1.
South Africa
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South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa, is the southernmost country in Africa. South Africa is the 25th-largest country in the world by land area and it is the southernmost country on the mainland of the Old World or the Eastern Hemisphere. About 80 percent of South Africans are of Sub-Saharan African ancestry, divided among a variety of ethnic groups speaking different Bantu languages, the remaining population consists of Africas largest communities of European, Asian, and multiracial ancestry. South Africa is a multiethnic society encompassing a variety of cultures, languages. Its pluralistic makeup is reflected in the recognition of 11 official languages. The country is one of the few in Africa never to have had a coup détat, however, the vast majority of black South Africans were not enfranchised until 1994. During the 20th century, the black majority sought to recover its rights from the dominant white minority, with this struggle playing a role in the countrys recent history. The National Party imposed apartheid in 1948, institutionalising previous racial segregation, since 1994, all ethnic and linguistic groups have held political representation in the countrys democracy, which comprises a parliamentary republic and nine provinces. South Africa is often referred to as the Rainbow Nation to describe the multicultural diversity. The World Bank classifies South Africa as an economy. Its economy is the second-largest in Africa, and the 34th-largest in the world, in terms of purchasing power parity, South Africa has the seventh-highest per capita income in Africa. However, poverty and inequality remain widespread, with about a quarter of the population unemployed, nevertheless, South Africa has been identified as a middle power in international affairs, and maintains significant regional influence. The name South Africa is derived from the geographic location at the southern tip of Africa. Upon formation the country was named the Union of South Africa in English, since 1961 the long form name in English has been the Republic of South Africa. In Dutch the country was named Republiek van Zuid-Afrika, replaced in 1983 by the Afrikaans Republiek van Suid-Afrika, since 1994 the Republic has had an official name in each of its 11 official languages. Mzansi, derived from the Xhosa noun umzantsi meaning south, is a name for South Africa. South Africa contains some of the oldest archaeological and human fossil sites in the world, extensive fossil remains have been recovered from a series of caves in Gauteng Province. The area is a UNESCO World Heritage site and has termed the Cradle of Humankind
2.
Activism
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Activism consists of efforts to promote, impede, or direct social, political, economic, and/or environmental reform or stasis with the desire to make improvements in society. One can also express activism through different forms of art, daily acts of protest such as not buying clothes from a certain clothing company because they exploit workers is another form of activism. One view holds that acknowledging privileges and oppressions on a daily basis ranks as a form of activism, research has begun to explore how activist groups use social media to facilitate civic engagement and collective action. The Online Etymology Dictionary records the English words activism and activist from 1920, Activists can function in roles as public officials, as in judicial activism. Arthur Schlesinger, Jr. introduced the term judicial activism in a January 1946 Fortune magazine article titled The Supreme Court,1947, some activists try to persuade people to change their behavior directly, rather than to persuade governments to change or not to change laws. Other activists try to persuade people to remain the same, in an effort to counter change, the cooperative movement seeks to build new institutions which conform to cooperative principles, and generally does not lobby or protest politically. Activism is not always an action by Activists, every year more than 100 environmental activists are killed, in 2014116 environmental activists were assassinated, in 2015185 activists were killed around this planet. Since the 1990s, the Internet has been a tool used by activists for mobilization and communication of causes, specific platforms like MoveOn. org, founded in 1998, allow individuals to establish petitions and movements for social change. Protesters in Seattle in 1999 used email to organize protests against the WTO Ministerial Conference, throughout the 2000s, protesters continued to use social media platforms to generate interest. The power of Internet Activism came into a lens with the Arab Spring protests. They use different means to political persecution, such as Tor Browser. The activism industry consists of organizations and individuals engaged in activism, Activism is often done full-time, as part of an organizations core business. Many organizations in the industry are either non profit organizations or non-governmental organizations. Most activist organizations do not manufacture goods, the term activism industry has often been used to refer to outsourced fundraising operations. However, activist organizations engage in activities as well. Lobbying, or the influencing of decisions made by government, is another activist tactic, many groups, including law firms, have designated staff assigned specifically for lobbying purposes. In the United States, lobbying is regulated by the federal government, many government systems encourage public support of non-profit organizations by granting various forms of tax relief for donations to charitable organizations. Governments may attempt to deny these benefits to activists by restricting the political activity of tax-exempt organizations, randy Shaw, The Activists Handbook, A Primer for the 1990s and Beyond
3.
Zackie Achmat
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Abdurrazack Zackie Achmat is a South African activist and film director. He is a co-founder the Treatment Action Campaign and known worldwide for his activism on behalf of living with HIV. Achmat was born in the Johannesburg suburb of Vrededorp to a Muslim Cape Malay family and he was raised by his mother and his aunt who were both shop stewards for the Garment Workers Union. He did not matriculate but nevertheless graduated with a BA Hons degree in English Literature from the University of the Western Cape in 1992 and studied filmmaking at the Cape Town Film School. Achmat set fire to his school in Salt River in support of the 1976 student protests and was imprisoned several times during his youth for political activities and he joined the African National Congress in 1980 while serving time in prison. Between 1985 and 1990 he was a member of the Marxist Workers Tendency of the ANC, Achmat describes his political ideology as democratic socialist since the unbanning of the ANC in 1990. In 2006, Achmat called on party members to formulate appropriate HIV policies. He has also been outspoken in his criticism of President Jacob Zuma, the AIDS Law Project and TAC work closely together in all the legal matters that arise in the course of advocating for the right to health, including prosecuting cases and defending TAC volunteers. Achmat publicly announced his HIV-positive status in 1998 and refused to take antiretroviral drugs until all who needed them had access to them and he held firm in his pledge until August 2003 when a national congress of TAC activists voted to urge him to begin antiretroviral treatment. He finally announced that he would start treatment shortly before the government announced that it would make available in the public sector. The protesters were charged with trespassing and ordered to appear before court, the inmate was one of 15 prisoners who were plaintiffs in a case against the Departments of Health and Correctional Services, suing to be provided access to antiretroviral drugs. The court ordered the government to provide the drugs immediately, in 2009 he co-founded the Centre for Law and Social Justice, subsequently renamed Ndifuna Ukwazi, with Gavin Silber. Achmat was diagnosed HIV-positive in 1990, in 2005 he suffered a heart attack, which his doctor said was unlikely to be caused by his HIV-positive status or treatment. He recovered sufficiently to return to his activism work, on 5 January 2008, Achmat married his same-sex partner and fellow activist Dalli Weyers at a ceremony in the Cape Town suburb of Lakeside. The ceremony was attended by then Mayor Helen Zille and presided over by Supreme Court of Appeal judge Edwin Cameron, the couple divorced amicably in June 2011. Achmats story is one of the 28 stories featured in the 2007 nonfiction book 28, Achmat is portrayed as a Saint in the 2009 video opera Fig Trees. Achmats critical role in the battle for mass antiretroviral treatment in Africa is portrayed in the award-winning 2013 documentary film Fire in the Blood, English, Is Europe Going to Hell. – directed by Robert Cibis Darling
4.
Direct action
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Direct action occurs when a group takes an action which is intended to reveal an existing problem, highlight an alternative, or demonstrate a possible solution to a social issue. This can include nonviolent and less often violent activities which target persons, groups, examples of non-violent direct action can include sit-ins, strikes, workplace occupations, blockades, or hacktivism, while violent direct action may include political violence or assaults. Tactics such as sabotage and property destruction may be considered violent if people are hurt in the action, by contrast, electoral politics, diplomacy, negotiation, and arbitration are not usually described as direct action, as they are politically mediated. Direct action tactics have been around for as long as conflicts have existed, the radical union the Industrial Workers of the World first mentioned the term direct action in a publication in reference to a Chicago strike conducted in 1910. American anarchist Voltairine de Cleyre wrote an essay called Direct Action in 1912 which is widely cited today. In his 1920 book, Direct Action, William Mellor placed direct action firmly in the struggle between worker and employer for control over the life of society. Mellor defined direct action as the use of form of economic power for securing of ends desired by those who possess that power. Mellor considered direct action a tool of both owners and workers and for this reason he included within his definition lockouts and cartels, as well as strikes, over and over they were arrested, fined, and imprisoned. Till they finally compelled their persecutors to let them alone, —de Cleyre, undated Martin Luther King felt that non-violent direct actions goal was to create such a crisis and foster such a tension as to demand a response. The rhetoric of Martin Luther King, James Bevel, and Mohandas Gandhi promoted non-violent revolutionary direct action as a means to social change. Noteworthy, Gandhi and Bevel had been influenced by Leo Tolstoys The Kingdom of God Is Within You. By the middle of the 20th century, the sphere of action had undoubtedly expanded. Some sections of the movement used direct action, particularly during the 1980s. In the US, mass protests opposed nuclear energy, weapons, many groups also set up semi-permanent peace camps outside air bases such as Molesworth and Greenham Common, and at the Nevada Test Site. Environmental movement organizations such as Greenpeace have used direct action to pressure governments, on April 28,2009, Greenpeace activists, including Phil Radford, scaled a crane across the street from the Department of State, calling on world leaders to address climate change. Soon thereafter, Greenpeace activists dropped a banner off of Mt. Rushmore, placing President Obamas face next to other historic presidents, overall, more than 2,600 people were arrested while protesting energy policy and associated health issues under the Barack Obama Administration. In 2009, hundreds blocked the gates of the coal fired power plant that powers the US Congress building, following the Power Shift conference in Washington, D. C. Anti-globalization activists made headlines around the world in 1999, when they forced the Seattle WTO Ministerial Conference of 1999 to end early with direct action tactics
5.
Apartheid
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Apartheid was a system of institutionalised racial segregation and discrimination in South Africa between 1948 and 1991, when it was abolished. The countrys first multiracial elections under a universal franchise were held three years later in 1994, Apartheid as a policy was embraced by the South African government shortly after the ascension of the National Party during the countrys 1948 general elections. Apartheid was also enforced in South West Africa until it gained independence as Namibia in 1990, with the rapid growth and industrialisation of the British Cape Colony in the nineteenth century, racial policies and laws became increasingly rigid. Cape legislation that discriminated specifically against black Africans began appearing shortly before 1900, the policies of the Boer republics were also racially exclusive, for instance, the Transvaal constitution barred nonwhite participation in church and state. Places of residence were determined by racial classification, from 1960 to 1983,3.5 million nonwhite South Africans were removed from their homes, and forced into segregated neighbourhoods, in one of the largest mass removals in modern history. Most of these targeted removals were intended to restrict the population to ten designated tribal homelands, also known as bantustans. The government announced that relocated persons would lose their South African citizenship as they were absorbed into the bantustans, Apartheid sparked significant international and domestic opposition, resulting in some of the most influential global social movements of the twentieth century. It was the target of frequent condemnation in the United Nations, some reforms of the apartheid system were undertaken, including allowing for Indian and coloured political representation in parliament, but these measures failed in appeasing most activist groups. In 1990, prominent ANC leaders such as Nelson Mandela were released from detention, Apartheid legislation was abolished in mid-1991, pending multiracial elections set for April 1994. Apartheid is an Afrikaans word meaning separateness, or the state of being apart and its first recorded use was in 1929. The governors and assemblies that governed the process in the various colonies of South Africa were launched on a different and independent legislative path from the rest of the British Empire. In the days of slavery, slaves required passes to travel away from their masters, in 1797 the Landdrost and Heemraden of Swellendam and Graaff-Reinet extended pass laws beyond slaves and ordained that all Khoikhoi moving about the country for any purpose should carry passes. Ordinance No.49 of 1828 decreed that prospective black immigrants were to be granted passes for the purpose of seeking work. These passes were to be issued for Coloureds and Khoikhoi, but not for other Africans, the United Kingdoms Slavery Abolition Act 1833 abolished slavery throughout the British Empire and overrode the Cape Articles of Capitulation. To comply with the act the South African legislation was expanded to include Ordinance 1 in 1835 and this was followed by Ordinance 3 in 1848, which introduced an indenture system for Xhosa that was little different from slavery. The Glen Grey Act of 1894, instigated by the government of Prime Minister Cecil John Rhodes limited the amount of land Africans could hold, in 1905 the General Pass Regulations Act denied blacks the vote, limited them to fixed areas and inaugurated the infamous Pass System. The Asiatic Registration Act required all Indians to register and carry passes, one of the first pieces of segregating legislation enacted by Jan Smuts United Party government was the Asiatic Land Tenure Bill, which banned land sales to Indians. The United Party government began to move away from the enforcement of segregationist laws during World War II
6.
Thabo Mbeki
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Thabo Mvuyelwa Mbeki is a South African politician who served nine years as the second post-apartheid President of South Africa from 14 June 1999 to 24 September 2008. R. Nicholson of improper interference in the National Prosecuting Authority, on 12 January 2009, the Supreme Court of Appeal unanimously overturned judge Nicholsons judgment but the resignation stood. During his time in office the economy grew at a rate of 4. 5% per year. Mbeki created employment in the sectors of the economy and oversaw a fast-growing black middle class with the implementation of Black Economic Empowerment. This growth exacerbated the demand for trained professionals strained by emigration due to violent crime and he attracted the bulk of Africas Foreign Direct Investment and made South Africa the focal point of African growth. He was the architect of NEPAD whose aim is to develop an integrated socio-economic development framework for Africa, Mbeki has mediated in difficult and complex issues on the African continent including Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ivory Coast, and some important peace agreements. He oversaw the transition from the Organisation of African Unity to the African Union and his quiet diplomacy in Zimbabwe, however, is blamed for protracting the survival of Robert Mugabes regime at the cost of thousands of lives and intense economic pressure on Zimbabwes neighbours. He became a leader of the Non-Aligned Movement in the United Nations. Mbeki has received criticism for his stance on AIDS. He questions the link between HIV and AIDS and believes that the correlation between poverty and the AIDS rate in Africa was a challenge to the theory of AIDS. His fate was not helped by Health Minister Manto Tshabalala-Msimang and the overhaul of the industry in South Africa. His ban of antiretroviral drugs in public hospitals is estimated to be responsible for the deaths of between 330,000 and 365,000 people. Thabo Mbeki has also criticised for responding to negative comments made about his government by accusing critics of racism. Born and raised in Mbewuleni, Cape Province, Union of South Africa, Mbeki is one of four children of Epainette, the economist Moeletsi Mbeki is one of his brothers. His father was a stalwart of the African National Congress and the South African Communist Party and he is a native Xhosa speaker. Mbeki attended primary school in Idutywa and Butterworth and acquired a school education at Lovedale. In 1959, he was expelled from school as a result of student strikes, in the same year, he sat for matriculation examinations at St. Johns High School, Umtata. In the ensuing years, he completed British A-level examinations and undertook a degree as an external student with the University of London
7.
Management of HIV/AIDS
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The management of HIV/AIDS normally includes the use of multiple antiretroviral drugs in an attempt to control HIV infection. There are several classes of agents that act on different stages of the HIV life-cycle. The use of drugs that act on different viral targets is known as highly active antiretroviral therapy. HAART decreases the total burden of HIV, maintains function of the immune system. Treatment has been so successful that in parts of the world. In the same paper, he noted that an estimated 700,000 lives were saved in 2010 alone by antiretroviral therapy, the United States Department of Health and Human Services and the World Health Organization recommend offering antiretroviral treatment to all patients with HIV. The first effective therapy against HIV was the reverse transcriptase inhibitor. It was approved by the US FDA in 1987, subsequently, several more NRTIs were developed but even in combination were unable to suppress the virus for long periods of time and patients still inevitably died. To distinguish from this early therapy, the term highly active anti-retroviral therapy was introduced. This concept of 3-drug therapy was quickly incorporated into practice and rapidly showed impressive benefit with a 60% to 80% decline in rates of AIDS, death. There are five classes of drugs, which are used in combination. Use of these drugs in combination can be termed anti-retroviral therapy, anti-retroviral drugs are broadly classified by the phase of the retrovirus life-cycle that the drug inhibits. Typical combinations include 2 NRTIs as a backbone along with 1 NNRTI, entry inhibitors interfere with binding, fusion and entry of HIV-1 to the host cell by blocking one of several targets. Maraviroc and enfuvirtide are the two currently available agents in this class, maraviroc works by targeting CCR5, a co-receptor located on human helper T-cells. Caution should be used when administering this drug due to a possible shift in tropism which allows HIV to target an alternative co-receptor such as CXCR4. In rare cases, individuals may have a mutation in the CCR5 delta gene which results in a nonfunctional CCR5 co-receptor and in turn, however, as mentioned previously, this can be overcome if an HIV variant that targets CXCR4 becomes dominant. To prevent fusion of the virus with the host membrane, enfuvirtide can be used, nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors and nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors are nucleoside and nucleotide analogues which inhibit reverse transcription. HIV is an RNA virus and hence unable to become integrated into the DNA in the nucleus of the human cell, since the conversion of RNA to DNA is not done in the mammalian cell it is performed by a viral protein which makes it a selective target for inhibition
8.
African National Congress
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The African National Congress is the Republic of South Africas governing social democratic political party. It has been the party of post-apartheid South Africa on the national level, beginning with the election of Nelson Mandela in the 1994 election. Today, the ANC remains the dominant political party in South Africa and its leader Jacob Zuma is the incumbent head of state, with Atul Gupta being the official head of government. On 8 April 1960, the administration of Charles Robberts Swart, banned the ANC, after the ban, the ANC formed the Umkhonto we Sizwe to fight against apartheid utilizing guerrilla warfare and sabotage. On 3 February 1990, State President F. W. de Klerk lifted the ban on the ANC, on 17 March 1992, the apartheid referendum was passed by the voters removing apartheid and allowing the ANC to run in the 1994 election. Since the 1994 election the ANC has performed better than 60% in all general elections, the founding of the SANNC was in direct response to injustice against black South Africans at the hands of the government then in power. It can be said that the SANNC had its origins in a pronouncement by Pixley ka Isaka Seme who said in 1911, Forget all the past differences among Africans, the SANNC was founded the following year on 8 January 1912. The government of the newly formed Union of South Africa began a systematic oppression of people in South Africa. The Land Act was promulgated in 1913 forcing many non-whites from their farms into the cities and towns to work, by 1919, the SANNC was leading a campaign against passes. However, it became dormant in the mid-1920s. During that time, black people were represented by the ICU. In 1923, the became the African National Congress. By 1927, J. T. Gumede proposed co-operation with the Communists in a bid to revitalise the organisation and this led to the ANC becoming largely ineffectual and inactive, until the mid-1940s when the ANC was remodelled as a mass movement. The ANC responded to attacks on the rights of black South Africans, as well as calling for strikes, boycotts and this led to a later Defiance Campaign in the 1950s, a mass movement of resistance to apartheid. The government tried to stop the ANC by banning party leaders and enacting new laws to stop the ANC, the government claimed that this was a communist document, and consequently leaders of the ANC and Congress were arrested. 1960 saw the Sharpeville massacre, in which 69 people were killed when police opened fire on anti-apartheid protesters, in 1961, partly in response to the Sharpeville massacre, Umkhonto we Sizwe was established as the military wing to launch bomb attacks. It was considered as terrorist group by South African government, later the United States government, MK commenced the military struggle against apartheid with acts of sabotage aimed at the installations of the state, and in the early stages was reluctant to target civilian targets. MK was responsible for the deaths of civilians and members of the military
9.
International Human Rights Day
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Human Rights Day is celebrated annually across the world on 10 December every year. The day is marked both by high-level political conferences and meetings and by cultural events and exhibitions dealing with human rights issues. In addition it is traditionally on 10 December that the five-yearly United Nations Prize in the Field of Human Rights, many governmental and non-governmental organizations active in the human rights field also schedule special events to commemorate the day, as do many civil and social-cause organizations. Human Rights Day is the day in 1948 the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the measure was received by both advocates and critics alike as being more declarative than legislative, more suggestive than binding. Combating poverty, deprivation and exclusion is not a matter of charity, by tackling poverty as a matter of human rights obligation, the world will have a better chance of abolishing this scourge in our lifetime. Poverty eradication is an achievable goal, the 60th anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights occurred on 10 December 2008, and the UN Secretary-General launched a year-long campaign leading up to this anniversary. Because the UDHR holds the record as the most translated document. On December 9,2001, President George W. Bush made a Presidential proclamation that Human Rights Week began on December 9 and he also made the same proclamation on December 10,2008. In South Africa, Human Rights Day is celebrated on 21 March and this massacre occurred as a result of protests against the Apartheid regime in South Africa. South African Human Rights Day was declared a holiday when the ANC was elected as the government with Nelson Mandela as the first democratically elected leader. Parliaments role on this day is to empower the people so that the democratic processes becomes known to all South Africans and it is celebrated on 11 December in Kiribati
10.
The New Yorker
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The New Yorker is an American magazine of reportage, commentary, criticism, essays, fiction, satire, cartoons, and poetry. It is published by Condé Nast, started as a weekly in 1925, the magazine is now published 47 times annually, with five of these issues covering two-week spans. Although its reviews and events listings often focus on the life of New York City. The New Yorker debuted on February 21,1925 and it was founded by Harold Ross and his wife, Jane Grant, a New York Times reporter. Ross wanted to create a humor magazine that would be different from perceivably corny humor publications such as Judge. Ross partnered with entrepreneur Raoul H. Fleischmann to establish the F-R Publishing Company, the magazines first offices were at 25 West 45th Street in Manhattan. Ross edited the magazine until his death in 1951, during the early, occasionally precarious years of its existence, the magazine prided itself on its cosmopolitan sophistication. Ross famously declared in a 1925 prospectus for the magazine, It has announced that it is not edited for the old lady in Dubuque, although the magazine never lost its touches of humor, it soon established itself as a pre-eminent forum for serious fiction literature and journalism. Shortly after the end of World War II, John Herseys essay Hiroshima filled an entire issue, D. Salinger, Irwin Shaw, James Thurber, John Updike, Eudora Welty, Stephen King, and E. B. White. Publication of Shirley Jacksons The Lottery drew more mail than any story in the magazines history. In its early decades, the magazine published two or even three short stories a week, but in recent years the pace has remained steady at one story per issue. Kurt Vonnegut said that The New Yorker has been an instrument for getting a large audience to appreciate modern literature. Vonneguts 1974 interview with Joe David Bellamy and John Casey contained a discussion of The New Yorkers influence, No other art requires the audience to be a performer. You have to count on the readers being a good performer and those writers you mentioned and myself are teaching an audience how to play this kind of music in their heads. Its a learning process, and The New Yorker has been a good institution of the sort needed. They have an audience, and they come out every week, and people finally catch on to Barthelme, for instance. The non-fiction feature articles cover an array of topics. Recent subjects have included eccentric evangelist Creflo Dollar, the different ways in which humans perceive the passage of time, the magazine is notable for its editorial traditions
11.
Simon Nkoli
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Simon Tseko Nkoli was an anti-apartheid, gay rights and AIDS activist in South Africa. Nkoli was born in Soweto in a seSotho-speaking family and he grew up on a farm in the Free State and his family later moved to Sebokeng. Nkoli became a youth activist against apartheid, with the Congress of South African Students, in 1983, he joined the mainly white Gay Association of South Africa, then he formed the Saturday Group, the first black gay group in Africa. By coming out while a prisoner, he helped change the attitude of the African National Congress to gay rights and he was acquitted and released from prison in 1988. He founded the Gay and Lesbian Organisation of the Witwatersrand in 1988, along with LGBT activist, Beverley Palesa Ditsie, he organised the first pride parade in South Africa held in 1990. He traveled widely and was given several human rights awards in Europe and he was a member of International Lesbian and Gay Association board, representing the African region. He was one of the first gay activists to meet with President Nelson Mandela in 1994, after becoming one of the first publicly HIV-positive African gay men, he initiated the Positive African Men group based in central Johannesburg. He had been infected with HIV for around 12 years, and had been ill, on and off. He died of AIDS in 1998 in Johannesburg, there is a Simon Nkoli Street in Amsterdam and a Simon Nkoli Day in San Francisco. He opened the first Gay Games in New York and was made a freeman of that city by mayor David Dinkins, in 1996 Nkoli was given the Stonewall Award in the Royal Albert Hall in London. Canadian filmmaker John Greyson made a film about Nkoli titled A Moffie Called Simon in 1987. Nkoli was the subject of Robert Colmans 2003 play, Your Loving Simon, John Greysons 2009 film Fig Trees, a hybrid documentary/opera includes reference to Nkolis activism. Sunday Times, South Africa - Sunday,6 December 1998 Excerpts from, Aldrich R. & Wotherspoon G. msn. com HIV/AIDS in South Africa Joel Gustave Nana Ngongang
12.
T-shirt
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A T-shirt is a style of unisex fabric shirt, named after the T shape of the body and sleeves. It is normally associated with short sleeves, a round neck line known as a crew neck, T-shirts are generally made of a light, inexpensive fabric, and are easy to clean. Typically made of textile in a stockinette, or jersey. The majority of versions have a body made from a continuously woven tube, on a circular loom. The manufacture of T-shirts has become automated, and may include fabric cutting by laser or water jet. The T-shirt evolved from undergarments used in the 19th century, a V-neck T-shirt has a V-shaped neckline, as opposed to the round neckline of the more common crew neck shirt. The T-shirt evolved from undergarments used in the 19th century, first, the one-piece union suit underwear was cut into separate top and bottom garments, with the top long enough to tuck under the waistband of the bottoms. With and without buttons, they were adopted by miners and stevedores during the late 19th century as a convenient covering for hot environments. As slip-on garments without buttons, the earliest T-shirt dates back to sometime between the 1898 Spanish–American War and 1913, when the U. S. Navy began issuing them as undergarments and these were a crew-necked, short-sleeved, white cotton undershirt to be worn under a uniform. It became common for sailors and Marines in work parties, the early submarines and they soon became popular as a bottom layer of clothing for workers in various industries, including agriculture. The T-shirt was easily fitted, easily cleaned, and inexpensive, boys shirts were made in various colors and patterns. The word T-shirt became part of American English by the 1920s, following World War II, it became common to see veterans wearing their uniform trousers with their T-shirts as casual clothing. The shirts became more popular in the 1950s after Marlon Brando wore one in A Streetcar Named Desire, finally achieving status as fashionable, stand-alone. Often boys wore them while doing chores and playing outside, eventually opening up the idea of wearing them as general-purpose casual clothing, Printed T-shirts were in limited use by 1942 when an Air Corps Gunnery School T-shirt appeared on the cover of Life magazine. In the 1960s, printed T-shirts gained popularity for self-expression as well for advertisements, protests, current versions are available in many different designs and fabrics, and styles include crew-neck and V-neck shirts. T-shirts are among the most worn garments of clothing used today, T-shirts are especially popular with branding for companies or merchandise, as they are inexpensive to make and purchase. T-shirts were originally worn as undershirts, but are now worn frequently as the piece of clothing on the top half of the body, other than possibly a brassiere or, rarely. T-shirts have also become a medium for self-expression and advertising, with any combination of words, art
13.
Denmark in World War II
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During most of World War II, Denmark was first a protectorate, then an occupied territory under Germany. On 9 April 1940, Germany invaded Denmark in Operation Weserübung, on 29 August 1943 Germany placed Denmark under direct military occupation, which lasted until the Allied victory on 5 May 1945. Contrary to the situation in countries under German occupation, most Danish institutions continued to function relatively normally until 1945. Just over 3,000 Danes died as a result of the occupation. Overall this represents a low mortality rate when compared to other occupied countries. An effective resistance movement developed by the end of the war, the occupation of Denmark was initially not an important objective for the German government. The decision to occupy its northern neighbor was taken to facilitate a planned invasion of the strategically more important Norway. However, as late as February 1940 no firm decision to occupy Denmark had been made, the issue was finally settled when Adolf Hitler personally crossed out the words die Nordspitze Jütlands and replaced them with Dä, a German abbreviation for Denmark. In a much more vague and longer-term way, some Nazis hoped to incorporate Denmark into a greater Nordic Union at some stage, officially Germany claimed to be protecting Denmark from a British invasion. At 4,15 on the morning of 9 April 1940, in a coordinated operation, German ships began disembarking troops at the docks in Copenhagen. Although outnumbered and poorly equipped, soldiers in parts of the country offered resistance, most notably the Royal Guard in Copenhagen. At the same time as the crossing, German planes dropped the notorious OPROP. Leaflets over Copenhagen calling for Danes to accept the German occupation peacefully, colonel Lunding from the Danish armys intelligence office later confirmed that Danish intelligence knew the attack would be coming on either 8 or 9 April and had warned the government accordingly. The Danish ambassador to Germany, Herluf Zahle, issued a warning which was also ignored. As a result of the turn of events, the Danish government did not have enough time to officially declare war on Germany. Denmark was in a position in any event, however. Its territory and population were too small to hold out against Germany for any sustained period, unlike Norway, Denmark had no mountain ranges from which a drawn-out resistance could be mounted. The flat territory of Jutland was an area for the German army to operate in
14.
Cape Town
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Cape Town is a coastal city in South Africa. It is the second-most populous urban area in South Africa after Johannesburg and it is also the capital and primate city of the Western Cape province. As the seat of the Parliament of South Africa, it is also the capital of the country. It forms part of the City of Cape Town metropolitan municipality, the city is famous for its harbour, for its natural setting in the Cape Floristic Region, and for such well-known landmarks as Table Mountain and Cape Point. As of 2014, it is the 10th most populous city in Africa and it is one of the most multicultural cities in the world, reflecting its role as a major destination for immigrants and expatriates to South Africa. The city was named the World Design Capital for 2014 by the International Council of Societies of Industrial Design, in 2014, Cape Town was named the best place in the world to visit by both the American New York Times and the British Daily Telegraph. Located on the shore of Table Bay, Cape Town was first developed by the Dutch East India Company as a station for Dutch ships sailing to East Africa, India. Jan van Riebeecks arrival on 6 April 1652 established the first permanent European settlement in South Africa, Cape Town quickly outgrew its original purpose as the first European outpost at the Castle of Good Hope, becoming the economic and cultural hub of the Cape Colony. Until the Witwatersrand Gold Rush and the development of Johannesburg, Cape Town was the largest city in South Africa, the earliest known remnants in the region were found at Peers Cave in Fish Hoek and date to between 15,000 and 12,000 years ago. It was later renamed by John II of Portugal as Cape of Good Hope because of the optimism engendered by the opening of a sea route to India. Vasco da Gama recorded a sighting of the Cape of Good Hope in 1497, in the late 16th century, Portuguese, French, Danish, Dutch and English but mainly Portuguese ships regularly stopped over in Table Bay en route to the Indies. They traded tobacco, copper and iron with the Khoikhoi in exchange for fresh meat, the settlement grew slowly during this period, as it was hard to find adequate labour. This labour shortage prompted the authorities to import slaves from Indonesia, many of these became ancestors of the first Cape Coloured communities. Some of these, including grapes, cereals, ground nuts, potatoes, apples and citrus, had an important, the Dutch Republic being transformed in Revolutionary Frances vassal Batavian Republic, Great Britain moved to take control of its colonies. Britain captured Cape Town in 1795, but the Cape was returned to the Dutch by treaty in 1803, British forces occupied the Cape again in 1806 following the Battle of Blaauwberg. In the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814, Cape Town was permanently ceded to Britain and it became the capital of the newly formed Cape Colony, whose territory expanded very substantially through the 1800s. With expansion came calls for independence from Britain, with the Cape attaining its own parliament. Suffrage was established according to the non-racial, but sexist Cape Qualified Franchise, the discovery of diamonds in Griqualand West in 1867, and the Witwatersrand Gold Rush in 1886, prompted a flood of immigrants to South Africa
15.
Democratic Socialist Movement (South Africa)
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The Democratic Socialist Movement is a Trotskyist organisation in South Africa, affiliated to the Committee for a Workers International, and a founding member of the Workers and Socialist Party. Members of the MWT included Nimrod Sejake, Zackie Achmat, Mark Heywood, the MWT was launched after Martin Legassick and others were expelled from the ANC in 1979. In 1981 they began publishing the journal Inqaba Ya Basebenzi from exile in Botswana, Zimbabwe, Ireland, four members of the MWT were expelled from the ANC at the 16 June 1985 ANC Consultative Conference in Zambia. In 1989 it started producing the newspaper Congress Militant, both the African National Congress and the South African Communist Party, often described as a Stalinist party, have been highly critical of the MWT. The DSM was refounded in October 2002 at a conference of 45 people held on the 5th and 6th of that month at the University of Durban-Westville. After the massacre of striking workers in Marikana, Rustenburg on Thursday 16 August. The DSM has been to the fore in arguing that the mines should be nationalised under workers control, the DSM also argues that a new workers party is needed to challenge the ANC government. In December 2012 the DSM announced the formation of the Workers and Socialist Party, WASP was officially launched on 21 March 2013, and the DSM is now a WASP affiliate. Gwede Mantashe blamed foreigners, including DSM member Liv Shange, for the Marikana strikes, the DSM responded by calling Mantashes statement reckless, irresponsible and a disgrace. DISA Archive of Inqaba Ya Basebenzi Website of the Democratic Socialist Movement Website of the Workers and Socialists Party
16.
Pharmaceutical industry
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The pharmaceutical industry discovers, develops, produces, and markets drugs or pharmaceutical drugs for use as medications. Pharmaceutical companies may deal in generic or brand medications and medical devices and they are subject to a variety of laws and regulations that govern the patenting, testing, safety, efficacy and marketing of drugs. The modern pharmaceutical industry traces its roots to two sources, the first of these were local apothecaries that expanded from their traditional role distributing botanical drugs such as morphine and quinine to wholesale manufacture in the mid 1800s. Multinational corporations including Merck, Hoffman-La Roche, Burroughs-Wellcome, Abbott Laboratories, Eli Lilly, in 1897, John Abel of Johns Hopkins University identified the active principle as epinephrine, which he isolated in an impure state as the sulfate salt. Industrial chemist Jokichi Takamine later developed a method for obtaining epinephrine in a pure state, Parke Davis marketed epinephrine under the trade name Adrenalin. Injected epinephrine proved to be efficacious for the acute treatment of asthma attacks. By 1929 epinephrine had been formulated into an inhaler for use in the treatment of nasal congestion, while highly effective, the requirement for injection limited the use of norepinephrine and orally active derivatives were sought. A structurally similar compound, ephedrine, was identified by Japanese chemists in the Ma Huang plant, following the work of Henry Dale and George Barger at Burroughs-Wellcome, academic chemist Gordon Alles synthesized amphetamine and tested it in asthma patients in 1929. The drug proved to have only modest anti-asthma effects, but produced sensations of exhilaration, amphetamine was developed by Smith, Kline and French as a nasal decongestant under the trade name Benzedrine Inhaler. Amphetamine was eventually developed for the treatment of narcolepsy, post-encepheletic parkinsonism, the discovery was patented and licensed to Bayer pharmaceuticals, which marketed the compound under the trade name Veronal as a sleep aid beginning in 1904. Phenobarbital was among the most widely used drugs for the treatment of epilepsy through the 1970s, today, amphetamine is largely restricted to use in the treatment of attention deficit disorder and phenobarbital in the treatment of epilepsy. A series of experiments performed from the late 1800s to the early 1900s revealed that diabetes is caused by the absence of a substance produced by the pancreas. In 1869, Oskar Minkowski and Joseph von Mering found that diabetes could be induced in dogs by surgical removal of the pancreas. In 1921, Canadian professor Frederick Banting and his student Charles Best repeated this study, the researchers sought assistance from industrial collaborators at Eli Lilly and Co. based on the companys experience with large scale purification of biological materials. Chemist George Walden of Eli Lilly and Company found that careful adjustment of the pH of the extract allowed a relatively pure grade of insulin to be produced, prior to the discovery and widespread availability of insulin therapy the life expectancy of diabetics was only a few months. In 1911 arsphenamine, the first synthetic drug, was developed by Paul Ehrlich. The drug was given the commercial name Salvarsan, arsphenamine was prepared as part of a campaign to synthesize a series of such compounds, and found to exhibit partially selective toxicity. Arsphenamine proved to be the first effective treatment for syphilis, a disease which prior to time was incurable and led inexorably to severe skin ulceration, neurological damage
17.
Amicus curiae
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An amicus curiae is someone who is not a party to a case and is not solicited by a party, but who assists a court by offering information that bears on the case. The decision on whether to admit the information lies at the discretion of the court, the phrase amicus curiae is legal Latin. The amicus curiae figure originates in Roman law, starting in the 9th century, it was incorporated into English law, and it was later extended to most common law systems. Later, it was introduced in law, in particular concerning human rights. From there, it was integrated in some civil law systems, the role of an amicus is often confused with that of an intervener. The role of an amicus is, as stated by Salmon LJ in Allen v Sir Alfred McAlpine & Sons Ltd 2 QB229 at p. The situation most often noted in the press is when an advocacy group files a brief in a case before a court to which it is not a litigant. Appellate cases are limited to the factual record and arguments coming from the lower court case under appeal. In prominent cases, amici curiae are generally organizations with sizable legal budgets, if a decision could affect an entire industry, companies other than the litigants may wish to have their concerns heard. In the United States, federal courts hear cases involving the constitutionality of state laws. Amici curiae who do not file briefs often present a perspective on the case. For example, if the law gives deference to a history of legislation of a certain topic, an economist, statistician, or sociologist may choose to do the same. Newspaper editorials, blogs, and other opinion pieces arguably have the capability to influence Supreme Court decisions as de facto amici curiae. They are not, however, technically considered amicus curiae, as they do not submit materials to the Court, do not need to ask for leave, and have no guarantee that they will be read. The Supreme Court of the United States has special rules for amicus curiae briefs sought to be filed in cases pending before it. Supreme Court Rule 37 states, in part, such a brief should cover relevant matter not dealt with by the parties which may be of considerable help. The cover of an amicus brief must identify which party the brief is supporting, the Court also requires that, inter alia, all non-governmental amici identify those providing a monetary contribution to the preparation or submission of the brief. Briefs must be prepared in booklet format, and 40 copies must be served with the Court
18.
HIV/AIDS denialism
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HIV/AIDS denialism is the belief, contradicted by conclusive medical and scientific evidence, that human immunodeficiency virus does not cause acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Some of its proponents reject the existence of HIV, while others accept that HIV exists but argue that it is a passenger virus. With the rejection of these arguments by the community, HIV/AIDS denialist material is now targeted at less scientifically sophisticated audiences. Despite its lack of acceptance, HIV/AIDS denialism has had a significant political impact. Scientists and physicians have raised alarm at the human cost of HIV/AIDS denialism, the interrupted use of antiviral treatments is also a major global concern as it potentially increases the likelihood of the emergence of antiviral-resistant strains of the virus. A constellation of symptoms named Gay-related immune deficiency was noted in 1982, in 1983, a group of scientists and doctors at the Pasteur Institute in France, led by Luc Montagnier, discovered a new virus in a patient with signs and symptoms that often preceded AIDS. They named the virus lymphadenopathy-associated virus, or LAV, and sent samples to Robert Gallos team in the United States and their findings were peer reviewed and slated for publication in Science. This virus was initially named HTLV-III and that same year, Casper Schmidt responded to Gallos papers with The Group-Fantasy Origins of AIDS, Journal of Psychohistory. Schmidt posited that AIDS was not a disease, but rather an example of epidemic hysteria in which groups of people are subconsciously acting out social conflicts. Schmidt compared AIDS to documented cases of hysteria in the past which were mistakenly thought to be infectious. In 1986, the discovered by Montagnier and Gallo, found to be genetically indistinguishable, were renamed HIV. In 1987, Peter Duesberg questioned the link between HIV and AIDS in the journal Cancer Research, Duesbergs publication coincided with the start of major public health campaigns and the development of zidovudine as a treatment for HIV/AIDS. In 1988, a panel of the Institute of Medicine of the U. S. National Academy of Sciences found that the evidence that HIV causes AIDS is scientifically conclusive. That same year, Science published Blattner, Gallo, and Temins HIV causes AIDS, the editor of PNAS initially resisted, but ultimately allowed Duesberg to publish, saying, If you wish to make these unsupported, vague, and prejudicial statements in print, so be it. But I cannot see how this would be convincing to any scientifically trained reader, in 1990, Robert Root-Bernstein published his first peer-reviewed article detailing his objections to the mainstream view of AIDS and HIV. In it, he questioned both the view and the dissident view as potentially inaccurate. That same year, Papadopulos-Eleopulos et al, willner died in 1995 of a heart attack. In 1995, a letter, similar to the one submitted by The Group for the Scientific Reappraisal of the HIV-AIDS Hypothesis in 1991, was published in Science, the challenge was later dismissed by various scientists, including Duesberg, asserting that HIV undoubtedly exists
19.
Civil disobedience
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Civil disobedience is the active, professed refusal to obey certain laws, demands, and commands of a government, or of an occupying international power. Civil disobedience is a symbolic or ritualistic violation of the law, Civil disobedience is sometimes, though not always, defined as being nonviolent resistance. One of its earliest massive implementations was brought about by Egyptians against the British occupation in the 1919 Revolution, Civil disobedience is one of the many ways people have rebelled against what they deem to be unfair laws. She gives a speech in which she tells him that she must obey her conscience rather than human law. She is not at all afraid of the death he threatens her with and it is perhaps the first modern statement of the principle of nonviolent protest. A version was taken up by the author Henry David Thoreau in his essay Civil Disobedience, gandhis Satyagraha was partially influenced and inspired by Shelleys nonviolence in protest and political action. In particular, it is known that Gandhi would often quote Shelleys Masque of Anarchy to vast audiences during the campaign for a free India, Thoreaus 1848 essay Civil Disobedience, originally titled Resistance to Civil Government, has had a wide influence on many later practitioners of civil disobedience. The driving idea behind the essay is that citizens are morally responsible for their support of aggressors, in the essay, Thoreau explained his reasons for having refused to pay taxes as an act of protest against slavery and against the Mexican–American War. He writes, If I devote myself to other pursuits and contemplations, I must first see, at least, I must get off him first, that he may pursue his contemplations too. See what gross inconsistency is tolerated, public and typically peaceful resistance to public power would remain an integral tactic in modern American minority-rights politics. Henry David Thoreaus 1849 essay Resistance to Civil Government was eventually renamed Essay on Civil Disobedience, after his landmark lectures were published in 1866, the term began to appear in numerous sermons and lectures relating to slavery and the war in Mexico. Thus, by the time Thoreaus lectures were first published under the title Civil Disobedience, in 1866, four years after his death and it has been argued that the term civil disobedience has always suffered from ambiguity and in modern times, become utterly debased. Marshall Cohen notes, It has been used to everything from bringing a test-case in the federal courts to taking aim at a federal official. LeGrande writes that the formulation of a single all-encompassing definition of the term is extremely difficult, in reviewing the voluminous literature on the subject, the student of civil disobedience rapidly finds himself surrounded by a maze of semantical problems and grammatical niceties. Like Alice in Wonderland, he finds that specific terminology has no more meaning than the individual orator intends it to have. He encourages a distinction between lawful protest demonstration, nonviolent civil disobedience, and violent civil disobedience, the resistance to authority in South Africa was well advanced before I got the essay. When I saw the title of Thoreaus great essay, I began to use his phrase to explain our struggle to the English readers, but I found that even Civil Disobedience failed to convey the full meaning of the struggle. I therefore adopted the phrase Civil Resistance, often there is an expectation to be attacked or even beaten by the authorities
20.
Manto Tshabalala-Msimang
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Dr. Mantombazana Manto Edmie Tshabalala-Msimang was a South African politician. She was Deputy Minister of Justice from 1996 to 1999 and controversially served as Minister of Health from 1999 to 2008 under President Thabo Mbeki and she also served as Minister in the Presidency under President Kgalema Motlanthe from September 2008 to May 2009. It has been alleged that these policies led to the deaths of over 300,000 South Africans, born in Durban, Tshabalala-Msimang graduated from Fort Hare University in 1961. She then trained as a registrar in obstetrics and gynaecology in Tanzania, in 1980 she received a masters in public health from the University of Antwerp in Belgium. Tshabalala-Msimangs administration as Minister of Health was controversial, because of her reluctance to adopt a public plan for treating AIDS with anti-retroviral medicines. She was widely seen as following an AIDS policy in line with the ideas of South African President Thabo Mbeki, who for a time publicly expressed doubts about whether HIV caused AIDS. In 2002, the South African Cabinet affirmed the policy that HIV causes AIDS which as an official statement silenced any further speculation on this topic by Cabinet members, including the President. In August 2003 the cabinet voted to make anti-retrovirals available in the public sector. The TAC led a campaign calling for her resignation or dismissal, the TAC accused Tshabalala-Msimang of being aligned with Matthias Rath, a German physician and vitamin entrepreneur, who had charges laid against him for discouraging the use of ARVs. The minister declined to attend her funeral, and her stand-in was booed off the podium. They said only R520,000 of this money was used and of this a large portion had been squandered on unoccupied offices for the SANAC secretariat, something that drew criticism from the auditor-general. He said South Africa promoted a lunatic fringe attitude toward HIV and AIDS, describing the government as obtuse, dilatory, after the conference, sixty-five of the worlds leading HIV/AIDS scientists asked in a letter that Thabo Mbeki dismiss Tshabalala-Msimang. In a controversial 2000 interview by Radio 702 presenter John Robbie, in September 2008, Tshabalala-Msimang called for greater protection of the intellectual rights of Africas traditional medicines. Speaking at the 6th commemoration of The African Traditional Medicine Day in Cameroons capital of Yaoundé, Tshabalala-Msimang married her first husband, Mandla Tshabalala, while both were in exile in the Soviet Union. Later she married Mendi Msimang, the treasurer of the African National Congress, concern over Tshabalala-Msimangs health came to the fore in late 2006. She was admitted to the Johannesburg Hospital on 20 February 2007, suffering from anaemia, the Department of Health approached President Thabo Mbeki, and asked him to appoint an acting minister, and on 26 February Jeff Radebe was appointed acting health minister. On 14 March 2007, Tshabalala-Msimang underwent a liver transplant, the stated cause was autoimmune hepatitis with portal hypertension, but the transplant was surrounded by accusations of heavy drinking. She subsequently recovered her health and returned to her Ministerial duties until her replacement as health minister in 2008, on 16 December 2009, she died due to complications related to her liver transplant
21.
XVI International AIDS Conference, 2006
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The XVI International AIDS Conference was held in Toronto, Ontario, during the week of 13–18 August 2006. This was the time that Canada has hosted the International AIDS Conference, after Montreal in 1989. The main venue for the conference was the Metro Toronto Convention Centre in downtown Toronto, the conference theme was Time to Deliver. The conference was focused on the promises and progress made to scale-up treatment, care, events open to delegates and the public included The International AIDS Vigil, a public memorial to all those who have died of HIV/AIDS. The Vigil took place on at 9 pm on 17 August at Yonge-Dundas Square, well-known attendees and speakers included Governor General Michaëlle Jean, Stephen Lewis, Bill and Melinda Gates, Richard Gere, Alicia Keys, and Bill Clinton. Your absence sends the message that you do not consider HIV/AIDS as a critical priority, Canadian Minister of Health Tony Clement attended in Harpers place. Harpers absence from the conference is the time the Canadian head of government has decided not to attend the conference. In 1996, former Prime Minister Jean Chrétien did not attend the conference and this development seriously hurt the credibility of the conference and many suggested that the Prime Ministers office may have been justified in its decision to not have Mr. Harper in attendance. A Special Report in the Journal of Cell Biology, Volume 175, Number 1, 6–15
22.
Toronto
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Toronto is the most populous city in Canada and the provincial capital of Ontario. With a population of 2,731,571, it is the fourth most populous city in North America after Mexico City, New York City, and Los Angeles. A global city, Toronto is a centre of business, finance, arts, and culture. Aboriginal peoples have inhabited the area now known as Toronto for thousands of years, the city itself is situated on the southern terminus of an ancient Aboriginal trail leading north to Lake Simcoe, used by the Wyandot, Iroquois, and the Mississauga. Permanent European settlement began in the 1790s, after the broadly disputed Toronto Purchase of 1787, the British established the town of York, and later designated it as the capital of Upper Canada. During the War of 1812, the town was the site of the Battle of York, York was renamed and incorporated as the city of Toronto in 1834, and became the capital of the province of Ontario during the Canadian Confederation in 1867. The city proper has since expanded past its original borders through amalgamation with surrounding municipalities at various times in its history to its current area of 630.2 km2. While the majority of Torontonians speak English as their primary language, Toronto is a prominent centre for music, theatre, motion picture production, and television production, and is home to the headquarters of Canadas major national broadcast networks and media outlets. Toronto is known for its skyscrapers and high-rise buildings, in particular the tallest free-standing structure in the Western Hemisphere. The name Toronto is likely derived from the Iroquois word tkaronto and this refers to the northern end of what is now Lake Simcoe, where the Huron had planted tree saplings to corral fish. A portage route from Lake Ontario to Lake Huron running through this point, in the 1660s, the Iroquois established two villages within what is today Toronto, Ganatsekwyagon on the banks of the Rouge River and Teiaiagonon the banks of the Humber River. By 1701, the Mississauga had displaced the Iroquois, who abandoned the Toronto area at the end of the Beaver Wars, French traders founded Fort Rouillé on the current Exhibition grounds in 1750, but abandoned it in 1759. During the American Revolutionary War, the region saw an influx of British settlers as United Empire Loyalists fled for the British-controlled lands north of Lake Ontario, the new province of Upper Canada was in the process of creation and needed a capital. Dorchester intended the location to be named Toronto, in 1793, Governor John Graves Simcoe established the town of York on the Toronto Purchase lands, instead naming it after Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany. Simcoe decided to move the Upper Canada capital from Newark to York, the York garrison was constructed at the entrance of the towns natural harbour, sheltered by a long sandbar peninsula. The towns settlement formed at the end of the harbour behind the peninsula, near the present-day intersection of Parliament Street. In 1813, as part of the War of 1812, the Battle of York ended in the towns capture, the surrender of the town was negotiated by John Strachan. US soldiers destroyed much of the garrison and set fire to the parliament buildings during their five-day occupation, the sacking of York was a primary motivation for the Burning of Washington by British troops later in the war
23.
Plenary session
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A plenary session is a session of a conference which all members of all parties are to attend. Such a session may include a range of content, from keynotes to panel discussions. The term has been used in the profession to describe when information is summarized. The Congress of Vienna is an example of a congress that did not meet in plenary sessions
24.
CNN
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The Cable News Network is an American basic cable and satellite television news channel owned by the Turner Broadcasting System division of Time Warner. It was founded in 1980 by American media proprietor Ted Turner as a 24-hour cable news channel, upon its launch, CNN was the first television channel to provide 24-hour news coverage, and was the first all-news television channel in the United States. While the news channel has numerous affiliates, CNN primarily broadcasts from the Time Warner Center in New York City and its headquarters at the CNN Center in Atlanta is only used for weekend programming. CNN is sometimes referred to as CNN/U. S. to distinguish the American channel from its sister network. As of August 2010, CNN is available in over 100 million U. S. households, broadcast coverage of the U. S. channel extends to over 890,000 American hotel rooms, as well as carriage on cable and satellite providers throughout Canada. Globally, CNN programming airs through CNN International, which can be seen by viewers in over 212 countries and territories, as of February 2015, CNN is available to about 96,289,000 cable, satellite, and telco television households in the United States. The Cable News Network was launched at 5,00 p. m. Eastern Time on June 1,1980, after an introduction by Ted Turner, the husband and wife team of David Walker and Lois Hart anchored the channels first newscast. Burt Reinhardt, the vice president of CNN at its launch, hired most of the channels first 200 employees, including the networks first news anchor. Since its debut, CNN has expanded its reach to a number of cable and satellite providers, several websites. The company has 36 bureaus, more than 900 affiliated local stations, the channels success made a bona-fide mogul of founder Ted Turner and set the stage for conglomerate Time Warners eventual acquisition of the Turner Broadcasting System in 1996. A companion channel, CNN2, was launched on January 1,1982, on January 28,1986, CNN carried the only live television coverage of the launch and subsequent break-up of Space Shuttle Challenger, which killed all seven crew members on board. On October 14,1987, Jessica McClure, an 18-month-old toddler, fell down a well in Midland, CNN quickly reported on the story, and the event helped make its name. This was before correspondents reported live from the capital while American bombs were falling. Before Saddam Hussein held a press conference with a few of the hundreds of Americans he was holding hostage. Before the nation watched, riveted but powerless, as Los Angeles was looted and burned, before O. J. Simpson took a slow ride in a white Bronco, and before everyone close to his case had an agent and a book contract. This was uncharted territory just a time ago. The moment when bombing began was announced on CNN by Bernard Shaw on January 16,1991, as follows, lets describe to our viewers what were seeing. The skies over Baghdad have been illuminated, were seeing bright flashes going off all over the sky
25.
Sanjay Gupta
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Sanjay Gupta is an American neurosurgeon and media reporter. He serves as chief of the neurosurgery service at Grady Memorial Hospital in Atlanta, Georgia. His reports from Charity Hospital, New Orleans, Louisiana, in the wake of Hurricane Katrina led to him winning a 2006 Emmy Award for Outstanding Feature Story in a Regularly Scheduled Newscast. Additionally, Gupta publishes a column in Time magazine and is a correspondent for CBS News. His books Chasing Life and Cheating Death were New York Times and his latest book, Monday Mornings, a novel, was released in March 2012 and became an instant New York Times bestseller. It was adapted as a 2013 television series with David E. Kelley, from 1997 to 1998, he served as one of fifteen White House Fellows, primarily as an advisor to Hillary Clinton. In January 2009, it was reported that Gupta was offered the position of Surgeon General of the United States in the Obama administration, in January 2011, he was named one of the 10 most influential celebrities by Forbes magazine. In the 1960s, Guptas parents, Subhash and Damyanti Gupta, moved from India to Novi, Michigan, degree from the University of Michigan Medical School in 1993. He was part of Inteflex, a since discontinued accelerated medical program that accepted medical students directly from high school. As an undergraduate, Gupta worked as a leader for the freshman orientation program. He also served as president of the Indian American Students Association, Gupta completed his residency in neurological surgery within the University of Michigan Health System, in 2000, followed by a fellowship at the Semmes Murphy Clinic, in Memphis, Tennessee. Gupta is an Emory Healthcare general neurosurgeon at Grady Memorial Hospital and has worked on spine, trauma and he has published medical journal articles on percutaneous pedicle screw placement, brain tumors, and spinal cord abnormalities. He is licensed to practice medicine in New York, Michigan, Georgia, Gupta, a pediatric surgeon, Henri Ford, and two U. S. Navy doctors removed a piece of concrete from the girls skull in an operation performed aboard the Vinson. Ford later wrote that Gupta proved to be a competent neurosurgeon, in 2003, Gupta traveled to Iraq to cover the medical aspects of the invasion of Iraq. While in Iraq, Gupta performed emergency surgery on both US soldiers and Iraqi civilians, Gupta was embedded with a Navy medical unit at the time, specifically a group of doctors called the Devil Docs, who supported the 1st Marine Expeditionary Force. A Marine named Jesus Vidana suffered a head injury. Vidana survived and was sent back to the United States for rehabilitation, Gupta was named one of the sexiest men of 2003 by People magazine. On October 14,2007, Gupta guest-hosted a health episode of CBS News Sunday Morning as its regular host Charles Osgood was on vacation, in February 2009, Gupta hosted AC360 covering the White House Health Summit
26.
Lemon
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The lemon, Citrus limon Osbeck, is a species of small evergreen tree in the flowering plant family Rutaceae, native to Asia. The trees ellipsoidal yellow fruit is used for culinary and non-culinary purposes throughout the world, primarily for its juice, the pulp and rind are also used in cooking and baking. The juice of the lemon is about 5% to 6% citric acid, the distinctive sour taste of lemon juice makes it a key ingredient in drinks and foods such as lemonade and lemon meringue pie. The origin of the lemon is unknown, though lemons are thought to have first grown in Assam, a study of the genetic origin of the lemon reported it to be hybrid between bitter orange and citron. Lemons entered Europe near southern Italy no later than the second century AD, however, they were not widely cultivated. They were later introduced to Persia and then to Iraq and Egypt around 700 AD, the lemon was first recorded in literature in a 10th-century Arabic treatise on farming, and was also used as an ornamental plant in early Islamic gardens. It was distributed throughout the Arab world and the Mediterranean region between 1000 and 1150. The first substantial cultivation of lemons in Europe began in Genoa in the middle of the 15th century, the lemon was later introduced to the Americas in 1493 when Christopher Columbus brought lemon seeds to Hispaniola on his voyages. Spanish conquest throughout the New World helped spread lemon seeds and it was mainly used as an ornamental plant and for medicine. In the 19th century, lemons were increasingly planted in Florida, in 1747, James Linds experiments on seamen suffering from scurvy involved adding lemon juice to their diets, though vitamin C was not yet known. The origin of the lemon may be Middle Eastern. The word draws from the Old French limon, then Italian limone, from the Arabic laymūn or līmūn, and from the Persian līmūn, a term for citrus fruit. The Bonnie Brae is oblong, smooth, thin-skinned, and seedless, the Eureka grows year-round and abundantly. This is the common supermarket lemon, also known as Four Seasons because of its ability to produce fruit and this variety is also available as a plant to domestic customers. There is also a pink-fleshed Eureka lemon, with a green, the Femminello St. Teresa, or Sorrento is native to Italy. This fruits zest is high in lemon oils and it is the variety traditionally used in the making of limoncello. The Meyer is a cross between a lemon and possibly an orange or a mandarin, and was named after Frank N. Meyer, who first introduced it to the USA in 1908. Thin-skinned and slightly less acidic than the Lisbon and Eureka lemons, Meyer lemons often mature to a yellow-orange color
27.
Garlic
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Garlic is a species in the onion genus, Allium. Its close relatives include the onion, shallot, leek, chive, with a history of several thousand years of human consumption and use, garlic is native to the region between the Mediterranean and China, and has long been a common seasoning worldwide. It was known to Ancient Egyptians, and has used both as a food flavoring and as a traditional medicine. Allium sativum is a bulbous plant and it grows up to 1.2 m in height. Its hardiness is USDA Zone 8 and it is pollinated by bees and other insects. Allium sativum grows in the wild in areas where it has become naturalized, the wild garlic, crow garlic, and field garlic of Britain are members of the species Allium ursinum, Allium vineale, and Allium oleraceum, respectively. In North America, Allium vineale and Allium canadense, known as garlic or wild garlic. So-called elephant garlic is actually a wild leek, and not a true garlic, single clove garlic originated in the Yunnan province of China. A. sativum var. ophioscorodon Döll, called Ophioscorodon, or hard-necked garlic, includes porcelain garlics, rocambole garlic and it is sometimes considered to be a separate species, Allium ophioscorodon G. Don. A. sativum var. sativum, or soft-necked garlic, includes artichoke garlic, silverskin garlic, Garlic is easy to grow and can be grown year-round in mild climates. While sexual propagation of garlic is possible, nearly all of the garlic in cultivation is propagated asexually, in colder climates, cloves are planted in the autumn, about six weeks before the soil freezes, and harvested in late spring or early summer. The cloves must be planted deep enough to prevent freeze/thaw, which causes mold or white rot, Garlic plants can be grown closely together, leaving enough space for the bulbs to mature, and are easily grown in containers of sufficient depth. Garlic does well in loose, dry, well-drained soils in sunny locations, when selecting garlic for planting, it is important to pick large bulbs from which to separate cloves. Large cloves, along with proper spacing in the planting bed, Garlic plants prefer to grow in a soil with a high organic material content, but are capable of growing in a wide range of soil conditions and pH levels. There are different varieties or subspecies of garlic, most notably hardneck garlic, the latitude where the garlic is grown affects the choice of type, as garlic can be day-length sensitive. Hardneck garlic is grown in cooler climates and produces relatively large cloves, whereas softneck garlic is generally grown closer to the equator and produces small. Garlic scapes are removed to all the garlics energy into bulb growth. The scapes can be eaten raw or cooked, Garlic plants are usually hardy and not affected by many pests or diseases
28.
United Nations
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The United Nations is an intergovernmental organization to promote international co-operation. A replacement for the ineffective League of Nations, the organization was established on 24 October 1945 after World War II in order to prevent another such conflict, at its founding, the UN had 51 member states, there are now 193. The headquarters of the UN is in Manhattan, New York City, further main offices are situated in Geneva, Nairobi, and Vienna. The organization is financed by assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states, the UNs mission to preserve world peace was complicated in its early decades by the Cold War between the US and Soviet Union and their respective allies. The organization participated in actions in Korea and the Congo. After the end of the Cold War, the UN took on major military, the UN has six principal organs, the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Secretariat, the International Court of Justice, and the UN Trusteeship Council. UN System agencies include the World Bank Group, the World Health Organization, the World Food Programme, UNESCO, the UNs most prominent officer is the Secretary-General, an office held by Portuguese António Guterres since 2017. Non-governmental organizations may be granted consultative status with ECOSOC and other agencies to participate in the UNs work, the organization won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2001, and a number of its officers and agencies have also been awarded the prize. Other evaluations of the UNs effectiveness have been mixed, some commentators believe the organization to be an important force for peace and human development, while others have called the organization ineffective, corrupt, or biased. Following the catastrophic loss of life in the First World War, the earliest concrete plan for a new world organization began under the aegis of the US State Department in 1939. It incorporated Soviet suggestions, but left no role for France, four Policemen was coined to refer to four major Allied countries, United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and China, which emerged in the Declaration by United Nations. Roosevelt first coined the term United Nations to describe the Allied countries, the term United Nations was first officially used when 26 governments signed this Declaration. One major change from the Atlantic Charter was the addition of a provision for religious freedom, by 1 March 1945,21 additional states had signed. Each Government pledges itself to cooperate with the Governments signatory hereto, the foregoing declaration may be adhered to by other nations which are, or which may be, rendering material assistance and contributions in the struggle for victory over Hitlerism. During the war, the United Nations became the term for the Allies. To join, countries had to sign the Declaration and declare war on the Axis, at the later meetings, Lord Halifax deputized for Mr. Eden, Wellington Koo for T. V. Soong, and Mr Gromyko for Mr. Molotov. The first meetings of the General Assembly, with 51 nations represented, the General Assembly selected New York City as the site for the headquarters of the UN, and the facility was completed in 1952. Its site—like UN headquarters buildings in Geneva, Vienna, and Nairobi—is designated as international territory, the Norwegian Foreign Minister, Trygve Lie, was elected as the first UN Secretary-General
29.
Stephen Lewis
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Stephen Henry Lewis, CC is a Canadian politician, public speaker, broadcaster and diplomat. He was the leader of the social democratic Ontario New Democratic Party for most of the 1970s, during many of those years as leader, his father David Lewis was simultaneously the leader of the federal New Democratic Party. After politics, he became a broadcaster on both CBC Radio and Torontos Citytv, in the mid-1980s, he was appointed as Canadas United Nations ambassador, by Progressive Conservative Prime Minister Brian Mulroney. He quit in 1988 and worked at various United Nations agencies during the 1990s, in the 2000s, he served a term as the United Nations special envoy for HIV/AIDS in Africa. In 2003, he gained investiture into the Order of Canada, as of 2014, he is a Distinguished Visiting Professor at Ryerson University in Toronto. Stephen Lewis was born in Ottawa, Ontario, on November 11,1937, to Sophie Lewis and his parents gave him the Hebrew name Sholem, a Yiddish derivation of the Hebrew word shalom, which means peace, because he was born on Armistice Day. From the time he was born, and through his childhood, his father was the National Secretary of the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation. When his family moved to Toronto in 1950, he attended school first at Torontos Oakwood Collegiate. The Senator narrowly beat the Hart House team 204-194, lewiss performance was considered the highlight of the event, while Kennedys was flat according to many members in the audience like John Brewin. He spent his year of university at the University of British Columbia before spending his final undergraduate year back at UofT where he failed to write his final examinations. He went to law school twice in the early 1960s, dropping out of both UofT and UBCs programs and he left his studies in the 1960s and took up a clerical position with the Socialist International, where he received an invitation to a conference in Ghana. He attended, and instead of returning to Canada, spent more than a working, traveling. He recalled in his 2005 Massey Lectures that the brief sojourn would be a key influence on his life. He came back to Canada at the instigation of Tommy Douglas, following the engineered 1970 resignation of Donald C. MacDonald, Lewis was elected leader of the Ontario New Democratic Party and his initial experience at the helm in the 1971 provincial election was a disappointment, with the party slipping from 20 seats to 19. A radical left wing group nicknamed The Waffle had gained prominence, with one of its leaders, James Laxer, winning one-third of the vote when he ran to be leader of the federal NDP in 1971. Lewis felt that The Waffle was threatening the credibility and stability of the party, Lewis led a strong campaign during the 1975 election with his oratory and passion bringing new supporters to the party. The NDP highlighted issues such as rent control and workplace safety, each day, Lewis told the story of a different Ontarian in trouble, making a case that this was because of the lack of adequate legislation
30.
Pepper spray
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Pepper spray is a lachrymatory agent used in policing, riot control, crowd control and self-defense, including defense against dogs and bears. Its inflammatory effects cause the eyes to close, taking away vision and this temporary blindness allows officers to more easily restrain subjects and permits people using pepper spray for self-defense an opportunity to escape. Although considered an agent, it has been deadly in rare cases. The active ingredient in pepper spray is capsaicin, which is a derived from the fruit of plants in the Capsicum genus. Extraction of oleoresin capsicum from peppers requires capsicum to be finely ground, the solvent is then evaporated, and the remaining waxlike resin is the oleoresin capsicum. An emulsifier such as propylene glycol is used to suspend OC in water, high performance liquid chromatography is used to measure the amount of capsaicin and major capsaicinoids within pepper sprays. Determining the strength of different manufacturers of pepper sprays can be confusing, statements a company makes about their product strength are not regulated. A method using the capsaicin and related content of the product is unreliable as well, because there are six different types of capsaicinoids. Manufacturers do not state which particular type of capsaicinoids are used, personal pepper sprays can range from a low of 0. 18% to a high of 3%. Most law enforcement pepper sprays use between 1. 3% and 2%, the federal government of the United States has determined that bear attack deterrent sprays must contain at least 1. 0% and not more than 2% CRC. CRC does not measure the amount of OC within the formulation, instead, CRC is the pain-producing component of the OC that produces the burning sensation. The federal government of the United States makes no mention of Scoville heat units or OC in their requirements, but, there are countries and a few states within the US that do mention OC limitations. Some manufacturers may show a high percentage of OC and, although OC is the active ingredient within the formulation. The OC percentage measures only the amount of chili oil extract contained in the spray, not the strength. Other companies may show a high SHU, the SHU is a measurement of the base resin compound and not what comes out in the aerosol. The rated irritant effect of the resin may be diluted depending on how much of it is put in the can and its effectiveness compared to natural pepper spray is unclear. However, there are examples that citizens and Chengguan purchased and used such sprays illegally, Pepper spray is an inflammatory agent. It causes immediate closing of the eyes, difficulty breathing, runny nose, the duration of its effects depends on the strength of the spray, but the average full effect lasts around thirty to forty-five minutes, with diminished effects lasting for hours
31.
Gauteng
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Gauteng, which means place of gold, is one of the nine provinces of South Africa. It was formed part of the old Transvaal Province after South Africas first all-race elections on 27 April 1994. It was initially named Pretoria–Witwatersrand–Vereeniging and was renamed Gauteng in December 1994, situated in the Highveld, Gauteng is the smallest province in South Africa, accounting for only 1. 5% of the land area. Nevertheless, it is highly urbanised, containing the countrys largest city, Johannesburg, its capital, Pretoria. As of 2015, it has a population of nearly 13.2 million, the name Gauteng is derived from the Sotho name, gauta meaning gold with the locative suffix -eng. There was a thriving industry in the province following the 1886 discovery of gold in Johannesburg. In Sesotho, the name Gauteng was used for Johannesburg and surrounding areas long before it was adopted in 1994 as the name of a province. Gauteng, formerly known as Pretoria–Witwatersrand–Vereeniging, was carved out of the old Transvaal province in 1994, although the terminology PWV, after the discovery of gold in 1886, the region proceeded to become the single largest gold producer in the world and the city of Johannesburg was founded. The older city Pretoria was not subject to the same attention, Pretoria grew at a slower rate and was highly regarded due to its role in the Second Boer War. The Cullinan Diamond which is the largest diamond ever mined was mined near Pretoria in a town called Cullinan in the year 1905. Gauteng has only been documented since the 1800s and as a result. At the Sterkfontein caves, some of the oldest fossils of hominids have been discovered, such as Mrs. Ples, today, the Apartheid Museum stands testament to these struggles in Johannesburg. Gauteng is governed by the Gauteng Provincial Legislature, a 73-person unicameral legislature elected by party-list proportional representation. The most recent election of the legislature was held on 7 May 2014, and the African National Congress won 53. 59% of the vote. The official opposition is the Democratic Alliance, which won 30. 78% of the vote and 23 seats, other parties represented are the Economic Freedom Fighters with eight seats and the Freedom Front Plus and the Inkatha Freedom Party with one seat each. Premier David Makhura of the ANC was elected on 21 May 2014, the Gauteng Division of the High Court of South Africa, which has seats in Pretoria and Johannesburg, is a superior court with general jurisdiction over the province. Johannesburg is also home to the Constitutional Court, South Africas highest court, Gautengs southern border is the Vaal River, which separates it from the Free State. It also borders on North West to the west, Limpopo to the north, Gauteng is the only landlocked province of South Africa without a foreign border
32.
Eastern Cape
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The Eastern Cape is a province of South Africa. Its capital is Bhisho, but its two largest cities are Port Elizabeth and East London and it was formed in 1994 out of the Xhosa homelands of Transkei and Ciskei, together with the eastern portion of the Cape Province. Landing place and home of the 1820 settlers, the central and this resulted in several anomalies including the fact that the Province has four supreme courts and enclaves of KwaZulu-Natal in the province. The latter anomaly has fallen away with amendments to municipal and provincial boundaries. The province is made of Mpondo clan. Some of the Mpondo clan went to this province when they were running away from King Shakas war, Mpondo people are more closely related to Xhosa, as they use Xhosa as their main home language. The west is mostly semi-arid Karoo, except in the far south, the coast is generally rugged with interspersed beaches. Most of the province is hilly to very mountainous between Graaff-Reinet and Rhodes including the Sneeuberge, Stormberge, Winterberge and Drakensberg, the highest point in the province is Ben Macdhui at 3001m. Eastern Cape has a shoreline on its east which lines southward, the west is dry with sparse rain during winter or summer, with frosty winters and hot summers. The area Tsitsikamma to Grahamstown receives more precipitation, which is relatively evenly distributed. Further east, rainfall becomes more plentiful and humidity increases, becoming more subtropical along the coast with summer rainfall, the interior can become very cold in winter, with heavy snowfalls occasionally occurring in the mountainous regions between Molteno and Rhodes. Port Elizabeth, Jan Max,25 °C, Min,18 °C, Jul Max,20 °C, Min,9 °C Molteno & Barkly East, Jan Max 28 °C, Min 11 °C, Jul Max,14 °C, Min, -7 °C The landscape is extremely diverse. The western interior is largely arid Karoo, while the east is well-watered, the Addo Elephant National Park, situated 73 km from Port Elizabeth, was proclaimed in 1931. Its 743 km² offers sanctuary to 170 elephants,400 Cape buffalo and 21 black rhino of the very scarce Kenyan sub-species. The National Arts Festival, held annually in Grahamstown, is Africas largest and most colourful cultural event, every year for 11 days the towns population almost doubles, as over 50,000 people flock to the region for a feast of arts, crafts and sheer entertainment. The Tsitsikamma National Park is an 80 km long strip between Natures Valley and the mouth of the Storms River. In the park the visitor finds an almost untouched natural landscape, aliwal North, lying on a splendid agricultural plateau on the southern bank of the Orange River, is one of the countrys most popular inland resorts and is famous for its hot springs. The rugged and unspoilt Wild Coast is a place of spectacular scenery, whittlesea, Eastern Cape, situated in the beautiful Amatola Mountains, is now famous for the first wine estate in the province. The Eastern Cape is one of the poorest provinces in South Africa and this is largely due to the poverty found in the former homelands, where subsistence agriculture predominates
33.
Limpopo
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Limpopo is the northernmost province of South Africa. It is named after the Limpopo River, which forms the western and northern borders. The name Limpopo has its origin in the Northern Sotho language word diphororo tša meetse. The capital is Polokwane, formerly called Pietersburg, the province was formed from the northern region of Transvaal Province in 1994, and was initially named Northern Transvaal. An alternate name considered for the province was Mapungubwe, the area where its most ancient gold-using civilization had been discovered a few years earlier. Limpopo has the highest level of poverty of any South African province, in 2011,74. 4% of local dwellings were located in a tribal or traditional area, compared to a national average of 27. 1%. The Northern Sotho language is spoken by more than half of Limpopos population, Limpopo is the link between South Africa and countries further afield in sub-Saharan Africa. On its southern edge, from east to west, it borders with the South African provinces of Mpumalanga, Gauteng. Its border with Gauteng includes that provinces Johannesburg-Pretoria axis, the most industrialized metropole on the continent, the province is at the centre of regional, national, and international developing markets. Limpopo contains much of the Waterberg Biosphere, a massif of approximately 15,000 km2 which is the first region in the part of South Africa to be named a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve. The massif was shaped by hundreds of millions of years of riverine erosion yielding diverse bluff, the Waterberg ecosystem can be characterized as a dry deciduous forest or Bushveld. Within the Waterberg, archaeological finds date to the Stone Age, nearby are early evolutionary finds related to the origin of humans. The current premier of Limpopo Province is Stanley Mathabatha, representing the African National Congress and it is also one of the poorest regions of South Africa with a big gap between poor and rich residents, especially in rural areas. However, Limpopos economy and standard of living have shown great improvement, a recent border shift with Limpopos wealthier neighbour, Mpumalanga, was effected to try and bring some wealth into the province. The bushveld is beef cattle country, where extensive ranching operations are often supplemented by controlled hunting, about 80% of South Africas game hunting industry is found in Limpopo. Sunflowers, cotton, maize and peanuts are cultivated in the Bela-Bela, Modimolle is also known for its table grapes. Tropical fruit, such as bananas, litchis, pineapples, mangoes and pawpaws, as well as a variety of nuts, are grown in the Tzaneen, Tzaneen is also at the centre of extensive citrus, tea and coffee plantations, and a major forestry industry. Commodities such as granite, corundum, and feldspar are also found
34.
KwaZulu-Natal
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KwaZulu-Natal is a province of South Africa that was created in 1994 when the Zulu bantustan of KwaZulu and Natal Province were merged. It is located in the southeast of the country, enjoying a long shoreline beside the Indian Ocean and its capital is Pietermaritzburg and its largest city is Durban. It is the 2nd most populous province in South Africa, with fewer residents than Gauteng. Two areas in KwaZulu-Natal have been declared UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the iSimangaliso Wetland Park, at around 92,100 km2 in area, KwaZulu-Natal is roughly the size of Portugal. It has three different geographic areas, the areas largest river, the Tugela, flows west to east across the center of the province. The coastal regions typically have subtropical thickets and deeper ravines, steep slopes host some Afromontane Forest, the midlands have moist grasslands and isolated pockets of Afromontane Forest. The north has a primarily moist savanna habitat, whilst the Drakensberg region hosts mostly alpine grassland, the province contains rich areas of biodiversity of a range of flora and fauna. The iSimangaliso Wetland Park and the uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park have been declared UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the iSimangaliso Wetland Park, along with uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park and Ndumo, are wetlands of international importance for migratory species, and are designated as Ramsar sites. South Africa signed the 1971 Ramsar Convention to try to conserve and protect important wetlands because of their importance to habitats, the former Eastern Cape enclave of the town of Umzimkulu and its hinterland have been incorporated into KwaZulu-Natal following the 12th amendment of the Constitution of South Africa. The amendment also made changes to the southern border of the province. The northwesterly line of latitude and longitude traverses the province from the coast at Hibberdene to northeast Lesotho. KwaZulu-Natal has a varied yet verdant climate thanks to diverse, complex topography, generally, the coast is subtropical with inland regions becoming progressively colder. Temperature drops towards the hinterland, with Pietermaritzburg being similar in the summer, Ladysmith in the Tugela River Valley reaches 30 °C in the summer, but may drop below freezing point on winter evenings. The Drakensberg can experience heavy snow, with light snow occasionally experienced on the highest peaks in summer. The Zululand north coast has the warmest climate and highest humidity, one of these, eThekwini, is a metropolitan municipality and the other ten are district municipalities. The local seat of district municipality is given in parentheses. In 2012, the Ingonyama Trust owns 32% of the land in KwaZulu-Natal and this amounts to about three million hectares, occupied by over 4 million people. The Zulu king is the chairman of the Trust, the coastline is dotted with small towns, many of which serve as seasonal recreational hubs
35.
Edwin Cameron
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Edwin Cameron is a judge on the Constitutional Court of South Africa. He is well known for his HIV/AIDS and gay-rights activism and was hailed by Nelson Mandela as one of South Africas new heroes and his father was imprisoned for car theft and his mother did not have the means to support him. He therefore spent much of his childhood in an orphanage in Queenstown and his elder sister was killed when Cameron was nine. Cameron won a scholarship to attend Pretoria Boys’ High School, one of South Africas best state schools, thereafter he went to Stellenbosch University, studying Latin and classics. Here he stayed at Wilgenhof Mens Residence. After this he attended Oxford University as a Rhodes Scholar, there he switched to law and earned a BA in Jurisprudence and the Bachelor of Civil Law, winning the Vinerian Scholarship. When he returned to South Africa he completed an LLB at the University of South Africa and was its best law graduate, camerons early career combined academia and legal practice. In 1982, while working as a lecturer at the University of the Witwatersrand. Steyn, then a darling of the apartheid establishment, and, in 1987, Cameron argued that three senior South African judges, including its former Chief Justice, Pierre Rabie, ought to resign to preserve the legitimacy of the judiciary. Cameron practised at the Johannesburg Bar from 1983 to 1994, from 1986 he was a human rights lawyer at Witss Centre for Applied Legal Studies, where in 1989 he was awarded a personal professorship in law. In 1992 he became a co-author of Honorés South African Law of Trusts, camerons report was described as a hard-hitting critique of Armscors conduct, but was quickly eclipsed by myriad other allegations about the South African governments illegal arms trades. Cameron was appointed permanently to the Witwatersrand Local Division in 1995, camerons judgment was described as a most rigorous exposition of the Constitutions application to private disputes and a landmark defence of free speech. Others, while acknowledging the judgment had departed importantly from apartheid-era law, camerons position was substantially confirmed, in subsequent cases, by the Supreme Court of Appeal. Cameron has said there is no doubt this was the correct decision, Cameron was instead appointed to the Supreme Court of Appeal, which he served for eight years. There he wrote leading judgments on legal causation, hearsay evidence, public contracts, in Minister of Finance v Gore, Cameron co-authored a judgment with Fritz Brand that held the state could be delictually liable for causing pure economic loss by fraud. On 31 December 2008 President Kgalema Motlanthe appointed Cameron to the Constitutional Court and he is considered a crucial member of the Courts progressive wing. He has been described as a jurist of the highest order, le Roux v Dey, handed down in 2012, concerned three schoolboys who had superimposed an image of their deputy principals face on the naked body of one man masturbating alongside another. The Constitutional Courts majority judgment held the image was defamatory of the deputy principal, Cameron, however, in a judgment co-authored with Justice Froneman, dissented on this point, saying it could not be actionable to imply someone is gay. The judgment was hailed as a victory for freedom of expression during election campaigns, Cameron has been openly gay since the early 1980s
36.
Nelson Mandela
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Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela was a South African anti-apartheid revolutionary, politician, and philanthropist, who served as President of South Africa from 1994 to 1999. He was the countrys first black head of state and the first elected in a representative democratic election. His government focused on dismantling the legacy of apartheid by tackling institutionalised racism, ideologically an African nationalist and socialist, he served as President of the African National Congress party from 1991 to 1997. A Xhosa, Mandela was born in Mvezo to the Thembu royal family and he studied law at the University of Fort Hare and the University of the Witwatersrand before working as a lawyer in Johannesburg. There he became involved in anti-colonial and African nationalist politics, joining the ANC in 1943, after the National Partys white-only government established apartheid—a system of racial segregation that privileged whites—he and the ANC committed themselves to its overthrow. Mandela was appointed President of the ANCs Transvaal branch, rising to prominence for his involvement in the 1952 Defiance Campaign and he was repeatedly arrested for seditious activities and was unsuccessfully prosecuted in the 1956 Treason Trial. Influenced by Marxism, he joined the banned South African Communist Party. Although initially committed to non-violent protest, in association with the SACP he co-founded the militant Umkhonto we Sizwe in 1961, in 1962, he was arrested for conspiring to overthrow the state and sentenced to life imprisonment in the Rivonia Trial. Mandela served 27 years in prison, initially on Robben Island, amid growing domestic and international pressure, and with fears of a racial civil war, President F. W. de Klerk released him in 1990. Mandela and de Klerk negotiated an end to apartheid and organised the 1994 multiracial general election in which Mandela led the ANC to victory, internationally, he acted as mediator in the Pan Am Flight 103 bombing trial and served as Secretary-General of the Non-Aligned Movement from 1998 to 1999. He declined a presidential term and in 1999 was succeeded by his deputy. Mandela became a statesman and focused on combating poverty and HIV/AIDS through the charitable Nelson Mandela Foundation. Mandela was a figure for much of his life. Widely regarded as an icon of democracy and social justice, he received more than 250 honours—including the Nobel Peace Prize—and became the subject of a cult of personality. He is held in deep respect within South Africa, where he is referred to by his Xhosa clan name, Madiba. Mandela was born on 18 July 1918 in the village of Mvezo in Umtata, given the forename Rolihlahla, a Xhosa term colloquially meaning troublemaker, in later years he became known by his clan name, Madiba. His patrilineal great-grandfather, Ngubengcuka, was king of the Thembu people in the Transkeian Territories of South Africas modern Eastern Cape province, one of Ngubengcukas sons, named Mandela, was Nelsons grandfather and the source of his surname. In 1926, Gadla was also sacked for corruption, but Nelson was told that his father had lost his job for standing up to the magistrates unreasonable demands
37.
Anglicanism
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Anglicanism is a tradition within Christianity comprising the Church of England and churches which are historically tied to it or hold similar beliefs, worship practices and church structures. The word Anglican originates in ecclesia anglicana, a medieval Latin phrase dating to the Magna Carta and before, adherents of Anglicanism are called Anglicans. As the name suggests, the churches of the Anglican Communion are linked by bonds of tradition, affection and they are in full communion with the See of Canterbury, and thus the Archbishop of Canterbury, in his person, is a unique focus of Anglican unity. He calls the once-a-decade Lambeth Conference, chairs the meeting of primates, Anglicans base their Christian faith on the Bible, traditions of the apostolic Church, apostolic succession, and writings of the Church Fathers. Anglicanism forms one of the branches of Western Christianity, having declared its independence from the Holy See at the time of the Elizabethan Religious Settlement. Many of the new Anglican formularies of the mid-16th century corresponded closely to those of contemporary Protestantism, the word Anglican originates in ecclesia anglicana, a medieval Latin phrase dating to at least 1246 that means the English Church. Adherents of Anglicanism are called Anglicans, as an adjective, Anglican is used to describe the people, institutions and churches, as well as the liturgical traditions and theological concepts developed by the Church of England. As a noun, an Anglican is a member of a church in the Anglican Communion, the word is also used by followers of separated groups which have left the communion or have been founded separately from it, although this is sometimes considered as a misuse. The word Anglicanism came into being in the 19th century, although the term Anglican is found referring to the Church of England as far back as the 16th century, its use did not become general until the latter half of the 19th century. Elsewhere, however, the term Anglican Church came to be preferred as it distinguished these churches from others that maintain an episcopal polity, as such, it is often referred to as being a via media between these traditions. Anglicans understand the Old and New Testaments as containing all necessary for salvation and as being the rule. Reason and Tradition are seen as means to interpret Scripture. Anglicans understand the Apostles Creed as the symbol and the Nicene Creed as the sufficient statement of the Christian faith. Anglicans celebrate the sacraments, with special emphasis being given to the Eucharist, also called Holy Communion. Unique to Anglicanism is the Book of Common Prayer, the collection of services that worshippers in most Anglican churches used for centuries and it was called common prayer originally because it was intended for use in all Church of England churches which had previously followed differing local liturgies. The term was kept when the church became international because all Anglicans used to share in its use around the world, in 1549, the first Book of Common Prayer was compiled by Thomas Cranmer, who was then Archbishop of Canterbury. The founding of Christianity in Britain is commonly attributed to Joseph of Arimathea, according to Anglican legend, Saint Alban, who was executed in 209 AD, is the first Christian martyr in the British Isles. A new culture emerged around the Irish Sea among the Celtic peoples with Celtic Christianity at its core, what resulted was a form of Christianity distinct from Rome in many traditions and practices
38.
Anglican Diocese of Cape Town
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The Ordinary of the diocese is Archbishop of Cape Town and ex officio Primate and Metropolitan of the ACSA. His seat is St. Georges Cathedral in Cape Town, desmond Tutu was archbishop from 1986 to 1996 and is currently archbishop-emeritus. The current archbishop is Thabo Makgoba, because of the archbishops responsibilities as primate, many of his diocesan duties are delegated to a suffragan bishop known as the Bishop of Table Bay, an office currently held by Garth Counsell. The original territory of the diocese, which had fallen under the Diocese of Calcutta. In 1853 the territory was reduced by the creation of the Diocese of Grahamstown in the parts of the Cape Colony. In 1859 a Diocese of St Helena was created for Saint Helena, in 1863 the Diocese of Bloemfontein was created, taking over all the territory north of the Orange River and the Drakensberg mountains. The territory of the Cape Town diocese was reduced in 1911 by the creation of the dioceses of George and Kimberley. The Diocese has four schools, Diocesan College Herschel Girls School St. Cyprians School St. Georges Grammar School The diocese has borne arms since its inception. The arms, designed by Bishop Gray, combined elements of those of the dioceses of Durham and Lincoln and of Baroness Burdett-Coutts, the arms were revised by the College of Arms and granted in 1952. The revision consisted of replacing the Burdett-Coutts shield with a stags head erased Gules and these arms were registered at the Bureau of Heraldry in 1968
39.
Njongonkulu Ndungane
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Njongonkulu Winston Hugh Ndungane is a retired South African Anglican bishop and a former prisoner on Robben Island. He was the Bishop of Kimberley and Kuruman and Archbishop of Cape Town and he attended Lovedale High School, Alice, Eastern Cape and completed his schooling there in December 1958. In March 1960 he was involved in anti-Pass Law demonstrations while a student at the University of Cape Town and was arrested for his anti-apartheid activities. From August 1963 he served a sentence on Robben Island as a political prisoner. On his release he was served with a two-year banning order, Ndungane decided to seek ordination during his imprisonment on Robben Island. In 1971 the Most Reverend Robert Selby Taylor, Archbishop of Cape Town, sent him to St Peter’s College, Alice and he was ordained a deacon in December 1973 and a priest in July 1974. He served his first curacy in Athlone, Cape Town in the Diocese of Cape Town, in 1975 he left South Africa for Kings College London, where he earned his Bachelor of Divinity and Master of Theology degrees while he was a curate in London. After his time in London he had a time as an assistant chaplain at St George’s Church in Paris. He returned to South Africa in 1980 and was appointed the rector of St Nicholas Matroosfontein, in 1985 he was appointed principal of St Bede’s. In 1991 he was elected Bishop of Kimberley and Kuruman, in September 1996 he was elected archbishop of Cape Town and Metropolitan of the Anglican Church of Southern Africa. In 2006, he founded African Monitor, a pan-African non-profit organization that both the fulfillment of the promises of both aid-giving and aid-receiving countries. Order of the Baobab in Silver Doctor of Divinity Rhodes University Freedom of the City of Cape Town Primate Speaks Out on Debt, oppression, Faith and the Future, The Archbishop of Cape Town, a Conversation With, and Address by the Most Revd Njongonkulu Ndungane. Address by the Archbishop of Cape Town the Most Reverend Njongonkulu Ndungane, at a Conference on Local Communities, Global Realities Held in Toronto, Canada, a World with a Human Face, A Voice from Africa. Dont cut aid to Africa now, from Robben Island to Bishops Court, The Biography of Archbishop Njongonkulu Ndungane. Faith in Action, Njongonkulu Ndungane, Archbishop for the Church and the World
40.
Congress of South African Trade Unions
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The Congress of South African Trade Unions is a trade union federation in South Africa. It was founded in 1985 and is the largest of the three main trade union federations, with 21 affiliated trade unions, altogether organising 1.8 million workers. On 30 Nov 1985,33 unions met at the University of Natal for talks on forming a federation of trade unions. This followed four years of unity talks between competing unions and federations that were opposed to apartheid and were committed to a non-racial, non-sexist, COSATU was officially established on 1 December 1985. Among the founding unions was the Federation of South African Trade Unions, elijah Barayi was the organisation’s first president and Jay Naidoo the first general secretary. Several resolutions were passed at this first meeting that defined the aim of the federation and how the federation operates, namely, to focus on the exploitation of women workers. To call for the lifting of the state of emergency, withdrawal of troops from the townships, to continue the call for international pressure, including disinvestment. To demand for the right to strike and picket, to determine a national minimum wage. To extend the struggle for trade rights in the homelands. On 5–6 May 1987 a strike as part of COSATUs Living Wage Campaign was held coinciding with 1987 General Election, more than 2.5 million workers took part in the stay-away. On 7 May 1987, in the hours of the morning two bombs exploded near the support columns in the basement of the federation headquarters, COSATU House. The resulting damage caused the building to be declared unsafe, irvin Jim described the expulsion as a dark day for workers. COSATU is part of an alliance with the ANC and the South African Communist Party, cOSATU’s role in the alliance has been the subject of debate, since the organisation has been critical of some of the ANC governments policies. While some affiliates have argued for greater independence from the political party. COSATUs former secretary general, Zwelinzima Vavi, has described Jacob Zumas government as a predator society. South Africa has one of the largest incidence of HIV/AIDS in the world, the trade union movement has taken a role in combating this pandemic. In 1998, COSATU passed a resolution to campaign for treatment, “It was clear to the labour movement at that time that its lowest paid members were dying because they couldn’t afford medicines, ” says Theodora Steel, Campaigns Coordinator at COSATU. “We saw TAC as an ally in a campaign for treatment
41.
Barack Obama
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Barack Hussein Obama II is an American politician who served as the 44th President of the United States from 2009 to 2017. He is the first African American to have served as president and he previously served in the U. S. Senate representing Illinois from 2005 to 2008, and in the Illinois State Senate from 1997 to 2004. Obama was born in Honolulu, Hawaii, two years after the territory was admitted to the Union as the 50th state and he grew up mostly in Hawaii, but also spent one year of his childhood in Washington State and four years in Indonesia. After graduating from Columbia University in 1983, he worked as a community organizer in Chicago, in 1988 Obama enrolled in Harvard Law School, where he was the first black president of the Harvard Law Review. After graduation, he became a civil rights attorney and professor, Obama represented the 13th District for three terms in the Illinois Senate from 1997 to 2004, when he ran for the U. S. Senate. In 2008, Obama was nominated for president, a year after his campaign began and he was elected over Republican John McCain, and was inaugurated on January 20,2009. Nine months later, Obama was named the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize laureate, during his first two years in office, Obama signed more landmark legislation than any Democratic president since LBJs Great Society. Main reforms were the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, after a lengthy debate over the national debt limit, Obama signed the Budget Control and the American Taxpayer Relief Acts. In foreign policy, Obama increased U. S. troop levels in Afghanistan, reduced nuclear weapons with the U. S. -Russian New START treaty, and ended military involvement in the Iraq War. He ordered military involvement in Libya in opposition to Muammar Gaddafi, after winning re-election over Mitt Romney, Obama was sworn in for a second term in 2013. Obama also advocated gun control in response to the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, and issued wide-ranging executive actions concerning climate change and immigration. In foreign policy, Obama ordered military intervention in Iraq in response to gains made by ISIL after the 2011 withdrawal from Iraq, Obama left office in January 2017 with a 60% approval rating. He currently resides in Washington, D. C and his presidential library will be built in Chicago. Obama was born on August 4,1961, at Kapiʻolani Maternity & Gynecological Hospital in Honolulu and he is the only President to have been born in Hawaii. He was born to a mother and a black father. His mother, Ann Dunham, was born in Wichita, Kansas, of mostly English descent, with some German, Irish, Scottish, Swiss and his father, Barack Obama Sr. was a married Luo Kenyan man from Nyangoma Kogelo. Obamas parents met in 1960 in a Russian language class at the University of Hawaii at Manoa, the couple married in Wailuku, Hawaii on February 2,1961, six months before Obama was born. In late August 1961, Obamas mother moved him to the University of Washington in Seattle for a year
42.
Khayelitsha
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Khayelitsha /ˌkaɪ. əˈliːtʃə/ is a partially informal township in Western Cape, South Africa, located on the Cape Flats in the City of Cape Town. The name is Xhosa for New Home and it is reputed to be the largest and fastest growing township in South Africa. Cape Town initially opposed implementing the Group Areas Act passed in 1950, when Cape Town did start implementing the Group Areas Act, it did so more severely than any other major city, by the mid-1980s it became one of the most segregated cities in South Africa. Plans to build Khayelitsha were first announced by Dr Piet Koornhof in 1983, then Minister of Co-operation, by 1985 the suburb Site C had 30,000 people. The discrimination and black population control by the government did not prevent blacks from settling in the outskirts of Cape Town. After the scrapping of pass laws in 1987 many blacks, mainly Xhosas, by this time many blacks were already illegally settled in townships like Nyanga and Crossroads. The Witdoeke were actively supported by the government in its fight against the ANC-aligned UDF who had actively opposed plans for people to be moved to the new township of Khayelitsha. As the black population grew, the regime sought to solve the problem by establishing new black neighbourhoods. Khayelitsha was established in 1985 and large numbers of people were relocated there, mostly peacefully. After the historic 1994 elections hundreds of thousands moved to areas in search of work, education. Many of them erected shacks made of tin, wood and cardboard, today Khayelitsha has a population of 391,749 and runs for a number of kilometres along the N2. The ethnic makeup of Khayelitsha is approximately 90. 5% Black African,8. 5% Coloured and 0. 5% White, with Xhosa being the predominant language of the residents. Khayelitsha has a young population with fewer than 7% of its residents being over 50 years old. In 2011 around 62% of residents in Khayelitsha were rural to urban migrants, in the communities of Enkanini and Endlovini over 85% of the residents were born in the Eastern Cape. About 75% of residents identify themselves as Christian while about 20% follow traditional beliefs, Khayelitsha is one of the poorest areas of Cape Town with a median average income per family of R20,000 a year compared to the City median of R40,000. Roughly over half of the 118,000 households live in informal dwellings, there have been many developments such as new brick housing being built, new schools being built, and the creation of a central business district in the Township. However many residents strongly dispute the claim that the quality of life has improved and they claim that crime rates remain very high and that only a small portion of residents see improvements as a result of infrastructure and welfare interventions. Around 70% of residents live in shacks and one in three people has to walk 200 meters or further to access water
43.
Ashoka (non-profit organization)
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Ashoka is an international organization that promotes social entrepreneurship by affiliating individual social entrepreneurs into the Ashoka organization. Growing up, Bill Drayton was inspired by Mahatma Gandhi and the Civil Rights Movement, Drayton wanted to mitigate income inequality through social entrepreneurship. The organization was named after Emperor Ashoka, the ruler of the Maurya Empire during the 3rd century BC, Ashoka identifies leading social entrepreneurs with solutions to social problems who seek to make large-scale changes to society. Ashoka searches for individuals who have vision, creativity, and determination and are motivated by public gain rather than personal gain, social entrepreneurs who pass the selection process are called Ashoka fellows. The size of the stipend is decided on a case by case basis, the stipend is available for up to three years. The organization is very clear that the stipend is only for living expenses, Ashoka fellows are connected with successful entrepreneurs in order to help the fellows succeed in implementing their social ideas. Ashoka fellows are expected to participate in meetings with other Ashoka fellows. Ultimately, the Ashoka fellow is expected to convert a solution into a self-sustaining institution. Ashoka funds the stipends by raising funds from donors, which it uses as venture capital, Ashoka says it does not accept funding from any government. Ashoka says that its donors are Western charitable foundations and wealthy individuals, youth Venture, a nonprofit organization that is closely related to Ashoka, accepted three grants from an agency of the United States government in 2010. While Ashoka says it does not petition governments for social change, according to Ashoka, citizen-sector organizations are groups of citizens who care and act to serve others and cause needed change
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Social Justice Coalition (South Africa)
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While these rights are protected and promoted by our constitution, people do not feel them in their every day lives. Founded in 2008, the SJC is a social movement made up of 12 branches, located mainly in informal settlements across Khayelitsha. Our campaigns are based on ongoing research, education, and advocacy, the Local Government Programme leads the work on sanitation, budgets, and urban land. The Safety and Justice Programme is focused on policing and the justice system. The SJC believes in accountable and effective government and the participation of communities in developing policy. As an organization the SJC is not aligned to any political party, the SJCs campaigns are based on ongoing research, education, and advocacy. Their advocacy works comes in forms including formal submissions on policy and budgets, engagement with government, memorandums, protest marches. The SJCs work is divided into two programmes, Local Government and Safety and Justice. This Program is designed to make Khayelitsha and all of South Africa a safer place where there is improved access to justice, Khayelitsha is one of the most unsafe areas in South Africa and is similar to the conditions in townships across the country. It has an over-worked and under-resourced criminal justice system, the South African Police Service, often the only recourse that poor and vulnerable people have, is unable to ensure residents safety. For years, we tried to get government and the police to listen to these concerns, the Commission is very important for changing the Apartheid state, especially the police. It is providing a way to make sure there is long term change in the justice system, particularly in poor. The National Minister of Police tried to stop the commission in 2012 and 2013, the Commission held its public hearings in early 2014 and released its final report on 25 August 2014. The SJC and partner organizations are now working on ensuring the implementation of its 20 recommendations, the Commission radically altered the nature of participatory government in the sphere of safety, policing, and justice. As one of the first forums of its kind, it is charting a new way for participation in fixing the police, for SJC, the new phase in 2015 moves from public campaigns, marches, and litigation to one of greater partnership and cooperation. This is a positive outcome of the Commission, but will depend on whether the National Minister of police acts on the Commission recommendations. In the view of the Commission, the survival of this system is evidence of a failure of governance and oversight in every sphere of government. The ten most dangerous suburbs, all black and coloured working class areas, the Local government programme of the SJC aims at improving the performance and accountability of the city government of Cape Town and the provincial government of Western Cape
45.
Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign
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The Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign is a non-racial popular movement made up of poor and oppressed communities in Cape Town, South Africa. It was formed in November 2000 with the aim of fighting evictions, water cut-offs and poor services, obtaining free electricity, securing decent housing. The movement has sought to retain its autonomy from NGOs and publicly refused to work with some local NGOs, the AEC mobilised against the 2008 xenophobic attacks in the areas where it was strong. The AEC opposed evictions related to the FIFA2010 World Cup, the AEC opposes evictions and water and electricity cut-offs on many different levels. Activities range from legal actions that challenge the constitutionality of evictions, to mass mobilisation and popular education initiatives, to organisation, the movement has also confronted local gangs and in July 2012 one of its leading activists, Soraya Nordien, was murdered following threats from gang members. Since its inception, the Anti-Eviction Campaign has called for an end to all evictions, in 2001, the AEC achieved a 6-month moratorium on all evictions in the Cape Town Unicity. Even though the DA had declared the moratorium, illegal evictions continued, the movement strongly supported the struggle for the Symphony Way Pavement Dwellers to resist forced removal to the notorious Blikkiesdorp transit camp and to demand access to decent housing. No Vote. is the name of a campaign by autonomous grassroots movements to boycott elections and reject party politics, in 2009, the Poor Peoples Alliance voted to boycott the national elections under the No Land. The 2010 FIFA World Cup was connected to a number of evictions in South Africa which many claimed were meant to beautify the city. The WC-AEC campaigned against all evictions caused by the event, the movement is committed to opposing xenophobia and has been particularly active in this regard in Gugulethu where it has set up a forum for these issues to be discussed. According to both the media and the police the forum has had considerable success in reducing xenophobic hostility. However the movements anti-xenophobic work has cost it some popular support, the movement produces its own media. In September 2008 the Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign, together with Abahlali baseMjondolo, the Landless Peoples Movement, the poor peoples alliance refuses electoral politics under the banner No Land. Take Back the Land in Miami and the Chicago Anti-Eviction Campaign have both stated that their work is inspired by that of the Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign, the Chicago Anti-Eviction Campaign has used the slogan No House No Vote. When the Mountain Meets its Shadow
46.
Abahlali baseMjondolo
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Abahlali baseMjondolo, also known as AbM or the red shirts, is a shack-dwellers movement in South Africa which is well known for its campaigning against evictions and for public housing. The movement grew out of a road blockade organised from the Kennedy Road shack settlement in the city of Durban in early 2005 and now operates in the cities of Pietermaritzburg. It is the largest shack dwellers organisation in South Africa and campaigns to improve the conditions of poor people. The movement historically refused party politics, and has boycotted elections and has a history of conflict with both the African National Congress and the Democratic Alliance. Its key demand is that the value of urban land should take priority over its commercial value. The key organising strategy is to try to recreate Commons from below by trying to create a series of linked communes, according to The Times, the movement has shaken the political landscape of South Africa. According to Professor Peter Vale, Abahlali baseMjondolo is along with the Treatment Action Campaign the most effective grouping in South African civil society, khadija Patel has written that the movement is at the forefront of a new wave of mass political mobilisation. However the movement has faced sustained, and at times violent, in these demolitions some shack dwellers were simply being left homeless and others subjected to unlawful forced evictions to the rural periphery of the city. In early 2008, the United Nations expressed serious concern about the treatment of shack dwellers in Durban, in the run up to 2010 there was also concern about the possibility of evictions linked to the 2010 FIFA World Cup across South Africa and abroad. Abahlalis original work was committed to opposing demolitions and forced removals and to struggling for good land. However the movement has argued that basic services such as water, electricity and toilets should be immediately provided to shack settlements while land. The movement has also engaged in the mass appropriation of access to water. The municipality confirmed this deal in February 2009, the movement has been involved in considerable conflict with the eThekwini Municipality and has undertaken numerous protests and legal actions against the city authorities. Its members have been beaten and many of its leaders arrested by the South African Police Service in Sydenham, Abahlali has often made claims of severe police harassment, including torture. On a number of occasions, these claims have been supported by church leaders, the movement has successfully sued the police for unlawful assaults on its members. In October 2009, the movement won a court case which declared the KZN Slums Act unconstitutional. In the same there was acute conflict between the movement and the Cape Town City Council which centred on the Macassar Village Land Occupation. There was similar conflict in 2013 which centred on the Marikana Land Occupation, academic work on the movement stresses that it is non-professionalised, independent of NGO control, autonomous from political organisations and party politics and democratic
