quadrilateral, which means that it has four equal sides and four equal angles. It can also be defined as a rectangle in which two adjacent sides have equal length, a square with vertices ABCD would be denoted ◻ ABCD. e. A rhombus with equal diagonals a convex quadrilateral with sides a, b, c, d whose area is A =12 =12. Opposite sides of a square are both parallel and equal in length, all four angles of a square are equal. All four sides of a square are equal, the diagonals of a square are equal. The square is the n=2 case of the families of n-hypercubes and n-orthoplexes, a truncated square, t, is an octagon. An alternated square, h, is a digon, the perimeter of a square whose four sides have length ℓ is P =4 ℓ and the area A is A = ℓ2. In classical times, the power was described in terms of the area of a square. This led to the use of the square to mean raising to the second power. The area can also be calculated using the diagonal d according to A = d 22. In terms of the circumradius R, the area of a square is A =2 R2, since the area of the circle is π R2, in terms of the inradius r, the area of the square is A =4 r 2. Because it is a polygon, a square is the quadrilateral of least perimeter enclosing a given area. Dually, a square is the quadrilateral containing the largest area within a given perimeter. Indeed, if A and P are the area and perimeter enclosed by a quadrilateral, then the isoperimetric inequality holds,16 A ≤ P2 with equality if. The diagonals of a square are 2 times the length of a side of the square and this value, known as the square root of 2 or Pythagoras constant, was the first number proven to be irrational. A square can also be defined as a parallelogram with equal diagonals that bisect the angles, if a figure is both a rectangle and a rhombus, then it is a square. If a circle is circumscribed around a square, the area of the circle is π /2 times the area of the square, if a circle is inscribed in the square, the area of the circle is π /4 times the area of the square. A square has an area than any other quadrilateral with the same perimeter
Square (geometry)
–
A regular
quadrilateral (tetragon)
17.
Right angles
–
In geometry and trigonometry, a right angle is an angle that bisects the angle formed by two adjacent parts of a straight line. More precisely, if a ray is placed so that its endpoint is on a line, as a rotation, a right angle corresponds to a quarter turn. The presence of an angle in a triangle is the defining factor for right triangles. The term is a calque of Latin angulus rectus, here rectus means upright, in Unicode, the symbol for a right angle is U+221F ∟ Right angle. It should not be confused with the similarly shaped symbol U+231E ⌞ Bottom left corner, related symbols are U+22BE ⊾ Right angle with arc, U+299C ⦜ Right angle variant with square, and U+299D ⦝ Measured right angle with dot. The symbol for an angle, an arc, with a dot, is used in some European countries, including German-speaking countries and Poland. Right angles are fundamental in Euclids Elements and they are defined in Book 1, definition 10, which also defines perpendicular lines. Euclid uses right angles in definitions 11 and 12 to define acute angles, two angles are called complementary if their sum is a right angle. Book 1 Postulate 4 states that all angles are equal. Euclids commentator Proclus gave a proof of this using the previous postulates. Saccheri gave a proof as well but using a more explicit assumption, in Hilberts axiomatization of geometry this statement is given as a theorem, but only after much groundwork. A right angle may be expressed in different units, 1/4 turn, 90° π/2 radians 100 grad 8 points 6 hours Throughout history carpenters and masons have known a quick way to confirm if an angle is a true right angle. It is based on the most widely known Pythagorean triple and so called the Rule of 3-4-5 and this measurement can be made quickly and without technical instruments. The geometric law behind the measurement is the Pythagorean theorem, Thales theorem states that an angle inscribed in a semicircle is a right angle. Two application examples in which the angle and the Thales theorem are included. Cartesian coordinate system Orthogonality Perpendicular Rectangle Types of angles Wentworth, G. A, Euclid, commentary and trans. by T. L. Heath Elements Vol.1 Google Books
Right angles
–
A right angle is equal to 90 degrees.
18.
Trapezoidal rule
–
In mathematics, and more specifically in numerical analysis, the trapezoidal rule is a technique for approximating the definite integral ∫ a b f d x. The trapezoidal rule works by approximating the region under the graph of the function f as a trapezoid and it follows that ∫ a b f d x ≈. A2016 paper reports that the rule was in use in Babylon before 50 BC for integrating the velocity of Jupiter along the ecliptic. The trapezoidal rule is one of a family of formulas for numerical integration called Newton–Cotes formulas, however for various classes of rougher functions, the trapezoidal rule has faster convergence in general than Simpsons rule. Moreover, the trapezoidal rule tends to become extremely accurate when periodic functions are integrated over their periods, for a domain discretized into N equally spaced panels, or N+1 grid points a = x1 < x2 <. < xN+1 = b, where the spacing is h = N the approximation to the integral becomes ∫ a b f d x ≈ h 2 ∑ k =1 N = b − a 2 N. When the grid spacing is non-uniform, one can use the formula ∫ a b f d x ≈12 ∑ k =1 N and this can also be seen from the geometric picture, the trapezoids include all of the area under the curve and extend over it. Similarly, a concave-down function yields an underestimate because area is unaccounted for under the curve, if the interval of the integral being approximated includes an inflection point, the error is harder to identify. Further terms in this error estimate are given by the Euler–Maclaurin summation formula and it is argued that the speed of convergence of the trapezoidal rule reflects and can be used as a definition of classes of smoothness of the functions. The trapezoidal rule often converges very quickly for periodic functions, in the error formula above, f = f, and only the O term remains. More detailed analysis can be found in, for various classes of functions that are not twice-differentiable, the trapezoidal rule has sharper bounds than Simpsons rule
Trapezoidal rule
–
The function f (x) (in blue) is approximated by a linear function (in red).
19.
Isosceles trapezoid
–
In Euclidean geometry, an isosceles trapezoid is a convex quadrilateral with a line of symmetry bisecting one pair of opposite sides. It is a case of a trapezoid. In any isosceles trapezoid two opposite sides are parallel, and the two sides are of equal length. The diagonals are also of equal length, the base angles of an isosceles trapezoid are equal in measure. Rectangles and squares are usually considered to be cases of isosceles trapezoids though some sources would exclude them. Another special case is a 3-equal side trapezoid, sometimes known as a trapezoid or a trisosceles trapezoid. They can also be dissected from regular polygons of 5 sides or more as a truncation of 4 sequential vertices. Any non-self-crossing quadrilateral with one axis of symmetry must be either an isosceles trapezoid or a kite. Every antiparallelogram has a trapezoid as its convex hull, and may be formed from the diagonals. The base angles have the same measure, the segment that joins the midpoints of the parallel sides is perpendicular to them. Opposite angles are supplementary, which in turn implies that isosceles trapezoids are cyclic quadrilaterals, the diagonals divide each other into segments with lengths that are pairwise equal, in terms of the picture below, AE = DE, BE = CE. In an isosceles trapezoid the base angles have the same measure pairwise, in the picture below, angles ∠ABC and ∠DCB are obtuse angles of the same measure, while angles ∠BAD and ∠CDA are acute angles, also of the same measure. Since the lines AD and BC are parallel, angles adjacent to opposite bases are supplementary, the diagonals of an isosceles trapezoid have the same length, that is, every isosceles trapezoid is an equidiagonal quadrilateral. Moreover, the diagonals divide each other in the same proportions, as pictured, the diagonals AC and BD have the same length and divide each other into segments of the same length. The ratio in each diagonal is divided is equal to the ratio of the lengths of the parallel sides that they intersect. The height is, according to the Pythagorean theorem, given by h = p 2 −2 =124 c 2 −2. The distance from point E to base AD is given by d = a h a + b where a and b are the lengths of the parallel sides AD and BC, and h is the height of the trapezoid. The area of a trapezoid is equal to the average of the lengths of the base
Isosceles trapezoid
–
Isosceles trapezoid with axis of symmetry
20.
Reflection symmetry
–
Reflection symmetry, line symmetry, mirror symmetry, mirror-image symmetry, is symmetry with respect to reflection. That is, a figure which does not change upon undergoing a reflection has reflectional symmetry, in 2D there is a line/axis of symmetry, in 3D a plane of symmetry. An object or figure which is indistinguishable from its image is called mirror symmetric. The set of operations that preserve a property of the object form a group. Two objects are symmetric to each other with respect to a group of operations if one is obtained from the other by some of the operations. Another way to think about the function is that if the shape were to be folded in half over the axis. Thus a square has four axes of symmetry, because there are four different ways to fold it and have the edges all match, a circle has infinitely many axes of symmetry. Triangles with reflection symmetry are isosceles, quadrilaterals with reflection symmetry are kites, deltoids, rhombuses, and isosceles trapezoids. All even-sided polygons have two simple reflective forms, one with lines of reflections through vertices, and one through edges, for an arbitrary shape, the axiality of the shape measures how close it is to being bilaterally symmetric. It equals 1 for shapes with reflection symmetry, and between 2/3 and 1 for any convex shape, for each line or plane of reflection, the symmetry group is isomorphic with Cs, one of the three types of order two, hence algebraically C2. The fundamental domain is a half-plane or half-space, in certain contexts there is rotational as well as reflection symmetry. Then mirror-image symmetry is equivalent to inversion symmetry, in contexts in modern physics the term parity or P-symmetry is used for both. For more general types of reflection there are more general types of reflection symmetry. For example, with respect to a non-isometric affine involution with respect to circle inversion, most animals are bilaterally symmetric, likely because this supports forward movement and streamlining. Mirror symmetry is used in architecture, as in the facade of Santa Maria Novella. It is also found in the design of ancient structures such as Stonehenge, Symmetry was a core element in some styles of architecture, such as Palladianism. Patterns in nature Point reflection symmetry Stewart, Ian, weidenfeld & Nicolson. is potty Weyl, Hermann. Mapping with symmetry - source in Delphi Reflection Symmetry Examples from Math Is Fun
Reflection symmetry
–
Many animals, such as this
spider crab Maja crispata, are bilaterally symmetric.
Reflection symmetry
–
Figures with the axes of
symmetry drawn in. The figure with no axes is
asymmetric.
Reflection symmetry
–
Mirror symmetry is often used in
architecture, as in the facade of
Santa Maria Novella,
Venice, 1470.
21.
Rotational symmetry
–
Rotational symmetry, also known as radial symmetry in biology, is the property a shape has when it looks the same after some rotation by a partial turn. An objects degree of symmetry is the number of distinct orientations in which it looks the same. Formally the rotational symmetry is symmetry with respect to some or all rotations in m-dimensional Euclidean space, rotations are direct isometries, i. e. isometries preserving orientation. With the modified notion of symmetry for vector fields the symmetry group can also be E+, for symmetry with respect to rotations about a point we can take that point as origin. These rotations form the orthogonal group SO, the group of m×m orthogonal matrices with determinant 1. For m =3 this is the rotation group SO, for chiral objects it is the same as the full symmetry group. Laws of physics are SO-invariant if they do not distinguish different directions in space, because of Noethers theorem, rotational symmetry of a physical system is equivalent to the angular momentum conservation law. Note that 1-fold symmetry is no symmetry, the notation for n-fold symmetry is Cn or simply n. The actual symmetry group is specified by the point or axis of symmetry, for each point or axis of symmetry, the abstract group type is cyclic group of order n, Zn. The fundamental domain is a sector of 360°/n, if there is e. g. rotational symmetry with respect to an angle of 100°, then also with respect to one of 20°, the greatest common divisor of 100° and 360°. A typical 3D object with rotational symmetry but no mirror symmetry is a propeller and this is the rotation group of a regular prism, or regular bipyramid. 4×3-fold and 3×2-fold axes, the rotation group T of order 12 of a regular tetrahedron, the group is isomorphic to alternating group A4. 3×4-fold, 4×3-fold, and 6×2-fold axes, the rotation group O of order 24 of a cube, the group is isomorphic to symmetric group S4. 6×5-fold, 10×3-fold, and 15×2-fold axes, the rotation group I of order 60 of a dodecahedron, the group is isomorphic to alternating group A5. The group contains 10 versions of D3 and 6 versions of D5, in the case of the Platonic solids, the 2-fold axes are through the midpoints of opposite edges, the number of them is half the number of edges. Rotational symmetry with respect to any angle is, in two dimensions, circular symmetry, the fundamental domain is a half-line. In three dimensions we can distinguish cylindrical symmetry and spherical symmetry and that is, no dependence on the angle using cylindrical coordinates and no dependence on either angle using spherical coordinates. The fundamental domain is a half-plane through the axis, and a radial half-line, axisymmetric or axisymmetrical are adjectives which refer to an object having cylindrical symmetry, or axisymmetry
Rotational symmetry
–
The starting position in
shogi
Rotational symmetry
–
The
triskelion appearing on the
Isle of Man flag.
22.
Point reflection
–
Not to be confused with inversive geometry, in which inversion is through a circle instead of a point. In geometry, a point reflection or inversion in a point is a type of isometry of Euclidean space, point reflection can be classified as an affine transformation. Namely, it is an isometric involutive affine transformation, which has one fixed point. It is equivalent to a transformation with scale factor equal to -1. The point of inversion is called homothetic center. The term reflection is loose, and considered by some an abuse of language, with preferred, however. Such maps are involutions, meaning that they have order 2 – they are their own inverse, in dimension 1 these coincide, as a point is a hyperplane in the line. In terms of algebra, assuming the origin is fixed. Reflection in a hyperplane has a single −1 eigenvalue, while point reflection has only the −1 eigenvalue. The term inversion should not be confused with inversive geometry, where inversion is defined with respect to a circle In two dimensions, a point reflection is the same as a rotation of 180 degrees. In three dimensions, a point reflection can be described as a 180-degree rotation composed with reflection across a plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation, in dimension n, point reflections are orientation-preserving if n is even, and orientation-reversing if n is odd. Given a vector a in the Euclidean space Rn, the formula for the reflection of a across the point p is R e f p =2 p − a, in the case where p is the origin, point reflection is simply the negation of the vector a. In Euclidean geometry, the inversion of a point X with respect to a point P is a point X* such that P is the midpoint of the segment with endpoints X. In other words, the vector from X to P is the same as the vector from P to X*, the formula for the inversion in P is x*=2a−x where a, x and x* are the position vectors of P, X and X* respectively. This mapping is an isometric involutive affine transformation which has one fixed point. When the inversion point P coincides with the origin, point reflection is equivalent to a case of uniform scaling. This is an example of linear transformation, when P does not coincide with the origin, point reflection is equivalent to a special case of homothetic transformation, homothety with homothetic center coinciding with P, and scale factor = -1. This is an example of non-linear affine transformation), the composition of two point reflections is a translation
Point reflection
23.
Saccheri quadrilateral
–
A Saccheri quadrilateral is a quadrilateral with two equal sides perpendicular to the base. The first known consideration of the Saccheri quadrilateral was by Omar Khayyam in the late 11th century, for a Saccheri quadrilateral ABCD, the sides AD and BC are equal in length and perpendicular to the base AB. The top CD is the summit or upper base and the angles at C and D are called the summit angles, as it turns out, when the summit angles are right angles, the existence of this quadrilateral is equivalent to the statement expounded by Euclids fifth postulate. When the summit angles are acute, this leads to hyperbolic geometry, and when the summit angles are obtuse. Saccheri himself, however, thought that both the obtuse and acute cases could be shown to be contradictory and he did show that the obtuse case was contradictory, but failed to properly handle the acute case. Saccheri quadrilaterals were first considered by Omar Khayyam in the late 11th century in Book I of Explanations of the Difficulties in the Postulates of Euclid. Let ABCD be a Saccheri quadrilateral having AB as base, CD as summit and CA, the following properties are valid in any Saccheri quadrilateral in hyperbolic geometry, The summit angles are equal and acute. The summit is longer than the base, two Saccheri quadrilaterals are congruent if, the base segments and summit angles are congruent the summit segments and summit angles are congruent. The line segment joining the midpoints of the sides is not perpendicular to either side, besides the 2 right angles, these quadrilaterals have acute summit angles. The tilings exhibit a symmetry, and include, Lambert quadrilateral Coxeter. George E. Martin, The Foundations of Geometry and the Non-Euclidean Plane, Springer-Verlag,1975
Saccheri quadrilateral
–
*3322 symmetry
24.
Lambert quadrilateral
–
In geometry, a Lambert quadrilateral, named after Johann Heinrich Lambert, is a quadrilateral in which three of its angles are right angles. It is now known that the type of the angle depends upon the geometry in which the quadrilateral exists. In hyperbolic geometry the fourth angle is acute, in Euclidean geometry it is a right angle, a Lambert quadrilateral can be constructed from a Saccheri quadrilateral by joining the midpoints of the base and summit of the Saccheri quadrilateral. This line segment is perpendicular to both the base and summit and so half of the Saccheri quadrilateral is a Lambert quadrilateral
Lambert quadrilateral
–
A Lambert quadrilateral
25.
Tangential trapezoid
–
It is the special case of a tangential quadrilateral in which at least one pair of opposite sides are parallel. As for other trapezoids, the sides are called the bases. The legs can be equal, but they dont have to be, examples of tangential trapezoids are rhombi and squares. A convex quadrilateral is tangential if and only if opposite sides satisfy Pitots theorem, in turn, a tangential quadrilateral is a trapezoid if and only if either of the following two properties hold, It has two adjacent angles that are supplementary. Specifically, a tangential quadrilateral ABCD is a trapezoid with parallel bases AB and CD if, the product of two adjacent tangent lengths equals the product of the other two tangent lengths. The formula for the area of a trapezoid can be simplified using Pitots theorem to get a formula for the area of a tangential trapezoid. If the bases have lengths a and b, and any one of the two sides has length c, then the area K is given by the formula K = a + b | b − a | a b. The area can be expressed in terms of the tangent lengths e, f, g, h as K = e f g h 4. Using the same notations as for the area, the radius in the incircle is r = K a + b = a b | b − a |, the diameter of the incircle is equal to the height of the tangential trapezoid. The inradius can also be expressed in terms of the tangent lengths as r = e f g h 4. Moreover, if the tangent lengths e, f, g, h emanate respectively from vertices A, B, C, D and AB is parallel to DC, then r = e h = f g. If the incircle is tangent to the bases at P and Q, then P, I and Q are collinear, the angles AID and BIC in a tangential trapezoid ABCD, with bases AB and DC, are right angles. The incenter lies on the median, the median of a tangential trapezoid equals one fourth of the perimeter of the trapezoid. It also equals half the sum of the bases, as in all trapezoids, if two circles are drawn, each with a diameter coinciding with the legs of a tangential trapezoid, then these two circles are tangent to each other. A right tangential trapezoid is a trapezoid where two adjacent angles are right angles. If the bases have lengths a and b, then the inradius is r = a b a + b, thus the diameter of the incircle is the harmonic mean of the bases. The right tangential trapezoid has the area K = a b, an isosceles tangential trapezoid is a tangential trapezoid where the legs are equal. Since an isosceles trapezoid is cyclic, a tangential trapezoid is a bicentric quadrilateral
Tangential trapezoid
–
A tangential trapezoid.
26.
Tangential quadrilateral
–
In Euclidean geometry, a tangential quadrilateral or circumscribed quadrilateral is a convex quadrilateral whose sides are all tangent to a single circle within the quadrilateral. This circle is called the incircle of the quadrilateral or its inscribed circle, its center is the incenter, Tangential quadrilaterals are a special case of tangential polygons. Due to the risk of confusion with a quadrilateral that has a circumcircle, all triangles have an incircle, but not all quadrilaterals do. An example of a quadrilateral that cannot be tangential is a non-square rectangle, the section characterizations below states what necessary and sufficient conditions a quadrilateral must satisfy to have an incircle. Examples of tangential quadrilaterals are the kites, which include the rhombi, the kites are exactly the tangential quadrilaterals that are also orthodiagonal. A right kite is a kite with a circumcircle, if a quadrilateral is both tangential and cyclic, it is called a bicentric quadrilateral, and if it is both tangential and a trapezoid, it is called a tangential trapezoid. In a tangential quadrilateral, the four angle bisectors meet at the center of the incircle, conversely, a convex quadrilateral in which the four angle bisectors meet at a point must be tangential and the common point is the incenter. Conversely a convex quadrilateral in which a + c = b + d must be tangential, the second of these is almost the same as one of the equalities in Urquharts theorem. The only differences are the signs on both sides, in Urquharts theorem there are instead of differences. Another necessary and sufficient condition is that a convex quadrilateral ABCD is tangential if, a characterization regarding the angles formed by diagonal BD and the four sides of a quadrilateral ABCD is due to Iosifescu. Several more characterizations are known in the four subtriangles formed by the diagonals, the eight tangent lengths of a tangential quadrilateral are the line segments from a vertex to the points where the incircle is tangent to the sides. From each vertex there are two congruent tangent lengths, the two tangency chords of a tangential quadrilateral are the line segments that connect points on opposite sides where the incircle is tangent to these sides. These are also the diagonals of the contact quadrilateral, the area K of a tangential quadrilateral is given by K = r ⋅ s, where s is the semiperimeter and r is the inradius. Another formula is K =12 p 2 q 2 −2 which gives the area in terms of the p, q. The area can also be expressed in terms of just the four tangent lengths, if these are e, f, g, h, then the tangential quadrilateral has the area K =. Furthermore, the area of a quadrilateral can be expressed in terms of the sides a, b, c, d. Since eg = fh if and only if the quadrilateral is also cyclic and hence bicentric. For given side lengths, the area is maximum when the quadrilateral is also cyclic, then K = a b c d since opposite angles are supplementary angles
Tangential quadrilateral
–
An example of a tangential quadrilateral
27.
Ex-tangential quadrilateral
–
In Euclidean geometry, an ex-tangential quadrilateral is a convex quadrilateral where the extensions of all four sides are tangent to a circle outside the quadrilateral. It has also called an exscriptible quadrilateral. The circle is called its excircle, its radius the exradius, the excenter lies at the intersection of six angle bisectors. The ex-tangential quadrilateral is closely related to the tangential quadrilateral, another name for an excircle is an escribed circle, but that name has also been used for a circle tangent to one side of a convex quadrilateral and the extensions of the adjacent two sides. In that context all convex quadrilaterals have four escribed circles, kites are examples of ex-tangential quadrilaterals. Convex quadrilaterals whose side lengths form an arithmetic progression are always ex-tangential as they satisfy the characterization below for adjacent side lengths, a convex quadrilateral is ex-tangential if and only if there are six concurrent angles bisectors. This is possible in two different ways—either as a + b = c + d or a + d = b + c and this was proved by Jakob Steiner in 1846. These equations are related to the Pitot theorem for tangential quadrilaterals. If opposite sides in a convex quadrilateral ABCD intersect at E and F, the implication to the right is named after L. M. Urquhart although it was proved long before by Augustus De Morgan in 1841. Daniel Pedoe named it the most elementary theorem in Euclidean geometry since it only concerns straight lines and distances and that there in fact is an equivalence was proved by Mowaffac Hajja, which makes the equality to the right another necessary and sufficient condition for a quadrilateral to be ex-tangential. A few of the metric characterizations of tangential quadrilaterals have very similar counterparts for ex-tangential quadrilaterals, thus a convex quadrilateral has an incircle or an excircle outside the appropriate vertex if and only if any one of the five necessary and sufficient conditions below is satisfied. The notations in this table are as follows, In a convex quadrilateral ABCD, an ex-tangential quadrilateral ABCD with sides a, b, c, d has area K = a b c d sin B + D2. Note that this is the formula as the one for the area of a tangential quadrilateral. The exradius for a quadrilateral with consecutive sides a, b, c, d is given by r = K | a − c | = K | b − d | where K is the area of the quadrilateral. For an ex-tangential quadrilateral with sides, the exradius is maximum when the quadrilateral is also cyclic. These formulas explain why all parallelograms have infinite exradius, if an ex-tangential quadrilateral also has a circumcircle, it is called an ex-bicentric quadrilateral. Then, since it has two opposite angles, its area is given by K = a b c d which is the same as for a bicentric quadrilateral. If x is the distance between the circumcenter and the excenter, then 12 +12 =1 r 2 and this is the same equation as Fusss theorem for a bicentric quadrilateral
Ex-tangential quadrilateral
–
An ex-tangential quadrilateral ABCD and its excircle
28.
Angle
–
In planar geometry, an angle is the figure formed by two rays, called the sides of the angle, sharing a common endpoint, called the vertex of the angle. Angles formed by two rays lie in a plane, but this plane does not have to be a Euclidean plane, Angles are also formed by the intersection of two planes in Euclidean and other spaces. Angles formed by the intersection of two curves in a plane are defined as the angle determined by the tangent rays at the point of intersection. Similar statements hold in space, for example, the angle formed by two great circles on a sphere is the dihedral angle between the planes determined by the great circles. Angle is also used to designate the measure of an angle or of a rotation and this measure is the ratio of the length of a circular arc to its radius. In the case of an angle, the arc is centered at the vertex. In the case of a rotation, the arc is centered at the center of the rotation and delimited by any other point and its image by the rotation. The word angle comes from the Latin word angulus, meaning corner, cognate words are the Greek ἀγκύλος, meaning crooked, curved, both are connected with the Proto-Indo-European root *ank-, meaning to bend or bow. Euclid defines a plane angle as the inclination to each other, in a plane, according to Proclus an angle must be either a quality or a quantity, or a relationship. In mathematical expressions, it is common to use Greek letters to serve as variables standing for the size of some angle, lower case Roman letters are also used, as are upper case Roman letters in the context of polygons. See the figures in this article for examples, in geometric figures, angles may also be identified by the labels attached to the three points that define them. For example, the angle at vertex A enclosed by the rays AB, sometimes, where there is no risk of confusion, the angle may be referred to simply by its vertex. However, in geometrical situations it is obvious from context that the positive angle less than or equal to 180 degrees is meant. Otherwise, a convention may be adopted so that ∠BAC always refers to the angle from B to C. Angles smaller than an angle are called acute angles. An angle equal to 1/4 turn is called a right angle, two lines that form a right angle are said to be normal, orthogonal, or perpendicular. Angles larger than an angle and smaller than a straight angle are called obtuse angles. An angle equal to 1/2 turn is called a straight angle, Angles larger than a straight angle but less than 1 turn are called reflex angles
Angle
–
An angle enclosed by rays emanating from a vertex.
29.
Supplementary angles
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In planar geometry, an angle is the figure formed by two rays, called the sides of the angle, sharing a common endpoint, called the vertex of the angle. Angles formed by two rays lie in a plane, but this plane does not have to be a Euclidean plane, Angles are also formed by the intersection of two planes in Euclidean and other spaces. Angles formed by the intersection of two curves in a plane are defined as the angle determined by the tangent rays at the point of intersection. Similar statements hold in space, for example, the angle formed by two great circles on a sphere is the dihedral angle between the planes determined by the great circles. Angle is also used to designate the measure of an angle or of a rotation and this measure is the ratio of the length of a circular arc to its radius. In the case of an angle, the arc is centered at the vertex. In the case of a rotation, the arc is centered at the center of the rotation and delimited by any other point and its image by the rotation. The word angle comes from the Latin word angulus, meaning corner, cognate words are the Greek ἀγκύλος, meaning crooked, curved, both are connected with the Proto-Indo-European root *ank-, meaning to bend or bow. Euclid defines a plane angle as the inclination to each other, in a plane, according to Proclus an angle must be either a quality or a quantity, or a relationship. In mathematical expressions, it is common to use Greek letters to serve as variables standing for the size of some angle, lower case Roman letters are also used, as are upper case Roman letters in the context of polygons. See the figures in this article for examples, in geometric figures, angles may also be identified by the labels attached to the three points that define them. For example, the angle at vertex A enclosed by the rays AB, sometimes, where there is no risk of confusion, the angle may be referred to simply by its vertex. However, in geometrical situations it is obvious from context that the positive angle less than or equal to 180 degrees is meant. Otherwise, a convention may be adopted so that ∠BAC always refers to the angle from B to C. Angles smaller than an angle are called acute angles. An angle equal to 1/4 turn is called a right angle, two lines that form a right angle are said to be normal, orthogonal, or perpendicular. Angles larger than an angle and smaller than a straight angle are called obtuse angles. An angle equal to 1/2 turn is called a straight angle, Angles larger than a straight angle but less than 1 turn are called reflex angles
Supplementary angles
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An angle enclosed by rays emanating from a vertex.
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Degree (angle)
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A degree, usually denoted by °, is a measurement of a plane angle, defined so that a full rotation is 360 degrees. It is not an SI unit, as the SI unit of measure is the radian. Because a full rotation equals 2π radians, one degree is equivalent to π/180 radians, the original motivation for choosing the degree as a unit of rotations and angles is unknown. One theory states that it is related to the fact that 360 is approximately the number of days in a year. Ancient astronomers noticed that the sun, which follows through the path over the course of the year. Some ancient calendars, such as the Persian calendar, used 360 days for a year, the use of a calendar with 360 days may be related to the use of sexagesimal numbers. The earliest trigonometry, used by the Babylonian astronomers and their Greek successors, was based on chords of a circle, a chord of length equal to the radius made a natural base quantity. One sixtieth of this, using their standard sexagesimal divisions, was a degree, Aristarchus of Samos and Hipparchus seem to have been among the first Greek scientists to exploit Babylonian astronomical knowledge and techniques systematically. Timocharis, Aristarchus, Aristillus, Archimedes, and Hipparchus were the first Greeks known to divide the circle in 360 degrees of 60 arc minutes, eratosthenes used a simpler sexagesimal system dividing a circle into 60 parts. Furthermore, it is divisible by every number from 1 to 10 except 7 and this property has many useful applications, such as dividing the world into 24 time zones, each of which is nominally 15° of longitude, to correlate with the established 24-hour day convention. Finally, it may be the case more than one of these factors has come into play. For many practical purposes, a degree is a small enough angle that whole degrees provide sufficient precision. When this is not the case, as in astronomy or for geographic coordinates, degree measurements may be written using decimal degrees, with the symbol behind the decimals. Alternatively, the sexagesimal unit subdivisions can be used. One degree is divided into 60 minutes, and one minute into 60 seconds, use of degrees-minutes-seconds is also called DMS notation. These subdivisions, also called the arcminute and arcsecond, are represented by a single and double prime. For example,40. 1875° = 40° 11′ 15″, or, using quotation mark characters, additional precision can be provided using decimals for the arcseconds component. The older system of thirds, fourths, etc. which continues the sexagesimal unit subdivision, was used by al-Kashi and other ancient astronomers, but is rarely used today
Degree (angle)
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One degree (shown in red) and eighty nine (shown in blue)
